An ecological economics approach to the management of a multi-purpose coastal wetland
Original article
An ecological economics
approach to the management
of a multi-purpose coastal wetland
R. K. Turner Æ I. J. Bateman Æ S. Georgiou Æ A. Jones Æ I. H. Langford Æ N. G. N. Matias
L. Subramanian
well as from hydrological perturbation, pollution and
Abstract Three interrelated management pollution-related effects (Turner 1991).
problems—eutrophication of multiple use shallow Wetlands are complex ecological systems whose structure
lakes, sea level rise and flood risk mitigation and provides us with goods or products involving some direct
tourism pressures—are analysed in the context of an utilisation of one or more wetland characteristics (Maltby
internationally important wetland area, the Norfolk et al. 1996). Wetland ecosystem processes also provide us
and Suffolk Broads in the UK. The ecological- with ecologically related services, supporting or protecting
economic research findings presented should human activities or human properties without being used
provide essential information to underpin the directly. Wetland systems, as well as their distinctive
regulatory and management process in this landscapes, are also often significant socio-cultural assets.
internationally important conservation area. The So, the stock of wetlands is a multifunctional resource
relevant authority somehow has to integrate the generating substantial socio-economic values (Balmford
maintenance of public navigation rights, nature et al. 2002; Turner et al. 2003). Sustainable management of
conservation, and tourism promotion in a highly these assets has therefore become a high priority.
dynamic ecosystems setting. Because of the In this paper, three interrelated management prob-
stakeholder conflicts, potential and actual, a more lems—eutrophication of multi-use shallow lakes and
inclusionary decision-making procedure is required, connecting rivers, sea level rise and flooding risks, and
and is currently being implemented. tourism preferences and patterns—will be explored and
analysed from an ecological-economic perspective in the
Keywords Ecological economics Æ Wetlands Æ context of the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads (see Fig. 1). The
Eutrophication Æ Tourism pressure Æ overall management tasks in this national park equivalent
Deliberative and Inclusionary processes area encompass the maintenance of public navigation
rights and the area’s biological diversity, sustainable util-
isation of the various functions the wetlands provide, and
the resolution of conflicts between stakeholder groups as a
result of different usages of the area. The statutory duties
of the management agency (the Broads Authority), how-
Introduction ever, constrain the range of options because no one
interest (nature conservation, recreation and tourism
Wetland ecosystems account for about 6% of the global
land area and are among the most threatened of all envi- promotion, or maintenance of navigation rights) can be
given significant relative priority. The Authority has to
ronmental resources. The wetlands found in temperate
climate zones in developed economies have long suffered operate by making often-pragmatic trade-offs, which can
be subject to legislative constraints including EU Direc-
significant losses and continue to face threats from
industrial, agricultural, and residential developments, as tives and the general guidance provided by the UK’s
sustainable development strategy.
Towards a framework
Received: 9 January 2001 / Accepted: 2 May 2004
Published online: 4 June 2004
for integrated wetland
ª Springer-Verlag 2004
management assessment
R. K. Turner (&) Æ I. J. Bateman Æ S. Georgiou Æ A. Jones
I. H. Langford Æ N. G. N. Matias Æ L. Subramanian The structure of and processes within wetland ecosystems
Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment,
generate a wide array of resources that directly or indi-
(CSERGE), School of Environmental Sciences,
rectly support the economic and social welfare of diverse
University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
groups of people. Sustainable development based on the
E-mail: r.k.turner@uea.ac.uk
86 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99 DOI 10.1007/s10113-004-0075-x
Original article
Fig. 1
The Broads and its waterways
with a co-evolving society (Clayton and Radcliffe 1996;
maintenance of the functional diversity provided by
Brouwer and Crooks 1998).
wetland ecosystems will require careful management and
In this paper, the Driving Forces-Pressure-State-Impact-
evaluation of the different functions in terms of the welfare
Response (DPSIR) framework was used as a scoping de-
benefits they provide. In view of their complex, dynamic
vice (Turner et al. 1998). This framework has been used to
and co-evolving multi-functionality, a management ap-
make explicit the means by which human activities in a
proach is needed that addresses the pressures exerted on
given context and spatial area relate to the environmental
wetland ecosystems that threaten future flows of benefits.
pressures that impact wetland ecosystem states (see Fig. 2
The Broads Authority has produced a strategic manage-
for an application to the Broads wetland (Broads Authority
ment and action plan (Broads Authority 2004). The im-
2004). These impacts cause environmental change, which,
plicit aim is to achieve greater co-ordination between its
in turn, impact human beings, usually in some kind of
three main functions—nature conservation, enhancement
societal response that feeds back into human activities.
of recreation and quiet amenity and the maintenance of
This feedback loop and any lags are important aspects of
rights of navigation—in order to fulfil sustainability goals.
the human and natural systems interface.
Integrated planning and management means combining
The DPSIR framework provides a conceptual and organi-
assessments of the resources available to meet stated
sational backdrop for the contributions of different disci-
objectives; the formulation of a strategy or plan of action
plines to the description and analysis of environmental
to use the resources in a wise way; and the implementation
problems, given that the socio-economic aspects of envi-
of the strategy in an orderly and efficient manner
ronmental problems are an integral part of this co-evolu-
(Burbridge 1994). Underpinning integrated management
tionary framework. It should be stressed that the DPSIR is
and planning is research that supports and informs such a
a framework, not a model. Its main purpose is to make
management approach. A wetland research methodology
more manageable the complexity of environmental prob-
somehow has to make compatible the very different per-
lems; for example in wetland ecosystems and related
ceptions of how a dynamic wetland ecosystem interacts
87
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Functions, uses, stakeholders,
Fig. 2
Pressures facing the Broads and consequent conflicts of use
pressures and environmental
protection and sustainable management issues. It provides
changes
an important starting point on the road towards a com-
mon level of understanding and consensus between
The Broads wetlands perform a variety of functions valued
researchers, natural resource managers, and policy makers
by a range of stakeholder groups living and working in the
as they debate the links between the various driving forces
area or for those visiting the area. The main wetland
that pose a threat to the intrinsic functioning of a wetland
functions are presented in Table 1. The table details the
ecosystem. In the case of the Broads, these pressures have
biophysical structure and processes maintaining the
included land conversion, agricultural development,
functions, their socio-economic uses and benefits, and
hydrological perturbation and pollution, increasing flood
threats to future availability of the functions.
risk perceptions, and their consequent impact on the
The Broads wetlands provide a buffer against extreme
various interests or tourism, stakeholder groups who uti-
hydrological conditions; providing water storage in times
lise the goods and services provided by these ecosystems
of flood, and water release during a drought. Wetlands also
and/or contribute to the pressures on them. Moreover,
have the capacity to change water quality through the re-
there are likely to be differences in stakeholders’ percep-
moval of chemical pollutants such as nitrogen and phos-
tions of pressures, impacts and environmental values (see
phate. A third major function is the provision of a
Fig. 2).
nationally and internationally important habitat for flora
In the context of complex decision-making that aims to
and fauna (including a number of rare species), which, in
maintain functioning and ecological diversity in wetland
turn, along with the waterways themselves, attracts tourists
ecosystems and satisfy multiple stakeholder groups, a
to the area.
range of protection and management options are likely to
The Broads floodplain is at risk from two types of flooding:
be available. Such options can be translated into man-
tidal flooding, caused by high sea levels, and fluvial
agement or development scenarios with each option likely
flooding, caused by high river flows (Turner, Adger and
to have different impacts on human and natural systems
Doktor 1995). Surge tides can cause saline flooding of land
across different spatial and time scales. These impacts are
by breaching or overtopping flood banks. Saline intrusion
often complex, but can, in principle, be measured with the
also occurs in surge conditions as more salt water forces
help of indicators. Capturing the whole range of relevant
upstream between the banks. This can damage the ecology
impacts on natural and human systems within different
of normally freshwater reaches and cause extensive fish
protection or management scenarios, given the overall
kills. Fluvial flooding, caused by heavy rainfall, is less
goal of sustainable development, will require a combina-
damaging from an agricultural or conservation perspec-
tion of environmental, social and economic indicators.
tive, although flooding of any kind can damage property. If
Figure 3 summarises the indicators being developed by the
low river flow conditions occur in the autumn, normal
Broads Authority alongside its 20-year plan.
88 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Fig. 3
Potential performance indicators
high tides can cause the same saline intrusion effect which puts considerable demand on the region’s water
(Turner and Brooke 1988; Turner, Adger and Doktor resources and poses a potential threat to the Broads. The
1995). region is furthermore the driest in Britain and droughts
Besides the threat of increased salt water incursion and are a common feature of the area. Agriculture is another
tidal salt water flooding, the Broads is threatened with significant water user, in particular through spray irriga-
another water problem: variable river flows and depleted tion of land in dry periods.
groundwater. The Broads are part of a much wider Adequate groundwater levels and river flows are crucial for a
catchment area. About 6 million people live in this area, number of reasons. First, sufficient water of good quality is
89
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
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Table 1
Wetland functions and associated socio-economic benefits in the Broads
Function Biophysical structure or process Socio-economic use and benefits Threats
maintaining function
Hydrological functions
Flood water retention Short and long-term storage of Natural flood protection alternative, Conversion, drainage, filling and
overbank flood water and reduced damage to infrastructure reduction of storage capacity,
retention of surface water (road network etc.), property removal of vegetation
runoff from surrounding slopes and crops
Groundwater recharge Infiltration of flood water in Water supply, habitat Reduction of recharge rates,
wetland surface followed maintenance overpumping, pollution
by percolation to aquifer
Groundwater discharge Upward seepage of groundwater Effluent dilution Drainage, filling
through wetland surface
Sediment retention and Net storage of fine sediments Improved water quality Channelization, excess reduction
deposition carried in suspension by river downstream, soil fertility of sediment throughput
water during overbank flooding
or by surface runoff from other
wetland units or contributory
area
Biogeochemical functions
Nutrient retention Uptake of nutrients by plants Improved water quality Drainage, water abstraction,
(n and p), storage in soil organic removal of vegetation, pollution,
matter, absorption of n as dredging
ammonium, absorption of p
in soil
Nutrient export Flushing through water system Improved water quality, Drainage, water abstraction,
and gaseous export of n waste disposal removal of vegetation,
pollution, flow barriers
Peat accumulation In situ retention of c Fuel, paleo-environmental Overexploitation, drainage
data source
Ecological functions
Habitat for (migratory) Provision of microsites for macro- Fishing, wildfowl hunting, Overexploitation, overcrowding
species (biodiversity) invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, recreational amenities, and congestion, wildlife
mammals and landscape tourism disturbance, pollution,
structural diversity interruption of migration routes,
management neglect
Nursery for plants, Provision of microsites for macro- Fishing, reed harvest Overexploitation, overcrowding
animals, micro- invertebrates, fish, reptiles, and wildlife disturbance,
organisms birds, mammals management neglect
Food web support Biomass production, biomass Farming, fen biomass as Conversion, extensive use of inputs
import and export via physical alternative energy source (pollution), market failures
and biological processes
Source: Modified from Turner et al. (1997) and Burbridge (1994)
vital for the wildlife diversity of the fens and marshes. The treatment works, while nitrates mainly come from the
particular character of a fen is determined by its reliance on run-off from agricultural land within the Broads catch-
water supply: groundwater, river water, rainfall, or a com- ment, and to a lesser extent from sewage treatment works.
bination of the three. Also, the drained marshland depends Phosphorus comes from a limited number of sewage
upon an adequate freshwater supply to the dyke (field treatment works and can be removed before it is dis-
drains) systems. Many grazing marsh dykes rely on fresh- charged into the water, and nitrogen comes from all over
water conditions to maintain the diversity of their aquatic the catchment and is therefore difficult to control in the
flora. Dykes are also a source of drinking water for livestock short term. Phosphorus levels have declined or are low in
on the marshes, especially during the summer. the main rivers, but nitrogen levels remain problematic.
