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Millennium Ecosystem Assessment - Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and Human Well-Being (2006)
M ARINE AND
COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS
AND HUMAN
WELL-BEING
Synthesis
A synthesis report based on the findings
of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
The production of this
report has been made
possible by the support
of the Netherlands
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs-Development
Cooperation
M ARINE AND
COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS
AND HUMAN
WELL-BEING
Synthesis
A synthesis report based on the findings of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Synthesis editorial team
Claire Brown, Emily Corcoran, Peter Herkenrath, and Jillian Thonell
Synthesis team
Jackie Alder, Russell Arthurton, Neville Ash, Salif Diop, Sherry Heileman, Michael Huber,
Francisco Arias-Izasa, Kwame Koranteng, Carmen Lacambra, Karen McLeod, Elvina Payet,
Nishanthi Perera, Lingzis DanLing Tang, Mark Spalding, and Kaveh Zahedi
Extended writing team
MA Coordinating Lead Authors, Lead Authors, Contributing Authors, and Sub-global Coordinators
This report has been
prepared by UNEP-
WCMC at the request of
and with the support
of UNEP’s Division
of Early Warning
and Assessment
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 (0) 20 7621234
Fax: +254 (0) 20 7623927
Email: uneppub@unep.org
Website: www.unep.org
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Website: www.MAweb.org
Copyright © UNEP 2006
Suggested citation
UNEP (2006) Marine and coastal ecosystems and human well-
being: A synthesis report based on the findings of the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. UNEP. 76pp
Printed by UNEP
A Banson production
The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views
or policies of UNEP or contributory organizations. The desig-
nations employed and the presentation of material in this report
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, or city, or its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Preface iv
Reader’s Guide vi
Acknowledgements vii
Key Messages viii
Summary 1
1 What is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services 7
Introduction 7
Ecosystem Services from Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 7
Habitat and Biodiversity Loss 18
Gaps in Knowledge of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 20
2 What are the drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems? 22
Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 22
Direct Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 22
Indirect Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 27
3 Why should we care about the loss or degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems
and their services? 29
Human Well-being and Ecosystem Services 29
Basic Materials for a Good Life 30
Human Health 33
Good Social Relations 34
Security 35
Trade-offs between Conservation and Other Priorities 35
Gaps in Understanding regarding Human Well-being 36
A Look at the Future: The Four MA Scenarios 37
4 What can be done about the loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services? 42
Introduction 42
Response Options 42
Evaluating Policy Responses 52
Tools for Policy Options 53
Policy Response Gaps 53
Appendix 1 A Selection of International Mechanisms in the Marine and Coastal Area 55
Appendix 2 Chapters in the Main MA Volumes 56
Appendix 3 Other Useful Resources 58
Appendix 4 Glossary of Terms 60
Appendix 5 Abbreviations and Acronyms 64
CONTENTS CONT.
Boxes
Figure 1.3 Estimated Global Fish Catches
Box 1.1 Trophic Levels
(1950–2001) by Target Group and
Box 1.2 Ecotourism and Small Island States
by Biome
Box 1.3 Traditional Knowledge Important to
Figure 1.4 Trophic Level Change (1950–2000)
Environmental Management of Marine and
Figure 1.5 Trend in Mean Depth of Catch and
Coastal Ecosystems
Mean Distance of Catch from Shore since
Box 1.4 Examples of Coastal and Marine Species
1950
under Threat
Figure 1.6 The State of Fish Stocks in 1999
Box 1.5 General Conditions and Trends of Coastal
Figure 1.7 Global Distribution of Mangrove Forests
and Marine Biodiversity
Figure 1.8 Red List Indices for Birds in Freshwater,
Box 3.1 The MA Definition of Human Well-being
Marine, and Terrestrial Ecosystems,
Box 3.2 The Benguela Fishery
and for Birds in Forest and
Box 3.3 Island Ecosystem Case Study
Shrubland/Grassland Habitats
Box 3.4 Polar Region Case Study
Figure 2.1 Growth in Number of Marine Species
Box 3.5 The MA Scenarios
Introductions
Box 3.6 Predictions from the MA Scenarios
Figure 2.2 Estimated Total Reactive Nitrogen
Box 3.7 Case Study: Fisheries and Tourism in the
Deposition from the Atmosphere (Wet and
Caribbean Sea—Jamaica and Bonaire
Dry) in 1860, Early 1990s, and Projected
Box 3.8 Case Study: Dead Zones in the Gulf of
for 2050
Mexico
Figure 3.1 Spatial Distribution of the Total Value of
Box 3.9 Case Study: Predicted Impacts of Global
Food Production for Crops, Livestock,
Warming on the Coastal Zone of Papua
and Fisheries in 2000
New Guinea
Figure 3.2 Collapse of Atlantic Cod Stocks off the
Box 3.10 Case Study: No-take Zones in St. Lucia
East Coast of Newfoundland in 1992
Box 4.1 Large Marine Ecosystems
Figure 3.3 Conceptual Map of Direct and Indirect
Box 4.2 Case Study: The Mankote Mangrove in St.
Drivers of the Dead Zone in the Gulf
Lucia
of Mexico
Box 4.3 Effectiveness of International Instruments
Figure 4.1 Economic Benefits under Alternative
Box 4.4 Examples of Key International Instruments
Management Practices
Box 4.5 Case Study: Challenges for Policy Responses
in the Caribbean
Tables
Box 4.6 Case Study: Participatory Land Use Planning
Table 1.1 Examples of Ecosystem Services
in Coastal British Columbia, Canada
Provided by Different Marine and
Box 4.7 Benefits from Marine Protected Areas:
Coastal Habitats
Bahamas and Samoa
Table 1.2 Summary of Status of Coastal Habitat
Box 4.8 Examples of Land Use Planning for Coastal
Types
Protection
Table 1.3 World Fishery Production and Utilization,
Box 4.9 Case Study: The National Fisheries Sector in
1996–2001
Chile
Table 2.1 Important Drivers in the MA
Box 4.10 Biodiversity in the Gulf of Thailand under
Table 2.2 Drivers of Change in Coastal Ecosystems
the MA Scenarios
Table 2.3 Share of World and Coastal Populations
Box 4.11 Case Study: The Costs and Benefits of
Living within 50 Kilometres of Estuaries,
Retaining or Converting Natural Mangrove
Coral Reefs, Mangroves, and Seagrass
Ecosystems inThailand
Table 3.1 Consequences of Each Scenario for the
Figures Factors Affecting Hypoxia in the Gulf
of Mexico
Figure 1.1 Classification of the World’s Oceans’
Table 4.1 Main Policies for the Management of
Identified Four ‘Biomes’ (Polar, Westerlies,
Open-access Fisheries
Trade Winds, and Coastal Boundary)
Figure 1.2 Definition of the Spatial Occurrence of
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems within
the MA
ii M ARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
FOREWORD
Humankind depends on the oceans and coasts for its survival, with one third of the world’s population living in
coastal areas, approximately 4 percent of Earth’s total land area. Global changes and a range of other drivers are
causing degradation or loss of ecosystem services. Changes to ecosystem services such as food security and
employment of nearly 38 million people in the fisheries industry will cause impacts that will reach far beyond the
coastal zone.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is an international initiative that began in 2001 under the auspices
of the United Nations. The MA establishes a collaborative and scientific approach to assess ecosystems, the services
they provide, and how changes in these services will impact upon human well-being. More than 1,360 leading
scientists from 95 countries carried out the Assessment under the direction of a Board that included representatives
of four international conventions—the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, and the
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)—five United Nations agencies, and international scientific organizations,
as well as leaders from the private sector, nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous groups.
This report is a synthesis of the findings from the reports of the MA working groups (conditions and trends,
scenarios, response and sub-global assessments) concerning marine and coastal ecosystems. UNEP-WCMC and
UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) have coordinated the production of this synthesis
report in recognition that the loss of marine and coastal services has impacts on human well-being.
The aim of this synthesis report is to contribute to the dissemination of the information contained within the
MA to decision-makers and a wide range of stakeholders of marine and coastal ecosystems through seven key
messages. In addition it is envisaged the information contained within this synthesis report will contribute to larger
international processes such as the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA), Global Biodiversity Outlook
(GBO), the Global Marine Assessment (GMA), Global Environmental Outlook (GEO), the Regional Seas, the CBD
and the Ramsar Convention.
The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation, kindly funded the preparation and
publication of this report. This synthesis report has only been possible due to the efforts and commitment of the
authors and reviewers, of the MA working groups who contributed their time and knowledge to the development
of the assessment. I would like to express my gratitude to the team that prepared this synthesis report.
I hope that this synthesis report will provide a tool that will help those who hold the responsibility for the
conservation and sustainable use of our marine and coastal ecosystems through the employment of effective policy,
legislative and response options.
Klaus Toepfer
Executive Director,
United Nations Environment Programme
iii
M ARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
PREFACE
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was carried out between 2002 and 2005 to assess the consequence
of ecosystem change for human well-being and to analyse the options available to enhance the conservation and
sustainable use of ecosystems. The main findings of the MA were released on March 30, 2005.
The human species, while buffered against environmental changes by culture and technology, is ultimately fully
dependent on the flow of ecosystem services. The MA analyses ecosystem services at global and sub-global (local or
regional) scales in terms of current conditions and trends, plausible future scenarios, and possible responses for
sustainable resource use.
What are ecosystems and ecosystem services?
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving
environment interacting as a functional unit. The conceptual framework for the MA assumes that people are
integral parts of ecosystems and the Report focuses on examining the linkages between ecosystems and human
well-being and in particular on ‘ecosystem services’, which are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.
(See Figure A.) Ecosystem services include:
provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre;
regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods, disease, wastes and water quality;
cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and
supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling.
Figure A MA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF INTERACTIONS AMONG BIODIVERSITY, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES,
HUMAN WELL-BEING, AND DRIVERS OF CHANGE
Changes in drivers that indirectly affect short-term
GLOBAL
long-term
biodiversity, such as population,
REGIONAL
technology, and lifestyle (upper right
LOCAL
corner), can lead to changes in drivers
directly affecting biodiversity, such as
the catch of fish or the application of
fertilizers to increase food production Human well-being Indirect drivers for change
and poverty reduction ■ DEMOGRAPHIC
(lower right corner). These result in
v
■ BASIC MATERIAL FOR A GOOD LIFE ■ ECONOMIC (e.g., globalization, trade,
▼
changes to biodiversity and ecosystems market, and policy framework)
v
■ HEALTH
services (lower left corner), thereby ■ SOCIOPOLITICAL (e.g., governance,
v institutional and legal framework)
■ GOOD SOCIAL RELATIONS
▼
affecting human well-being. These v ■ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
■ SECURITY
interactions can take place at more ■ CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS (e.g., beliefs,
■ FREEDOM OF CHOICE AND ACTION consumption choices)
than one scale and can cross scales.
For example, international demand for ▼
▼
timber may lead to a regional loss of
v v
v
v
forest cover, which increases flood
▼
magnitude along a local stretch of a
river. Similarly, the interactions can take Ecosystem services Direct drivers for change
place across different time scales. ■ ■
PROVISIONING CHANGES IN LOCAL LAND USE
(e.g., food, water, fibre, and fuel) AND COVER
Actions can be taken either to respond ■ SPECIES INTRODUCTION OR REMOVAL
■ REGULATING
to negative changes or to enhance ■ TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION AND USE
(e.g., climate regulation, water, and disease),
v
▼
■ EXTERNAL INPUTS (e.g., fertilzer use,
positive changes at almost all points in ■ CULTURAL pest control, and irrigation)
v
(e.g., spiritual, aesthetic, recreation,
■ HARVEST AND RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
this framework. Local scales refer to and education)
■ CLIMATE CHANGE
communities or ecosystems and ■ SUPPORTING
■ NATURAL, PHYSICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL
(e.g., primary production, and soil formation)
DRIVERS (e.g., evolution, volcanoes)
regional scales refer to nations or
biomes, all of which are nested within LIFE ON EARTH – BIODIVERSITY
global-scale processes.
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Strategies and interventions
iv MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Marine and coastal systems within the MA context
Most of Earth (70.8% or 362 million km2) is covered by oceans and major seas. Marine systems are highly
dynamic and tightly connected through a network of surface and deep-water currents. The properties of the water
form stratified layers, tides, and currents. Upwellings break this stratification by mixing layers and creating vertical
and lateral heterogeneity within the ocean biome. The total global coastlines exceed 1.6 million kilometres, and
coastal ecosystems occur in 123 countries around the world.
Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most productive, yet threatened, ecosystems in the world; they
include terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., sand dune systems), areas where freshwater and saltwater mix, nearshore
coastal areas, and open ocean marine areas. In the context of the MA assessment, the ocean (or marine) and
coastal realm has been divided into two major sets of systems: ‘marine fisheries systems’ and ‘inshore coastal
systems and coastal communities’. Marine systems are defined as waters from the low water mark (50m depth) to
the high seas; and coastal systems are defined as <50m depth to the coastline and inland from the coastline to a
maximum of 100 km or 50-metre elevation (whichever is closer to the sea). The MA defines the coastal zone as a
narrower band of terrestrial area dominated by ocean influences of tides and marine aerosols, and defines a marine
area where light penetrates throughout. (See MA Condition and Trends volume, section 19.1 [CT 19.1] for
explanation of the definition.)
v
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
READER’S GUIDE
This report is a synthesis of the findings of the MA on marine and coastal ecosystems, taken from the global and
sub-global assessments.
UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) requested and supported this synthesis report to
contribute to the dissemination of the information contained within the MA to decision-makers and a wide range
of stakeholders of marine and coastal ecosystems. Six other synthesis reports have also been produced for different
audiences: general overview, biodiversity (Convention on Biological Diversity), desertification (UN Convention to
Combat Desertification), wetlands (Convention on Wetlands—Ramsar), the business sector, and the health sector.
These synthesis reports along with the MA technical reports and sub-global assessments are available from
www.MAweb.org.
This synthesis report sets out to provide answers to a series of questions that all stakeholders not just decision-
makers may ask: what is at stake, what is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems, why should we care
if we lose marine and coastal ecosystems, and what can be done to ensure that marine and coastal ecosystems and
services are conserved. A Summary is available at the beginning of the report. Key messages are highlighted in bold,
while the use of italics refers to a key word to help direct the reader. A list of additional resources is provided in
Appendix 3; a glossary of marine and coastal ecosystem terms is provided in Appendix 4; and Appendix 5 contains
a list of acronyms and abbreviations. The reader should also note that while the MA uses the word ‘system’, this
report has chosen to replace the word ‘system’ with ‘ecosystem’. As a result of extensive interlinkages among
ecosystems, the services they provide, and how we use them, it as been impossible to avoid a certain degree of
duplication of text.
All information contained in this synthesis report is derived from chapters of the MA’s four main assessment
reports, and the report on Ecosystems and Human Well-being; A Framework for Assessment, which sets out the
MA’s conceptual framework (CF) and the approach and methodology adopted for the global assessment and
relevant sub-global assessments. Reference to the chapters contained within these reports is presented in square
brackets, which contain the number of the chapter and, where necessary, the section number, being referenced.
These references are coded as follows: the MA Conceptual Framework [CF]; the Condition and Trends volume
[CT]; the Scenarios volume [S]; the Responses volume [R]; the Sub-global Assessments volume [SG]; and
various Synthesis Reports [SR], particularly the General SR, the Biodiversity SR, and the Wetlands SR. Where
reference is made to the MA Summary for Decision-makers, this is coded as [SDM]. A list of chapters in the main
MA volumes is provided in Appendix 2.
Throughout this report, dollar signs indicate U.S. dollars and measurements are metric (that is, billion equals a
thousand million).
The wording of estimates of certainty, such as for the collective judgment of authors, observational evidence,
modelling results, and theory examined is consistent with the MA and other synthesis reports: very certain (98% or
greater probability), high certainty (85–98% probability), medium certainty (65–85% probability), low certainty
(52–65% probability), and very uncertain (50–52% probability). For example, at least a medium confidence (near
65%) may exist for the comment ‘desalinization could alter biodiversity’. Quantitative qualifiers on the amount of
desalinization and the direction and severity of the biodiversity change must be added to the statement. When this
is not appropriate, the standard MA qualitative scale for the level of scientific understanding is implemented: well
established, established but incomplete, competing explanations, and speculative.
Following the synthesis of information from the MA chapters, scientific and policy experts within the marine
and coastal field and selected MA authors provided review comments (a two-staged review process). To supplement
the review process, the final draft of the synthesis report was made available at the meeting of the Global Marine
Assessment in June 2005. All comments were taken into consideration in finalizing this synthesis report.
vi MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation, kindly provided financial support for
the preparation and publication of this MA synthesis report on marine and coastal ecosystems.
We would like to acknowledge the review panel for providing comment on this synthesis report: Martin
Adriaanse, Tundi Agardi, Margarita Astralaga, Charles Victor Barber, Kevern Cochrane, Nick Davidson, Ed Green,
Stefan Hain, Tom Laughlin, Jackie McGlade, Elizabeth McLanahan, Edmund McManus, Rolph Payet, Henrique
Pereira, Marjo Vierros, Sue Wells, and Christian Wild.
We would also like to further acknowledge all of the MA authors and review editors who contributed to this
report through their contributions to the underlying assessment chapters, which this report is based upon.
We would also like to acknowledge the many donors that provided major financial support for the MA,
particularly: Global Environment Facility, United Nations Foundation, David and Lucile Packard Foundation,
World Bank, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, United Nations Environment Programme,
Government of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Norway, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and
the Swedish International Biodiversity Programme. The full list of organizations that provided financial support to
the MA is available at www.MAweb.org.
The synthesis editorial team would also like to thank Ryan Walker for his assistance in collating comments
from reviewers.
vii
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
KEY MESSAGES
People are dependent on the ocean and coasts and their resources for their survival and well-being. Marine
■
and coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of services to human society, including food provision, natural
shoreline protection against storms and floods, water quality maintenance, support of tourism and other
cultural and spiritual benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life support systems. The effects of coastal
degradation and a loss of these services are felt inland and often a long way from the coast.
The major drivers of change, degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and services are mainly
■
anthropogenic. Important drivers of marine and coastal ecosystems include: population growth, land use
change and habitat loss, overfishing and destructive fishing methods, illegal fishing, invasive species, climate
change, subsidies, eutrophication, pollution, technology change, globalization, increased demand for food,
and a shift in food preferences.
Marine and coastal ecosystems are among the most productive and provide a range of social and economic
■
benefit to humans. More than one third of the world’s population live in coastal areas and small islands that
make up just over 4% of Earth’s total land area. Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to
38 million people. Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of global tourism and provides
employment for many people and generates local incomes. For example, reef-based tourism generates over
$1.2 billion annually in the Florida Keys (of the United States) alone.
Most services derived from marine and coastal ecosystems are being degraded and used unsustainably
■
and therefore are deteriorating faster than other ecosystems. Unsustainable use of services can result in
threatened food security for coastal communities due to overexploited fish stocks; loss of habitat that in turn
causes damage to the thriving tourism industry; health impacts through increasing loads of waste released
into coastal waters; and vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-induced disasters. The
MA scenarios forecast a great risk of collapse of all major fish stocks and climate change-induced sea-level
rise (with mean value of 0.5–0.7 m).
The highly threatened nature of marine and coastal ecosystems and the demand for their services highlight
■
the need for a local, regional, and global response. A range of options exists to respond to the challenges
that the degradation of ecosystems is posing (for example, implementation of regional and global agreements
or stakeholder participation and capacity development). Addressing uncertainties and elaborating trade-offs
provide useful mechanisms for operational responses.
Trade-offs in meeting the Millennium Development Goals and other international commitments are
■
inevitable. However, implementing the established ecosystem-based approaches (for example, integrated
coastal management) adopted by the CBD, the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar), and FAO, amongst
others, as well as existing local and regional legislation, policy, and guidelines on the future condition of
marine and coastal ecosystem services could be substantially improved by balancing economic development,
ecosystem preservation, and human well-being objectives.
Improved capacity to predict the consequences of change of drivers in marine and coastal ecosystems
■
would aid decision-making at all levels. Long-term and large-area ecological processes are particularly
poorly understood; and yet, in a number of areas, issues and well-defined policies have not been sufficiently
developed. Monitoring of biodiversity change at the ecosystem and species level is essential.
viii MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
SUMMARY
What is the current status of marine and coastal The seas and coasts around the world are of great spiritual
ecosystems and their services? importance to many people, providing cultural and spiritual
services. Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors
of global tourism and is an essential component of the
Key Message # 1 People are dependent on the ocean and economies of many small island developing states (SIDS).
coasts and their resources for their survival and well-being. Much of the economic value of coral reefs is generated from
Marine and coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of
nature-based and dive tourism, with net benefits estimated at
services to human society, including food provision, natural
nearly $30 billion annually. The cultures of many peoples are
shoreline protection against storms and floods, water quality
closely connected to coasts and oceans, and traditional
maintenance, support of tourism and other cultural and
knowledge has become an integral part of the dynamics of
spiritual benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life
island and coastal ecosystems and their management. In
support systems. The effects of coastal degradation and a
addition, coastal and marine habitats are areas of research and
loss of these services are felt inland and often a long way
efforts in education and public awareness.
from the coast.
Marine and coastal ecosystems provide supporting services
in the form of a wide range of habitats. Estuaries, mangroves,
lagoons, seagrasses, and kelp forests serve as nurseries for both
Coastal and marine ecosystems are amongst the most
inshore and offshore fish and other species, many of which are
productive ecosystems in the world and provide many services
commercially significant. Other habitats such as beaches,
to human society; however, many of these ecosystems have
dunes, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats play an important
become degraded. Food provisioning in the form of fisheries
role in the life cycle of, for example, fish, shellfish, and
catch is one of the most important services derived from
migratory birds. Marine and coastal ecosystems play an
coastal and marine ecosystems. With more than a billion
important role in photosynthesis and productivity. Through
people relying on fish as their main or sole source of animal
mixing nutrients from upstream and tidal sources, estuaries are
protein, fisheries in developing countries are a particularly
one of the most fertile coastal environments.
important source of protein. Fisheries and fish products
provide direct employment to 38 million people, with a
further 162 million people indirectly involved in the fisheries
industry (FAO 2004). The state of industrial fisheries is of Box 1 SERVICES PROVIDED BY COASTAL AND MARINE
concern as many people depend on their existence for food ECOSYSTEMS
and employment, with many fisheries being overexploited.