Secondly, water abstraction decreases summer river flows, Only 12 of the 63 permanent water bodies are in good
which in turn concentrates sewage discharges, reduces the condition with stable aquatic plant populations and clear
flushing of algae from the Broads system, and exacerbates water (Broads Authority 2004). We will return to the
the problem of saline intrusion. The increase in nutrient eutrophication problem in a later section.
levels as a result of the introduction of river-based sewage Species conservation is a key management objective but the
works during the early part of the 20th century has, in success of conservation or restoration generally, particu-
particular, triggered an enormous change in the Broads larly in wetlands, depends upon restoration of wider eco-
water ecosystem, known as eutrophication. Eutrophication system function (Moss 1983; Madgwick and Phillips 1996;
is essentially a fertilisation of the water through nutrient Holzer et al. 1997; Pitt et al. 1997; Moss et al. 1996; Stansfield
enrichment. Two nutrients are involved: phosphates (P) et al. 1997 and Scheffer et al. 1993). One administrative
and nitrates (N). Phosphates enter the system from sewage issue arises from the difference between ecological and
90 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
river stretches are not particularly wide, while most of the
management authority boundaries which affects Broadland.
broads cover less than 10 ha. The size and shape of a craft
The executive area of the Broads Authority of Norfolk and
significantly influences the amount of wash produced
Suffolk follows the river valleys, but much of the Broads
(May and Waters 1986). Boat wash has an impact on the
groundwater catchment, as well as the upper catchments of
bankside vegetation and eventually the floodwall itself.
the main rivers that supply the Broads, are outside the direct
A more sustainable approach to tourism is therefore an
influence of the Authority. The quantity and chemical
urgent requirement. It has been estimated that the overall
quality of water received by the lakes and rivers of Broad-
value of tourism generated in the Broads area is approxi-
land is thus, at least in part, outside the direct influence of
mately £147 million/annum. This financial flow supports
the area’s major management authority. Such administra-
3,107 full-time job equivalents. Some 4.4 million nights are
tive problems may prove a substantial impediment to the
spent in the area by visitors and around 1.3 million day
implementation of a holistic and integrated programme for
visits are made to the Broads (Broads Authority, personal
Broadland management.
communication). However, the local hire boat industry has
In succeeding sections, we highlight three policy chal-
been negatively affected by changing consumer tasks and
lenges—the multiple use management of the shallow lakes
trends in recent years. The national leisure and tourism
and rivers (Broads) given the threat posed by eutrophi-
market is now characterised by trends such as the increase
cation; the provision of a selective flood alleviation scheme
in holidays taken outside the UK, more frequent and
to protect nature conservation, recreation and other eco-
shorter holidays, and a much greater emphasis on high
nomic interests; and the need for better information on
standards of service and value for one’s money. These
recreation/amenity users and their preferences, in order to
factors together with demographic changes have served to
promote sustainable tourism.
cause a significant fall in demand for the traditional
Broads boating holidays, with subsequent negative eco-
nomic multiplier impacts throughout the adjacent area.
Sustainable tourism Recreation value can be estimated using an indirect travel
cost (TC) method. Here, the relevant demand curve is
assessed by comparing the number of trips taken by vis-
Managing the water resources is also important for the
itors with the cost of those trips in terms of direct
public enjoyment of the area and navigation. Low fresh-
expenditure upon travel and entrance fees and the indirect
water flows can exacerbate problems of blue-green algae,
opportunity costs of travel time (Bateman 1993; Bergin
botulism, salt water incursions and other water quality
and Price 1994). One aspect of TC analysis that has been a
factors that severely affect people’s enjoyment of the
focus in recent research is the potential of the method for
waterways, particularly those who participate in recreation
undertaking ‘‘benefit transfer’’ analyses. Benefit transfer
or sports involving contact with the water.
has been defined as ‘‘the transfer of existing estimates of
On the other hand, the visitors themselves, in aggregate,
non-market values to a new study which is different from
have put considerable strains on the area for a number of
the study for which the values were originally estimated’’
reasons with the risk of impairing those environmental
(Boyle and Bergstrom 1992). Within the Broads, the
features that people come to see and experience in the first
objective has been to construct models based upon data
place. Large numbers of visitors disturb local wildlife,
from a set of surveyed sites and use these to estimate the
especially during the breeding and nesting season. The
number of visitors to unsurveyed sites and their corre-
expansion of boating activity in the past is believed to have
sponding recreational values. This is an attractive proce-
confined wildfowl to less disturbed and non-navigable
dure because it saves time and money on repeated studies,
broads. The Broads provide an important habitat for a
particularly as there are many forces that are likely to
number of rare bird species such as the marsh harrier,
increase the demand for non-market benefit estimates over
bearded tit and the bittern.
the next few years (McConnell 1992).
The large numbers of visitors on boats, especially motor-
Visitor arrivals functions can be estimated linking visits to
boats, result in considerable boat wash, and hence, river
a series of predictors, values for which can be collected for
bank erosion and potential increased flood risk. Most hire
the target unsurveyed sites. An example of such a function
boats are designed to meet comfort requirements, not to
is given as Eq. (1) (see Table 2). This equation links the
meet the specific environmental needs of the Broads. The
Table 2
Explanation of visitor arrival functions
Visits =f( Price Soc-econ, Quality, Subs, X)
No. of visits to Cost of a visit in Socio-economic Type and quality Type, availability A matrix of other
under take a given terms of travel factors (e.g. car of facilities and quality of explanatory
activity at a site. expenditure and ownership, provided at the substitute sites variables
Expressed as either the opportunity unemployment, site under
total visits of individuals cost of travel etc.) consideration
or a visitor rate (e.g. time
per household pa.)
91
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Fig. 4
Holiday visitor traffic flows to the Norfolk
Broads, simulated in a GIS
number of visits to a site to the time and distance cost of with benefit transfer, while facilitating several methodo-
those visits (thereby allowing the estimation of visit val- logical improvements.
ues) and other predictors, including the type and quality of The baseline data for our GIS-based transferable travel
facilities at the target site, the availability and quality of cost model is taken from a Broadland survey undertaken
substitutes, socio-economic and possibly cultural factors, in 1996 and discussed in detail in a following section. This
and other explanatory variables. survey provides a total of 2,098 visitor interviews con-
ducted at 10 sites across the area. Trip origin information
VISITS ¼ f ðPRICE, SOC À ECON, QUALITY, SUBS, XÞ was collected from each survey respondent in the form of a
full postcode of their home address (Bateman et al. 1996).
ð1Þ
The GIS was then used to interrogate the Bartholomew’s
To date, relatively few benefit transfer analyses have been 1:250,000 digital map database to extract data concerning
undertaken. This is largely because it is difficult to obtain the distribution and quality of the entire UK road network
accurate information on several important elements in the to permit computation of minimum travel time routes
transfer function, such as travel times taken for visitors to from all origin addresses to the survey site. Figure 4
reach the site, the availability of substitute sites, and the illustrates some of the output from this analysis showing
definition of visitor zones of origin. However, recent the diversity of outset origins and routes taken to reach
advances in geographical information systems (GIS) Broadland.
technology have provided a superior foundation for The advanced spatial analytic capabilities afforded by a
implementing benefit transfer methods of placing eco- GIS permit the analyst to extract high-quality data on
nomic values on recreational demand (Bateman et al. 1999; many of the other determinants of Eq. (1), both for sur-
Brainard et al. 1999). In particular, GIS can help to resolve veyed and unsurveyed sites. For example, interrogations of
some of the spatial and data-handling problems associated data sources such as the satellite-image based Institute of
92 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Hickling Broad (Turner et al. 2003), and has been broad-
Terrestrial Ecology UK Land Cover Database, have, and
ened out to discuss management issues across sub-catch-
are, being used to identify potential substitute destina-
ment scales (know as the Upper Thurne River Catchment
tions, and their accessibility is being estimated within the
Group). It turned out that the ‘‘local’’ problem was in fact
GIS (Brainard et al. 1999). Similarly, socio-economic data
symptomatic of causal mechanisms that were catchment-
on both actual and potential visitors can be extracted from
wide, including areas beyond the executive control of the
the UK Census of Population to examine the influence of
BA. The new EU Water Framework Directive will also
deprivation indicators such as levels of unemployment and
serve to emphasise the catchment-scale and management
urbanisation on visitor recreation demand in Broadland
processes that are inclusionary. We now turn to examine
and to identify which groups do not visit sites (a factor
these wider questions and the general problem of man-
that opens up previously unexplored avenues for distri-
aging a rate of environmental change in a highly dynamic
butional and equity analyses). A particular factor that
setting.
merits attention is the possible existence of different sub-
groups, with diverse priorities and recreational prefer-
ences within the catchment areas of the sites. The use of
GIS allows a more sophisticated analysis of the nature of
Managing dynamic ecosystem
recreational interactions than is normally seen in con-
ventional environmental value studies.
change: combating eutrophication
A range of interests have recently come together to set out
and feedback effects
a new strategy to combat the decline in tourism demand
and to generate new economically and environmentally
sustainable business growth. The ambitious vision is to It is expected that climate change, through, for example,
foster a thriving boat hire industry and ancillary services alterations to the nutrient cycle will exacerbate existing
via a quality experience based on customer needs. Over the water quality problems such as eutrophication (Horne and
medium term, the boat fleet will need to be made more Goldman 1994). In addition, secondary effects upon water
environmentally efficient, with increased use of electric quality are expected through the role of climate change in
boats, solar boats and sail craft. A more niche-orientated increasing human demand for water services such as water
marketing strategy is perceived to be required in prefer- provision, sewage treatment, etc. (Climate Change 2001).
ence to the old preoccupation with volume maximisation, The stresses put upon the integrity of freshwater sources
which will highlight environmental quality as the key are exacerbated by population growth. For example, in our
Broads holiday characteristic (Strategic Leisure and TEP study area of East Anglia, a region with higher than
2001). average population flows, there has been increasing pres-
With this emerging context in mind, some recent research sure upon open-water resources such as rivers and lakes.
based on a combination of quantitative and qualitative A valuation study was undertaken whose main objective
social research approaches has focused on tourism over- was to measure the benefits that individuals derive from
crowding in the Broads. Face-to-face interviews of visitors preventing excess algae (eutrophication) impacts upon
who hire motorboats and group discussions with local open water in rivers and lakes in East Anglia (see Bateman
residents who own motorboats were used to reveal stake- et al. 2004 for full details). A questionnaire based on the
holder preferences and attitudes to perceived and actual contingent valuation (CV) method was used to estimate an
problems (Brouwer 1999; Brouwer, Turner and Voisey individual’s willingness to pay for a scheme to prevent
2002). A majority of respondents felt that overcrowding excess algae in the rivers and lakes in order to ensure
was a real problem and that it was reducing the quality of continued access to the amenity and recreation facilities
the holiday/environmental experience, in terms of general which each site provides. The scheme was based on a
amenity and peace and quiet. But there was also a sensi- sewage treatment programme that would remove nutrients
tivity to increased hire prices as a mechanism to mitigate and reduce eutrophication.
overcrowding. Water space zoning was another policy The contingent valuation survey comprised a variety of
option that was met with significant opposition. The sections including: assessments of present use of water
negative response to this instrument also served to un- bodies; reactions (including belief indicators) regarding
cover a deeper problem. Issues of trust, responsibility and process by which water bodies and related activities may
blame seem to underlie opposition to change. The Broads be affected by eutrophication; assessments of how such
Authority (BA) was seen as too remote and bureaucratic changes might impact upon usage of those water bodies;
by the boaters and its motives were questioned. To the valuation scenario section outlining the proposed scheme
boaters, the hidden agenda appeared to be the eventual and valuation task that examines households willingness
exclusion of boating from the Broads in favour of nature to pay to avoid the specified eutrophication impacts.
conservation. This group polarisation has emerged despite The valuation scenario included information on the rising
the fact that the BA’s stated and actual policy is one of population of East Anglia and increased pressure on
balancing the main interests in a long-term management sewage treatment works and the effects of changing
strategy. In recognition of this problem, the BA has begun weather patterns on water quality. Survey respondents
to institute a more overt stakeholder consultation process. were given a plausible solution to the potential problem of
This more inclusionary approach has been piloted in a eutrophication in the form of, for example, a phosphate
localised problem case connected with one particular lake, removal scheme at the sewage works. Respondents were
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Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
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although it is noted that non-use values would exist for
told that such a treatment would increase their annual
individuals living elsewhere in the country. The sample
household water bill. After the presentation of the valua-
mean WTP per household was thus multiplied by the
tion scenario and payment mechanism, respondents were
number of households in East Anglia, which is 2.253
faced with the elicitation question, asking them how much
million, to give annual benefits of £169 million.
they would be willing to pay for the good if given the
Turning now to the costs of reducing eutrophication,
opportunity to obtain it, under specified terms and con-
compliance cost estimates from a previous study con-
ditions. The particular method of elicitation used was a
ducted by Pretty et al. (2002) were obtained. The authors
relatively new approach, known as the one and one half-
carried out a preliminary assessment of the environmental
bound (OOHB) elicitation method (Cooper et al. 2002).
costs of eutrophication of freshwaters in England and
Rather than facing a single yes/no response question about
Wales. The relevant compliance costs are those associated
the cost of provision, the OOHB mechanism presents
with sewage treatment. Sewage treatment companies incur
survey respondents with upper and lower bound cost
costs to comply with environmental legislation for the
estimates per household (or per individual) associated
removal of phosphorus before it enters watercourses.
with the provision change under consideration. The pre-
Pretty et al. (2002) predicted that nutrient removal at
cise values of these amounts (bids) are varied across the
sewage treatment works, which come under the EC Urban
sample to permit estimation of survival functions and
Wastewater Treatment Directive, would cost water com-
associated univariate WTP measures such as the mean and
panies £50 million/year, with a further operating cost of
median. Such an approach is considered to have greater
£0.3 million/year for each year over the period 2000–2010.
statistical efficiency, plausibility and incentive compati-
These costs are for the whole of England and Wales. As
bility than alternative mechanisms (Bateman et al. 2002).
such, the comparison of aggregate benefits from the pre-
The contingent valuation survey approached 2,321
vention of eutrophication just for the East Anglia region
households for face-to-face interviews; 1,067 of these re-
with the costs of a nutrient removal scheme for the entire
fused to take the survey. A total of 1,254 households thus
English and Welsh region indicates that there are signifi-
answered the survey, which contained one of the 13 bid
cant positive net benefits. Within the Broads (national
(cost) treatments selected randomly so as to ensure equal
park equivalent) area, however, complicated feedback
sample size of each bid level. In order to obtain estimates
effects have served to make practical management more
of the WTP for the phosphorus removal scheme, it was
difficult.
assumed that a respondent’s yes/no choice regarding the
The Broads Authority’s (BA) powers are similar to other
payment of a given bid amount to obtain a given
UK National Park authorities, plus a navigation duty. But
improvement in environmental quality is made in the
the BA is not subject to the Sandford principle, which
context of a utility maximising choice by the respondent.
mandates primary status for nature conservation in all the
In accordance with the random utility framework, the
other UK National Park areas. The BA’s statutory duties
individual’s WTP is a random variable with a cumulative
are focussed around the requirement to balance naviga-
distribution function whose parameters can be estimated
tion, nature conservation and recreation/amenity interests.
on the basis of the responses to the contingent valuation
This complex political, economic and environmental
survey (Bateman et al. 2002).
trade-off process is becoming even more difficult as the
Table 3 presents the mean and median WTP values. Of the
result of recent EU Directives (notably The Birds and
1,254 respondents sampled, only 1,112 responses were used
Habitats Directive). This regulatory approach has at its
for the econometric analysis, since 142 responses had
core a rather ‘‘static’’ interpretation of nature protection.
missing observations for significant explanatory variables.
Such an interpretation does not sit easily with the BA’s
The mean household annual WTP for the total sample
remit of ‘‘balancing’’ different interests in order to sus-
(n =1,112) was found to be £75.4. Protest bids were identi-
tainably manage all the assets within its executive area.
fied based on the answers to questions regarding the reasons
The navigation duty sometimes proves to be at odds with
for acceptance/refusal of a bid amount. The removal of the
the provision of quiet public enjoyment and the conser-
232 protest bids produced no significant change to the WTP
vation of the area’s natural beauty.
amount, which remained at £75.4/household/year.
The difficulties likely to be posed more generally by the
Aggregation of the sample WTP is crucial for benefit
Habitat Directive for management authorities such as the
estimation to be used in a CBA. As the study was carried in
BA have been highlighted in the case of Hickling Broad
the East Anglia region, and had to do with the protection
(see Fig. 1). This is a water body that over the last 30 years
of lakes and rivers against eutrophication in this region,
or so has become a focal point for private and other sail
the aggregation was constrained to consider only the local
and power boaters. Rights of navigation are restricted to a
population, and not to include the whole of the UK,
specified channel, but boating has become possible over a
large part of the surface of the water body. In more recent
Table 3
years, as water quality has been improved, aquatic plant
Mean and Median WTP for avoiding eutrophication damages
growth has accelerated, and large sections of the water
body have at times become virtually inaccessible to navi-
Mean WTP (£) 75.41
Median WTP (£) 69.07 gation.
95% Confidence interval 69.41–84.36
Restoration policies promoted by the BA have reduced
Standard error 3.71
nutrient flow into the Norfolk Broads and greatly
94 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
improved water quality. In Hickling Broad, these measures particular standard of flood protection to the costs of such
have proved to be especially successful insofar as they have an undertaking. Although market benefits from flood
encouraged the return of previously threatened aquatic protection were considered in terms of agriculture,
plants. However, the thickness of plant growth sometimes industry/residential and infrastructure (Turner and
slows boat traffic and adversely affects local sailing com- Brooke 1988), the value of the non-market benefits from
petitions. As part of its overall commitment to supporting the area were uncertain.
the sustainable development of the Broads, the BA has a As part of the cost-benefit assessment for the Flood Alle-
statutory duty to maintain the area for the purposes of viation Study, a Broadland contingent valuation (CV)
navigation. It also tries to encourage environmentally survey of recreational visitors was commissioned in 1991
friendly boating. However, the increasingly dense beds of to assess the willingness of individuals to pay (WTP) to
aquatic plant (including a rare species of stonewort) preserve the existing Broadland landscape, ecology and
growth can periodically destruct non-powered and elec- recreational possibilities (Bateman et al. 1992, 1994, 1995).
trically-powered craft, and local boatyards may be temped Respondents were presented with two scenario:
to revert back to using diesel-powered craft on Hickling
1. ‘‘do nothing’’ in which due to saline intrusion virtually
Broad, thereby increasing noise and water pollution
all the Broadland landscape and ecology would change
(Turner et al. 2003).
in character;
Clearly, management of a dynamic and multiple-use eco-
2. implementation of an unspecified scheme for flood
system is hindered if a ‘‘static’’ interpretation of the EC
alleviation, which would preserve the current Broad-
Directives is adopted. A more flexible interpretation is
land landscape and ecology.
essential to allow, in the Hickling case, experimental plant
The study consisted of two surveys: (i) a postal survey of
cutting and monitoring. Other management action to
households across the UK designed to capture the values
maintain navigation and recreation interests throughout
which non-users might hold for preservation of the pres-
the Broads executive area will also fall foul of a static
ent state of Broadland and (ii) an investigation of the
interpretation of the provisions of the Habitats Directive.
values held by users for the same scenario as elicited
Some room for manoeuvre may be possible in terms of
through an on-site survey. Further theoretical and meth-
whether all management actions necessarily need to be
odological investigations were undertaken via a second
interpreted as ‘‘projects’’ and therefore as requiring impact
on-site survey conducted in 1996. Details of all three of
assessments. For an authority like the BA, the cost impli-
these studies are presented below.
cations alone would make such a ruling impracticable.