The MA recognizes a range of benefits that people obtain from
(See Figure 1.) Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-
coastal and marine ecosystems. These ecosystem services include:
producing sector, accounting for 30% of total fish
provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre;
consumption.
regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods,
Other provisioning services from these ecosystems
disease, wastes, and water quality;
include curios and ornamentals for the aquarium trade,
cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual
building materials (for example, for boat construction and benefits; and
house construction), and bioprospecting (the exploration supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and
of biodiversity for new biological resources, such as nutrient cycling.
pharmaceuticals).
1
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 1 THE STATE OF FISH STOCKS IN 1999 [CT 4.5.1.5, Figure 4.21]
The state of stocks in 1999
Ecosystems such as mangroves,
seagrasses, and mudflats provide key
regulating services through shoreline
1%
R
stabilization, protection from floods and
soil erosion, processing pollutants, and
D 9%
stabilizing land in the face of changing
sea levels by trapping sediments and
O 18%
buffering land from storms. Marine
systems play significant roles in climate
regulation and nutrient cycling. CO2 is F 47%
continuously exchanged between the
atmosphere and ocean; it dissolves in
M 21%
surface waters and is then transported
into the deep ocean.
U 4%
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
R = recovering D = depleted O = overexploited
F = fully exploited M = moderately exploited U = underexploited
What are the drivers of change in marine and Figure 2 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF MARINE
coastal ecosystems? SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS
Number of new records of established non-native invertebrate and algae species
Key Message # 2 The major drivers of change, reported in marine waters of North America, shown by date of first record, and
degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and
number of new records of non-native marine plant species reported on the
services are mainly anthropogenic. Important drivers of
European coast, by date of first record [General SR, Figure 1.7].
marine and coastal ecosystems include: population growth,
land use change and habitat loss, overfishing and destructive
fishing methods, illegal fishing, invasive species, climate Number of species
175
change, subsidies, eutrophication, pollution, technology
Non-native marine plant species
change, globalization, increased demand for food, and a reported on European coast
shift in food preferences. Non-native invertebrates and
150 plants reported in marine
waters of North America
Within the coastal population, 71% live within 50 kilometres of
125
estuaries, and in tropical regions, settlements are concentrated
near mangroves and coral reefs. These marine and coastal
habitats have been degraded or transformed, mainly through
100
anthropogenic impacts.
In particular, coastal habitats have been affected by land use
change and habitat loss, resulting in severe negative impacts on
75
ecosystems and species. Excessive amounts of sedimentation and
agricultural practices upstream have resulted in degradation of
estuaries. Mangroves have been converted to allow for coastal
50
zone development, aquaculture, and agriculture. Mudflats,
saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrasses are commonly
destroyed for port and other industrial and infrastructure
25
development or maintenance dredging. Coral reefs suffer from
destructive fishing, use of coral for road and building
construction, collection for the ornamental trade, 0
sedimentation, and dumping of pollutants. 1790–1819 1820–49 1850–79 1880–1909 1910–39 1940–69 1970–99
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Overfishing and destructive fishing methods, such as some
forms of bottom trawling (for example, the use of heavy gear
2 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 3 ESTIMATED TOTAL REACTIVE NITROGEN
on sensitive substrates), dredging, and the use of explosives and
DEPOSITION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE (WET AND
fish poisons such as cyanide impact on marine ecosystems by
DRY) IN 1860, EARLY 1990S, AND PROJECTED FOR
physically altering or destroying the systems or changing
2050 (milligrams of nitrogen per square metre per year)
community structure and altering trophic and other interactions
between ecosystem components. The global decline of
Atmospheric deposition currently accounts for roughly 12% of the
commercially important fish stocks is well documented, with
reactive nitrogen entering terrestrial and coastal marine ecosystems
many fishery resources being overexploited. Subsidies are
globally, although in some regions, atmospheric deposition accounts for
amongst the most powerful drivers of overfishing. The value of
a higher percentage (about 33% in the United States) [R9, Figure 9.2].
fisheries subsidies as a percentage of the gross value of
production in the OECD area was about 20% in 2002. The
development and operation of aquaculture often has serious
environmental impacts, concerning habitat loss (for example,
removal of mangroves), salinization of adjacent lands, releasing
effluents into the surrounding waters, use of high quality
fishmeal to produce fish, and infectious diseases being spread
into wild fish populations.
Invasive species are expected to grow in importance as a
driver of ecosystem change in marine and coastal areas. (See
Figure 2.) A major source of marine introductions of non-native
species is through the release of ballast water from ships.
1860
Increased nutrient loading from agricultural run-off, sewage,
and burning of fossil fuels is causing widespread eutrophication
of coastal and marine ecosystems. (See Figure 3.) For example,
this nutrient pollution stimulates algal growth and reduces
the quality of light in the water column, leading to a depletion
of oxygen, which reduces the ability of other marine organisms
to persist. This is a particular problem near centres of
human population where pollution through the release
of: often untreated human waste, pollutants such as
persistent organic pollutants, and toxic waste contribute to
the problems.
Climate change is increasingly becoming one of the dominant
drivers of change in vulnerable habitats such as mangroves,
coral reefs, and coastal wetlands, which are especially at risk
from resulting sea-level rises and increased storm events. Coral
Early 1990s
reefs are vulnerable to climate-change-induced bleaching. It has
been suggested by many that coral mortality through global
warming will reduce the major coral reefs substantially in a very
short time frame, with one estimate even suggesting that all
current coral reefs could disappear by 2040 due to warming
sea temperatures.
A number of indirect drivers of change in marine and coastal
ecosystem have been identified. Technology change contributes
to overexploitation of fish stocks. The same is true for the shift
in food preferences and globalization, with some marine
products becoming a luxury food, driving up demand and fish
prices. Illegal fishing also contributes to overexploitation and is
particularly due to lack of surveillance, enforcement, and
monitoring. Also, demographic developments in coastal zones
drive changes in ecosystems, with coastal population densities
being nearly three times that of inland areas. An important
2050
ecosystem service, tourism can also have a negative impact upon
marine and coastal areas, for example through people walking
on coral reefs at low tide. Source: Galloway et al. 2004
3
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Why should we care about the loss or degradation of Coastal communities are at risk from natural (for example,
marine and coastal ecosystems and their services? hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis, and floods) and human-induced
disasters. Losses of habitats such as mangrove forests threaten
the safety of people in 118 coastal countries. Mangroves and
Key Message # 3 Marine and coastal ecosystems are saltmarshes not only serve as a buffer from storm damage, but
among the most productive and provide a range of social also provide areas for fish spawning and nursery areas for both
and economic benefits to humans. More than one third of the inshore and offshore capture fisheries; they also absorb heavy
world’s population live in coastal areas and small islands that metals and other toxic substances.
make up just over 4% of Earth’s total land area. Fisheries and
fish products provide direct employment to 38 million people.
What can we do about the loss of marine and coastal
Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of global
ecosystems and their services?
tourism and provides employment for many people and
generates local incomes. For example, reef-based tourism
generates over $1.2 billion annually in the Florida Keys alone. Key Message # 5 The highly threatened nature of marine
and coastal ecosystems and the demand for their services
highlight the need for a local, regional, and global
response. A range of options exists to respond to the
challenges that the degradation of ecosystems is posing (for
Key Message # 4 Most services derived from marine and
example, implementation of regional and global agreements
coastal ecosystems are being degraded and used
or stakeholder participation and capacity development).
unsustainably and therefore are deteriorating faster than
Addressing uncertainties and elaborating trade-offs provide
other ecosystems. Unsustainable use of services can result in
useful mechanisms for operational responses.
threatened food security for coastal communities due to
overexploited fish stocks, loss of habitat resulting in damage
to the thriving tourism industry, health impacts through
increasing loads of waste released into coastal waters, to
Key Message # 6 Trade-offs in meeting the Millennium
vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-
Development Goals and other international commitments
induced disasters. The MA scenarios forecast a great risk of
are inevitable. However, implementing the established
collapse of all major fish stocks, and climate-change-induced
ecosystem-based approaches (for example, integrated coastal
sea-level rise (with mean value of 0.5–0.7m).
management) adopted by the CBD, the Convention on
Wetlands (Ramsar), and FAO, amongst others, as well as
existing local and regional legislation, policy, and guidelines
Human well-being is closely linked to the availability of the
on the future condition of marine and coastal ecosystem
services that marine and coastal ecosystems provide. The
services could be substantially improved by balancing
degradation and loss of many of these ecosystems therefore
economic development, ecosystem preservation, and human
gives reason for concern. The decreasing fish stocks threaten
well-being objectives.
food security in many coastal areas but have implications far
beyond. For example, the decreased availability of fish for
subsistence in West Africa has driven an increase in illegal bush The MA has identified a number of major options for
meat trade, which in turn threatens many species and is thought responding to the challenges posed by the degradation of the
to contribute to outbreaks of primate-borne and other viruses in services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems. These can
human populations. be divided into operational and specific responses. (See Table 1.)
Fisheries and tourism are major sources of employment, often Implementing responses necessitates recognizing that trade-
in developing countries. Loss of habitat and degrading stocks offs and uncertainties will need to be considered along with
(see Figure 4) could heavily impact on employment. The massive addressing the interests of stakeholders. To select the best
coral bleaching in 1998 is expected to result in an estimated response, decision-makers should take into consideration:
long-term damage over 20 years of between $600 million and $8 available information; implication regarding procedure and
billion with costs incurred through declines in tourism-generated efficiency; effectiveness in producing required results;
income and employment, decreases in fish productivity, and loss stakeholder participation and transparency of outcomes; values
of reefs functioning as a protective barrier. and beliefs of stakeholders; uncertainties; and cross-scale effects.
Human communities are at risk from the health implications A range of tools exists that support the application of policy
of degraded ecosystems, with waterborne diseases such as options. They include multi-criteria analyses, scenarios,
cholera being on the rise in coastal countries, which can be environmental impact assessment, and economic valuation. The
related to cigufera poisoning associated with algal blooms. last has been successful in demonstrating the value of protecting
Severe health problems are caused by pollution of nearshore natural coastal wetlands over their conversion for commercial use.
waters where people consume fish or other marine products It is important that existing global, regional, and national
contaminated by heavy metals, PCBs, and other toxins. legislation, policy, and guidelines are implemented and enforced.
4 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 4 COLLAPSE OF ATLANTIC COD STOCKS OFF THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN 1992
This collapse forced the closure of the fishery after hundreds of years of exploitation. Until the late 1950s, the fishery was exploited by
migratory seasonal fleets and resident inshore small-scale fishers. From the late 1950s, offshore bottom trawlers began exploiting the
deeper part of the stock, leading to a large catch increase and a strong decline in the underlying biomass. Internationally agreed quotas in
the early 1970s and, following the declaration by Canada of an Exclusive Fishing Zone in 1977, national quota systems ultimately failed to
arrest and reverse the decline. The stock collapsed to extremely low levels in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and a moratorium on
commercial fishing was declared in June 1992. A small commercial inshore fishery was reintroduced in 1998, but catch rates declined and
the fishery was closed indefinitely in 2003 [General SR, Figure 3.4].
900 000
800 000
700 000
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
0
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
What are the major knowledge gaps? biodiversity, especially those that are significant for the delivery
of ecosystem services.
The information available to assess the consequences
Key Message # 7 Improved capacity to predict the for human well-being of changes in ecosystem services is
consequences of change of drivers in marine and coastal still limited, not least due to the nonlinearity of the
ecosystems would aid decision-making at all levels. Long- relationship between human well-being and ecosystem
term and large-area ecological processes are particularly
services.
poorly understood; and yet, in a number of areas, issues and
Policy responses would benefit from addressing a range of
well-defined policies have not been sufficiently developed.
uncertainties, including the understanding of the benefits and
Monitoring of biodiversity change at the ecosystem and
costs of marine protected areas and the outcomes for ecosystem
species level is essential.
conditions of integrated coastal management and integrated
coastal zone management. Improved knowledge would enable
Long-term and large-area ecological processes are poorly better-defined trade-offs.
Policies are currently weak or widely lacking, particularly in
understood in marine ecosystems. This lack of knowledge
particularly refers to the oceanic nitrogen cycle, the El areas such as the impacts from agriculture in marine and coastal
Niño/Southern Oscillation, basic data on the past and current areas; addressing new and emerging issues (for example, off-
shore wind farms); compliance relating to high-seas initiatives
extent of marine and coastal habitats, the variability of marine
fish stocks, and the understanding of marine biodiversity in and agreements; and genetic resources.
Existing policy and legislation often still lack consistent
general.
implementation and enforcement because funding, political will,
Most existing biological measures such as indicators do not
and human resources are lacking.
reflect many important aspects of marine and coastal
5
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1 OPERATIONAL AND SPECIFIC RESPONSE OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO ADDRESS THE ALTERATION AND LOSS OF
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR SERVICES
<Effectiveness> Type of Required
RESPONSE Effective Promising Problematic Responses Actors
Operational responses
Stakeholder participation in decision-making X I, S GN, GL, NGO, B, C, R
Capacity development X I GN, GL, NGO, C, R
Communication, education, public awareness X S GN, GL, NGO, C
Alternative income-generating activities X X ES GL, NGO, C
Monitoring X X I, T, K GI, GN, GL, NGO, C, R
Addressing uncertainty X X I, K GN, GL, C, R
Trade-off analysis X X I, E GN, GL, C
Specific responses
Applying international/regional mechanisms X X I GI, GN
Large marine ecosystems X X I GI, GN
Integrated coastal management and planning X X I, S GN, GL, C R
Marine protected areas X X I, S GN, GL, NGO, C
Coastal protection X X X T GI, GN, B
Management of nutrient pollution—runoff, fossil fuel combustion X X I, T GI, GN, GL
Waste management—household and industrial sewage X X I, E, S, T GI, GN, GL
Geo-engineering—CO2 sequestration X I, T GI, GN, B
Economic interventions: market-based instruments X X E GN, B
Fisheries management X X I GN, GL, B, C
Aquaculture management X X I GN, GL, B, C
Key to codings Required actors
Type of response GI = government at a international level
I = institutional and legal GN = national government
E = economic and incentives GL = local government
S = social and behavioural B = business/industry sector
T = technology NGO = civil society including non-governmental organizations
K = knowledge C = community-based and indigenous people’s organizations
R = research institutions
What Is at Stake? More than one third of the world’s population lives in coastal
areas and small islands, which together make up just 4% of the
total land area, and this population is increasing rapidly. In
Humankind depends on the oceans and coasts and their resources
addition to the impacts of global change, the expansion of
for its survival. Ocean circulation is largely driven by climate, and
development activities in coastal areas and their related
it determines not only the distribution and abundance of marine
catchments is increasingly causing the loss of habitats and
living resources but also the transfer, through evaporation and
degrading the services that have been available to humans from
rainfall, of freshwater to the land. Changes in human activities at
the coastal and marine ecosystems. Pollution from agricultural,
the global scale are causing climate warming, which is significantly
industrial, and urban sources far and near is creating ocean dead
altering the occurrence of these resources on which people rely.
zones and costing $16 billion per year, largely in response to
The warming is influencing ocean circulation and latitudinal
resulting human health problems. People at all levels in society can
transport of heat, causing sea level to rise and endangering the
help to reverse these trends and improve societal well-being. In
long-term security of people living in low-lying coastal areas.
particular, decision-makers in government, industry, and civil
Rising sea-surface temperatures can also threaten the survival of
society must raise awareness and instigate appropriate and
coral reefs.
cooperative response actions. Changes ranging from adaptation in
Marine living resources are additionally severely impoverished
farming methods through to the removal of fishing subsidies will
by many drivers, including the growth in industrial-scale fishing.
have profound remedial effects. Arresting the further degradation
Humankind derives 16% of its animal protein from the sea, but by
of coastal and marine ecosystem resources for the benefit of both
1999, 27% of global marine fish stocks had been exhausted or
present and future generations is an urgent imperative to ensure
were overexploited. Continuing overexploitation is jeopardizing
greater food security, lower health impacts, and reduce poverty
food security and the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people.
(and ultimately meet the Millennium Development Goals).
Coastal populations in particular are affected by these changes.
6 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
SYNTHESIS
1 What is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services?
■ Marine and coastal ecosystems provide many services to human oceans. The coastal chapter [CT 19] of the MA focuses on
nearshore habitats and significant associated flora and fauna.
society, including food and other goods, shoreline protection,
Figure 1.2 illustrates the spatial definition of marine and coastal
water quality maintenance, waste treatment, support of tourism and
ecosystems within the MA.
other cultural benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life
support systems.
■ The provision of these services is threatened by the worldwide Ecosystem Services from Marine and Coastal
Ecosystems
degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems. Fisheries are in
global decline. Coastal habitats have been modified and lost, and in
The assessment focuses on the linkages between ecosystems and
many cases the rate of degradation is increasing. Habitat loss and
human well-being and in particular on ‘ecosystem services’ (the
modification result in a loss of ecosystem services and also threaten
benefits that people obtain from ecosystems). An ecosystem is a
biodiversity.
■ There are major gaps in our knowledge of marine and coastal dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and the nonliving environment interacting as a
ecosystems and in methodology to assess and manage them. Data
functional unit. Maintaining biodiversity underpins all
and knowledge gaps include inadequate understanding of the marine
ecosystem services.
nitrogen and other nutrient cycles and of the El Nino/Southern
Coastal and marine ecosystems provide a wide range of
Oscillation (ENSO). The inadequacy of data on the extent and status
services to human beings. These include provisioning services
of many marine and coastal ecosystems makes it difficult to estimate
such as supply of food, fuel wood, energy resources, natural
the extent of past change and future trends. Inadequate
products, and bioprospecting; regulating services, such as
understanding of variability in fish stocks increases the risk of major
shoreline stabilization, flood prevention, storm protection,
stock collapses. Gaps in methodology include inadequate
climate regulation, hydrological services, nutrient regulation,
development of multi-species fisheries management tools and the
carbon sequestration, detoxification of polluted waters, and
inadequate development of agreed biodiversity indicators.
waste disposal; cultural and amenity services such as culture,
Introduction tourism, and recreation; and supporting services such as habitat
provision, nutrient cycling, primary productivity, and soil
The marine chapter [CT 18] of the MA focuses largely on the formation. These services are of high value not only to local
condition and trends of fisheries resources (including nearshore communities living in the coastal zone (especially in developing
and deep-seas) and the impact of human use. The MA touches countries) but also to national economies and global trade
only briefly on other activities impacting marine ecosystems [CT 19.3.2]. Table 1.1 provides examples of ecosystem services
such as tourism, mining (for example, gold, diamonds, and tin), provided by various marine and coastal habitats.
and gas and oil. The reasons for this focus are the huge impact
Provisioning Services
of fishing over the last 50 years and inadequate information
about other aspects of offshore systems. Figure 1.1 shows the Provisioning services are the products people obtain from
classification used in the MA and this report of the world’s ecosystems, such as food, fuel, timber, fibre, building materials,
7
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
around the world. Table 1.2 summarizes the status of
medicines, genetic and ornamental resources. Coastal and
recognized costal habitats.
marine ecosystems provide a wide range of these services;
The mid-twentieth century saw the rapid expansion of fishing
they are among the most productive ecosystems in the world
fleets throughout the world, and with it, an increase in the
[CT 23.3.3].
volume of fish landed. (See Figure 1.3.) This trend continued
■ Fisheries as Food Provisioning in Marine and until the late 1980s, when global marine landings reached
Coastal Ecosystems slightly over 80 million tonnes per year, then either stagnated or
began to slowly decline. However, regional landings peaked at
Food provisioning in the form of fisheries catch is one of the
different times throughout the world, which in part masked the
most important services derived from all coastal and marine
decline of many fisheries [CT 18.2.1].
ecosystems. For example, mangroves are important in
With fleets now targeting the more abundant fish at lower
supporting fisheries due to their function as fish nurseries.
trophic levels (called ‘fishing down the food chain’), it would be
Fisheries yields in waters adjacent to mangroves tend to be high
expected that global catches would be increasing, rather than,
[CT 19.2.1.2]. Coral reef-based fisheries are also valuable, as
as is actually occurring, stagnating or decreasing. (See Box 1.1
they are an important source of fisheries products for coastal
and Figure 1.4.) The decline in catches is largely due to the loss
residents, tourists, and export markets. In developing countries,
of large, slow-growing predators at high trophic levels; these are
coral reefs contribute about one quarter of the annual total fish
gradually being replaced, in global landings, by smaller, shorter-
catch, providing food to about one billion people in Asia alone
lived fish, at lower trophic levels. Until a few decades ago,
[CT 19.3.2]. Other ecosystems such as rocky intertidal,
depth and distance from coasts protected much of the deep
nearshore mudflats, deltas, kelp forests, and beaches and dunes
ocean fauna from the effect of fishing. However, fleets now fish
also provide food.
further offshore and in deeper water with greater precision and
Overall, coastal and marine fisheries landings averaged 82.4
efficiency, compromising areas that acted as refuges for the
million tonnes per year during 1991-2000, with a stagnating or
spawning of many species of commercial interest to both
declining trend now largely attributed to overfishing [CT 18.1].
industrial and artisanal fleets [CT 18.2.1]. (See Figure 1.5.)
Certain areas of the ocean are more productive than others. The
Of the four ocean areas—the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian,
coastal biome produces approximately 53% (in 2001) of the
and the Mediterranean—the Atlantic was the first to be fully
world’s marine catches [CT 18.2.2]. The coastal biome is also
exploited and, eventually, overfished. This process is about to
the most impacted by human activities. Coral reef fisheries in
be completed in the Pacific. There still seems to be some minor
this biome, for example are overexploited in many reef systems
Figure 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORLD’S OCEANS’ IDENTIFIED FOUR ‘BIOMES’ (POLAR, WESTERLIES, TRADE-WINDS,
AND COASTAL BOUNDARY)
A black border around each continent indicates the coastal boundary. Each of these biomes is subdivided into biogeographical provinces (BGP)
[CT 18.1, Figure 18.1].
winds
8 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 1.2 DEFINITION OF THE SPATIAL OCCURRENCE OF MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS WITHIN THE MA
[CT 19.1, Figure 19.1]d i
■ Coastal ecosystems
[CT 8.2.2.3] and average annual per capita fish supply in 2004
potential for expansion of sustainable capture fisheries in the
only increased to 16.2 kg (FAO 2004).