Non-user values were estimated by means of a mail survey
From the UK government perspective, there is an element
questionnaire sent to addresses throughout Great Britain
of ‘‘wait and see’’ in its position, as it monitors how events
in order to capture both socio-economic and distance
play out in the Broads context. From the BA’s perspective,
decay effects on stated WTP. Table 4 details the sampling
there is a need to achieve a working compromise, or at
strategy employed in this survey and the response rates
least to engage stakeholders in an ongoing process of
achieved (Bateman and Langford 1997).
dialogue. Efforts are under way to promote such a delib-
The survey questionnaire was designed to best practice
erative and participatory process in order to achieve a
standards (Dillman 1978). It was pre-tested through a
reasonable compromise between navigation and conser-
focus group with pilot exercises, and included visual, map,
vation needs. It is also now clear that the management
and textual information detailing the nature of Broadland,
objective can only be the maintenance of relative stability
the flooding problems and flood defence options together
in the Broad’s conditions. The stakeholder dialogue pro-
with necessary details supporting a WTP question such as
cess has been constantly widened and now has to
payment vehicle, payment time frame, etc. The survey
encompass flooding risk management issues in the area.
achieved a typically modest response rate of some 31%,
however initial analysis showed that this was heavily
supported by past users of Broadland who represented
Flood alleviation and sea level well over one-third of the responses in each distance cat-
egory. Although experience of visiting the Broads declines
rise mitigation strategies significantly with distance from the area (p<0.0001), this
for Broadland: valuation analysis sample can best be characterised as a sample of dormant
past users.
Analysis of the response rates detailed in Table 4 together
In 1991 the National Rivers Authority (NRA), later named
with respondent characteristic data showed that response
the Environment Agency (EA), initiated a wide ranging
rates were negatively related to increasing distance from
investigation to develop an: ‘‘effective and cost-effective
the Broads, and positively related to respondent income.
strategy to alleviate flooding in Broadland for the next
These relationships were further reflected within the re-
50 years’’ (Bateman et al. 1992).
plies of those who did return their questionnaires. When
The appraisal process consisted of five main components:
asked whether or not they agreed with the principle of
hydraulic modelling, engineering, cost-benefit assessment,
incurring extra personal taxes to pay for flood defences in
environmental assessment, and consultations. The item of
Broadland (the ‘‘payment principle’’ question), 166
most relevance here is the cost-benefit assessment, which
respondents (53.5%) answered positively to the payment
compared benefits of undertaking a scheme to provide a
95
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Table 4
Non-user survey response rate by sample group
Sample group Distance Socio-economic No. of usable Group response Proportion of total
zonea rate (%) b
identification label class or area responses usable responses (%)
1M 1 Middle (2A) 58 34.7 18.7
2M 2 Middle (2A) 66 39.5 21.3
3M 3 Middle (2A) 59 35.3 19
4M 4 Middle (2A) 47 28.1 15.2
3U 3 Upper (1A) 54 31.1 16.8
3L 3 Lower (4A) 28 16.8 9
Group mean 52 30.9 16.7
Total 310 - 100
a
Zone 1=central (Broadland) distance band (width approximately 40 km); remaining zones are approximately 110 km wide; 4=most distant
bank
b
167 questionnaires mailed out to each sample group (total mailings=1,002)
principle question. Determinants of these responses were Including, as zero’s, those respondents who refused
investigated, yielding the model described in Eq. (2): the payment principle (i.e. those who stated they were
not willing to pay to prevent flooding), this question
LOGIT ðYESÞ elicited a whole-sample mean WTP of £23.29/annum
¼ 0:370 À 0:866 DISTANT (95% CI: £17.53 to £32.45). It was also found that mean
WTP decreases as the distance from Broadland increases,
ð0.61Þ ð2.59Þ
and previous Broadland visitors expressed a substantially
þ 0:602 FISH þ 0:446 SOMEVIS
higher WTP than those who have never visited the area.
ð2.16Þ ð1.68Þ Aggregation of WTP estimates was conducted using three
þ 1:112 OFTVIS Ä 1:458 INCMID þ 1:924 INCHI approaches, via the sample mean WTP, distance zone
adjusted, and by bid functions. (see Table 5 and Bateman
ð2.23Þ ð2.81Þ ð3.45Þ
et al. 2000). Analysis of the data that produced the results
ð2Þ in Table 5 suggests that the simple ‘‘sample mean’’ and
‘‘distance zone’’ approaches to aggregation yield sub-
where: stantial overestimates of total non-users benefits, which
were very sensitive to the omission of any unusually high
– LOGIT(YES)= In {pi/[1-pI]} where pI = the probability WTP responses. By contrast, the ‘‘bid function’’ approach
of the respondent saying ‘‘yes’’ to the payment principle
gave robust and stable estimates of aggregate value.
question.
In summary, the study of present non-users yields a
– DISTANT= 1 if respondent lives outside zone 1 (= 0
consistent picture and provides the basis for some defen-
otherwise).
sible estimates of aggregate benefits, which in turn yield an
– FISH= 1 if respondent participates in fishing at least interesting commentary upon current practice. We now
occasionally (= 0 otherwise). turn to consider the various on-site CV surveys of visitors
– SOMEVIS= 1 if respondent sometimes but not often to Broadland.
visits the countryside for relaxation/scenery (= 0 The 1991 user study generally conformed to the CV testing
otherwise). protocol subsequently laid down by the NOAA blue ribbon
– OFTVIS= 1 if respondent often visits the countryside panel (Arrow et al. 1993). Survey design was extensively
for relaxation/scenery (= 0 otherwise). pre-tested with any changes to the questionnaire being
– INCMID= 1 if household income is £10–30 k/annum (=
0 otherwise).
– INCHI= 1 if household income exceeds £30 k per an-
Table 5
num (= 0 otherwise).
The present non-user’s benefits of preserving the present condition of
– Scaled deviance = 378.89; df = 300; Figures in brackets Broadland aggregated across Great Britain using various procedures
are t-values (£ million/annum)
Equation (2) also shows that even after controlling for Aggregation approach
proximity, participation in certain of the activities for
which Broadland is synonymous (i.e. fishing, relaxing and (1) Aggregation using sample mean 98.4–159.7
WTP
enjoying scenery) is positively related to respondents
(2) Aggregation adjusting for distance 98.0–111.1
agreeing to the payment principle. zones
Those respondents who accepted the payment principle (3) Aggregation by bid functions:
were presented with an ‘‘open-ended’’ format valuation i. using distance zone and national 25.3–27.3
income
question asking them to state the maximum amount of
ii. using county distance and 24.0–25.4
extra taxes they would pay WTP per annum to safeguard regional income
Broadland from the effects of increased flooding.
96 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Since the publication of the Kahneman and Knetsch’s
re-tested over a total pilot sample of some 433 respon-
(1992) ‘‘embedding’’ critique of CV, there has been a wide
dents. One of the many findings of this process was that a
ranging debate over whether respondents give sufficient
tax-based annual payment vehicle appeared optimal when
consideration of the specific characteristics of the goods
assessed over a range of criteria (details in Bateman et al.
valued when responding to CV questions. More specifi-
1993).
cally, the subsequent academic debate has focused on the
The final questionnaire was applied through on-site
sensitivity of WTP estimates to the scope of the good
interviews with visitors at representative sites around
considered, where scope can be defined in terms of
Broadland, with 2,897 questionnaires being completed.
quantity and/or quality. A follow-up survey to the
This sample was composed of 846 interviewees given the
Broadland 1991 survey was therefore undertaken, which
open-ended (OE) WTP questionnaire, and the remaining
considered the circumstances under which sensitivity to
2,051 facing in turn the single-bound dichotomous
scope occurs, where scope was defined in terms of the area
choice (1DC) and interactive bidding (IB) questions. The
protected by a flood alleviation scheme (FAS) for either
1DC elicitation method faces respondents with a single
the whole (W) of that area of Broadland which is under
question such as ‘‘are you willing to pay £x?’’ and then
threat from saline flooding or a series of part (P) areas
the bid level £x is varied across the sample. The IB
within that whole. As such, the P FASs are nested within
method supplements the initial question with two
the W FAS.
further dichotomous choice questions reducing £x or
It was suggested by Carson and Mitchell (1995) that the
increasing £x according to the answers given. The
most appropriate test of scope sensitivity is through the
respondent is then finally given an OE question, the
comparison of independent valuations from different lev-
answer to which determines the WTP value used by the
els of amenity. Such a test was undertaken in the Broad-
analysts. Prior to any WTP question, respondents were
land 1996 survey by collecting two samples of users, the
presented with a ‘‘payment principle’’ question. Negative
first of which faced a questions concerning their WTP for
responses to this question reduced sample sizes to 715
the W scheme followed by their WTP for the P scheme (the
(OE) and 1,811 (1DC/IB), respectively. Except where
‘‘top-down’’ W/P sequence sample); while the second
indicated, all those refusing the payment principle are
sample faced the same questions but presented in reverse
treated as having zero WTP in calculating subsequent
order ‘‘bottom-up’’; P/W sequence sample).
WTP measures.
Full results of the Broadland 1996 survey are presented in
The theoretical validity of responses to the various WTP
Powe (2000), however, they do not provide conclusive
questions was assessed through the estimation of a series
evidence for either CV supporters or their critics, and
of bid functions. The analysis indicated that a consistent
suggest instead that a mixture of economic and psycho-
set of predictors explain WTP responses, including mea-
logical influences are at work here. This points towards a
sures of respondent income, experience of Broadland and
complexity of preference motivations that is at the same
participation in related activities, and interest in envi-
time both unsurprising and challenging, and ought to be
ronmental issues.
the future research agenda for CV research.
As noted previously, the Norfolk Broads CV study was
While the valuation work indicates that the public does
conducted in answer to a real-world question regarding
put significant value on the environment that Broadland
the funding of flood defences in Broadland. The study
provides, the costs of flood protection provision are also
fed into a wider cost-benefit analysis that also examined
very high. Over the 1990s, the Environment Agency has
the agricultural, property and infrastructure damage-
formulated a selective approach to flood alleviation and
avoided benefits of such defences. The benefit-cost ratio
not a strategy that will provide an area-wide uniform level
of the latter items was calculated at 0.98 (National
of protection. A number of communities and business sites
Rivers Authority 1992). However, even if only a con-
are currently at high risk from flooding (so called
servative measure of WTP for the recreational and
‘‘undefended areas’’) as levels of protection vary across the
environmental benefits of flood prevention is considered
area. The Broadland area is the subject of an experiment in
the benefit-cost ratio increases substantially to 1.94,
terms of flooding alleviation scheme funding. A joint
indicating that the benefits of a flood alleviation strategy
public and private funding initiative (PPP/PFI) has been
are almost twice the associated costs. The results,
launched that provides public funding over a 20-year
including findings from the CV study, were submitted to
period, which will be spent by a private consortium
the relevant Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
(Turner et al. 2003).
as part of an application of central government funding
support for the proposed flood alleviation strategy.
Following lengthy consideration of this application, in
1997 the Environment Agency announced that it had
Conclusions and policy implications
received conditional approval for a programme for
‘‘bank strengthening and erosion protection’’ (Environ-
ment Agency 1997). The actual scheme has been taken The Broads wetland area is a multiple-use resource under
forward since 2000 on the basis of a long-term private/ heavy and sustained environmental pressure and subject
public partnership scheme (between the EA and relevant to dynamic ecosystem change. The DP-S-I-R organising
government support ministries and a private engineering framework was successfully used to scope the magnitude
firm consortium). and significance of the environmental change problems
97
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
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An ecological economics
approach to the management
of a multi-purpose coastal wetland
R. K. Turner Æ I. J. Bateman Æ S. Georgiou Æ A. Jones Æ I. H. Langford Æ N. G. N. Matias
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well as from hydrological perturbation, pollution and
Abstract Three interrelated management pollution-related effects (Turner 1991).
problems—eutrophication of multiple use shallow Wetlands are complex ecological systems whose structure
lakes, sea level rise and flood risk mitigation and provides us with goods or products involving some direct
tourism pressures—are analysed in the context of an utilisation of one or more wetland characteristics (Maltby
internationally important wetland area, the Norfolk et al. 1996). Wetland ecosystem processes also provide us
and Suffolk Broads in the UK. The ecological- with ecologically related services, supporting or protecting
economic research findings presented should human activities or human properties without being used
provide essential information to underpin the directly. Wetland systems, as well as their distinctive
regulatory and management process in this landscapes, are also often significant socio-cultural assets.
internationally important conservation area. The So, the stock of wetlands is a multifunctional resource
relevant authority somehow has to integrate the generating substantial socio-economic values (Balmford
maintenance of public navigation rights, nature et al. 2002; Turner et al. 2003). Sustainable management of
conservation, and tourism promotion in a highly these assets has therefore become a high priority.
dynamic ecosystems setting. Because of the In this paper, three interrelated management prob-
stakeholder conflicts, potential and actual, a more lems—eutrophication of multi-use shallow lakes and
inclusionary decision-making procedure is required, connecting rivers, sea level rise and flooding risks, and
and is currently being implemented. tourism preferences and patterns—will be explored and
analysed from an ecological-economic perspective in the
Keywords Ecological economics Æ Wetlands Æ context of the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads (see Fig. 1). The
Eutrophication Æ Tourism pressure Æ overall management tasks in this national park equivalent
Deliberative and Inclusionary processes area encompass the maintenance of public navigation
rights and the area’s biological diversity, sustainable util-
isation of the various functions the wetlands provide, and
the resolution of conflicts between stakeholder groups as a
result of different usages of the area. The statutory duties
of the management agency (the Broads Authority), how-
Introduction ever, constrain the range of options because no one
interest (nature conservation, recreation and tourism
Wetland ecosystems account for about 6% of the global
land area and are among the most threatened of all envi- promotion, or maintenance of navigation rights) can be
given significant relative priority. The Authority has to
ronmental resources. The wetlands found in temperate
climate zones in developed economies have long suffered operate by making often-pragmatic trade-offs, which can
be subject to legislative constraints including EU Direc-
significant losses and continue to face threats from
industrial, agricultural, and residential developments, as tives and the general guidance provided by the UK’s
sustainable development strategy.
Towards a framework
Received: 9 January 2001 / Accepted: 2 May 2004
Published online: 4 June 2004
for integrated wetland
ª Springer-Verlag 2004
management assessment
R. K. Turner (&) Æ I. J. Bateman Æ S. Georgiou Æ A. Jones
I. H. Langford Æ N. G. N. Matias Æ L. Subramanian The structure of and processes within wetland ecosystems
Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment,
generate a wide array of resources that directly or indi-
(CSERGE), School of Environmental Sciences,
rectly support the economic and social welfare of diverse
University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
groups of people. Sustainable development based on the
E-mail: r.k.turner@uea.ac.uk
86 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99 DOI 10.1007/s10113-004-0075-x
Original article
Fig. 1
The Broads and its waterways
with a co-evolving society (Clayton and Radcliffe 1996;
maintenance of the functional diversity provided by
Brouwer and Crooks 1998).
wetland ecosystems will require careful management and
In this paper, the Driving Forces-Pressure-State-Impact-
evaluation of the different functions in terms of the welfare
Response (DPSIR) framework was used as a scoping de-
benefits they provide. In view of their complex, dynamic
vice (Turner et al. 1998). This framework has been used to
and co-evolving multi-functionality, a management ap-
make explicit the means by which human activities in a
proach is needed that addresses the pressures exerted on
given context and spatial area relate to the environmental
wetland ecosystems that threaten future flows of benefits.
pressures that impact wetland ecosystem states (see Fig. 2
The Broads Authority has produced a strategic manage-
for an application to the Broads wetland (Broads Authority
ment and action plan (Broads Authority 2004). The im-
2004). These impacts cause environmental change, which,
plicit aim is to achieve greater co-ordination between its
in turn, impact human beings, usually in some kind of
three main functions—nature conservation, enhancement
societal response that feeds back into human activities.
of recreation and quiet amenity and the maintenance of
This feedback loop and any lags are important aspects of
rights of navigation—in order to fulfil sustainability goals.
the human and natural systems interface.
Integrated planning and management means combining
The DPSIR framework provides a conceptual and organi-
assessments of the resources available to meet stated
sational backdrop for the contributions of different disci-
objectives; the formulation of a strategy or plan of action
plines to the description and analysis of environmental
to use the resources in a wise way; and the implementation
problems, given that the socio-economic aspects of envi-
of the strategy in an orderly and efficient manner
ronmental problems are an integral part of this co-evolu-
(Burbridge 1994). Underpinning integrated management
tionary framework. It should be stressed that the DPSIR is
and planning is research that supports and informs such a
a framework, not a model. Its main purpose is to make
management approach. A wetland research methodology
more manageable the complexity of environmental prob-
somehow has to make compatible the very different per-
lems; for example in wetland ecosystems and related
ceptions of how a dynamic wetland ecosystem interacts
87
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Functions, uses, stakeholders,
Fig. 2
Pressures facing the Broads and consequent conflicts of use
pressures and environmental
protection and sustainable management issues. It provides
changes
an important starting point on the road towards a com-
mon level of understanding and consensus between
The Broads wetlands perform a variety of functions valued
researchers, natural resource managers, and policy makers
by a range of stakeholder groups living and working in the
as they debate the links between the various driving forces
area or for those visiting the area. The main wetland
that pose a threat to the intrinsic functioning of a wetland
functions are presented in Table 1. The table details the
ecosystem. In the case of the Broads, these pressures have
biophysical structure and processes maintaining the
included land conversion, agricultural development,
functions, their socio-economic uses and benefits, and
hydrological perturbation and pollution, increasing flood
threats to future availability of the functions.
risk perceptions, and their consequent impact on the
The Broads wetlands provide a buffer against extreme
various interests or tourism, stakeholder groups who uti-
hydrological conditions; providing water storage in times
lise the goods and services provided by these ecosystems
of flood, and water release during a drought. Wetlands also
and/or contribute to the pressures on them. Moreover,
have the capacity to change water quality through the re-
there are likely to be differences in stakeholders’ percep-
moval of chemical pollutants such as nitrogen and phos-
tions of pressures, impacts and environmental values (see
phate. A third major function is the provision of a
Fig. 2).
nationally and internationally important habitat for flora
In the context of complex decision-making that aims to
and fauna (including a number of rare species), which, in
maintain functioning and ecological diversity in wetland
turn, along with the waterways themselves, attracts tourists
ecosystems and satisfy multiple stakeholder groups, a
to the area.
range of protection and management options are likely to
The Broads floodplain is at risk from two types of flooding:
be available. Such options can be translated into man-
tidal flooding, caused by high sea levels, and fluvial
agement or development scenarios with each option likely
flooding, caused by high river flows (Turner, Adger and
to have different impacts on human and natural systems
Doktor 1995). Surge tides can cause saline flooding of land
across different spatial and time scales. These impacts are
by breaching or overtopping flood banks. Saline intrusion
often complex, but can, in principle, be measured with the
also occurs in surge conditions as more salt water forces
help of indicators. Capturing the whole range of relevant
upstream between the banks. This can damage the ecology
impacts on natural and human systems within different
of normally freshwater reaches and cause extensive fish
protection or management scenarios, given the overall
kills. Fluvial flooding, caused by heavy rainfall, is less
goal of sustainable development, will require a combina-
damaging from an agricultural or conservation perspec-
tion of environmental, social and economic indicators.
tive, although flooding of any kind can damage property. If
Figure 3 summarises the indicators being developed by the
low river flow conditions occur in the autumn, normal
Broads Authority alongside its 20-year plan.
88 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Fig. 3
Potential performance indicators
high tides can cause the same saline intrusion effect which puts considerable demand on the region’s water
(Turner and Brooke 1988; Turner, Adger and Doktor resources and poses a potential threat to the Broads. The
1995). region is furthermore the driest in Britain and droughts
Besides the threat of increased salt water incursion and are a common feature of the area. Agriculture is another
tidal salt water flooding, the Broads is threatened with significant water user, in particular through spray irriga-
another water problem: variable river flows and depleted tion of land in dry periods.
groundwater. The Broads are part of a much wider Adequate groundwater levels and river flows are crucial for a
catchment area. About 6 million people live in this area, number of reasons. First, sufficient water of good quality is
89
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
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Table 1
Wetland functions and associated socio-economic benefits in the Broads
Function Biophysical structure or process Socio-economic use and benefits Threats
maintaining function
Hydrological functions
Flood water retention Short and long-term storage of Natural flood protection alternative, Conversion, drainage, filling and
overbank flood water and reduced damage to infrastructure reduction of storage capacity,
retention of surface water (road network etc.), property removal of vegetation
runoff from surrounding slopes and crops
Groundwater recharge Infiltration of flood water in Water supply, habitat Reduction of recharge rates,
wetland surface followed maintenance overpumping, pollution
by percolation to aquifer
Groundwater discharge Upward seepage of groundwater Effluent dilution Drainage, filling
through wetland surface
Sediment retention and Net storage of fine sediments Improved water quality Channelization, excess reduction
deposition carried in suspension by river downstream, soil fertility of sediment throughput
water during overbank flooding
or by surface runoff from other
wetland units or contributory
area
Biogeochemical functions
Nutrient retention Uptake of nutrients by plants Improved water quality Drainage, water abstraction,
(n and p), storage in soil organic removal of vegetation, pollution,
matter, absorption of n as dredging
ammonium, absorption of p
in soil
Nutrient export Flushing through water system Improved water quality, Drainage, water abstraction,
and gaseous export of n waste disposal removal of vegetation,
pollution, flow barriers
Peat accumulation In situ retention of c Fuel, paleo-environmental Overexploitation, drainage
data source
Ecological functions
Habitat for (migratory) Provision of microsites for macro- Fishing, wildfowl hunting, Overexploitation, overcrowding
species (biodiversity) invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, recreational amenities, and congestion, wildlife
mammals and landscape tourism disturbance, pollution,
structural diversity interruption of migration routes,
management neglect
Nursery for plants, Provision of microsites for macro- Fishing, reed harvest Overexploitation, overcrowding
animals, micro- invertebrates, fish, reptiles, and wildlife disturbance,
organisms birds, mammals management neglect
Food web support Biomass production, biomass Farming, fen biomass as Conversion, extensive use of inputs
import and export via physical alternative energy source (pollution), market failures
and biological processes
Source: Modified from Turner et al. (1997) and Burbridge (1994)
vital for the wildlife diversity of the fens and marshes. The treatment works, while nitrates mainly come from the
particular character of a fen is determined by its reliance on run-off from agricultural land within the Broads catch-
water supply: groundwater, river water, rainfall, or a com- ment, and to a lesser extent from sewage treatment works.
bination of the three. Also, the drained marshland depends Phosphorus comes from a limited number of sewage
upon an adequate freshwater supply to the dyke (field treatment works and can be removed before it is dis-
drains) systems. Many grazing marsh dykes rely on fresh- charged into the water, and nitrogen comes from all over
water conditions to maintain the diversity of their aquatic the catchment and is therefore difficult to control in the
flora. Dykes are also a source of drinking water for livestock short term. Phosphorus levels have declined or are low in
on the marshes, especially during the summer. the main rivers, but nitrogen levels remain problematic.