Indian Ocean and—against expectations—in the Mediterranean,
Continuation of current fisheries trends, including the build-
although this may be due to environmental changes including
up of fishing capacities, poses a serious risk of losing more
eutrophication [CT 18.2.2].
fisheries. In numerous cases, however, responses to fisheries
Although the global decline of commercially important fish
management problems have mitigated or reversed the impact of
stocks or populations is relatively well documented, little is
fisheries. For example, the introduction of community-based
known about the ecology of the majority of fish populations.
management of reef areas in the Philippines has resulted in
Most industrial fisheries are either fully or overexploited. (See
increased fish landings that ultimately improved the well-being
Figure 1.6.) Twenty-eight percent of the fish stocks under
of those communities. Increasingly effective enforcement
various assessment programmes have declined to levels lower
measures for Namibian fisheries and the nationalization of the
than that at which a maximum sustainable yield (MSY) can be
fishery sector appear to be contributing to improving
taken, and a further 47% require stringent management (which
socioeconomic conditions for many coastal communities. In
may or may not already be in place) to prevent their declining
general, relatively small and often single-species fisheries can be
into a similar situation. Thus 75% of the assessed fish stocks
restored, as has occurred in the Peruvian hake (Merluccius gayi
need management to prevent further declines and/or to bring
peruanus) fishery [18.7.1].
about recovery in spawning stock biomass. Conversely, 72% of
the stocks are still capable of producing a maximum sustainable
■ Aquaculture as Food Provisioning in Marine and
yield. Further, trend analysis since 1974 shows the percentage of
Coastal Ecosystems
underexploited stocks has declined steadily, while the
proportion of stocks exploited beyond MSY levels have Growth in demand for fish as a food source is being met in
increased steadily over this time period (see section 1.4.2 for part by aquaculture, which now accounts for 30% of total fish
gaps in this methodology). If these data are representative of consumption. According to FAO statistics, the contribution of
fisheries as a whole, they indicate an overall declining trend in (freshwater and marine) aquaculture to global supplies of fish,
spawning-stock biomass for commercially important fish species crustaceans, and molluscs continues to grow, increasing from
over the last 30 years [CT 4.4.1.5]. 3.9% of total global production weight in 1970 to 27.3% in
During the last four decades, the rise in per capita fish 2000. Aquaculture is growing more rapidly than all other
consumption has been quite rapid for the world as a whole. animal food-producing sectors [CT 26.2.3] and was worth $57
Table 1.3 shows fish consumption and production over the last billion in 2000 [CT 18.1]. Demands for coastal aquaculture
half of the 1990s. By 2000, average per capita fish supply have been on the rise, increasing the price of some fish (for
reached around 16 kg per year, but growth rates are slowing example, salmon) and the need to supply cheap protein, but the
9
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1.1 EXAMPLES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY DIFFERENT MARINE AND COASTAL HABITATS
(X indicates the habitat provides a significant amount of the service)
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Coastal Marine
Deep sea and
Estuaries and
Outer shelves
edges slopes
& mid-ocean
central gyres
Lagoon and
Seamounts
Mangroves
Coral reefs
Inner shelf
salt ponds
shell reefs
Rock and
Seagrass
Intertidal
marshes
ridges
Kelp
Biodiversity X X X X X X X X X X X X
Provisioning services
Food X X X X X X X X X X X
Fibre, timber, fuel X X X X X X
Medicines, other resources X X X X X X
Regulating services
Biological regulation X X X X X X
Freshwater storage and retention X X
Hydrological balance X X
Atmospheric and climate regulation X X X X X X X X X X
Human disease control X X X X X X X
Waste processing X X X X X
Flood/storm protection X X X X X X X X
Erosion control X X X X X
Cultural services
Cultural and amenity X X X X X X X X X
Recreational X X X X X X
Aesthetics X X X X
Education and research X X X X X X X X X X X X
Supporting services
Biochemical X X X X
Nutrient cycling and fertility X X X X X X X X X X X
10 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1.2 SUMMARY OF STATUS OF COASTAL HABITAT TYPES
(many of the habitat types included in this table often overlap in their natural state)
HABITAT TYPE STATUS COMMENTS
Estuaries Substantial loss e.g., < 10% natural coastal wetlands remain in California,
with over half of U.S. coastal wetlands substantially altered
Mangroves 35% loss in last two decades >80% loss in some countries
for countries with data
Coral reefs 20% severely damaged and Caribbean and Southeast Asia most degraded
unlikely to recover (2004 estimate);
70% are destroyed, critical, or threatened
(2004 estimate)
Intertidal habitats and deltas Substantial degradation 37% loss on Yellow Sea coast of China since 1950;
43% loss in South Korea since 1918
Beaches and dunes Complete loss or degradation
in many places
Seagrass beds Major losses in Mediterranean, Degradation expected to accelerate, especially in
Florida, and Australia Southeast Asia and the Caribbean
Kelp forests Probably none exists in a natural condition
Saltmarshes or ponds Massive alteration and loss
Semi-enclosed seas Becoming highly degraded
Other bottom communities Severely impacted by effects of fishing Strong evidence for impacts on ecosystem function
and resilience
doubling of aquaculture production in the last 10 years has also Figure 1.3 ESTIMATED GLOBAL FISH CATCHES (1950–2001)
driven habitat loss, overexploitation of fisheries for fishmeal BY TARGET GROUP (TOP) AND BY BIOME (BOTTOM)
and fish oil, and pollution [CT 19, Main Messages]. Includes adjustment for overreporting [CT 18, Figure 18.3].
Export fisheries have also influenced the aquaculture
industry, especially for salmon and shrimp, which are bred to 50
meet the demands from industrial countries for luxury high-
value seafood. Increased export demand often leads to 40
expansion of aquaculture practices. In 1998, salmon (much of it
farmed) was the leading fish export commodity of the EU. 30
Countries (such as Thailand) that are the leading producers of
shrimp (much of it from aquaculture) are also often the leading 20
exporters [CT 18.3.7].
Coastal areas provide the foundation for the mariculture 10
(marine aquaculture) industry, which uses coastal space or relies
on wild stock to produce valuable fisheries products, from tiger
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
prawns to bluefin tuna. Human reliance on farmed fish and
shellfish is significant and growing. Global annual per capita
50
consumption of seafood averages 16 kilograms, and one third
of that supply currently comes from aquaculture. Globally,
40
aquaculture production rates have doubled in weight and value
from 1989 to 1998. Much of that growth has occurred in the
30
shrimp and salmon farming industries [CT 19.3.2.1].
Aquaculture on its own will not stem the overexploitation of
20
wild capture fisheries.
Freshwater aquaculture is generally considered more
10
environmentally sustainable than brackish water and marine
winds
aquaculture because of its much greater reliance on omnivore or
herbivore species. Carnivores are found in higher trophic levels
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
and their culture involves the use of formulated diets containing
Year
a high percentage of fishmeal (in some cases as much as 40% of
11
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 1.4 TROPHIC LEVEL CHANGE (1950–2000)
Changes in trophic levels of global and regional catches are considered a better reflection of trends in fisheries than the proportion of fish
stocks that are reported as depleted, overexploited, fully exploited, and moderately exploited. Focusing on trophic levels ensures that an
overestimation of fisheries does not occur [CT 18.2.1, Figure 18.4].
Trophic Level Change
<-1
>1
No Data Available
Figure 1.5 TREND IN MEAN DEPTH OF CATCH (LEFT) AND MEAN DISTANCE OF CATCH FROM SHORE (RIGHT) SINCE 1950
Both panels show that fisheries catches increasingly originate from deep, offshore areas, especially in the Southern Hemisphere
[CT 18.2.1, Figure 18.5].
12 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
the total ingredients). Fishmeal, especially high-quality fishmeal,
Box 1.1 TROPHIC LEVELS [CT 8, Box 8.3]
is often derived from fish that are suitable for human
consumption. Feeding fish to produce fish has a high protein
One way to understand the structure of ecosystems is to arrange
conversion rate. It is particularly controversial where fishmeal is
them according to who eats what along a food chain. Each level
derived from already depleted capture fisheries, with negative
along the chain is called a trophic level. Levels are numbered
according to how far particular organisms are along the chain from impacts on the trophic structure. Freshwater fish feeds contain a
the primary producers at level 1 to the top predators at the highest minimal amount of fishmeal and are composed of
level. Within marine ecosystems, large predators such as sharks and predominantly low-cost plant proteins [CT 26.1.2.6].
Pollock (saithe) are at a high trophic level, cod and sardines are in
the middle, and shrimp are at a low trophic level, with microscopic
■ Bioprospecting
plants (mainly phytoplankton) at the bottom sustaining marine life.
Bioprospecting (the exploration of biodiversity for new
biological resources of social and economic value) has yielded
numerous products derived from species in marine and coastal
ecosystems (for example, antibiotics, antifreeze, fibre optics, and
antifouling paints). Coral reefs are exceptional reservoirs of
natural bioactive products, many of which exhibit structural
features not found in terrestrial natural products [CT 19.3.2.1].
Mangrove forests are good reservoirs for medicinal plants.
The pharmaceutical industry has discovered several
potentially useful substances, such as cytotoxicity (useful for
anti-cancer drugs) among sponges, sea mosses, jellyfish and
starfish [CT 10.2.1]. Cone shells of the molluscan family
Conidae are highly prized for their highly variable toxins
(conotoxins), applicable to many areas of medicine including
pain control, cancer treatment, and microsurgery [CT 10.7.4].
■ Provision of Building Materials
Many marine and coastal ecosystems provide coastal
communities with construction materials (such as lime for use in
Figure 1.6 THE STATE OF FISH STOCKS IN 1999 [CT 4.5.1.5, Figure 4.21]
The state of stocks in 1999
R 1%
D 9%
O 18%
F 47%
M 21%
4%
U
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
R = recovering D = depleted O = overexploited
F = fully exploited M = moderately exploited U = underexploited
Source: FAO
13
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1.3 WORLD FISHERY PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION, 1996–2001 [CT 8, Table 8.4]
2001 data are projections from Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
PRODUCTION (million tonnes)
Inland 23.3 25.0 26.5 28.7 30.2 31.2
Capture 7.4 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.8 8.8
Aquaculture 15.9 17.5 18.5 20.2 21.4 22.4
Marine 96.9 97.5 91.3 98.0 100.2 97.6
Capture 86.0 86.4 79.2 84.7 86.0 82.5
Aquaculture 10.8 11.2 12.0 13.3 14.1 15.1
Total Production 120.2 122.5 117.8 126.7 130.4 128.8
Total capture 93.5 93.9 87.3 93.2 94.8 91.3
Total aquaculture 26.7 28.6 30.5 33.4 35.6 37.5
UTILIZATION
Human consumption 88.0 90.8 92.7 94.5 96.7 99.4
Non-food uses 32.2 31.7 25.1 32.2 33.7 29.4
Population (billions) 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.1
Per capita fish consumption (kg) 15.3 15.6 15.7 15.8 16.0 16.2
mortar and cement) and other building materials from the mining surface waters and deep waters is a much slower process
of coral reefs [CT 19.2.1.4 and 19.5.1]. Mangroves provide coastal allowing for the uptake of increased atmospheric CO2, over
and island communities in several world regions with building decades to centuries. Marine plants (phytoplankton) fix CO2 in
materials for boat construction. The existence of alternative the ocean (photosynthesis) and return it via respiration. It has
materials for boat building is not always apparent. Conservation been widely assumed that ocean ecosystems are at steady state
projects play an important role in highlighting the alternatives and at present, but there is now much evidence of large-scale trends
in providing training on how to use them [CT 19.6]. and variations. Changes in marine ecosystems, such as increased
phytoplankton growth rate due to the fertilizing effect of iron in
Regulating Services dust and shifts in species composition, have the potential to
Regulating services are the benefits people obtain from the alter the oceanic carbon sink. The net impact of biological
regulation of ecosystem processes, including air quality changes in oceans on global CO2 fluxes is unknown [CT
maintenance, climate regulation, erosion control, regulation of 13.2.1]. A case study of the Paracas National Reserve, Peru (a
human diseases, and water purification, among others. Ramsar site, that is, designated as an internationally important
Ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrass, rocky intertidal, wetland) showed the value of indirect use; its value—calculated
nearshore mudflats, and deltas play a key role in shoreline through a model accounting for carbon sequestration by
stabilization, protection from floods and soil erosion, processing phytoplankton—was $181,124.00 per year [CT 19, Box 19.1].
pollutants, stabilizing land in the face of changing sea level by
Cultural and Amenity Services
trapping sediments, and buffering land from storms. Mangroves
have a great capacity to absorb heavy metals and other toxic Cultural services encompass such things as tourism and
substances in effluents, while coral reefs buffer land from waves recreation; aesthetic and spiritual services; traditional
and storms and prevent beach erosion. Estuaries, marshes, and knowledge; and educational and research services.
lagoons play a key role in maintaining hydrological balance and
■ Tourism and Recreation
filtering water of pollutants [CT 19.2.1.1]. Dune systems and
seagrass also play a notable role in trapping sediments (acting Among the most important cultural services provided by the
as sediment reserves) and stabilizing shorelines. coastal and marine ecosystems are tourism and recreation, but
Marine ecosystems play significant roles in climate regulation the capacity of these ecosystems to provide/deliver the services is
[CT 18.1]. CO2 is continuously exchanged between the being seriously degraded.
atmosphere and ocean; it dissolves in surface waters and is then Global tourism has been deemed the world’s most profitable
transported to the deep ocean (the ‘solubility pump’). It takes industry, and coastal tourism is one of its fastest growing
roughly one year for CO2 concentration in surface waters to sectors. Despite multiple international crises (economic
equilibrate with the atmosphere. Subsequent mixing of the recession, SARS, terrorist attacks, and the war on terrorism),
14 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
international tourism has grown 4–5% in the past decade the aboriginal culture of the Northeast Pacific. The seas and
[23.2.5.2]. Much of this tourism centres on aesthetically coasts are also of great spiritual importance to many people
pleasing landscapes and seascapes; intact healthy coastal around the world, such values are difficult to quantify. For
ecosystems with good air and water quality; and opportunities example, the Bajau peoples of Indonesia and the aboriginal
to see diverse wildlife. Biodiversity plays a key role in the people of the Torres Strait (Australia) have a culture intimately
nature-based tourism industry of many islands and is the major connected to oceans, while many of the native peoples of
tourism attraction for islands. (See Box 1.2.) For instance, coral North America have similar strong ties to coastal ecosystems
reefs support high biodiversity that in turn supports a thriving [CT 19.3.2.2].
and valuable dive tourism industry [CT 19.2.1.4] and recreation
■ Traditional Knowledge
industry (such as recreational fishing) [CT 18.4].
Natural amenities are highly valued by people and contribute The term ‘traditional ecological knowledge’ (TEK) commonly
to human welfare, thus providing significant economic value. refers to the knowledge that indigenous and other traditional
Stretches of beach, rocky cliffs, estuarine and coastal marine peoples have about their environment, which is used to sustain
waterways, and coral reefs provide numerous recreational and themselves and to maintain their cultural identity [CT 23.2.5.1].
scenic opportunities. Boating, fishing, swimming, walking, Our understanding of the tangible benefits derived from TEK,
beachcombing, scuba diving, and sunbathing are among the such as medicinal plants and local species of food, is relatively
numerous leisure activities that people enjoy worldwide and well developed [CT 17, Main Message #2] and covers a wide
thus represent significant economic value [CT 19.3.2.2]. range of subjects, from agriculture, fishing, plants, and forests
Rapid and uncontrolled tourism growth can be a major cause to general aspects of culture [CT 23.2.5.1]. (See Box 1.3.)
of ecosystem degradation and destruction, and can lead to the TEK is an integral part of the dynamics of some island
loss of cultural diversity [CT 23.2.5.2]. For example in several ecosystems and the islanders who live there. Many stories and
small island developing states, freshwater shortage is amplified beliefs of islanders show the role of traditional villages and
by the lack of effective water delivery systems and waste communities in improving the marine environment [CT 23.2.5.1].
treatment, coupled with increasing human populations and The greatest use of TEK on islands relates to sustainable use
expanding tourism, both of which may result in the and management within customary inshore fishing grounds, for
overabstraction of water, contamination through poor example in Fiji, in the customary prohibition on the use of
sanitation and leaching from solid
waste, and the use of pesticides and
fertilizers [CT 23.2.3.1].
Tourism development without
proper planning and management
standards and guidelines poses a
threat to biodiversity. This is
compounded by the fact that
environmental impacts are often not
clearly visible until their cumulative
effects have destroyed or severely
degraded the natural resources that
attract tourists in the first place, and
some destinations have only
recognized the costs of environmental
damage after significant and often
irreversible damage has been done
[CT 23.2.5.2].
Biopiracy has also been recorded in
areas used for ecotourism, and the
Maldives and Pacific Island states
have been particularly vulnerable to
such thefts [CT 23.2.5.1].
■ Cultural and Spiritual
Some species are of considerable
cultural importance, for example
the cultural significance of salmon in
15
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
resources (ra’ui) in Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and in the much of our knowledge of predator-prey interactions, keystone
village reserves in Samoa in the Pacific. Traditional ecological species, and other biological regulations [19.2.1.3].
knowledge and customary sea tenure are also integrated into the Education on marine ecosystems is underfunded and
conservation management of bumphead parrotfish underdeveloped. Further applied multidisciplinary research on
(Bolbometopon muricatum) in Roviana Lagoon in the Solomon ecosystem function, sustainable yields, and economic valuation
Islands [CT 23.2.5.1]. of coastal ecosystems is also needed. Research focused on
TEK has also been of direct benefit in the protection of reefs fundamental questions about ecosystem function, impacts, and
from adverse impacts from commercial and recreational efficacy of management measures will aid decision-makers in
fisheries, scuba diving, snorkelling, aquarium fish collection, mitigating loss and degradation of these habitats. Fully
and onshore development. For example, it has helped ensure protected areas help in this regard because they provide crucial
sustainable development of the intertidal zone, with a focus on control sites to test management interventions and allow for
shellfish gathering and marine tenure in the atoll communities baseline monitoring. Better economic valuations (particularly
of western Kiribati, Micronesia, which are under pressure from quantitative estimates of marginal benefits) are also required to
population growth, urbanization, extractive technologies, and understand fully the importance of coastal ecosystems
expanding market opportunities [CT 23.2.5.1]. [CT 19.5.2].
■ Education and Research Supporting Services
Marine and coastal ecosystems are areas that have received Supporting services include provision of habitats, primary
attention through research. Rocky intertidal habitats have been productivity, nutrient cycling, and soil formation.
the main focus of research that has provided the foundation for
■ Provision of Habitats and Nurseries
It is important to recognize that many habitats discussed
Box 1.2 ECOTOURISM AND SMALL ISLAND STATES throughout this report are both regionalized and widespread
[CT 23.2.5.2] throughout the word. Habitats provide a range of services, for
example mangrove forests. (See Figure 1.7.)
A large number of marine species use coastal areas, especially
Tourism is an important contributor to or dominates the economies
of many small island states. The Caribbean is the most tourism- estuaries, mangroves, and seagrasses, as nurseries. Estuaries are
dependent region in the world and accounts for about 50% of the particularly important as nursery areas for fisheries and other
world’s cruise tourism berths; the Maldives is the most tourism- species, and they form one of the strongest linkages between
dependent country. Tourism based on the natural environment is a
coastal, marine, and freshwater ecosystems and the ecosystem
fast-growing component of the tourism industry. In the last decade,
services they provide [CT 19.2.1.1].
nature (or eco-) tourism, which can be defined as travel to unspoiled
In some places, mangroves not only provide nursery areas for
places to enjoy nature, has emerged as the fastest growing segment
reef organisms but also link seagrass beds with associated coral
of the industry, with an estimated growth rate of 10–30% annually.
reefs. Removal of mangrove can interrupt these linkages and
Of the various forms of nature tourism, coastal/marine tourism,
cause biodiversity loss and lower productivity in reef and seagrass
including islands, is the largest component. Biodiversity plays a key
habitats. Mangroves also have a great capacity to absorb heavy
role in the nature tourism development of many islands and is the
metals and other toxic substances in effluents [CT 19.2.1.2].
major tourism attraction for islands such as Madagascar and Borneo.
Ecotourism extends as far as the sub-Antarctic islands, where special Seagrass is important in providing nursery areas in the
voyages give tourists the experience of a variety of marine and tropics, where it provides crucial habitat for coral reef fishes
pelagic fauna, using the islands as a base. and invertebrates. Seagrass is an important source of food for
There is a great potential in many SIDS for the further
many species of coastal and marine organisms in both tropical
development of ecotourism, which is often a small but rapidly
and temperate regions. Drift beds, composed of mats of seagrass
growing share of their market economy. Ecotourism can provide
floating at or near the surface, provide important food and
employment and generate income while helping to protect and
shelter for young fishes, and the deposit of seagrass castings and
conserve natural resources and contributing to the implementation
macroalgae remnants on beaches is thought to be a key
of national biodiversity action plans.
pathway for nutrient provisioning to many coastal
Tourism has great potential for biodiversity conservation and the
invertebrates, shorebirds, and other organisms [CT 19.2.1.5].
promotion of the sustainable use of natural resources. In the
Kelp forests and other macroalgae provide specialized nursery
Seychelles, for instance, tourism has been a major force and source
of funding for biodiversity management and conservation, as well habitats for some species. For instance, the canopy or upper
as ecosystem rehabilitation. In many cases, tourism is the only layers of kelp provides nursery habitat for young rockfish and
means by which a management infrastructure can be put in place other organisms. Kelp communities consist of several distinct
on isolated islands to enable conservation activities. Indeed,
canopy types supporting many herbivores (for example, sea
well-informed tourists are increasingly the driving force behind the
urchins) [CT 19.2.1.6]. The interaction between sea urchins and
tourism industry’s involvement in biodiversity management.
sea otters maintains the kelp forests’ structure.