Secondly, water abstraction decreases summer river flows, Only 12 of the 63 permanent water bodies are in good
which in turn concentrates sewage discharges, reduces the condition with stable aquatic plant populations and clear
flushing of algae from the Broads system, and exacerbates water (Broads Authority 2004). We will return to the
the problem of saline intrusion. The increase in nutrient eutrophication problem in a later section.
levels as a result of the introduction of river-based sewage Species conservation is a key management objective but the
works during the early part of the 20th century has, in success of conservation or restoration generally, particu-
particular, triggered an enormous change in the Broads larly in wetlands, depends upon restoration of wider eco-
water ecosystem, known as eutrophication. Eutrophication system function (Moss 1983; Madgwick and Phillips 1996;
is essentially a fertilisation of the water through nutrient Holzer et al. 1997; Pitt et al. 1997; Moss et al. 1996; Stansfield
enrichment. Two nutrients are involved: phosphates (P) et al. 1997 and Scheffer et al. 1993). One administrative
and nitrates (N). Phosphates enter the system from sewage issue arises from the difference between ecological and
90 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
river stretches are not particularly wide, while most of the
management authority boundaries which affects Broadland.
broads cover less than 10 ha. The size and shape of a craft
The executive area of the Broads Authority of Norfolk and
significantly influences the amount of wash produced
Suffolk follows the river valleys, but much of the Broads
(May and Waters 1986). Boat wash has an impact on the
groundwater catchment, as well as the upper catchments of
bankside vegetation and eventually the floodwall itself.
the main rivers that supply the Broads, are outside the direct
A more sustainable approach to tourism is therefore an
influence of the Authority. The quantity and chemical
urgent requirement. It has been estimated that the overall
quality of water received by the lakes and rivers of Broad-
value of tourism generated in the Broads area is approxi-
land is thus, at least in part, outside the direct influence of
mately £147 million/annum. This financial flow supports
the area’s major management authority. Such administra-
3,107 full-time job equivalents. Some 4.4 million nights are
tive problems may prove a substantial impediment to the
spent in the area by visitors and around 1.3 million day
implementation of a holistic and integrated programme for
visits are made to the Broads (Broads Authority, personal
Broadland management.
communication). However, the local hire boat industry has
In succeeding sections, we highlight three policy chal-
been negatively affected by changing consumer tasks and
lenges—the multiple use management of the shallow lakes
trends in recent years. The national leisure and tourism
and rivers (Broads) given the threat posed by eutrophi-
market is now characterised by trends such as the increase
cation; the provision of a selective flood alleviation scheme
in holidays taken outside the UK, more frequent and
to protect nature conservation, recreation and other eco-
shorter holidays, and a much greater emphasis on high
nomic interests; and the need for better information on
standards of service and value for one’s money. These
recreation/amenity users and their preferences, in order to
factors together with demographic changes have served to
promote sustainable tourism.
cause a significant fall in demand for the traditional
Broads boating holidays, with subsequent negative eco-
nomic multiplier impacts throughout the adjacent area.
Sustainable tourism Recreation value can be estimated using an indirect travel
cost (TC) method. Here, the relevant demand curve is
assessed by comparing the number of trips taken by vis-
Managing the water resources is also important for the
itors with the cost of those trips in terms of direct
public enjoyment of the area and navigation. Low fresh-
expenditure upon travel and entrance fees and the indirect
water flows can exacerbate problems of blue-green algae,
opportunity costs of travel time (Bateman 1993; Bergin
botulism, salt water incursions and other water quality
and Price 1994). One aspect of TC analysis that has been a
factors that severely affect people’s enjoyment of the
focus in recent research is the potential of the method for
waterways, particularly those who participate in recreation
undertaking ‘‘benefit transfer’’ analyses. Benefit transfer
or sports involving contact with the water.
has been defined as ‘‘the transfer of existing estimates of
On the other hand, the visitors themselves, in aggregate,
non-market values to a new study which is different from
have put considerable strains on the area for a number of
the study for which the values were originally estimated’’
reasons with the risk of impairing those environmental
(Boyle and Bergstrom 1992). Within the Broads, the
features that people come to see and experience in the first
objective has been to construct models based upon data
place. Large numbers of visitors disturb local wildlife,
from a set of surveyed sites and use these to estimate the
especially during the breeding and nesting season. The
number of visitors to unsurveyed sites and their corre-
expansion of boating activity in the past is believed to have
sponding recreational values. This is an attractive proce-
confined wildfowl to less disturbed and non-navigable
dure because it saves time and money on repeated studies,
broads. The Broads provide an important habitat for a
particularly as there are many forces that are likely to
number of rare bird species such as the marsh harrier,
increase the demand for non-market benefit estimates over
bearded tit and the bittern.
the next few years (McConnell 1992).
The large numbers of visitors on boats, especially motor-
Visitor arrivals functions can be estimated linking visits to
boats, result in considerable boat wash, and hence, river
a series of predictors, values for which can be collected for
bank erosion and potential increased flood risk. Most hire
the target unsurveyed sites. An example of such a function
boats are designed to meet comfort requirements, not to
is given as Eq. (1) (see Table 2). This equation links the
meet the specific environmental needs of the Broads. The
Table 2
Explanation of visitor arrival functions
Visits =f( Price Soc-econ, Quality, Subs, X)
No. of visits to Cost of a visit in Socio-economic Type and quality Type, availability A matrix of other
under take a given terms of travel factors (e.g. car of facilities and quality of explanatory
activity at a site. expenditure and ownership, provided at the substitute sites variables
Expressed as either the opportunity unemployment, site under
total visits of individuals cost of travel etc.) consideration
or a visitor rate (e.g. time
per household pa.)
91
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Fig. 4
Holiday visitor traffic flows to the Norfolk
Broads, simulated in a GIS
number of visits to a site to the time and distance cost of with benefit transfer, while facilitating several methodo-
those visits (thereby allowing the estimation of visit val- logical improvements.
ues) and other predictors, including the type and quality of The baseline data for our GIS-based transferable travel
facilities at the target site, the availability and quality of cost model is taken from a Broadland survey undertaken
substitutes, socio-economic and possibly cultural factors, in 1996 and discussed in detail in a following section. This
and other explanatory variables. survey provides a total of 2,098 visitor interviews con-
ducted at 10 sites across the area. Trip origin information
VISITS ¼ f ðPRICE, SOC À ECON, QUALITY, SUBS, XÞ was collected from each survey respondent in the form of a
full postcode of their home address (Bateman et al. 1996).
ð1Þ
The GIS was then used to interrogate the Bartholomew’s
To date, relatively few benefit transfer analyses have been 1:250,000 digital map database to extract data concerning
undertaken. This is largely because it is difficult to obtain the distribution and quality of the entire UK road network
accurate information on several important elements in the to permit computation of minimum travel time routes
transfer function, such as travel times taken for visitors to from all origin addresses to the survey site. Figure 4
reach the site, the availability of substitute sites, and the illustrates some of the output from this analysis showing
definition of visitor zones of origin. However, recent the diversity of outset origins and routes taken to reach
advances in geographical information systems (GIS) Broadland.
technology have provided a superior foundation for The advanced spatial analytic capabilities afforded by a
implementing benefit transfer methods of placing eco- GIS permit the analyst to extract high-quality data on
nomic values on recreational demand (Bateman et al. 1999; many of the other determinants of Eq. (1), both for sur-
Brainard et al. 1999). In particular, GIS can help to resolve veyed and unsurveyed sites. For example, interrogations of
some of the spatial and data-handling problems associated data sources such as the satellite-image based Institute of
92 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Hickling Broad (Turner et al. 2003), and has been broad-
Terrestrial Ecology UK Land Cover Database, have, and
ened out to discuss management issues across sub-catch-
are, being used to identify potential substitute destina-
ment scales (know as the Upper Thurne River Catchment
tions, and their accessibility is being estimated within the
Group). It turned out that the ‘‘local’’ problem was in fact
GIS (Brainard et al. 1999). Similarly, socio-economic data
symptomatic of causal mechanisms that were catchment-
on both actual and potential visitors can be extracted from
wide, including areas beyond the executive control of the
the UK Census of Population to examine the influence of
BA. The new EU Water Framework Directive will also
deprivation indicators such as levels of unemployment and
serve to emphasise the catchment-scale and management
urbanisation on visitor recreation demand in Broadland
processes that are inclusionary. We now turn to examine
and to identify which groups do not visit sites (a factor
these wider questions and the general problem of man-
that opens up previously unexplored avenues for distri-
aging a rate of environmental change in a highly dynamic
butional and equity analyses). A particular factor that
setting.
merits attention is the possible existence of different sub-
groups, with diverse priorities and recreational prefer-
ences within the catchment areas of the sites. The use of
GIS allows a more sophisticated analysis of the nature of
Managing dynamic ecosystem
recreational interactions than is normally seen in con-
ventional environmental value studies.
change: combating eutrophication
A range of interests have recently come together to set out
and feedback effects
a new strategy to combat the decline in tourism demand
and to generate new economically and environmentally
sustainable business growth. The ambitious vision is to It is expected that climate change, through, for example,
foster a thriving boat hire industry and ancillary services alterations to the nutrient cycle will exacerbate existing
via a quality experience based on customer needs. Over the water quality problems such as eutrophication (Horne and
medium term, the boat fleet will need to be made more Goldman 1994). In addition, secondary effects upon water
environmentally efficient, with increased use of electric quality are expected through the role of climate change in
boats, solar boats and sail craft. A more niche-orientated increasing human demand for water services such as water
marketing strategy is perceived to be required in prefer- provision, sewage treatment, etc. (Climate Change 2001).
ence to the old preoccupation with volume maximisation, The stresses put upon the integrity of freshwater sources
which will highlight environmental quality as the key are exacerbated by population growth. For example, in our
Broads holiday characteristic (Strategic Leisure and TEP study area of East Anglia, a region with higher than
2001). average population flows, there has been increasing pres-
With this emerging context in mind, some recent research sure upon open-water resources such as rivers and lakes.