16 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 1.3 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANT TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF MARINE AND COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS [modified from CT 23.2.5.1]
Fishing
■ Fishing methods and materials
■ Knowledge of fish species and their behaviour, migration, and reproduction
■ Best fishing locations, times, and techniques for each species
■ Controls on fishing: limited access to fishing areas, taboo areas or seasons, catch restrictions
■ Changes in fishing resources, effects of overfishing, ‘how things used to be’
General
■ Traditional names for, and classifications of, species and communities
■ Calendars related to the weather, to celestial bodies (solar and lunar cycles, appearance or
movement of stars), or to the migration of birds and fish
■ Weather patterns and prediction, cycles of rain and drought, changes in climate
■ Natural catastrophes, cyclones, tsunamis, floods; signs and warnings; effects and areas affected
■ Changes in the environment, former locations and populations of villages
■ Environmental knowledge: who possessed it, how it was used and transmitted
■ Primary Productivity
Estuaries also provide a range of habitats to sustain diverse
flora and fauna. For example, there are many more estuarine- Marine and coastal ecosystems play an important role in
dependent species than estuarine-resident species [19.2.1.1]. photosynthesis and productivity of the systems. Marine plants
Mudflats are also critical habitat for migrating shorebirds and (phytoplankton) fix CO2 in the ocean (photosynthesis) and
many marine organisms, including commercially important return it via respiration. It had been widely assumed that ocean
species like the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) and a ecosystems are currently at a steady state; however, there is now
variety of clam species. Soft bottom coastal habitats are highly much evidence of large-scale trends and variations. Changes in
productive, and can have a species diversity that may rival that marine ecosystems, such as increased phytoplankton growth rate
of tropical forests. due to the fertilizing effect of iron in dust and shifts in species
Dunes support high species diversity in certain taxonomic composition, have the potential to alter the oceanic carbon sink
groups, including endangered bird, plant, and invertebrate and primary productivity; activities that trigger such changes
species [CT 19.2.1.3]. should be considered with extreme caution [CT 13.2.1].
All of these ecosystems—beaches, sandy shores, dune
■ Nutrient Cycling and Fertility
systems, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats—provide feeding
and nesting habitats to numerous species of birds, fish, One of the most important processes occurring within
molluscs, crustaceans, and other ecologically and commercially estuarine environment is the mixing of nutrients from upstream
important organisms [CT 19.2.1.1]. as well as from tidal sources, making estuaries one of the most
Figure 1.7 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVE FORESTS
Map A shows mangrove distribution in Latin America, Map B shows mangrove distribution in Africa, and Map C displays mangrove distribution in
the Asia-Pacific region [CT 19, Figure 19.5].
17
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
fertile coastal environments. Mangroves and saltmarshes play a estuarine and wetland areas have been substantially altered. In
key role together in cycling nutrients. For example, saltmarshes Australia, 50% of estuaries remain undamaged, although these
in the Red Sea region contribute nitrogen to adjacent mangroves. estuaries are away from current population centres.
Beaches and sandy shores are important in the delivery of land-
■ Mangroves
based nutrients to the nearshore coastal ecosystem.
Global mangrove forest cover currently is estimated between
Habitat and Biodiversity Loss 16 and 18 million hectares. Much of the coastal population of
the tropics and subtropics resides near mangroves; 64% of all
Overfishing, destructive fishing practices, habitat loss, pollution, the world’s mangroves are currently within 25 km of major
and other human impacts have resulted in the destruction urban centres having 100,000 people or more [CT 19.2.1.2].
and modification of coastal habitats around the world (Table Many of the world’s mangrove areas have become degraded due
1.2), reducing their ability to provide these services and to population pressures, widespread habitat conversion, and
threatening biodiversity. (See Box 1.4 for examples of pollution. For countries with available data (representing 54%
threatened species.) Coastal habitats are tightly interlinked, of total current mangrove area) an estimated 35% of mangrove
so that the loss of one habitat can have flow-on effects that forests have disappeared in the last two decades at the rate of
degrade and reduce the services provided by linked habitats. 2.1% per year, or 2,834 km2 per year, and mangroves have
(See Box 1.5 for general information about condition and dramatically declined in nearly every country for which data
trends of marine and coastal ecosystems.) have been compiled. In some countries, more than 80% of
original mangrove cover has been lost due to deforestation.
■ Estuaries The leading human activities that contribute to mangrove
Worldwide, over 1,200 major estuaries have been identified loss are: 52% aquaculture (38% shrimp plus 14% fish), 26%
and mapped, with a total area of approximately 500,000 km2. forest use, and 11% freshwater diversion. Restoration has been
These 1,200 estuaries, including lagoons and fiords, account for successfully attempted in some places, but has not kept pace
approximately 80% of the world’s freshwater discharge. Sixty- with wholesale destruction in most areas [CT 19.2.1.2].
two percent of the world’s major estuaries occur within 25 km
■ Coral Reefs
of urban centres having 100,000 or more people [CT 19.2.1.1].
There has been a substantial loss of estuarine habitat and Coral reefs are highly degraded throughout the world, and it
associated wetlands globally. In California (United States), for is likely that there are no pristine reefs remaining. Most
example, less than 10% of natural coastal wetlands remain, tropical reefs occur in developing countries, and this is where
while in the United States more generally, over half of original the most intensive degradation is occurring. Of all the world’s
Box 1.4 EXAMPLES OF COASTAL AND MARINE SPECIES UNDER THREAT
■ All seven species of sea turtles are listed under the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
According to the IUCN Red List, three are critically
endangered, three are endangered, and the status of the
Australian flatback turtle (Chelonia depressa) is unknown
[CT 19.2.2.1 and 19.2.2.2].
■ The Atlantic grey whale and Caribbean monk seal have been
driven to extinction.
■ Many dolphins are threatened by bycatch [CT 19.2.2.2.].
■ Globally, 91% of albatross species, 59% of penguins, 43%
of shearwaters, and 40% of frigate birds are threatened
[CT 19.2.2.3].
■ Shorebirds are declining worldwide: of populations with a
known trend, 48% are declining and only 16% are increasing.
Overall 45 (34%) of African-Eurasian migratory shorebird
populations are regarded as ‘of conservation concern’ due to
their decreasing and/or small populations [CT 19.2.2.3].
■ Of the shark, ray, and chimaera species assessed by IUCN,
18% are listed as threatened, 19% near threatened, 37.5% data deficient, and 26% least concern [CT 4.4.2.2]. On the coast
of southern California, the California mussel Mytelus californianus has become very rare, the ochre sea star is now almost never seen,
the once abundant black abalone can no longer be found, and dozens of formally abundant nudibranch species are now rare.
■ Some species of crocodiles are under threat of extinction, although none of the 23 known species has actually gone extinct.
18 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 1.5 GENERAL CONDITIONS AND TRENDS OF COASTAL AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY
An increasing number of studies are highlighting the inherent vulnerability of marine species to overexploitation. Particularly susceptible species
tend to be both valuable and relatively easy to catch as well as having relatively slow population production rates. Thus species such as large
groupers, croakers, some sharks, and skates are particularly vulnerable.
Assessment of the condition and trends of marine biodiversity is limited by a lack of knowledge and previous assumptions of marine fish and
invertebrate abundance. Information on habitat types, as well as species diversity and distributions and the factors that influence them, is only
just emerging, as are methods for measuring diversity and its patterns. Our understanding of the condition and trends of marine biodiversity will
improve significantly if new methods are applied and monitoring activities are put into place [CT 18.3.6.1].
There is, however, increasing evidence of threats to, and the loss of, marine and coastal biodiversity. The World Wide Fund for Nature’s
(WWF) Living Planet Index (LPI), currently one of the best estimate of global population trends, estimates a decline of 30% in the marine
species population index between 1970 and 2000 [CT 4.4.1]. The status of coastal and sea birds is deteriorating in all parts of the world and
across all major habitat types. The IUCN Red List demonstrates that birds dependent on marine and coastal ecosystems have declined faster
than other birds (see Figure 1.8).
■ Intertidal Habitats and Deltas
known tropical reef systems, 58% occur within 25 km of
major urban centres having populations of 100,000 or more. In Food and bait collection (including molluscs and seaweeds)
1999, it was estimated that approximately 27% of the world’s and human trampling have substantially depleted many of the
known reefs had been badly degraded or destroyed in the last organisms in these habitats. In the United States, the rocky
few decades. The coral reefs of the Caribbean Sea and portions intertidal zone has undergone major transformation in the last
of Southeast Asia have suffered the greatest rates of few decades. Similar trends have been observed elsewhere in
degradation and are expected to continue to be the most the world. Along the Yellow Sea coast, China has lost around
threatened [CT 19.2.1.4]. 37% of habitat in intertidal areas since 1950, and South Korea
Our knowledge of cold-water coral diversity is limited, with has lost an estimated 43% since 1918 [CT 19.2.1.3].
many new reefs still being discovered. The biggest threat to Deltas are high population and human land use areas and
deep-sea coral reefs comes from bottom trawling activities. have been identified, along with estuaries and small islands,
WWF suggests that 30–50% of the cold water corals along the by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as the
Norwegian coast have already been lost due to bottom coastal ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change and
trawling, marine pollution, and oil and gas exploration sea-level rise.
[CT 18.3.6.2].
Figure 1.8 RED LIST INDICES FOR BIRDS IN FRESHWATER, MARINE, AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS, AND FOR BIRDS IN
FOREST AND SHRUBLAND/GRASSLAND HABITATS [CT 20, Figure 20.67]
It has been widely assumed that marine fish and 100
invertebrates are less susceptible to extinction
than most other marine species such as marine
mammals or than terrestrial and freshwater
Red List Index (1988 = 100)
98 < Better
organisms. However, there is an emerging
consensus that marine fish are no more resilient
to extirpation or extinction than other wildlife
96
species [CT 18.3.6.1]. The reduced biomass and
fragmented habitats resulting from
overexploitation of marine resources is likely to
Worse >
94
lead to numerous extinctions, especially among
large, long-lived, late-maturing species, which
also tend to be valuable and easy to catch. One
well-documented example of localized extinction 92
is that of the historic fishing grounds ranging from
New England to Newfoundland and Labrador that
once supported immense fisheries of cod [CT 90
18.3.6.3]. There is also increasing evidence that
1988 1994 2000 2004
many marine populations do not recover from
Forest Freshwater Marine
severe depletion, even when fishing has stopped
Shrubland/grassland Terrestrial
[CT 4.3.5]. Source: IUCN
19
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Beaches and Dunes impacted by fishing methods such as bottom trawling and
Disruptions to the sand balance through activities such as dredging. This type of human disturbance is one of the most
sand mining, nearshore aggregate extraction, and the significant threats to marine biodiversity. Soft bottoms cover
construction of artificial coastal barriers in many locations are about 70% of the earth’s seafloor and are characterized by
causing the total disappearance of beaches. Encroachment in extremely high species diversity. There is now strong evidence
dune areas often results in shoreline destabilization, resulting of fishing effects on seafloor communities that have important
in expensive public works projects such as the building of ramifications for ecosystem function and resilience. Fishing
breakwaters or seawalls and sand re-nourishment has already destroyed many hard-bottom communities
[CT 19.2.1.3]. [CT 19.2.1.7].
Seamounts interrupting the ocean floor’s soft sediments are
■ Seagrass Beds crucial to many pelagic fish species for breeding, spawning, and
Major losses of seagrass habitat have been reported from the as safe havens for juvenile fishes seeking refuge from open
Mediterranean, Florida Bay, and Australia. Present losses are ocean predators. These highly structured and diverse
expected to accelerate, especially in Southeast Asia and the communities are also extremely vulnerable to fishing impacts
Caribbean [CT 19.2.1.5]. [CT 19.2.1.7].
Increased nutrient input to shallow-water coastal areas with
Gaps in Knowledge of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
limited flushing (prime areas for seagrass growth) encourages
the growth of fouling organisms causing algal and epifaunal
Gaps in Knowledge and Data
encrustation of seagrass blades, limiting the ability of the
seagrass to photosynthesize and in extreme cases smothering the Long-term and large-scale ecological processes are generally
meadows altogether [CT 19.2.1.5]. poorly understood, and nowhere is this more true than in
marine ecosystems [S 3.4.6]. For example:
■ Kelp Forests ■ There is a lack of understanding of the oceanic nitrogen cycle,
The biological communities of many kelp forests have been including biological N2 fixation and N2O production. This
so destabilized by fishing that they retain only a fraction of their makes predicting the impacts of anthropogenic N inputs very
former diversity. It is likely that no kelp systems exist in their difficult [S 3.4.6].
■ The El Niño/Southern Oscillation, deriving from
natural condition. Fishing impacts can reduce diverse kelp
forests to greatly simplified sea urchin-dominated barren interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere in the
grounds [CT 19.2.1.6]. Pacific, strongly influences the oceanic productivity in the
eastern Pacific. It alternates on a period of between two to
■ Saltmarshes or Ponds seven years. Understanding of this phenomenon has
Saltmarshes and coastal peat swamps have undergone substantially improved over recent years, but it remains
massive change and destruction, both in estuarine systems and difficult to make predictions about its occurrence and
along the coast. Saltmarsh subsidence has occurred in part due impacts [S 3.4.4].
to reduced sediment delivery from watersheds. Countries
monitoring changes in peat swamps in Southeast Asia find that Basic data on the past and current extent and status of many
such swamps have declined from 46–100% [CT 19.2.1.1]. marine and coastal ecosystems are not available or are of
questionable quality. This makes accurate calculations of
■ Semi-enclosed Seas change and trends difficult. For example, in relation to the
Semi-enclosed seas are becoming highly degraded. adequate delineation of coastal inland water, in particular
Freshwater inflows to semi-enclosed seas have been severely wetlands, the following has been noted: ‘The extent and
curtailed in most areas, robbing them of recharging waters and distribution of inland waters is unevenly or even poorly known
nutrients. A particularly acute case of this degradation has at the global and regional scales, due to differences in
occurred in the Gulf of California, which now receives only a definitions as well as difficulties in delineating and mapping
trickle of water through the now dry, but once very fertile, habitats with variable boundaries due to fluctuations in water
delta of the Colorado River. Poor water quality results from levels’. In many cases comprehensive documentation at the
land-based sources of pollution such as agricultural and regional or national levels does not exist. Larger wetlands,
industrial waste. Limited flushing and long recharge times in lakes, and inland seas have been mapped along with the major
semi-enclosed seas means that pollutants are not as quickly rivers, but for many parts of the world, the valuable and
diluted as in the open sea, and eutrophication and toxics smaller wetlands are not well mapped or delineated. Mapped
loading often results [CT 19.2.1.8]. data contain many inaccuracies and gaps as well as differences
due to scale and resolution. An example is northern Australia,
■ Other Benthic Communities where estimates of the area of inland water ecosystems from 10
data sources varied from 0–98,700 km2 [CT 20.3.1].
Hard bottom and soft sediment seafloor habitats are severely
20 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Assessment of the extent of and change in inland water
habitats at the continental level is compromised by the
inconsistency and unreliability of the data. This is especially so
when referring to smaller systems [CT 20.1].
Marine fish stocks are highly variable. Inadequate
understanding of this variability greatly compounds the
difficulties of fisheries management [CT 18.8.1]. It has not so
far been possible to predict the critical thresholds beyond which
a fish stock will collapse, and the major stock collapses that
have happened in recent decades have been a surprise, even to
those involved in monitoring and managing these stocks
[CT 18.7.2]. With the unpredictability of these thresholds,
precautionary approaches such as marine protected areas and
reductions in fishing effort (and therefore fishing mortality) are
likely to safeguard against such thresholds being reached
[CT 18.8.2].
In general, our knowledge of biodiversity is uneven, with
particular gaps in knowledge regarding the status of marine
biota, along with freshwater biota, tropical ecosystems, plants,
invertebrates, micro-organisms and subterranean biota. There
are strong biases towards the species level, large animals,
temperate ecosystems, and components of biodiversity used by
people [CT 4, Main Message #3]. There is also limited
knowledge of the subdivision of species into populations with
distinct characteristics that are of evolutionary importance and
of potential human use [CT 18.2.6.4]. Recent initiatives such
as Census of Marine Life are increasing the rate at which new
knowledge on marine life is becoming available [CT 18.2.6.1].
Gaps in Methodology to Assess Ecosystem Services
Assessment of fisheries has been dominated by single-species
approaches, such as the widely applied maximum sustained
yield (MSY) concept. These approaches look at target fish
populations in isolation from the ecosystem. The MSY
approach has been criticized for failing to recognize the role of
trophic interactions and risking sharp population declines [S
3.5.2, 4.8]. Single-species approaches will continue to have a
role in evaluating the dynamics of exploited stocks, but they
need to be complemented by multi-species models [S 4.8].
Existing biodiversity indicators do not adequately reflect
many important aspects of biodiversity, especially those that
are significant for the delivery of ecosystem services [CT 4.5.1],
and there is no agreement (at the time of writing) on a
complete set of indicators to be used for the 2010 target,
whose aim is ‘to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the
current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and
national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to
the benefit of all life on earth’. There are no comprehensive
global-scale measures to assess success in meeting the target.
Available evidence, however, indicates that it is unlikely to be
met: trends are still downwards for most species and
populations, and the rate of decline is generally not slowing.
This is also true for aggregate indices such as the Living Planet
Index and the Red List Index [CT 4.5.3].
21
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
2 What are the drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems?
■ Anthropogenic causes are the major drivers of change, presents a typology of drivers of change in coastal systems and
ecosystem services.
degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and services.
■ The direct drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems are:
Direct Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal
land use change;
Ecosystems
development of aquaculture;
overfishing and destructive fishing methods;
Land Use Change and Habitat Loss
invasive species;
Land use change and habitat loss and destruction have degraded
pollution and nutrient loading (eutrophication); and
or altered marine and coastal ecosystems in many areas and
climate change.
■ The major indirect drivers of change in marine and coastal have a direct negative impact on biodiversity [CT 4.3]. Natural
land cover has changed drastically under the pressure of
ecosystems are:
growing human populations and consequent exploitation of the
shifting food preferences and markets;
land mass and its offshore regions. On some islands, the impact
subsidies;
has exceeded the critical point (that is, impacting human well-
illegal fishing;
being), particularly along the coastal fringe [CT 23, Main
population growth;
Messages].
technology change; and
Excessive amounts of sedimentation due to land disturbance
globalization.
■ Terrestrial drivers also impact upon marine and coastal ecosystems. have been a global problem and coastal-marine habitats have
been severely degraded. Sedimentation has also caused or
Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems accelerated infilling of many wetland habitats and lakes. It is
possible that the retention of inland water systems would have
An array of anthropogenic and natural impacts has degraded, ameliorated the impact of sedimentation on coastal ecosystems
altered, or eliminated coastal and marine ecosystems. Drivers [CT 20.2.2].
may either directly or indirectly impact upon ecosystems. The In estuarine habitats, poor management and the destruction
strongest drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystem are of large areas of an estuary’s watershed often lead to
land use change and habitat loss, fisheries, invasive species, degradation of estuaries. Agricultural and grazing practices that
pollution, nutrient loading (eutrophication), and climate change. destroy natural riparian habitats have resulted in floods, and
Although terrestrial drivers also cause change to the marine and changes to freshwater flows through river impoundment and
coastal ecosystems and services, they are not the primary focus diversion have altered sediment delivery. Recent estimates
of this discussion. Climate change and the introduction of suggest worldwide sediment delivery (and thus delivery of
invasive alien species are highlighted as the two direct drivers of important nutrients) to estuaries has been reduced to 30% of
change in marine and coastal ecosystems that are most difficult original levels due to diversion and damming. Further,
to reverse [CT 4.3.1]. Table 2.1 lists the important direct and urbanization of watersheds interrupts natural flows of both
indirect drivers identified in the MA overall, while Table 2.2 freshwater and nutrients and increases pollution [CT 19.2.1.1].
Table 2.1 IMPORTANT DRIVERS IN THE MA
DIRECT DRIVERS INDIRECT DRIVERS
Changes in climate Demographic
Plant nutrient use Economic
Land use management and change Sociopolitical
Diseases Scientific and technological
Invasive species Cultural and religious
Pollution
22 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 2.2 DRIVERS OF CHANGE IN COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS [CT 19, Table 19.5]
DIRECT DRIVERS INDIRECT DRIVERS
Habitat Loss or Conversion
Coastal development Population growth; poor siting due to undervaluation; poorly developed
(ports, urbanization, tourism-related development, industrial sites) industrial policy; tourism demand; environment refugees and internal migration
Destructive fisheries Shift to market economies; demand for aquaria fish and live food fish;
(dynamite, cyanide, bottom trawling) increasing competition in light of diminishing resources
Coastal deforestation Lack of alternative materials; increased competition; poor lack of
(especially mangrove deforestation) implementation of existing ones
Mining Lack of alternative materials; global commons perceptions
(coral, sand, minerals, dredging)
Civil engineering works Transport and energy demands; poor public policy; lack of knowledge about
impacts and their costs
Environmental change brought about by war and conflict Increased competition for scarce resources; political instability; inequality
in wealth distribution
Aquaculture-related habitat conversion International demand for luxury items (including new markets); regional demand
for food; demand for fishmeal in aquaculture and agriculture; decline in wild
stocks or decreased access to fisheries (or inability to compete with larger-scale
fisheries)
Habitat Degradation
Eutrophication from land-based sources Urbanization; lack of sewage treatment or use of combined storm and sewer
(agricultural waste, sewage, fertilizers) systems (CSS); unregulated agricultural development, loss of wetlands and other
natural controls
Pollution: toxics and pathogens from land-based sources Lack of awareness; increasing pesticide and fertilizer use (especially as
soil quality diminishes); unregulated industry
Pollution: dumping and dredge spoils Lack of alternative disposal methods; increased enforcement and stiffer penalties
for land disposal; belief in unlimited assimilative capacities, waste as a commodity
Pollution: shipping-related Substandard shipping regulations; no investment in safety; policies
promoting flags of convenience; increases in ship-based trade
Salinization of estuaries due to decreased freshwater inflow Demand for electricity and water; territorial disputes
Alien species invasions Lack of regulations on ballast discharge; increased aquaculture-related
escapes; lack of international agreements on deliberate introductions
Climate change and sea-level rise Insufficient controls on emission; poorly planned development
(vulnerable development); stressed ecosystems less able to cope
Overexploitation
Directed take of low-value species at high volumes exceeding Population growth; demand for subsistence and market (food and medicinal)
sustainable levels industrialization of fisheries; improved fish-finding technology; poor regional
agreements, lack of enforcement, breakdown of traditional regulation
systems, subsidies
Directed take for luxury markets (high value, low volume) Demand for specialty foods and medicines, aquarium fish, and curios; lack of
exceeding sustainable levels awareness or concern about impacts; technological advances; commodification
Incidental take or bycatch Subsidies; bycatch has no cost
Directed take at commercial scales; decreasing availability of Marginalization of local peoples; breakdown of traditional
resources for subsistence and artisanal use social institutions
23
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Mangroves have been converted to allow for coastal zone including excess nutrients from uneaten fish feed and fish waste,
development, aquaculture, and agriculture, including grazing antibiotic drugs, and other chemicals, including disinfectants
and stall feeding of cattle and camels (which in Pakistan, for such as chlorine and formaline, antifoulants such as tributyltin,
instance, is the second most serious threat to mangrove and inorganic fertilizers such as ammonium phosphate and
ecosystems). Mangrove forests are also affected by removal of urea. The use of antibiotics and other human-made drugs can
trees for fuelwood and construction material, removal of also have serious health effects on humans, the ecosystem, and
invertebrates for use as bait, changes to hydrology in both other species [CT 7.4.5.2].
catchment basins or nearshore coastal areas, and excessive Infectious disease is currently a serious problem in
pollution [CT 19.2.1.2]. aquaculture, not only to the fish being farmed but to wild
Mudflats and saltmarshes are commonly destroyed during populations as well. When infected farmed fish escape from
port and other infrastructure development or maintenance aquaculture facilities, they can transmit these diseases and
dredging, and coastal muds in many areas are highly parasites to wild stocks. Infectious salmon anemia (ISA), a
contaminated by heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls deadly disease affecting Atlantic salmon, poses a serious threat
(PCBs), and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs), leading to the salmon farming industry. Norwegian field studies
to mortality and morbidity in marine species and human health observed that wild salmon often become heavily infected with
impacts. Beaches and sandy shores have undergone massive sea lice (parasites that eat salmon flesh) while migrating through
alteration due to coastal development, pollution, erosion, coastal waters, with the highest infection levels occurring in
storms, alteration to freshwater hydrology, sand mining, salmon-farming areas [CT 4.3.4].
groundwater use, and harvesting of organisms [CT 19.2.1.3]. The expansion of the shrimp industry in Ecuador has brought
Coral reefs are at high risk from many kinds of human about economic growth and employment, but it has also
activity, including destructive fishing (for example, use of changed the allocation and flow of labour, reduced flexibility
cyanide to stun and capture fish and explosives); collecting for and diversity of household economies, and brought about large-
the marine ornamental trade; diving; snorkelling; walking on scale loss of mangroves.
reefs during low tide; tourism; collecting for use in construction
Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Methods
and lime production; overfishing for both local consumption
and export; inadequate sanitation and poor control of run-off Overfishing and destructive fishing methods such as trawling
leading to eutrophication; dumping of debris and toxic waste; (for example, use of heavy gear on sensitive substrates),
land use practices leading to siltation; oil spills; and degradation dredging, and the use of explosives and poisons such as cyanide
of linked habitats such as seagrass, mangrove, and other coastal impact on the marine ecosystems in two ways: by changing
ecosystems [CT 19.2.1.4]. Similar processes affect seagrasses, community structure and altering trophic and other interactions
but habitat conversion for algae farming is a major cause of between ecosystem components and by physically modifying
damage to seagrasses globally [CT 19.2.1.5]. habitats, notably when trawlers erode biogenic bottom
structures. Once altered, ecological states may be impossible to
Development of Aquaculture restore to former conditions [CT 18.2.6.2]. A large number of
Aquaculture often has serious environmental impacts, issues marine species use coastal areas, especially estuaries, mangroves,
concerning sustainability, and trade-offs between land uses. As and seagrasses, as nurseries. Thus modifying coastal habitat and
discussed above, aquaculture is not considered to be sustainable if coastal pollution, as well as inshore fishing, can adversely
wild fisheries capture is used for feed [CT 8.2.1]. The rapid impact offshore fisheries by reducing the supply of recruits to
increase in coastal aquaculture has led to the loss of many the offshore adult stocks [CT 18.3.2]. Area closures and the
mangrove ecosystems, typically through conversion to shrimp or halt of destructive fishing have resulted in improvements to the
prawn farms. This destruction of mangrove is particularly wasteful fisheries, especially in coral reefs. Overall, however, the trend is
and costly in the long term, since shrimp ponds created out of that overfishing and habitat destruction continue throughout
mangrove forest lose their productivity over time and tend to the world [CT 18.4.1.3].
become fallow within 2–10 years. Historically, abandoned shrimp Fisheries bycatch is a major threat to biodiversity. Turtles
ponds were rarely restored, but new policy directives and a shift in [CT 19.2.2.1], seabirds [CT 19.2.2.3], and sharks [CT 4.4.1.5],
the aquaculture industry are helping to make aquaculture less for example, all suffer declines due to bycatch from pelagic
destructive and more prone to supporting restoration and/or longline fisheries. It is well documented that the main driver for
regrowth in some parts of the world [CT 19.2.1.2]. adult mortality among albatrosses, the seabirds showing the
Aquaculture operations have impacts on water quality and most dramatic current population declines, is caused by pelagic
salinization of adjacent agricultural lands, although effluents longline fisheries in the southern oceans.
from freshwater aquaculture are less polluting than those from
Invasive Species
brackish water and marine aquaculture [CT 26.2.2.3].
Discharge from aquaculture facilities can be loaded with Invasive species have been recognized as a major driver of
pollutants which degrade the surrounding environment, ecosystem change and are expected to grow in importance,
24 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 2.1 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF MARINE SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS
Number of new records of established non-
Number of species
native invertebrate and algae species
175
reported in marine waters of North America,
Non-native marine plant species
reported on European coast shown by date of first record, and number of
new records of non-native marine plant
Non-native invertebrates and
150 plants reported in marine species reported on European coasts, by
waters of North America
date of first record [General SR, Figure 1.7].
125
100
75
50
25
0
1790–1819 1820–49 1850–79 1880–1909 1910–39 1940–69 1970–99
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
contributing to species extinction and the deterioration of safely on the ground or in burrows. These mammals generally
ecosystem services. This is due to the expected increase of reduced, and in some cases drove to extinction, populations
unintended introductions of non-native organisms as a side of marine birds, waterfowl, and other ground-nesting birds,
effect of growing global trade. The exchange of non-native through either habitat alteration or direct predation
species between the Baltic Sea in Europe and the North [CT 25.3.6].
American Great Lakes region has been well studied. A high There is also now strong evidence in several marine
proportion of the 100 or so non-native species in the Baltic ecosystems that species richness increases invasion resistance.
region derive from the Great Lakes; and in the latter region, Diverse ecosystems more completely utilize resources such as
75% of the recent arrivals of the 150 non-native species come available space. In experimentally assembled benthic (sea floor)
from the Baltic Sea. Some of those species have even been communities, decreasing the richness of native taxa was
introduced to the Baltic Sea from other regions. (See Figure correlated with increased survival and percent cover of invading
2.1.) A major source of marine introductions of non-native species. Open space was the limiting resource for invaders, and
species is the unintentional release through the ballast water a higher species richness buffered communities against invasion
from ships [S 10.5]. through increasing temporal stability (for example, reducing
The introduction of alien species—in some cases intentional fluctuations of open space) [CT 11.4.1].
(for example, species released for hunting or introduced as a
Pollution and Nutrient Loading (Eutrophication)
biological control) but more commonly unintentional (for
example, introduced with traded goods such as lumber or in the Eutrophication, or nutrient pollution, has become a driver of
ballast water of ships)—has the effect of homogenization and in change for coastal and marine ecosystems. The nutrients
many cases extirpation of native endemic species and habitat (nitrogen and phosphorus) come from three main sources:
alterations [CT 4.3.2]. Introductions of exotic mammals (for agricultural run-off, sewage, and burning of fossil fuels.
example, rats, cats, rabbits, pigs) have had substantial impacts Through the stimulated growth of algae, eutrophication leads to
on many island ecosystems, particularly on seabirds nesting a depletion of oxygen (creating ‘dead zones’), which reduces the
25
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
survival of other marine organisms, including fish. There are
Figure 2.2 ESTIMATED TOTAL REACTIVE NITROGEN
several marine areas of low oxygen. Some of this variation can
DEPOSITION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE (WET AND
be clearly seen in the rates of nitrogen deposition, which are far
DRY) IN 1860, EARLY 1990S, AND PROJECTED FOR 2050
higher in Europe, East and South Asia, eastern North America,
and southeastern South America than elsewhere in the world
[S 8.7; 9.3]. (See Figure 2.2.)
Eutrophication is pervasive close to most of the world’s large
estuaries and all centres of human population, and the resulting
ecosystem changes are difficult (though perhaps not impossible)
to reverse once algae take over benthic habitats or cause shifts in
trophic structure [CT 19.2.1.1]. Maintenance of an adequate flow
of good-quality water is needed to maintain the health of inland
water ecosystems as well as estuaries and deltas [CT 20.6].
Agriculture is the major user of industrially fixed nitrogen,
and only a fraction of this fertilizer is used and retained in food
products [CT 26.2.1.4]. Poor control of run-off of the excess
1860
nitrogen leads to biodiversity loss in inland water, coastal, and
marine systems through eutrophication [CT 19.2.1.4 and
26.2.1.4]. Nitrogen loads in rivers eventually find their way to
the coastal zone, where they also cause eutrophication
[S9.3.7.1.2]. Phosphorus transportation into aquatic ecosystems
is the principal cause of blue-green algae blooms in reservoirs,
and the anoxia in the Gulf of Mexico is one example of
eutrophication attributable to nutrient enrichment
[CT 26.2.2.3].
Sewers convey human waste out of urban locations, often
releasing it untreated in local waterways or coastal waters.
Human waste not only poses a health risk for people, who might
ingest the contaminated water, but also causes eutrophication and
damages aquatic ecosystems downstream [CT 27.2.3.2]. Other
Early 1990s pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants, accumulate in
marine mammals, seabirds, top carnivores, and predatory fish
and are passed on to humans through consumption. POPs are
stable, fat-soluble, carbon-based compounds that volatilize at
warm temperatures and are transported towards the poles by
wind, water, and wildlife [CT 25.2.3].
Based on projections for food production and wastewater
effluents, an increase of 10–20% of global river nitrogen flow to
coastal ecosystems in the next three decades can be expected,
following a global increase of 29% during the period 1970–95.
In the Indian Ocean, the increase is likely to be faster than in the
previous three decades; in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, river
nitrogen flow will continue to increase, but at a slower rate than
in the last three decades in the Pacific and the Atlantic [S 9.3].
2050 Climate Change
Climate change is becoming the dominant driver of change,
particularly in vulnerable habitats such as mangroves, coral
Source: Galloway et al. 2004
reefs, and coastal wetlands, which are especially at risk from
(milligrams of nitrogen per square metre per year) Atmospheric
resulting sea-level rises. Both recent empirical evidence and
deposition currently accounts for roughly 12% of the reactive nitrogen
predictive modelling studies suggest that climate change will
entering terrestrial and coastal marine ecosystems globally, although
increase population losses [CT 4, Main Message #10]. For
in some regions, atmospheric deposition accounts for a higher
example, changes in the non-breeding distribution of coastal
percentage (about 33% in the United States) [R 9.1, Figure 9.2].
wintering shorebirds in western Europe have been attributed to
26 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
rising mid-winter temperatures; and seabird breeding failures residence time of phytoplankton at the surface, near light.
in the North Sea in 2004 have been linked to a northwards shift Models indicate the net effect is reduced phytoplankton
in plankton distribution driven by rising sea temperatures productivity. Models estimate that the combined effect of
[CT 19.2.2.3]. warming and circulation changes on ocean physics and biology
Coral reefs are vulnerable due to coral bleaching (which will reduce the oceanic CO2 uptake (that is, ability to absorb)
sometimes causes coral mortality) and the spread of pathogens by 6–25% in 1990–2050, thus providing a positive climate
leading to the spread of coral diseases. It has been suggested feedback (that is, increased warming) [CT 13.5.2].
that global warming will reduce the world’s major coral reefs in Changes in ocean circulation, pH, and temperature are also
exceedingly short time frames—one estimate suggests that all likely to have additional effects on ocean biology that have not
current coral reefs will disappear by 2040 due to warming sea been quantified in these models and that may induce further
temperatures [CT 19.2.1.4]. CO2 feedbacks. These include changes in the community
Changing wind patterns and sea temperatures impact structure, net production, and bio-calcification. The effect of bio-
oceanographic processes, including upwellings (for example, calcification is estimated to increase the ocean carbon sink by
Benguela) and surface currents (for example, Gulf Stream), as less than 2.5%. The quality and magnitude of biological changes
well as nutrient availability affecting primary productivity. will vary over space and time and is highly uncertain. While the
Recent results from monitoring of sea temperatures in the combined inorganic and biological changes tend to reduce global
North Atlantic suggest that the Gulf Stream may be slowing uptake of anthropogenic carbon, the global net effect on carbon
down and affecting abundance and seasonality of plankton that uptake of the ocean biological changes alone is unknown.
are food for larval fish. Declining larval fish populations and Altered size and timing of phytoplankton blooms due to climate
lower adult fish stocks will impact the ability of overexploited change can also potentially reduce fish production [CT 13.5.2].
stocks to recover [CT 18.3.1]. In the Arctic, regional warming
Indirect Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal
interacts with socioeconomic change to reduce subsistence
Ecosystems
activities by indigenous and other rural people, the segments of
society with the greatest cultural and economic dependence on
Demand, Fish Prices, and Shifting Food
natural resources. Warming has reduced access to marine
Preferences
mammals (less sea ice) by people dependent on subsistence
activities and made the physical and biotic environment less Marine products are in demand as a luxury food, as a
predictable [CT 25, Main Message #5]. subsistence food source for many coastal communities, and as
In the oceans, sea surface temperature increase reduces the feed for aquaculture and livestock. Per capita consumption of
solubility of CO2 in the ocean and tends to increase vertical fish is increasing rapidly—total fish consumption has declined
stratification (layering) and to slow down global ocean somewhat in developed countries, while it has nearly doubled
circulation. Stratification slows the mixing into deep layers of in the developing world since 1973 [CT 8, Main Message #9].
excess carbon in the surface water. Stratification further reduces The growing demand and corresponding increase in prices has
nutrient input into the surface zone and leads to a prolonged contributed to overfishing [CT 18.3.3].
27
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 2.3 SHARE OF WORLD AND COASTAL POPULATIONS LIVING WITHIN 50 KILOMETRES OF
ESTUARIES, CORAL REEFS, MANGROVES, AND SEAGRASS
Based on spatially referenced population data; due to overlap of some habitat types, figures do not add up to 100%
[CT 19, Table 19.4].
Subtypes Population Share of World Population Share of Coastal Population
(%) (%)
Estuaries 1 598 940 542 27 71
Coral reefs 710 583 010 12 31
Mangroves 1 030 295 102 18 45
Seagrass 1 146 100 829 19 49
Total 5 996 803 192
Persistent and widespread misconceptions about the ability of near major centres. This means that pressures from
marine fish populations to withstand and recover from fishing urbanization, including habitat conversion as cities and their
continue to undermine initiatives to address the root causes of areas of influence grow, are affecting the majority of these key
these problems [CT 18.3.8]. coastal habitats [CT 19.3.1].
Demand for fish as a food source and various other products
Subsidies from the sea are driven by population growth, human migration
Financial subsidies are considered to be one of the most toward coastal areas, and rising incomes and hence demand for
significant drivers of overfishing. The value of fisheries subsidies luxury seafood [CT 18.1]. There has been a decrease in the rate
as a percentage of the gross value of fish production in the at which interior populations are increasing relative to coastal
OECD area was about 20% in 2002 [CT 8.4.1.2.2]. In most populations. If population growth is divided land area, we
cases, government subsidies have resulted in an initial increase observe the highest value in the coastal zone, where over the
of overall effort (number of fishers and size of fleet), which 1990s population grew by 23.3 people per square kilometre
translates into increased fishing pressure and overexploitation of [CT 5.3.4]. Coastal population densities are nearly three times
a number of species. While it appears that the number of fishing that of inland areas: in 2000, population density in coastal
vessels and fishers stabilized in the late 1990s, other subsidies areas was 99.6 people per km2, while in inland areas density
(for example, cheap fuel subsidies) can keep fleets operating was 37.9 people per km2. At the turn of the millennium nearly
even when fish are scarce. Without such subsidies, many of half (49.7%) of the world’s major cities (having more than
these fisheries would cease to be economically viable [CT 500,000) people were found within 50 kilometres of the coast.
18.3.2]. Growth in these cities since 1960 was significantly higher than
in inland cities of the same size. It is increasingly difficult for
Illegal Fishing coastal ecosystems to accommodate the increased collective
This practice exists due to high profits; lack of surveillance, demands of growing populations and markets [CT 19.3.1].
enforcement, and monitoring; tolerance due to the economic
Technology Change
conditions or social obligations within a country; and cheating
in some fisheries that are supposedly regulated. It has led to the The incorporation of an enormous array of electronic devices
introduction of international on-board observers in some facilitating fish detection, including the introduction of radar
fisheries to attempt to bring an end to these. It is now widely and acoustic fish finders on fishing vessels, culminating with the
agreed that independent surveillance is an essential part of any introduction of GPS technology and detailed seabed mapping
fishery management and enforcement plan [CT 18.3.6]. that occurred at the end of the cold war have contributed to
overexploitation [CT 18.3.5].
Population Growth
Globalization
Human pressures stress many of the most ecologically
important and valuable ecosystems within the coastal zones. Fish represent the fastest growing food commodity entering
(See Table 2.3.) This is not accidental, as these habitats and the international trade. Accordingly, fish and fish products
ecosystems services they provide present many of the ‘pull’ represent an extremely valuable source of foreign exchange to
factors that resulted in initial settlement on the coast as well as many countries. Traditional local fish foods are, in many cases,
subsequent migration to it. Fifty-eight percent of the world’s no longer available to local consumers due to their inability to
major coral reef systems occur within 25 km of urban centres match the prices that can be obtained by shipping the products
greater than 100,000 people; 62% of major estuaries occur near elsewhere. An example is Senegal, where exports have disrupted
such urban centres, and 64% of major mangrove forests occur local supplies of fish [CT 18.3.7].
28 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
3 Why should we care about the loss or degradation of marine and coastal
ecosystems and their services?
Box 3.1
■ Coastal areas are characterized by high productivity and high THE MA DEFINITION OF HUMAN WELL-BEING
human well-being but also high vulnerability to natural disasters,
The basic materials for a good life include adequate income,
diseases, and pollution. Island communities are particularly
household assets, food, water, and shelter. Considerable effort goes
vulnerable to changes in marine and coastal services and habitat
into measuring and monitoring these dimensions of well-being.
conditions.
Although great effort goes into these measurement efforts, they
■ More than a billion people rely on fish as their main or sole
do not provide a complete enough picture to support a full
source of animal protein, especially in the coastal zone of understanding of the distribution of well-being and its relationship
developing countries. The reliance and demand for food fish, the to ecosystem services [CT 5.2.1].
overcapacity of the global fleet, and overfishing results in declining
food availability in the long term. Decreased availability of seafood Freedom is defined as the range of options a person has in deciding
and other resultant impacts of ecosystem services degradation have on and realizing the kind of life to lead. At a broad scale, only a few of
the many specific phenomena that are relevant to this dimension of
implications that reach far beyond the coastal zone.
well-being are measured at all, and many of those that are measured
■ Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to nearly
are problematic [CT 5.2.2].
38 million people. The fishing sector has declined as a source of
employment in many industrial countries, but in many developing
Human health is measured in a variety of ways, and knowledge about
countries and island communities there is still a strong traditional
broad trends and patterns concerning health is good. Life expectancy,
dependence on marine and coastal resources for employment.
infant mortality, and child mortality are measured fairly intensively [CT
■ The global economic costs related to pollution of coastal waters is 5.2.3].
$16 billion annually, much of which is due to human health impacts.
■ Other benefits—such as spiritual and cultural values and Humans enjoy a state of good social relations when they are able
tourism—are threatened. Spiritual and cultural values are as to realize aesthetic and recreational values, express cultural and
important as other services for many local communities. Global spiritual values, develop institutional linkages that create social capital,
show mutual respect, have good gender and family relations, and have
tourism is one of the world’s most profitable industries and much of
the ability to help others and provide for their children [CT 5.2.4].
it is linked to coastal and marine ecosystems.
■ Coastal communities are at risk from a range of natural disasters.
Humans can be said to live in a state of security when they do not
This risk increases as coastal and marine ecosystems are degraded.
suffer abrupt threats to their well-being. Some of the most salient
threats are organized violence, economic crises, and natural disasters.