based on a combination of quantitative and qualitative A valuation study was undertaken whose main objective
social research approaches has focused on tourism over- was to measure the benefits that individuals derive from
crowding in the Broads. Face-to-face interviews of visitors preventing excess algae (eutrophication) impacts upon
who hire motorboats and group discussions with local open water in rivers and lakes in East Anglia (see Bateman
residents who own motorboats were used to reveal stake- et al. 2004 for full details). A questionnaire based on the
holder preferences and attitudes to perceived and actual contingent valuation (CV) method was used to estimate an
problems (Brouwer 1999; Brouwer, Turner and Voisey individual’s willingness to pay for a scheme to prevent
2002). A majority of respondents felt that overcrowding excess algae in the rivers and lakes in order to ensure
was a real problem and that it was reducing the quality of continued access to the amenity and recreation facilities
the holiday/environmental experience, in terms of general which each site provides. The scheme was based on a
amenity and peace and quiet. But there was also a sensi- sewage treatment programme that would remove nutrients
tivity to increased hire prices as a mechanism to mitigate and reduce eutrophication.
overcrowding. Water space zoning was another policy The contingent valuation survey comprised a variety of
option that was met with significant opposition. The sections including: assessments of present use of water
negative response to this instrument also served to un- bodies; reactions (including belief indicators) regarding
cover a deeper problem. Issues of trust, responsibility and process by which water bodies and related activities may
blame seem to underlie opposition to change. The Broads be affected by eutrophication; assessments of how such
Authority (BA) was seen as too remote and bureaucratic changes might impact upon usage of those water bodies;
by the boaters and its motives were questioned. To the valuation scenario section outlining the proposed scheme
boaters, the hidden agenda appeared to be the eventual and valuation task that examines households willingness
exclusion of boating from the Broads in favour of nature to pay to avoid the specified eutrophication impacts.
conservation. This group polarisation has emerged despite The valuation scenario included information on the rising
the fact that the BA’s stated and actual policy is one of population of East Anglia and increased pressure on
balancing the main interests in a long-term management sewage treatment works and the effects of changing
strategy. In recognition of this problem, the BA has begun weather patterns on water quality. Survey respondents
to institute a more overt stakeholder consultation process. were given a plausible solution to the potential problem of
This more inclusionary approach has been piloted in a eutrophication in the form of, for example, a phosphate
localised problem case connected with one particular lake, removal scheme at the sewage works. Respondents were
93
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
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although it is noted that non-use values would exist for
told that such a treatment would increase their annual
individuals living elsewhere in the country. The sample
household water bill. After the presentation of the valua-
mean WTP per household was thus multiplied by the
tion scenario and payment mechanism, respondents were
number of households in East Anglia, which is 2.253
faced with the elicitation question, asking them how much
million, to give annual benefits of £169 million.
they would be willing to pay for the good if given the
Turning now to the costs of reducing eutrophication,
opportunity to obtain it, under specified terms and con-
compliance cost estimates from a previous study con-
ditions. The particular method of elicitation used was a
ducted by Pretty et al. (2002) were obtained. The authors
relatively new approach, known as the one and one half-
carried out a preliminary assessment of the environmental
bound (OOHB) elicitation method (Cooper et al. 2002).
costs of eutrophication of freshwaters in England and
Rather than facing a single yes/no response question about
Wales. The relevant compliance costs are those associated
the cost of provision, the OOHB mechanism presents
with sewage treatment. Sewage treatment companies incur
survey respondents with upper and lower bound cost
costs to comply with environmental legislation for the
estimates per household (or per individual) associated
removal of phosphorus before it enters watercourses.
with the provision change under consideration. The pre-
Pretty et al. (2002) predicted that nutrient removal at
cise values of these amounts (bids) are varied across the
sewage treatment works, which come under the EC Urban
sample to permit estimation of survival functions and
Wastewater Treatment Directive, would cost water com-
associated univariate WTP measures such as the mean and
panies £50 million/year, with a further operating cost of
median. Such an approach is considered to have greater
£0.3 million/year for each year over the period 2000–2010.
statistical efficiency, plausibility and incentive compati-
These costs are for the whole of England and Wales. As
bility than alternative mechanisms (Bateman et al. 2002).
such, the comparison of aggregate benefits from the pre-
The contingent valuation survey approached 2,321
vention of eutrophication just for the East Anglia region
households for face-to-face interviews; 1,067 of these re-
with the costs of a nutrient removal scheme for the entire
fused to take the survey. A total of 1,254 households thus
English and Welsh region indicates that there are signifi-
answered the survey, which contained one of the 13 bid
cant positive net benefits. Within the Broads (national
(cost) treatments selected randomly so as to ensure equal
park equivalent) area, however, complicated feedback
sample size of each bid level. In order to obtain estimates
effects have served to make practical management more
of the WTP for the phosphorus removal scheme, it was
difficult.
assumed that a respondent’s yes/no choice regarding the
The Broads Authority’s (BA) powers are similar to other
payment of a given bid amount to obtain a given
UK National Park authorities, plus a navigation duty. But
improvement in environmental quality is made in the
the BA is not subject to the Sandford principle, which
context of a utility maximising choice by the respondent.
mandates primary status for nature conservation in all the
In accordance with the random utility framework, the
other UK National Park areas. The BA’s statutory duties
individual’s WTP is a random variable with a cumulative
are focussed around the requirement to balance naviga-
distribution function whose parameters can be estimated
tion, nature conservation and recreation/amenity interests.
on the basis of the responses to the contingent valuation
This complex political, economic and environmental
survey (Bateman et al. 2002).
trade-off process is becoming even more difficult as the
Table 3 presents the mean and median WTP values. Of the
result of recent EU Directives (notably The Birds and
1,254 respondents sampled, only 1,112 responses were used
Habitats Directive). This regulatory approach has at its
for the econometric analysis, since 142 responses had
core a rather ‘‘static’’ interpretation of nature protection.
missing observations for significant explanatory variables.
Such an interpretation does not sit easily with the BA’s
The mean household annual WTP for the total sample
remit of ‘‘balancing’’ different interests in order to sus-
(n =1,112) was found to be £75.4. Protest bids were identi-
tainably manage all the assets within its executive area.
fied based on the answers to questions regarding the reasons
The navigation duty sometimes proves to be at odds with
for acceptance/refusal of a bid amount. The removal of the
the provision of quiet public enjoyment and the conser-
232 protest bids produced no significant change to the WTP
vation of the area’s natural beauty.
amount, which remained at £75.4/household/year.
The difficulties likely to be posed more generally by the
Aggregation of the sample WTP is crucial for benefit
Habitat Directive for management authorities such as the
estimation to be used in a CBA. As the study was carried in
BA have been highlighted in the case of Hickling Broad
the East Anglia region, and had to do with the protection
(see Fig. 1). This is a water body that over the last 30 years
of lakes and rivers against eutrophication in this region,
or so has become a focal point for private and other sail
the aggregation was constrained to consider only the local
and power boaters. Rights of navigation are restricted to a
population, and not to include the whole of the UK,
specified channel, but boating has become possible over a
large part of the surface of the water body. In more recent
Table 3
years, as water quality has been improved, aquatic plant
Mean and Median WTP for avoiding eutrophication damages
growth has accelerated, and large sections of the water
body have at times become virtually inaccessible to navi-
Mean WTP (£) 75.41
Median WTP (£) 69.07 gation.
95% Confidence interval 69.41–84.36
Restoration policies promoted by the BA have reduced
Standard error 3.71
nutrient flow into the Norfolk Broads and greatly
94 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
improved water quality. In Hickling Broad, these measures particular standard of flood protection to the costs of such
have proved to be especially successful insofar as they have an undertaking. Although market benefits from flood
encouraged the return of previously threatened aquatic protection were considered in terms of agriculture,
plants. However, the thickness of plant growth sometimes industry/residential and infrastructure (Turner and
slows boat traffic and adversely affects local sailing com- Brooke 1988), the value of the non-market benefits from
petitions. As part of its overall commitment to supporting the area were uncertain.
the sustainable development of the Broads, the BA has a As part of the cost-benefit assessment for the Flood Alle-
statutory duty to maintain the area for the purposes of viation Study, a Broadland contingent valuation (CV)
navigation. It also tries to encourage environmentally survey of recreational visitors was commissioned in 1991
friendly boating. However, the increasingly dense beds of to assess the willingness of individuals to pay (WTP) to
aquatic plant (including a rare species of stonewort) preserve the existing Broadland landscape, ecology and
growth can periodically destruct non-powered and elec- recreational possibilities (Bateman et al. 1992, 1994, 1995).
trically-powered craft, and local boatyards may be temped Respondents were presented with two scenario:
to revert back to using diesel-powered craft on Hickling
1. ‘‘do nothing’’ in which due to saline intrusion virtually
Broad, thereby increasing noise and water pollution
all the Broadland landscape and ecology would change
(Turner et al. 2003).
in character;
Clearly, management of a dynamic and multiple-use eco-
2. implementation of an unspecified scheme for flood
system is hindered if a ‘‘static’’ interpretation of the EC
alleviation, which would preserve the current Broad-
Directives is adopted. A more flexible interpretation is
land landscape and ecology.
essential to allow, in the Hickling case, experimental plant
The study consisted of two surveys: (i) a postal survey of
cutting and monitoring. Other management action to
households across the UK designed to capture the values
maintain navigation and recreation interests throughout
which non-users might hold for preservation of the pres-
the Broads executive area will also fall foul of a static
ent state of Broadland and (ii) an investigation of the
interpretation of the provisions of the Habitats Directive.
values held by users for the same scenario as elicited
Some room for manoeuvre may be possible in terms of
through an on-site survey. Further theoretical and meth-
whether all management actions necessarily need to be
odological investigations were undertaken via a second
interpreted as ‘‘projects’’ and therefore as requiring impact
on-site survey conducted in 1996. Details of all three of
assessments. For an authority like the BA, the cost impli-
these studies are presented below.
cations alone would make such a ruling impracticable.
Non-user values were estimated by means of a mail survey
From the UK government perspective, there is an element
questionnaire sent to addresses throughout Great Britain
of ‘‘wait and see’’ in its position, as it monitors how events
in order to capture both socio-economic and distance
play out in the Broads context. From the BA’s perspective,
decay effects on stated WTP. Table 4 details the sampling
there is a need to achieve a working compromise, or at
strategy employed in this survey and the response rates
least to engage stakeholders in an ongoing process of
achieved (Bateman and Langford 1997).
dialogue. Efforts are under way to promote such a delib-
The survey questionnaire was designed to best practice
erative and participatory process in order to achieve a
standards (Dillman 1978). It was pre-tested through a
reasonable compromise between navigation and conser-
focus group with pilot exercises, and included visual, map,
vation needs. It is also now clear that the management
and textual information detailing the nature of Broadland,
objective can only be the maintenance of relative stability
the flooding problems and flood defence options together
in the Broad’s conditions. The stakeholder dialogue pro-
with necessary details supporting a WTP question such as
cess has been constantly widened and now has to
payment vehicle, payment time frame, etc. The survey
encompass flooding risk management issues in the area.
achieved a typically modest response rate of some 31%,
however initial analysis showed that this was heavily
supported by past users of Broadland who represented
Flood alleviation and sea level well over one-third of the responses in each distance cat-
egory. Although experience of visiting the Broads declines
rise mitigation strategies significantly with distance from the area (p<0.0001), this
for Broadland: valuation analysis sample can best be characterised as a sample of dormant
past users.