Human Well-being and Ecosystem Services Comparable measures of organized
violence are available for
Over historical time frames, human well-being has on aggregate international warfare and civil war,
improved by several orders of magnitude. Incomes have but generally not for banditry and
increased, populations have grown, life expectancies have risen, other forms of crime. Natural
and political institutions have become more participatory. In the disasters are not measured well,
though various international
global aggregate, human well-being continues to expand,
organizations and research centres
although there are variations across geographical regions.
are seeking to improve
Changes in ecosystem services influence all components of
measurement. The most glaring
human well-being. The degradation of ecosystem services
deficiency in efforts to measure
disproportionately affects the poor, although even wealthy
natural disasters is in the area of
populations cannot be fully insulated from the effects of
human impacts. Although some
degradation. The MA has defined well-being as the basic insurance companies undertake
material needs for a good life, health, good social relations, considerable efforts to quantify
security, and freedom of choice and action. Many of these insured economic losses due to
elements of well-being are difficult to measure or are not natural disasters, many of the
measured adequately, often causing uncertainty or gaps in our grossest effects on human well-being
are not insured economic losses, but
understanding. (See Box 3.1.)
rather loss of life and shelter in poor
Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most
communities [CT 5.2.5]. (Further
productive ecosystems in the world and provide a wide range of
information on natural disasters can
services to human beings. Coastal ecosystems tend to be
be found in CT 6 and CT 16.)
characterized by high human well-being; however, coastal
communities are at risk from natural disasters and diseases
29
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
[CT 5, Main Message #3]. Coastal inhabitants on average Overfishing threatens human well-being through declining
experience higher well-being than those of inland communities. food availability in the long term, since fewer fish are available
Of the world’s total gross national product of approximately for consumption and the price of fish increases. This is a
$44 trillion, 61% comes from coastal areas within particular issue in the developing world, where the combination
100 kilometres of the coastline. Whereas per capita GNP in of overfishing and degradation or conversion of habitats is
1999 averaged only $4,018 across all inland areas, per capita aggravated by export-driven fisheries that overexploit their
GNP in the 100-kilometre coastal area was nearly four times as resource base, diverting food away from the domestic market
much at $16,035 globally. However, we should not lose sight of [CT 18.5.1]. This is of major concern if the Millennium
the fact that fishing communities in many developing countries Development Goal of eradicating poverty and hunger (MDG 1)
are among the very poorest. Infant mortality and life expectancy is to be achieved, as many areas where overfishing is a concern
indices are also thought to be relatively better in coastal areas. are also low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). For
This situation partly explains why rates of population increase example, in West Africa, the exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
are highest in coastal areas [CT 19.3.1]. of Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, and Sierra
Marine and coastal ecosystems are also an important source Leone all accommodate large distant-water fleets, which catch
of economic benefits, with capture fisheries alone worth significant quantities of fish.
approximately $81 billion in 2000; aquaculture $57 billion in Much of the fish is exported or shipped directly to Europe
2000; offshore gas and oil $132 billion in 1995; marine while compensation for access is often low compared to the
tourism, much of it in the coast, $161 billion in 1995; and trade value of the product landed [CT 18.4.1.4]. Similarly, in several
and shipping $155 billion in 1995. Much of this value comes small Caribbean islands, seafood consumption is higher than
from the overexploitation of marine and coastal ecosystems. local production and must be satisfied by imports. This pattern
holds true for countries such as Haiti (70% higher than local
Basic Materials for a Good Life food production), Jamaica (78%), Martinique (80%). The
composition of imports in these small island states is dominated
Food Provision by dried, salted, and smoked fish, but fresh, chilled, and frozen
products are also imported, mainly by countries with a tourism
More than one sixth of the world’s population relies on fish as
industry [CT 23.2.2].
their main or sole source of animal protein. Global annual per
The decreased availability of marine fisheries can have
capita consumption of seafood averages 16 kilograms. Fisheries
implications that reach far beyond the coastal zone. For
are a particularly important source of protein in developing
example, the decreased availability of coastal and freshwater
countries. The supply of wild marine fish as a cheap source of
fish for subsistence fisheries in West Africa has driven an
protein for many countries is declining. Annual per capita wild
increase in the illegal bush meat trade. This trade, in turn, has
marine fish consumption in developing countries (excluding
imperilled many endangered species in the region and is thought
China) has declined from 9.4 kilograms per person in 1985 to
to contribute to outbreaks of primate-borne and other viruses in
9.2 kilograms in 1997 [CT 18 Main Message #7].
Figure 3.1 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL VALUE OF FOOD PRODUCTION FOR CROPS, LIVESTOCK,
AND FISHERIES IN 2000
Indicates where the major calorie and
protein sources of the world are
concentrated. Note the high production
values of both marine and terrestrial food
sources around Asia [CT 8, Figure 8.2].
30 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
human populations [CT 19.2.3]. Such
long-distance connections are evident
elsewhere in Africa. For example, the
warming of the Indian Ocean has caused
recent droughts in the Sahal, directly
affecting millions of people through
increased crop failure [CT 19.2.3].
Conflicts can arise between users with
different property rights, largely driven by
overexploitation of the resource. Marine
ecosystems are often described as
‘commons’ (for everyone’s use). While this
may hold true for the open ocean, complex
property rights exist in many coastal areas.
The property rights in question can be
traditional (aboriginal), historical/local,
and commercial (that is, government sells
the right to access resources). The
boundaries between these rights are
frequently unclear in the absence of
effective management or enforcement and,
in some cases, generate conflicts [CT 18.6].
For example, the small islands of the
Pacific, Caribbean, and Indian oceans have
disproportionately as demand for those services has grown.
narrow coastal shelves surrounded by deep waters. A simple
Coastal habitats are often converted to other uses, frequently
fishing pressure index based on estimates of the number
for aquaculture ponds or cage culturing of highly valued species
of people actively fishing (according to FAO) per kilometre of
such as shrimp and salmon. Despite the fact that the area is still
coastline suggests that fishing pressure is greatest in the
used for food production, local residents are often displaced,
China-Philippines area.
and the food produced is usually not for local consumption but
Overfishing in the near shore of these islands has led
for export [CT 18.5.1]. However, food production in terrestrial
artisanal fishers to venture further offshore to access pelagic
ecosystems is higher than in marine ecosystems. (See Figure 3.1.)
resources such as the large tunas. This has led to encounters and
Fish products are heavily traded, and approximately 50% of
conflict with the already well-established industrial factory ships
exports are from developing countries. Exports from developing
of more industrialized countries and/or other island states
countries presently offset much of the shortfall of supply in
fishing in these waters using longlines or purse seines to exploit
European, North American, and East Asian markets [CT
these resources. These conflicts over marine resources are
18.4.1.4]. Trade has increased the quantity and quality of fish
increasingly being arbitrated through the provisions of the
supplied to wealthy countries, in particular the United States,
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
European countries, and Japan, despite reductions in marine
[CT 23.2.2].
fish catch [CT18.4.1.1].
Another example is the growth of shrimp farming and the
consequent damage of such aquaculture on mangroves (see CT
Employment
19.). In Honduras, social conflict has increased between shrimp
farm concession holders and those who are not concession Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to nearly
holders but believe that shrimp farms are intruding on 38 million people (FAO 2004), with approximately 15 million
government-reserved natural resources [CT 5.5]. fishers employed aboard decked and undecked fishing vessels in
The ecosystem service of food production contributes by far the marine capture fisheries sector [CT 18.1]. However the
the most to economic activity and employment. In 2000, the fishing sector has declined as a source of employment in many
market value of global food production was $981 billion, or industrial countries [CT 18.4.1]. For example, in Canada, the
roughly 3% of gross world product (although it is a much collapse of the cod fishery resulted in severe unemployment
higher share of GDP within developing countries). Of this, compounded by restrictions on subsistence fishing [18.5.1].
marine and coastal fisheries (wild and aquaculture) contribute Although the fishing sector has declined as a source of
$124.2 billion, or 12% of world food production [CT 8, employment in many industrial countries, many developing
Table 8.1]. countries and small island communities still have a strong
Poor people historically have lost access to ecosystem services traditional dependence on marine and coastal biodiversity for
31
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 3.2 THE BENGUELA FISHERY [SAfMA sub-global assessment, Box 5.5]
The Benguela fishery lies almost entirely within the economic zone of three countries: South Africa, Namibia, and Angola. These countries
cooperate closely in the management of fish stocks to ensure that they persist. A contributing factor to the longevity of the fishery is its
dependence on small pelagic fish, which live for a year and recruit annually in large numbers, compared to fisheries based mostly on
high-trophic-level, long-lived fish.
Following the inception of commercial fisheries during the early twentieth century, and especially from about mid-century, the combined
catch of the five main species in the Benguela system grew to a peak around 1970 and then declined. In recent years, many of the stocks
have shown a gradual recovery. However, the collapsed anchovy and pilchard stocks off Namibia have not recovered. Several marine fish
species harvested on the west coasts have shown large fluctuations in the stock (see Figure), the causes of which are poorly understood.
In the case of the Namibian anchovy, the increasing frequent southward intrusion of warm tropical water, a phenomenon similar to (but
apparently unconnected with) the El Niño in the Pacific Ocean, may be associated with their decline. In the case of the other species,
overfishing is the probable main factor causing the fluctuations.
Trends in Marine Fish Catches in the Benguela Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) off the west coast of Southern
Africa. This system provided 44% of the total catch in the region during the 1990s. The fluctuation in stocks
appears to be synchronized with stock fluctuations in other major fisheries around the world, and is therefore
suggested to be partly influenced by the climate system [CT 8, Figure 8.2].
Other Marketable Goods
employment. The reliance on and demand for food fish, the
overcapacity of the global fleet, and overfishing result in A global picture of the potential economic value associated with
declining food availability in the long term. (See Box 3.2.) the coastal zone can be built up by aggreggating a number of
The early 1990s collapse of the Newfoundland cod fishery existing valuation studies. A preliminary estimate of the total
(see Figure 3.2) due to overfishing resulted in the loss of tens of economic value of ecosystem services provided by global
thousands of jobs and has cost at least $2 billion in income ecosystems showed that while the coastal zone covers only 8%
support and retraining [General SR 3]. Globally, the bulk of of the world’s surface, the goods and services provided by it are
people employed in fisheries are poor and many are without responsible for approximately 43% of the estimated total value
alternative sources of work and subsistence. of global ecosystem services: $12.6 trillion (1997 dollars). While
Tourism also is a major source of coastal employment. Loss of controversial, this preliminary study made it abundantly clear
habitat can impact heavily on local employment. For example, that coastal ecosystem services do provide significant
the total damages for the Indian Ocean region over 20 years contribution to human well-being at a global scale.
(with a 10% discount rate) resulting from the long-term impacts Furthermore, it demonstrated the need for additional research
of massive coral bleaching in 1998 are estimated to be between and indicated the fact that coastal areas are among the
$608 million (if there is only a slight decrease in tourism- ecosystems most in need of additional study [CT 19.3.2].
generated income and employment results) and $8 billion (if Coastal ecosystems provide other types of marketable goods
tourism income and employment and fish productivity drop such as genetic, medical, and ornamental (aquarium trade)
significantly and reefs cease to function as a protective barrier). resources. Coral reefs have been shown to be an exceptional
32 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 3.2 COLLAPSE OF ATLANTIC COD STOCKS OFF THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN 1992
This collapse forced the closure of the
fishery after hundreds of years of 900 000
exploitation. Until the late 1950s, the
fishery was exploited by migratory
800 000
seasonal fleets and resident inshore
small-scale fishers. From the late
700 000
1950s, offshore bottom trawlers began
exploiting the deeper part of the stock,
leading to a large catch increase and a 600 000
strong decline in the underlying
biomass. Internationally agreed quotas
500 000
in the early 1970s and, following the
declaration by Canada of an Exclusive
400 000
Fishing Zone in 1977, national quota
systems ultimately failed to arrest and
reverse the decline. The stock collapsed 300 000
to extremely low levels in the late
1980s and early 1990s, and a
200 000
moratorium on commercial fishing was
declared in June 1992. A small
100 000
commercial inshore fishery was
reintroduced in 1998, but catch rates
declined and the fishery was closed 0
indefinitely in 2003 [General SR,
Figure 3.4]. Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Mangrove forests are estimated to provide an annual net
reservoir of natural bioactive products, many of which exhibit
benefit of $15 per hectare for medicinal plants, and up to $61
structural features not found in terrestrial natural products [CT
per hectare for medicinal values. Similarly large economic
19.3.2.1].
benefits are calculated for the shoreline stabilization and erosion
Biological monitoring is an industry developing in response
control functions of mangroves [CT 19.2.1.2].
to the necessities of tracking down sources of pollution across
large geographical areas. This would normally require vast
Human Health
resources in terms of conventional instrumentation but the
status of the environment can also be monitored by using
organisms that routinely ‘sample’ the environment, such as Human communities are also at risk from the health
aquatic or marine filter-feeding animals (for example, paddle implications of degraded ecosystems. Cholera and other
worms, sea squirts) [CT 10.2.7]. waterborne diseases are on the rise in coastal countries, and
Some marine species have been overharvested for natural may be related to declining water quality, climate, and
products research such as cone shells of the molluscan family eutrophication-driven algal blooms. Algal blooms (including red
Conidae for their highly variable toxins (conotoxins) for tides) have caused neurological damage and death in humans
application to many areas of medicine [CT 10.7.4]. through consumption of affected seafood. The toxins in red tide
The market price of seafood products is often used as a proxy species may be accumulated in marine organisms and cause a
when calculating the value of ecosystems. The annual market number of different types of toxic effects to humans [CT
value of seafood supported by mangroves, for example, has been 19.3.1]. The incidence of diseases of marine organisms and
calculated to range from $750 to $16,750 (1999 dollars) per emergence of new pathogens is increasing, and some of these,
hectare [CT 19.3.2.1]. The wide range indicates the varying such as ciguatera, harm human health [CT 19.3.1]. Cholera
importance of different seafood and is not an accurate indication impacts human well-being directly by increasing human
of the worth of mangroves. Due to their function as nurseries, morbidity and mortality rates, but it also has severe economic
fisheries yields in waters adjacent to mangroves tend to be high; impacts in coastal countries. For instance, tuna coming from
annual net values of $600 per hectare per year for this fishery countries having incidences of cholera are required to be
benefit have been suggested [CT 19.2.1.2]. Coral reef-based quarantined; this restriction affects many of the major tuna
fisheries are also valuable: the coral reef-based fisheries in producing and exporting countries [CT 19.3.1].
Southeast Asia, for example, generate $2.4 billion per year. Human health effects are also caused by pollution of
33
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Tourism and Recreation
nearshore waters, whereby humans consume fish or other
marine products that contain heavy metals, PCBs, POPs, and Natural amenities are highly valued by people and contribute to
other toxins that have bioaccumulated in the food chain. human welfare, thus providing significant economic value.
Chronic exposure to heavy metals and other bioaccumulating Much of what people value in the coastal zone—natural
pollutants may not cause death in large numbers of people, but amenities (open spaces, attractive views), good beaches for
their cumulative effect can lead to reproductive failure and recreation, high levels of water quality, protection from storm
significantly decreased well-being [CT 19.3.1]. UNEP and the surges, and waste assimilation/nutrient cycling—are provided by
Water Supply and Sanitation Council estimate the global key habitats within coastal ecosystems. Stretches of beach,
economic costs related to pollution of coastal waters is $16 rocky cliffs, estuarine and coastal marine waterways, and coral
billion annually (www.wsscc.org), much of which is due to reefs provide numerous recreational and scenic opportunities.
human health impacts [CT 19.3.1]. Coastal waters in both Boating, fishing, swimming, walking, beachcombing, scuba
industrial and developing countries are frequently contaminated diving, and sunbathing are among the numerous leisure
with sewage [CT 14.2.1.5]. activities that people enjoy worldwide and thus represent
significant economic value [CT 19.3.2.2]. The seas and coasts
Good Social Relations are also of great spiritual importance to many people around
the world, although such values are difficult to quantify. For
Spiritual and Cultural Values example, the Bajau peoples of Indonesia and the aboriginal
Spiritual and cultural values of ecosystems are as important as people of the Torres Strait (Australia) have a culture intimately
other services for many local communities. Human cultures, connected to oceans, while many of the native peoples of North
knowledge systems, religions, heritage values, and social America have similar strong ties to coastal ecosystems [CT
interactions have always been influenced and shaped by the 19.3.2.2].
nature of the ecosystem and ecosystem conditions in which Reef-based tourism generated over $1.2 billion annually in
culture is based. People have benefited in many ways from the Florida Keys (of the United States) alone and the Great
cultural ecosystem services, including aesthetic enjoyment, Barrier Reef (Australia) attracts 1.6 million visitors each year
recreation, artistic and spiritual fulfilment, and intellectual and generates over $1 billion annually in direct revenue [CT
development [CT 17, Main Messages]. 18.6]. Much of this tourism centres on aesthetically pleasing
The degradation of marine and coastal habitats affects the landscapes and seascapes; intact healthy coastal ecosystems with
well-being of all people in many ways that cannot be measured good air and water quality; and opportunities to see diverse
in economic terms. Open space, proximity to clean water, and wildlife. Tourism and recreational values are particularly high
scenic vistas are often cited as primary attractors of residents for semi-enclosed seas, many of which are becoming highly
who own property and live within the coastal fringe. Even for degraded (for example, Gulf of California, Black Sea, Baltic Sea,
people who live far inland with no direct reliance on coastal and large parts of the Mediterranean Sea). Many of the world’s
areas, surveys show that humans maintain strong spiritual great civilizations sprang up along the shorelines of these seas,
connections to the sea and care about its condition. Additionally, and thus they have historically provided food, trade routes, and
for many cultures, such as First Nations of the Pacific Northwest waste processing services to their burgeoning populations [CT
of North America, coastal species such as salmon are of 19.2.1.8]. Harmful algal blooms, including red tides, can be
considerable importance and often define the ‘quality of life’ quite costly in these areas. For example, a bloom in 1989 cost
of people with a cultural tradition of harvesting the sea the Italian tourism industry $11.4 million [CT 19.3.1]. Another
[CT 18.4.1.2]. important activity associated with tourism is recreational
Box 3.3 ISLAND ECOSYSTEM CASE STUDY
Island communities are particularly vulnerable to changes in marine and coastal services and habitat conditions. Many small islands have a
strong traditional dependence on marine and coastal biodiversity for their food, employment, tools, building materials, industry, medicine,
transport, and waste disposal. With increasing human population pressures through high migration and reproductive rates, island ecosystems
face several serious issues both in the immediate and near future [CT 23, Main Message #1]. Overfishing has already deprived island
communities of subsistence fishing and caused conflicts in many tropical islands across Asia. Island states and their exclusive economic zones
comprise 40% of the world’s oceans and earn significant foreign exchange from the sale of offshore fishery licences, but this situation cannot
last forever [CT 23, Main Message #3]. One of the most important roles of fisheries in island states is the employment opportunities it offers for
thousands of people in a region where high levels of unemployment continue to be a major concern. The fisheries sector on small island
developing states in the Caribbean provides stable full-time and part-time direct employment for more than 200,000 people and indirect
employment for another approximately 100,000 people in the secondary sector (processing, marketing), boat building, net making, and other
support industries [CT 23.2.2]. Islands also face increased problems of coastal and beach erosion due to inappropriate forms of coastline
engineering and tourism development that often use coral and beach sand as building material [CT 23.3.3].
34 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
fishing. For example, there is a growing population of Box 3.4 POLAR REGION CASE STUDY
recreational fishers within the Caribbean where dozens of
international, regional, and national fishing tournaments are In polar regions, products derived from locally available fish
held each year [CT 23.2.5.2]. and wildlife resources often offer important sources of cash
Much of the economic values of coral reefs (with net benefits that supplement wages and transfer payments from
estimated at nearly $30 billion each year) are generated from governments. However, subsistence economies are vulnerable
nature-based and dive tourism. Coral reef-based recreational to declines in global markets for these commodities; examples
include seal or muskrat pelts (as changes in cultural values
fisheries generate over $100 million annually. The annual
reduced global demand for furs), salmon (as fish farming
recreational value of the coral reefs of each of six Marine
increased alternative supplies), and reindeer antler (as cultural
Management Areas in the Hawaiian Islands in 2003 ranged from
change in Asia reduced demand). When world market prices
$300,000 to $35 million [General SR 3]. ‘Willingness to pay’
are high, regional resource management institutions may be
studies in the Indian Ocean suggest that health of coral reefs is
unable to respond to the increased incentives for unregulated
an important factor for tourists: tourists were willing to pay, on or illegal harvest (for example, Kamchatka salmon, Greenland
average, $59-$98 extra per holiday to experience high-quality cod) or overgrazing by reindeer. On the other hand, government
reefs. In Jamaica and Barbados, destruction of coral reefs has policies to conserve stocks may prevent Arctic people from
resulted in dramatic declines in visitation; loss of revenue taking advantage of the only viable commercial activities
streams subsequently led to social unrest and even further available (as with the International Whaling Commission ban
tourism declines (MA Subglobal Assessment—Caribbean Sea). In on commercial whaling) [CT 25.4.2].
Florida, reef degradation is rapidly changing the structure of the
tourism market, from high-value, low-volume tourism towards
larger numbers of budget travellers [CT 19.3.2.2].
Despite the value of coastal areas to the tourism industry, much as 15 metres (49 feet) shoreline erosion inland per
coastal tourism development also contributes to the continued year. Erosion threatens homes, roads and urban infrastructure,
degradation of these ecosystems. For example, it often uses and the safety of individuals, and affects biodiversity as well
habitats such as estuaries, mangroves, marshes, and atoll [CT 19.6]. Coastal erosion can have significant economic
lagoons for waste disposal, reducing their capacity to provide consequences. For example, in the United States alone, coastal
ecosystem services such as waste processing and coastal erosion of dunes and beaches costs $500 million in property
protection. Tourism development also results in conversion of loss annually [CT 19.2.1.3].
habitat to accommodate infrastructure, resulting in loss of dune
Trade-offs between Conservation and Other Priorities
systems, wetlands, and even coral reefs [CT 19.4.1].
Security Trade-offs in meeting Millennium Development Goals and
other international commitments are inevitable. There is
Natural Disasters strong evidence that the condition of inland waters and
Coastal communities are at risk from natural disasters such as coastal ecosystems has been compromised by the conventional
hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis, and storm surge flooding, as sectoral approach to water management and, if continued,
well as losses incurred from both sudden and chronic shoreline will jeopardize human well-being. In contrast, through
erosion. Losses of habitats such as mangrove forests (35% have implementation of the established ecosystem-based approaches
disappeared in the last two decades) threaten the safety of adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity, the
people living in the 118 coastal countries where mangroves Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar), FAO, and others, the future
occur. Mangroves not only serve as a buffer from storm damage condition of water provisioning services could be substantially
for these communities, but also serve to absorb heavy metals improved by balancing economic development, ecosystem
and other toxic substances in effluents [CT 19.2.1.2]. Projected preservation, and human well-being objectives [CT 7, Main
sea-level rise due to climate change (1–2 mm/yr over the next Message #6].
century) is expected to have serious consequences for millions of A ‘business as usual’ approach is projected to lead to
people living on low-lying islands, atolls, or flood-prone areas continued loss of habitats and species, with attendant changes
like much of Bangladesh [CT 19.3.1] through the effects of to ecosystem services and negative impacts on many coastal-
flooding and coastal erosion. In turn, flooding and coastal dependent industries and coastal communities. Yet enough is
erosion will have serious consequences for the tourism industry known to change the current approach and begin to
[CT 23, Main Messages #9]. systematically develop strategic plans for more effective
protection and more sustainable use of coastal ecosystems
Erosion [CT 19.6].