Analysis of the response rates detailed in Table 4 together
In 1991 the National Rivers Authority (NRA), later named
with respondent characteristic data showed that response
the Environment Agency (EA), initiated a wide ranging
rates were negatively related to increasing distance from
investigation to develop an: ‘‘effective and cost-effective
the Broads, and positively related to respondent income.
strategy to alleviate flooding in Broadland for the next
These relationships were further reflected within the re-
50 years’’ (Bateman et al. 1992).
plies of those who did return their questionnaires. When
The appraisal process consisted of five main components:
asked whether or not they agreed with the principle of
hydraulic modelling, engineering, cost-benefit assessment,
incurring extra personal taxes to pay for flood defences in
environmental assessment, and consultations. The item of
Broadland (the ‘‘payment principle’’ question), 166
most relevance here is the cost-benefit assessment, which
respondents (53.5%) answered positively to the payment
compared benefits of undertaking a scheme to provide a
95
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Table 4
Non-user survey response rate by sample group
Sample group Distance Socio-economic No. of usable Group response Proportion of total
zonea rate (%) b
identification label class or area responses usable responses (%)
1M 1 Middle (2A) 58 34.7 18.7
2M 2 Middle (2A) 66 39.5 21.3
3M 3 Middle (2A) 59 35.3 19
4M 4 Middle (2A) 47 28.1 15.2
3U 3 Upper (1A) 54 31.1 16.8
3L 3 Lower (4A) 28 16.8 9
Group mean 52 30.9 16.7
Total 310 - 100
a
Zone 1=central (Broadland) distance band (width approximately 40 km); remaining zones are approximately 110 km wide; 4=most distant
bank
b
167 questionnaires mailed out to each sample group (total mailings=1,002)
principle question. Determinants of these responses were Including, as zero’s, those respondents who refused
investigated, yielding the model described in Eq. (2): the payment principle (i.e. those who stated they were
not willing to pay to prevent flooding), this question
LOGIT ðYESÞ elicited a whole-sample mean WTP of £23.29/annum
¼ 0:370 À 0:866 DISTANT (95% CI: £17.53 to £32.45). It was also found that mean
WTP decreases as the distance from Broadland increases,
ð0.61Þ ð2.59Þ
and previous Broadland visitors expressed a substantially
þ 0:602 FISH þ 0:446 SOMEVIS
higher WTP than those who have never visited the area.
ð2.16Þ ð1.68Þ Aggregation of WTP estimates was conducted using three
þ 1:112 OFTVIS Ä 1:458 INCMID þ 1:924 INCHI approaches, via the sample mean WTP, distance zone
adjusted, and by bid functions. (see Table 5 and Bateman
ð2.23Þ ð2.81Þ ð3.45Þ
et al. 2000). Analysis of the data that produced the results
ð2Þ in Table 5 suggests that the simple ‘‘sample mean’’ and
‘‘distance zone’’ approaches to aggregation yield sub-
where: stantial overestimates of total non-users benefits, which
were very sensitive to the omission of any unusually high
– LOGIT(YES)= In {pi/[1-pI]} where pI = the probability WTP responses. By contrast, the ‘‘bid function’’ approach
of the respondent saying ‘‘yes’’ to the payment principle
gave robust and stable estimates of aggregate value.
question.
In summary, the study of present non-users yields a
– DISTANT= 1 if respondent lives outside zone 1 (= 0
consistent picture and provides the basis for some defen-
otherwise).
sible estimates of aggregate benefits, which in turn yield an
– FISH= 1 if respondent participates in fishing at least interesting commentary upon current practice. We now
occasionally (= 0 otherwise). turn to consider the various on-site CV surveys of visitors
– SOMEVIS= 1 if respondent sometimes but not often to Broadland.
visits the countryside for relaxation/scenery (= 0 The 1991 user study generally conformed to the CV testing
otherwise). protocol subsequently laid down by the NOAA blue ribbon
– OFTVIS= 1 if respondent often visits the countryside panel (Arrow et al. 1993). Survey design was extensively
for relaxation/scenery (= 0 otherwise). pre-tested with any changes to the questionnaire being
– INCMID= 1 if household income is £10–30 k/annum (=
0 otherwise).
– INCHI= 1 if household income exceeds £30 k per an-
Table 5
num (= 0 otherwise).
The present non-user’s benefits of preserving the present condition of
– Scaled deviance = 378.89; df = 300; Figures in brackets Broadland aggregated across Great Britain using various procedures
are t-values (£ million/annum)
Equation (2) also shows that even after controlling for Aggregation approach
proximity, participation in certain of the activities for
which Broadland is synonymous (i.e. fishing, relaxing and (1) Aggregation using sample mean 98.4–159.7
WTP
enjoying scenery) is positively related to respondents
(2) Aggregation adjusting for distance 98.0–111.1
agreeing to the payment principle. zones
Those respondents who accepted the payment principle (3) Aggregation by bid functions:
were presented with an ‘‘open-ended’’ format valuation i. using distance zone and national 25.3–27.3
income
question asking them to state the maximum amount of
ii. using county distance and 24.0–25.4
extra taxes they would pay WTP per annum to safeguard regional income
Broadland from the effects of increased flooding.
96 Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
Since the publication of the Kahneman and Knetsch’s
re-tested over a total pilot sample of some 433 respon-
(1992) ‘‘embedding’’ critique of CV, there has been a wide
dents. One of the many findings of this process was that a
ranging debate over whether respondents give sufficient
tax-based annual payment vehicle appeared optimal when
consideration of the specific characteristics of the goods
assessed over a range of criteria (details in Bateman et al.
valued when responding to CV questions. More specifi-
1993).
cally, the subsequent academic debate has focused on the
The final questionnaire was applied through on-site
sensitivity of WTP estimates to the scope of the good
interviews with visitors at representative sites around
considered, where scope can be defined in terms of
Broadland, with 2,897 questionnaires being completed.
quantity and/or quality. A follow-up survey to the
This sample was composed of 846 interviewees given the
Broadland 1991 survey was therefore undertaken, which
open-ended (OE) WTP questionnaire, and the remaining
considered the circumstances under which sensitivity to
2,051 facing in turn the single-bound dichotomous
scope occurs, where scope was defined in terms of the area
choice (1DC) and interactive bidding (IB) questions. The
protected by a flood alleviation scheme (FAS) for either
1DC elicitation method faces respondents with a single
the whole (W) of that area of Broadland which is under
question such as ‘‘are you willing to pay £x?’’ and then
threat from saline flooding or a series of part (P) areas
the bid level £x is varied across the sample. The IB
within that whole. As such, the P FASs are nested within
method supplements the initial question with two
the W FAS.
further dichotomous choice questions reducing £x or
It was suggested by Carson and Mitchell (1995) that the
increasing £x according to the answers given. The
most appropriate test of scope sensitivity is through the
respondent is then finally given an OE question, the
comparison of independent valuations from different lev-
answer to which determines the WTP value used by the
els of amenity. Such a test was undertaken in the Broad-
analysts. Prior to any WTP question, respondents were
land 1996 survey by collecting two samples of users, the
presented with a ‘‘payment principle’’ question. Negative
first of which faced a questions concerning their WTP for
responses to this question reduced sample sizes to 715
the W scheme followed by their WTP for the P scheme (the
(OE) and 1,811 (1DC/IB), respectively. Except where
‘‘top-down’’ W/P sequence sample); while the second
indicated, all those refusing the payment principle are
sample faced the same questions but presented in reverse
treated as having zero WTP in calculating subsequent
order ‘‘bottom-up’’; P/W sequence sample).
WTP measures.
Full results of the Broadland 1996 survey are presented in
The theoretical validity of responses to the various WTP
Powe (2000), however, they do not provide conclusive
questions was assessed through the estimation of a series
evidence for either CV supporters or their critics, and
of bid functions. The analysis indicated that a consistent
suggest instead that a mixture of economic and psycho-
set of predictors explain WTP responses, including mea-
logical influences are at work here. This points towards a
sures of respondent income, experience of Broadland and
complexity of preference motivations that is at the same
participation in related activities, and interest in envi-
time both unsurprising and challenging, and ought to be
ronmental issues.
the future research agenda for CV research.
As noted previously, the Norfolk Broads CV study was
While the valuation work indicates that the public does
conducted in answer to a real-world question regarding
put significant value on the environment that Broadland
the funding of flood defences in Broadland. The study
provides, the costs of flood protection provision are also
fed into a wider cost-benefit analysis that also examined
very high. Over the 1990s, the Environment Agency has
the agricultural, property and infrastructure damage-
formulated a selective approach to flood alleviation and
avoided benefits of such defences. The benefit-cost ratio
not a strategy that will provide an area-wide uniform level
of the latter items was calculated at 0.98 (National
of protection. A number of communities and business sites
Rivers Authority 1992). However, even if only a con-
are currently at high risk from flooding (so called
servative measure of WTP for the recreational and
‘‘undefended areas’’) as levels of protection vary across the
environmental benefits of flood prevention is considered
area. The Broadland area is the subject of an experiment in
the benefit-cost ratio increases substantially to 1.94,
terms of flooding alleviation scheme funding. A joint
indicating that the benefits of a flood alleviation strategy
public and private funding initiative (PPP/PFI) has been
are almost twice the associated costs. The results,
launched that provides public funding over a 20-year
including findings from the CV study, were submitted to
period, which will be spent by a private consortium
the relevant Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
(Turner et al. 2003).
as part of an application of central government funding
support for the proposed flood alleviation strategy.
Following lengthy consideration of this application, in
1997 the Environment Agency announced that it had
Conclusions and policy implications
received conditional approval for a programme for
‘‘bank strengthening and erosion protection’’ (Environ-
ment Agency 1997). The actual scheme has been taken The Broads wetland area is a multiple-use resource under
forward since 2000 on the basis of a long-term private/ heavy and sustained environmental pressure and subject
public partnership scheme (between the EA and relevant to dynamic ecosystem change. The DP-S-I-R organising
government support ministries and a private engineering framework was successfully used to scope the magnitude
firm consortium). and significance of the environmental change problems
97
Reg Environ Change (2004) 4:86–99
Original article
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