Boxes 3.3 and 3.4 demonstrate some of the vulnerabilities
A fifth of the coastline of the newly enlarged European Union is
for two particular marine influenced regions.
eroding away due to human-induced causes, in a few cases as
35
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Gaps in Understanding regarding Human Well-being national accounts do not include measures of resource
depletion or of the degradation of renewable resources. As a
Human well-being depends on ecosystem services but also on result, a country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries,
the supply and quality of social capital, technology, and and this would show only as a positive gain to GDP despite
institutions. These factors mediate the relationship between the loss of the capital asset. Moreover, many ecosystem
ecosystem services and human well-being in ways that remain services are available freely to those who use them
contested and incompletely understood. The relationship (freshwater in aquifers, for instance, or the use of the
between human well-being and ecosystem services is not atmosphere as a sink for pollutants), and so, again, their
linear. When an ecosystem service is abundant relative to the degradation is not reflected in standard economic measures
demand, a marginal increase in ecosystem services generally [General SR 3].
contributes only slightly to human well-being (or may even The information available to assess the consequences of
diminish it). But when the service is relatively scarce, a small changes in ecosystem services for human well-being is
decrease can substantially reduce human well-being [SG 3.4]. relatively limited. Many ecosystem services have not been
The degradation of ecosystem services represents a loss of a monitored and it is also difficult to estimate the relative
capital asset. Both renewable resources such as ecosystem influence of changes in ecosystem services in relation to other
services and nonrenewable resources such as mineral deposits, social, cultural, and economic factors that also affect human
soil nutrients, and fossil fuels are capital assets. Yet traditional well-being [General SR 3].
Box 3.5 THE MA SCENARIOS [Biodiversity SR]
It is important to remember that no scenario will match the future as it protect their borders, attempting to confine poverty, conflict,
actually occurs. None of the scenarios represents a ‘best’ path or a environmental degradation, and deterioration of ecosystem services
‘worst’ path. There could be combinations of policies and practices that to areas outside the borders. These problems often cross borders,
produce significantly better or worse outcomes than any of these however, impinging on the well-being of those within.
scenarios. The future will represent a mix of approaches and The Adapting Mosaic scenario explores the benefits and risks of
consequences described in the scenarios, as well as events and environmentally proactive local and regional management as the
innovations that could not be imagined at the time of writing [S 5]. primary approach to sustainability. In this scenario, lack of faith in
The focus on alternative approaches to sustaining ecosystem global institutions, combined with increased understanding of the
services distinguishes the MA scenarios from previous global scenario importance of resilience and local flexibility, leads to approaches that
exercises. The four approaches were developed based on interviews favour experimentation and local control of ecosystem management.
with leaders in NGOs, governments, and business on five continents, The results are mixed, as some regions do a good job managing
on scenario literature, and on policy documents addressing linkages ecosystems but others do not. High levels of communication and
between ecosystem change and human well-being. The approach to interest in learning lead regions to compare experiences and learn
scenario development used in the MA consists of a combination of from one another. Gradually the number of successful experiments
qualitative storyline development and quantitative modelling based on begins to grow. While global problems are ignored initially, later
assumptions about the evolution of indirect drivers such as economic in the scenario they are approached with flexible strategies based
and population growth [S 6]. on successful experiences with locally adaptive management.
The Global Orchestration scenario explores the possibilities of a However, some ecosystems suffer long-lasting degradation.
world in which global economic and social policies are the primary The TechnoGarden scenario explores the potential role of
approach to sustainability. The recognition that many of the most technology in providing or improving the provision of ecosystem
pressing global problems seem to have roots in poverty and inequality services. The use of technology and the focus on ecosystem services
evokes fair policies to improve the well-being of those in poorer is driven by a system of property rights and valuation of ecosystem
countries by removing trade barriers and subsidies. Environmental services. In this scenario, people push ecosystems to their limits of
problems are dealt with in an ad-hoc reactive manner, as it is assumed producing the optimum amount of ecosystem services for humans
that improved economic well-being will eventually create demand for, through the use of technology. Often, the technologies they use are
and the means to achieve, environmental protection. Nations also more flexible than today’s environmental engineering, and they allow
make progress on global environmental problems, such as greenhouse multiple needs to be met from the same ecosystem. Provision of
gas emissions and the depletion of pelagic marine fisheries. However, ecosystem services in this scenario is high worldwide, but flexibility is
some local and regional environmental problems are exacerbated. low due to high dependence on a narrow set of optimal approaches.
The results for ecosystem services are mixed. Human well-being is In some cases, unexpected problems created by technology and
improved in many of the poorest countries (and in some rich ones), but erosion of ecological resilience lead to vulnerable ecosystem services,
a number of ecosystem services deteriorate by 2050, placing at risk which may break down. In addition, success in increasing the
the long-term sustainability of the well-being improvements. production of ecosystem services often undercuts the ability of
The Order from Strength scenario examines the outcomes of a ecosystems to support themselves, leading to surprising interruptions
world in which protection through boundaries becomes paramount. of some ecosystem services. These interruptions and collapses
The policies enacted in this scenario lead to a world in which the rich sometimes have serious consequences for human well-being.
36 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
The reliance of the rural poor on ecosystem services is
rarely measured and thus typically overlooked in national
statistics and in poverty assessments, resulting in inappropriate
strategies that do not take into account the role of the
environment in poverty reduction [General SR 3].
A Look at the Future: The Four MA Scenarios
The MA explores the future for ecosystem services and human
well-being through four different plausible scenarios. Scenarios
are a means to explore future changes that are difficult to
describe using the extrapolation of known current or past
trends to analyse how ecosystems might respond to different
future policy regimes and a range of drivers affecting ecosystems
and human well-being. The four scenarios—Global
Orchestration; Order from Strength; Adapting Mosaic; and
TechnoGarden—cover a wide range of possible developments
for the years up to 2050. (See Box 3.5.) It is likely that the real
future will not mirror one of the scenarios but will rather
consist of a mix of the elements of all four scenarios.
■ Cross-cutting Issue 1: Fisheries
Cross-cutting Issues across the Four Scenarios
Due to the lack of basic information on marine and coastal Across all four scenarios, an increase in the demand for fish
ecosystems, the MA scenarios cover only some of the major as food is forecasted, accompanied by a decline of fish stocks
drivers of change in those ecosystems. The following sections that differs among the scenarios. The forecasts for industrial
explore those changes for some factors affecting ecosystem and developing countries differ substantially. Uncertainties in
change and ecosystem services. Fisheries, eutrophication, and the interpretation of recent fish stock trends make forecasting
climate change (with the accompanying sea-level rise and difficult.
coastal protection) are amongst the strongest drivers (see A range of factors will determine future wild capture
Chapter 1 for information on other drivers), while biodiversity fisheries. They include changes in the degree of overfishing due
is a fundamental key ecosystem service in the coastal and to fisheries mismanagement; fishing subsidies affecting the catch
marine realm. Box 3.6 highlights the major predictions of the at the fisheries level; climate and climate variability, causing
scenarios. shifts in species distributions and abundance; and population
growth and food preferences affecting the demand for marine
products [S 9.4.3]. Other interactive effects are also occurring,
Box 3.6 PREDICTIONS FROM THE MA SCENARIOS
such as eutrophication and coastal development.
All scenarios predict: In the Global Orchestration scenario, many of the world’s
■ An increase in demand for fish for food and a massive major fisheries collapse between 2030 and 2050. The scenario
decline, if not a collapse, of the major fish stocks over the expects some global cooperation in managing species, but open
next decades. The decline of fish stocks under the scenarios in
borders and reduced trade barriers would lead to
the next decades is of major concern and will impact upon
insurmountable obstacles to effective monitoring of many
achieving Millennium Development Goal 1, eradication of extreme
stocks, which would be exploited unsustainably and severely
poverty.
overfished [S 8.3]. However, economic incentives, regulation,
and the creation of marine protected areas help to establish
■ Climate-change-induced sea-level rise. The scenarios
sustained catches in some areas of industrial countries. This also
variously predict a 50–70 cm rise with a further rise in the next
applies to some developing countries with stable governance,
century. Sea-level rise is expected to have severe impacts for
coastal communities under all scenarios except the Adapting but the race against climate changed-induced degradation of
Mosaic scenario. As poverty is concentrated in the coastal coral reefs and other marine areas does hamper such efforts.
zone, this will have repercussions for MDG 1. Illegal fishing, corruption, and lack of enforcement lead to
overexploitation of fish stocks in developing countries with
■ Increase in eutrophication of coastal and marine
poor governance.
ecosystems. The scenarios differ in their ability to address dead
High-seas fisheries are expected to rise in importance under
zones of hypoxia.
the Global Orchestration scenario, driven by industrial
countries. This relates mainly to pelagic sources, while deep-sea
37
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
resources in developing countries suffer from the decline in
fisheries on seamounts and deep-sea corals cease. Many more
protein supply. In the longer term, however, industrial countries
high-seas marine protected areas will finally become established.
manage to improve conditions of marine and coastal ecosystems,
Coastal aquaculture is forecasted to expand in both industrial
through phasing-out of destructive fishery practices, formation
and developing countries. In the latter more than the former,
of marine protected areas, and construction of artificial coral
aquaculture is accompanied by negative impacts on the
reefs. Some developing countries, through assistance from
environment and small-scale coastal fisheries. High-seas
regional bodies and some industrial countries, achieve
aquaculture is slowly on the rise, with costs for technological
stabilization of coastal and marine ecosystems, while countries
development limiting its expansion during the first decades of
with poor governance face further stock collapses. Top predators
the 21st century. Conflicts about access rights on the high seas
are likely to vanish from most marine ecosystems.
ultimately lead to the formation of a global oceans commission
Aquaculture will only slowly expand in industrial countries
[S 8.7].
and those developing countries with good governance, due to
In the Order from Strength scenario, global issues such as
the reliance on wild-caught fishmeal. In developing countries
climate change or marine fisheries are very difficult to address.
with poor governance, aquaculture may be likely to be forced
Hence, climate change, sea-level rise, and events such as the El
to expand, but the high economic costs, accompanied by major
Niño/Southern Oscillation severely impact the fishing options
impacts on ecosystem services, eventually lead to it being
for poor countries and, within those, in particular the poor
abandoned.
coastal communities. While global agreements become almost
Further expansion of fisheries into the high seas is not
impossible to establish, some regional agreements succeed in
controlled, due to the lack of global agreements. But the high
providing protection for fish stocks, mainly in regions of
costs eventually limit high-seas fisheries, particularly for those
industrial countries and regions that receive assistance from
industrial countries that manage to develop sustainable near-
those. This would include, to a limited extent, the closure of
coast fisheries and freshwater aquaculture [S 8.5].
areas to fisheries and the formation of marine protected areas.
The TechnoGarden scenario forecasts an increased regulation
These industrial countries reduce their outflow of fish products
of high-seas fisheries, addressing the severe stock declines.
to secure food security and social benefits within their own
Ranching of important fish such as tuna helps in managing the
boundaries.
stocks. The focus on global solutions tends to leave small-scale
In the scenario, aquaculture expands rapidly, bearing high
fisheries neglected, and local resource users are in danger of
costs for biodiversity, coastal protection, and related ecosystem
losing their income. In industrial countries, fishery practices are
services. The lack of control of high-seas fisheries leaves high-
improved with the help of technology. This is particularly
sea fish stocks unprotected and, hence, stocks reach the stage of
relevant for high-value fish for food species such as large
collapse rather quickly [S 8.4; S 8.7].
shrimp, salmon, and cod. Technology allows for a massive
Under the Adapting Mosaic scenario, the world fish catch
expansion of aquaculture, with less and less need for wild-
may decline severely by 2020—the tragedy of the Global
caught fishmeal and the development of feed alternatives.
Commons. Coastal communities and those depending on marine
Box 3.7 CASE STUDY: FISHERIES AND TOURISM IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA—JAMAICA AND BONAIRE [S 12.4.3]
Many ecosystem services are provided by the Caribbean Sea. reported algal overgrowth. In Bonaire, the Reef Environmental
Two of the most prized are fisheries and recreation. The Caribbean Educational Foundation has recently generated statistics from
attracts about 57% of scuba diving tours worldwide. In the 1950s, about 60,000 coral reef fish surveys, which rate seven dive sites
1960s, and 1970s, Jamaica was the prime dive location, and hard in Bonaire among the top 10 worldwide for fish species
corals covered as much as 90% of shallow coastal areas. By the richness, with over 300 species. Bonaire banned spear fishing
late 1960s, chronic overfishing had reduced fish biomass by about from its reefs in 1971. In 1979, the Bonaire Marine Park was
80% compared to the previous decade. Then, in the early 1980s, created. In 1992, active management of the park started with
two extreme events hit Jamaican coral reefs, causing their collapse. the introduction of mandatory permits for divers, bringing in
In 1980, Hurricane Allen broke many large elkhorn and staghorn about $170,000 a year to support protected area management.
corals into pieces. In 1983, an unidentified disease spread Economic activities (dive operators, hotels, etc.) connected with
throughout the Caribbean and killed 99% of black spined sea the park attract about 10,000 people annually; such activities
urchins (Diadema antillarum), the primary grazer of algae on the are valued at over $23 million per year. In contrast, the cost of
reefs. Without the ecosystem services provided by grazing fish or park management is under $1 million per annum. In this case,
sea urchins, fleshy macro-algae came to dominate coral reefs regulating provision of one service (the fishery) maintained
(more than 90% cover) in just two years. The lucrative dive tourism resilience in the ecosystem and led to a long-term gain in
industry in Jamaica declined. provision of recreation as well as a stable, long-term fishery.
When the sea urchin mass mortality occurred throughout the These synergistic interactions among ecosystem services allow
region, most sites suffered algal overgrowth, but a few sites—like for the simultaneous enhancement of the supply of more than
Bonaire—did not. With abundant grazing fish, Bonaire had no one ecosystem service.
38 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 3.1 CONSEQUENCES OF EACH SCENARIO FOR THE FACTORS AFFECTING HYPOXIA IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
[S 8, Table 8.8]
FACTOR GLOBAL ORCHESTRATION ORDER FROM STRENGTH ADAPTING MOSAIC TECHNOGARDEN
Farming Decrease in area; no change Increase in area; increase Increase in area; less Decrease in area; less
in nutrients; some in fertilizer use; limited fertilizer use; better land fertilizer use; better land
improvement in land improvement in land management practices; management practices;
management; constant or management; increased less nutrient runoff less nutrient runoff
minor decrease in nutrient nutrient runoff
runoff
Managing Management of river for Some local addition of Some levee removal Levee removal and re-
the river barges eliminates some riparian buffers and driven by farming and engineering of floodplains
wetlands and increases wetlands combined with flood protection; restored with ecologically
channelization; some decrease in wetlands and wetlands and riparian sophisticated levees and
increase in wetlands and building levees; increased buffers; decreased engineered wetlands;
buffers elsewhere; no change proportion of nutrients proportion of nutrients decreased proportion of
in proportion of nutrients entering Mississippi entering Mississippi nutrients entering
entering Mississippi Mississippi
Managing Investment in human well- Some area abandoned; Local projects, but Federal ecological
the river delta being in delta results in many regulation of river; further disagreements about what re-engineering of the delta
local improvements; however, decrease in delta despite to do about the river; leads to greatly increased
river channelization leads to some local increases in slightly increased flow area of wetlands
only small increases in flow wetland through the delta
through delta
Changes Slow growth in area Substantial growth in area Initial increase in area, Reduction in area
in hypoxia then gradual decline
Changes Sport fishery persists, Fishery eliminated Local management and Fishery increased and
in fishery commercial fishery closed improvement of fishery combined with delta;
due to low profitability aquaculture maintained
■ Cross-cutting issue 2: Eutrophication
Offshore aquaculture is developed for high-value fish such as
tuna. Technological solutions, however, remain vulnerable to Eutrophication is a major driver of loss of ecosystem services
surprise events such as the spread of diseases and pests. in the marine and coastal zone. A drastic example of the
Corporations from the industrial world take over substantial effects of eutrophication on marine and coastal ecosystems
parts of developing-country fisheries, which export large is the Gulf of Mexico, where agricultural run-offs created,
amounts to the developed world. International aid is required to by 2002, an area of hypoxia of more than 20,000 km2. (See
support the collapsing fishing communities in developing Box 3.8.)
countries. The expansion of aquaculture counters this impact to The hypoxia zone in the Gulf of Mexico would be reduced
some extent. Aquaculture in the developing world focuses more most in the TechnoGarden scenario, due to improved
on lower-value fish, to support food security and provide cheap agricultural practices and better management of the Mississippi
export products. Large tracks of coastal land are lost to river, the Mississippi delta, and New Orleans. The Adapting
aquaculture, with impacts on ecosystem services such as erosion Mosaic scenario predicts an initial increase in the amount of
control and storm and flood protection. the dead zone, but due to local efforts the situation would be
High-seas fisheries face further losses of stocks and tend reversed slowly. Under the Global Orchestration scenario,
increasingly to focus on aquaculture operations outside of positive and negative impacts would equal each other, and in
national exclusive economic zones. This sector is completely effect, the hypoxia zone would increase further. The cumulative
dominated by industrial countries able to afford the new effects of the Order from Strength scenario makes it the worst
technologies [S 8.6]. for the future development of the dead zone in the Gulf of
The case study on fisheries and tourism from Jamaica Mexico [S 8.7.9]. Table 3.1 summarizes the consequences of
and Bonaire (see Box 3.7) demonstrates how natural factors each of the four MA scenarios for these main factors. Climate
and management decisions influence the development of change will not be very different across the scenarios; warming
ecosystem services, a link that has been used extensively by the of the Gulf and increased rainfall in the catchment area will
four scenarios. worsen the situation in the hypoxia zone.
39
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 3.8 CASE STUDY: DEAD ZONES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
Five factors have been identified that influence the extent of the hypoxia zone in the Gulf of Mexico: climate, agricultural management in
the Mississippi catchment area, the management of the Mississippi river, the management of the Mississippi river delta and New Orleans,
and fishing practices. These factors largely depend on decisions that have been taken, often decades ago, far away from the Gulf itself.
Figure 3.3 shows the direct and indirect drivers of this process.
Figure 3.3 CONCEPTUAL MAP OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DRIVERS OF THE DEAD ZONE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
The colours represent different levels of direct and indirect drivers influencing the dead zone [S 8, Figure 8.7].
Wetlands mgmt
Population, economics, inequality
Flood control, levees
Fishing
Managing the Managing
Delta & New the Mississippi
Orleans River
Hurricanes
Area
Dead zone in Landscape
Gulf of Mexico context (buffers)
Temp in gulf
Agriculture
Climate in US Midwest
Precipitation
in Midwest
Temp
amount timing Ag practices
in Midwest
fertilizer manure
■ Cross-cutting Issue 3: Sea-level Rise and Coastal as the protection of society from storm and related damage
Protection through natural buffers such as coral reefs, mangrove forests,
Climate change is expected to impact (through sea-level rise) and sand bars. The future of this service depends particularly on
severely on coastal wetlands, with substantial losses for the degree of sea-level rise and sea surface temperature.
estuaries, deltas, and tidal flats as well as accelerating coral In the Global Orchestration and the Order from Strength
bleaching through the increase of sea surface temperatures. scenarios, coastal protection for industrial countries—focused
This effect is least developed in the TechnoGarden scenario on the repair of damage after it occurrs rather than an active
[Wetlands SR 5]. The four scenarios predict a mean global ecosystem management system for prevention—is likely to
sea-level rise of between 50 cm (TechnoGarden) and 70 cm remain about the same. In developing countries, coastal
(Global Orchestration). protection is expected to suffer severely in both these scenarios.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has Under the Adapting Mosaic and the TechnoGarden scenarios,
described how climate change affects the sea level. Warmer air ecosystem management actively addresses coastal protection,
temperatures result in an expansion of ocean water and a which will generally improve. In developing countries, however,
melting of ice from ice caps and glaciers. In addition, stronger the efforts under the TechnoGarden scenario are frequently
winds in the landward direction will also contribute to sea-level hampered by unforeseen responses of ecosystems, and in effect,
rise along the coastline. coastal protection is likely to remain rather unchanged [S 9.5].
Coastal protection as an ecosystem service can be described Developing countries are likely to be more negatively
40 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
impacted by climate change-induced sea-level rise. This is due,
Box 3.9 CASE STUDY: PREDICTED IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
amongst other reasons, to sea-level rise requiring new technical ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA
solutions such as more efficient dykes and flood gates, which [PNG sub-global assessment, 8.2]
are more affordable in industrial than in developing countries
[S 9.5]. Other impacts of global warming on coastal zones The direct impacts of global warming on the coastal zone of Papua New
are shown in the case study from Papua New Guinea. (See Guinea (PNG) have been assessed in a report covering the whole of the
Box 3.9.) South Pacific region, and may be summarized as follows:
■ Cross-cutting Issue 4: Biodiversity ■ Temperature rise with no decrease in humidity will increase the
relative strain index for coastal PNG, with deterioration in human
Forecasts for biodiversity in marine and coastal ecosystems
comfort, and increased stress and lower productivity for manual
are severely hampered by the lack of ecological knowledge.
workers. There will be higher demand for building air conditioning,
Often, even information on the species level is missing.
increased energy use, and hence increased cost of work productivity.
Methodologies such as species-area curves, proven useful for
terrestrial ecosystems, do not necessarily work for marine
■ Waterborne vector diseases (malaria, dengue fever, filariasis)
systems for many reasons, including the fact that species
and skin fungal diseases may have prolonged seasonal virility in
extinctions are rarely observed [S 10.4]. coastal areas.
The MA has developed the four scenarios in the coastal and
marine realm for three different areas, the Gulf of Thailand, the ■ Limestone-based soils are likely to become less fertile as increased
Central North Pacific, and the northern Benguela upwelling temperature changes sodium/calcium ratios.
ecosystem. For biodiversity, the MA uses an index for biomass
■ Ecosystems particularly vulnerable to global warming will be coastal
that takes the number of species and the number of individuals
forests, especially mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs.
(biomass) into account. A high value represents a high evenness
(even distribution of biomass across a high number of species),
a low value the domination of very few species amongst a low
number of species [S 10.4.1].
The northern Benguela upwelling current is a highly
productive upwelling system off the coast of Southern Africa,
with a rich diversity, supporting small, medium, and large
pelagic fisheries. The four scenarios all foresee only small
changes in the biomass index for the North Benguela, despite
differences in emphasis on supporting employment
opportunities and ecosystem management.
In the Central North Pacific, fisheries are focusing on tuna.
Small tunas have increased in the area with the decline of their
large top predators. The TechnoGarden and Global
Orchestration scenarios are able to maintain the initial level of
biomass diversity, while the Order from Strength scenario
Box 3.10 CASE STUDY: NO-TAKE ZONES IN ST. LUCIA [S 12.4]
predicts an initial decrease, but then a recovery of the biomass
index, mainly due to changes in drift net fishing. The Adapting
The Soufrière Marine Management Area, created in 1995 along 11
Mosaic scenario allows the index to rise initially due to the km of the coast of St. Lucia in the Caribbean, includes five small
closure of turtles fishery and the focus on tuna fishing. With the marine reserves alternating with areas where fishing is allowed.
rebuilding of the most valuable tuna stocks by 2030 increasing Roughly 35% of the fishing grounds in this area have been set aside
the value of fisheries, the overall biomass diversity begins to and protected. The initial cost of restricting access to fishers in about
decrease again. In summary, in the Central North Pacific a third of the available area (a decline in a provisioning ecosystem
service) has been easily compensated for by the benefits. As may be
system, biomass diversity could be increased if the management
expected, fish biomass inside the reserves tripled in just four years,
imperatives for increasing the value of fisheries were
but, more importantly, biomass in the fished areas doubled during
substantially reduced [S 10.4].
the same period, and remained stable thereafter. In less than the
The most efficient way to rebuild marine biodiversity is an
typical term of an elected governmental official, the fishery recovered
ecosystem-focused policy. Efforts to increase the value of
and landings increased. There is growing evidence from around the
individual stocks and thus increasing their value for fisheries
world supporting marine reserves and fishery closures as an effective
appear to result in a decline of biodiversity. (See Box 3.10 tool for managing fish, one of the most important provisioning
for an example of an ecosystem-based approach in St. Lucia ecosystem services. Wise local management of fisheries averted a
that focuses on marine reserves within a wider zone of negative impact, possibly for the long term.
fisheries management.)
41
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
4 What can be done about the loss of marine and coastal ecosystems
and their services?
■ The MA explores a wide range of responses to the human impact made between operational and specific responses, with the
former not being bound to specific sectors but being important
on ecosystems. Operational responses are important to consider for
to consider for all policy options. The responses are outlined
all policy options, whereas specific responses relate to sectors.
■ The operational response options include the following: below, indicating their effectiveness, the type of responses, and
the required actors.
stakeholder participation in decision-making from global to local
levels;
Response Options
development of stakeholder capacity;
communication, education, and public awareness, and the
In the following paragraphs, a response is considered to be
empowerment of communities;
effective when its assessment indicates that it has enhanced the
generating alternative incomes;
particular ecosystem service and contributed to human well-
monitoring of biophysical and socioeconomic effects of responses,
being without significant harm to other ecosystem services or
addressing of uncertainties, such as basic knowledge of
harmful impacts to other groups of people. A response is
biodiversity and ecosystem processes; and
considered promising either if it does not have a long track
addressing trade-offs among uses of ecosystem services.
■ The specific response options include the following: record to assess but appears likely to succeed or if there are
known means of modifying the response so that it can become
international and regional mechanism that may focus on
effective. A response is considered problematic if its historical
biodiversity, fisheries, habitat loss, or wider aspects of
use indicates either that it has not met the goals related to
sustainable development;
service enhancement (or conservation and sustainable use of
successful implementation of international agreements;
biodiversity) or that it has caused significant harm to other
integrated coastal management requiring a holistic view including
ecosystem services. Labelling a response as effective does not
land-based and freshwater influences;
mean that the historical assessment has not identified problems
marine protected areas;
or harmful trade-offs. Such trade-offs almost always exist, but
coastal protection against storms and floods through provision of
they are not considered significant enough as to negate the
natural barriers;
effectiveness of the response. Similarly, labelling a response as
management of nutrient pollution and waste at source point;
problematic does not mean that there are no promising
geo-engineering for CO sequestration;
opportunities to reform the response in a way that can meet its
economic interventions such as financial incentives, taxes,
policy goals without undue harm to ecosystem services.
and subsidies;
The typology of responses presented in the following
fisheries management; and
paragraphs is defined by the nature of the intervention, classified
aquaculture management.
■ Important tools for applying policy options include multicriteria as follows: institutional and legal (I), economic and incentives (E),
social and behavioural (S), technological (T), and knowledge and
analysis, scenarios, environmental impact assessment, and
cognitive (K). Note that the dominant class is presented. The
economic valuation.
■ Effort needs to be made in the implementation and enforcement actors who make decisions to implement a response are
governments (G) at different levels, such as international (GI)
of existing legislation and policy.
(mainly through multilateral agreements or international
Introduction conventions), national (GN), and local (GL); the business/industry
sector (B); and civil society, which includes nongovernmental
organizations (NGO), community-based and indigenous people’s
People have been influencing ecosystems as long as humankind
organizations (C), and research institutions (R). The actors are
has existed, and there has always been a challenge to address
not necessarily equally important [General SR, Appendix B].
human impacts on the ecosystems and the services they provide.
The recent dramatic scale of harmful impacts, however, many of
Operational Responses
them visible beyond local, national or regional boundaries,
underlines the need for increasing the regulation of human
■ Stakeholder Participation in Decision-making
activities, with a need to choose the appropriate response
level—local, national, regional or global. It is essential however,
that existing relevant policies and legislation are also Effectiveness: Effective
implemented and enforced. This chapter examines the main Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and
responses that societies have recently applied for regulating their behavioural (S)
interaction with coastal and marine ecosystems. A distinction is Required actors: National government (GN), local government
42 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.1 LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS [CT 19.5.2]
Regional agreements are thought to be a more effective way to manage shared coastal and marine resources, especially when such agreements
capitalize on better understandings of costs and benefits accruing from shared responsibilities in conserving the marine environment. Large marine
ecosystems (LMEs) have been put forward as a logical way to frame area-based approaches of many agreements and mechanisms. The world’s
seas have been divided into 64 LMEs, with each LME covering an area of around 200,000 km2 and characterized by specific bathymetry,
hydrology, productivity, and trophically dependent populations.
Using an LME framework ensures a holistic approach by facilitating a process where issues both environmental and sociopolitical are first
considered at a regional level through the creation of an action plan and then addressed again through a series of national planning exercises.
Such planning can take into consideration many of the different response options available to decision-makers.
Several recent international instruments refer to LMEs, and the geographic units serve as the basis for some global assessments, such as
UNEP’s Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA). In many parts of the world, however, the political constituency for nations to cooperate to
conserve large-scale ecosystems is lacking, though this situation may well be improving.
(GL), nongovernmental organization (NGO), business/industry policy objectives and priorities for the allocation of services, and
(B), community groups (C), research institutions (R) create space for deliberation and learning accommodating multiple
perspectives [R 7]. The case studies on the Mankote Mangrove in
Stakeholders include government bodies, local and indigenous St. Lucia (Box 4.2) and the village fish reserves in Samoa (Box 4.7)
communities, nongovernmental organizations as well as the provide examples of successful stakeholder participation.
private sector, the latter particularly in the case of industrial
■ Capacity Development
fisheries [CT 18.9]. Local-level involvement has in many cases
proven to improve the recovery of coastal ecosystems. Local or
indigenous perspectives might provide for alternative management Effectiveness: Effective
priorities [R 3.5]. Key steps to improve participatory processes are Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)
to increase the transparency of information, improve the Required actors: National government (GN), local government
understanding of the issues, improve the representation of (GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
marginalized stakeholders, engage them in the establishment of groups (C), research institutions (R)
Box 4.2 CASE STUDY: THE MANKOTE MANGROVE IN ST. LUCIA [R 17, Box 17.2]
The Mankote Mangrove constitutes 20% of the total mangrove area in St. Lucia. Uncontrolled charcoal harvesting through excessive tree loggings
created a severe environmental decline of the mangroves, which posed a serious threat to many of the ecosystem services that the mangrove
provided, including water quality, coastal stability, bird habitat, and fish breeding. Local communities, consisting primarily of poor people, undertook
the practice of harvesting charcoal. These communities had no legal right to use the publicly owned mangrove resources. With no possibility for
substitution, the loss of access to the mangroves by these poor populations due to resource depletion or degradation would have created
permanent loss of their only source of income.
To address this problem, the following solution was implemented:
■ The local communities were organized into informal cooperatives and given communal legal and exclusive rights to harvest the charcoal.
■ They were involved in monitoring the programme, to get accurate information on the overall health of the mangrove.
■ Measures to increase the supply of wood outside the mangrove reserve were put in place, as were alternative job options for charcoal
harvesters, including in tourism.
The effort yielded the following results:
■ The decline in the Mankote Mangrove was halted and reversed.
■ The density and size of trees increased.
■ Charcoal harvests were maintained.
■ The range of employment options for the poor population somewhat increased.
This is a clear case where a property and legal rights approach made sense, because the subsistence harvesters were the primary source of the
problem due to uncontrolled harvesting of charcoal. The use of formal rights to the resource gave the poor an incentive for long-term management
of the mangrove as an asset over which they had control. The introduction of a monitoring programme further improved the level of and access to
information they had about the general condition of the mangrove.
43
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Communication, education, and public awareness are important
components of successful ecosystem management, ensuring that
decision-makers, managers, and other actors fully understand
the background to and implications of their activities.
Communication, education, and public awareness bear
particularly good results when accompanied by efforts to
empower communities to take decisions on the management of
ecosystems [R 5.2.9]. Providing the human and financial
resources to undertake effective work in this area is a
continuing barrier [R 5]. The Mankote mangrove in St. Lucia
provides an example of the successful use of communication
and public awareness raising in a coastal context.
(See Box 4.2.)
■ Alternative Income-generating Activities
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Economic and incentives (E), social and
behavioural (S)
Required actors: Local government (GL), nongovernmental
organizations (NGO), community groups (C)
It is increasingly recognized that some human activities are no
longer appropriate or sustainable in marine and coastal
ecosystems and alternative forms of income generation (AIGAs)
are needed for those users who will be directly affected.
Developing AIGAs requires a long-term commitment from all
actors and considerable effort to build capacity, change
attitudes, provide a social net and financial resources to ensure
that users do not return to their former livelihoods. The case
study on the Mankote mangrove in St. Lucia (Box 4.2)
illustrates an example of alternative income-generation.
■ Monitoring
Effectiveness: Effective, promising
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T),
knowledge and cognitive (K)
Management of marine and coastal ecosystems and the Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
associated impacts on human well-being is often inadequate, national government (GN), local government (GL),
leading to conflicts and a decrease in services. A particular nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community groups (C),
challenge is provided by the need to take into account the research institutions (R)
impacts of external influences on the marine and coastal
systems, such as climate change or land-based pollution and Monitoring is a crucial component of any management
degradation [CT 19.1]. A crucial component of such an strategy. It is best used by applying indicators. Given the
approach is the development of capacity. substantial deficiencies in understanding marine and coastal
ecosystems, the development of indicators for biophysical
■ Communication, Education, and Public Awareness and socioeconomic responses to management measures is
currently limited. Indicators for institutional and governance
Effectiveness: Effective responses are available to an even lesser degree [ Wetlands SR
Type of response: Social and behavioural (S) 6.3; R 18.3 ]. The involvement of the community in the
Required actors: National government (GN), local government monitoring of ecosystems is key to the success. Monitoring
(GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community plays an important role in the Mankote mangroves in St. Lucia.
groups (C) (See Box 4.2.)
44 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Addressing Uncertainty Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN)
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), knowledge and There is a multitude of global and regional agreements,
cognitive (K) instruments, and programmes facilitating international
Required actors: National government (GN), local government cooperation concerning the conservation and sustainable use
(GL), community groups (C), research institutions (R) of marine and coastal ecosystems [C18, 19; R5, 15]. (For a
list of agreements see Appendix 1; for two examples, see Box
To a larger degree than terrestrial ecosystems, marine 4.3). Their effectiveness is dependent on government
systems confront decision-makers, ecosystem managers, commitment to build the capacity to implement and enforce
and researchers with a high degree of uncertainty. compliance of the provisions of the instrument [C18, 19;
Uncertainty results from a lack of understanding of coastal R5, 15]. (See Box 4.4.) This includes the
and marine ecosystems [CT 4; S 3.4.6: S 4.8; R 6.2.3], availability/provision of human and financial resources.
particularly about: Better coordination among conventions across national
■ knowledge of deep-sea biodiversity, including taxonomy jurisdictions and on the high seas would increase their
and ecosystem composition; usefulness. Attention is needed on integrating these
■ patterns of endemism; instruments into national and local institutions. Local
■ habitat data such as long-term and large-area ecological stakeholders can take advantage of international instruments
processes; to gain wider exposure for their issues and concerns. (For a
■ understanding of the oceanic nitrogen cycle; and case study on the governance challenge for the Caribbean
■ population dynamics and related recovery potential region, see Box 4.5.)
of commercially exploited resources.
Box 4.3 EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERNATIONAL
INSTRUMENTS
A precautionary approach, taking these uncertainties into
account, is needed for policy responses in the coastal and
An analysis of the compliance by 11 European and North American
marine realm.
countries with treaties and conventions that apply to North Atlantic
Fisheries found that compliance has very little to do with sustainable
■ Trade-off Analysis
fisheries management [C 18.6]. Many of the stocks such as tuna,
cod, and herring managed by the various instruments are
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
overexploited, threatened, or collapsed.
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), economic and
incentives (E) Instrument Average Compliance
Required actors: National government (GN), local government (see Appendix 1 for full titles) Score (%)
(GL), community groups (C)
UNCLOS 79
Trade-offs between ecosystem services will be essential in the
Fish Stocks 47
future to make equitable and sustainable use of the world’s
resources. Policy decisions will need to address trade-offs
Compliance 33
between activities that impact coastal and marine well-being
and land uses such as fisheries, agricultural production, water
NAFO 68
quality, and upstream barriers to water flow to coastal zones.
The lack of understanding of ecosystem services, including their NEAFC 81
economic values, contributes to difficulties in finding the right
balance [CT 19.5.1]. Tools for addressing trade-offs include, for ICCAT 54
example, environmental impact assessment (see page 53) and
the zoning of areas, which has been applied in many terrestrial ICES 52
areas, but less so in marine and coastal systems.
CFP 49
Specific Responses
Coop Agreement 41
■ Applying International/Regional Mechanisms
NSS herring 78
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic Capelin 71
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)
45
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.4 EXAMPLES OF KEY INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) regulates all aspects of the resources of the sea and the uses of the ocean, such
as navigational rights, territorial sea limits, economic jurisdiction, legal status of resources on the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,
passage of ships through narrow straits, conservation and management of living marine resources, protection of the marine environment, a marine
research regime, and (a more unique feature) a binding procedure for settlement of disputes between States.
UNCLOS gives national sovereignty to nations over their marine resources within 200 nautical miles of their coasts, while outside of the 200
mile limit, conservation and management of marine resources becomes a collaborative effort between nations accessing those resources. UNCLOS
provides the framework to develop agreements such as the Straddling Stocks and Compliance Agreements to deal with high seas issues.
The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
The code includes technical guidelines as well as recommendations to:
■ apply an ecosystem approach to fisheries;
■ manage stocks using the best available science;
■ apply the precautionary principle, using conservative management
approaches when the effects of fishing practices are uncertain;
■ avoid overfishing and prevent or eliminate excess fishing capacity;
■ minimize waste (discards) and bycatch;
■ prohibit destructive fishing methods;
■ restore depleted fish stocks;
■ implement appropriate national laws, management plans, and means
of enforcement;
■ monitor the effects of fishing on all species in the ecosystem, not just
the target fish stock;
■ work cooperatively with other states to coordinate management policies
and enforcement actions;
■ recognize the importance of artisanal and small-scale fisheries and the
value of traditional management practices; and
■ integrate fishery management into coastal area management.
Article 9 of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries sets
principles and guidelines for the sustainable development and
management of aquaculture.
The Code of Conduct is a voluntary instrument and its effectiveness
depends on the willingness of countries to implement it.
Box 4.5 CASE STUDY: CHALLENGES FOR POLICY RESPONSES IN THE CARIBBEAN
The Caribbean Sea comprises territorial waters and coastal areas of 33 bordering countries and territories, which makes a coordinated approach to
management of the area extremely difficult. Players are not only those countries and territories, but also the colonial powers from North America
and Europe; international institutions such as UNEP UNDP World Bank, and the Organization of American States; international NGOs; the Western
, ,
Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission of the FAO (WECAFC); donor agencies; and regional intergovernmental organizations such as the Association
of Caribbean States (ACS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).
The scale of problems such as overfishing, pollution, and expanding tourism is not matched by an appropriate managerial response, as
management is organized along the lines of individual countries or political blocks such as CARICOM.
The existing governance framework makes for much complexity, presenting many challenges such as the lack of harmonization. This extends into
the nongovernmental sector where NGOs are not well integrated into the policy analysis and decision-making process. On the other hand, the
diversity of the governance structure offers a variety of opportunities for exercise of authority in relation to shared issues and interests. However, it
has been suggested to create another decision-making body at the highest regional intergovernmental level.
Globally, the United Nations has recently addressed attention to the Caribbean Sea, stressing, in UN Resolution 57/216, the need for a
comprehensive and integrated approach to the management of the Caribbean Sea. This Resolution offers a high-level and up-to-date common
policy basis upon which wider Caribbean states might take concerted action among themselves and upon which they might enlist global
cooperation in an effort to meet the objectives of the policy.
Source: Caribbean Sea sub-global assessment, 1.3 and 6.2.
46 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Linking the Integrated Management and Planning ■ Marine Protected Areas
of River Catchments and Coastal Areas (integrated Effectiveness: Effective, promising
coastal management and planning) Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and
behavioural (S)
Effectiveness: Effective, promising Required actors: National government (GN), local government
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and behavioural (S) (GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
Required actors: National government (GN), local government groups (C)
(GL), community groups (C), research institutions (R)
Marine protected areas (MPAs) can be defined as areas of the
An integrated approach to coastal management requires a holistic ocean designated to enhance conservation of marine resources;
view that includes land-based and freshwater influences, and the marine reserves are those protected areas of the ocean that are
necessary political, economic, and social conditions [CT 19.5.2]. completely protected from all extractive and destructive activities
Land use planning and inshore resource management—including [R 5.2.6]. MPAs are important in conserving biodiversity and
zoning, catchment management, and impact assessments—are managing marine and coastal ecosystems, as well as in
linked to integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) contributing to the sustainable use of marine resources. MPAs
horizontally (across sectors) and vertically (across levels of that exclude extractive activities (marine reserves) tend to lead to
government) [R 15.5.3]. This approach to management and increases in the density, biomass, individual size, and diversity of
planning provides a balance among the users and ecosystem needs vertebrate species, thus conserving biodiversity and reducing the
which is often found by exploring the trade-offs that are needed. risk of extinction for some marine species. Networks of reserves
ICZM deals with the drivers of coastal change through three are necessary for long-term fishery and conservation benefits;
major ways [R 15.5.3]: and increased reserve size, up to an optimal maximum
■ addressing conflicts between uses and users of natural depending on objectives, tends to lead to increased benefits, but
even small reserves often have positive effects. Some coastal
resources;
■ regulating increasing demands on coastal resources by areas under some form of community management can yield
better results for biodiversity and human well-being than
improving management and planning processes; and
■ promoting institutional changes relating to decision-making officially recognized areas [CT 19.5.2]. Box 4.7 provides
examples of successful marine protected areas in the Bahamas
about coastal zones through more inclusive decision-making,
and Samoa. Notwithstanding their potential benefits, marine
capacity-building, and inter-agency coordination.
protected areas need to be properly designed and managed in
order to achieve their objectives. Enforcement of MPAs can be
The case of coastal planning in British Columbia (see Box 4.6)
problematic and to be effective they must enjoy the full support
provides an example of how a participatory process supports
of all stakeholders.
integrated coastal management.
Box 4.6 CASE STUDY: PARTICIPATORY LAND USE PLANNING IN COASTAL BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
In coastal British Columbia, the economy strongly depends on natural resources. Uncertainties about land resource use issues led the Provincial
Government to initiate a major planning process for the central and north coasts and the Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Island area. Its purpose was
to enable all parties—the Provincial Government, First Nations, local governments and communities, the forestry, fishing, tourism, and mining
sectors, environmental groups, and others—to reach agreement on the future development and conservation of land resources. In 2001, this
process established:
■ a government-to-government relationship between the Province and the First Nations,
■ a commitment of all land-use planning to promote ecosystem-based management,
■ the Coast Information Team (CIT), an independent body providing the best available information and expertise for ecosystem-based development.
The CIT consisted of scientists, practitioners, and traditional and local experts, overseen by a Management Committee and supported by a
secretariat.
The CIT was tasked to produce information to support governments and participants in the planning processes reach decisions that achieved
ecosystem-based management, and specifically to provide:
■ an ecosystem-based management framework;
■ regional and subregional analyses;
■ a hydro-riparian decision tool;
■ technical support for pilot projects investigating local applications of ecosystem-based management;
■ additional information to assist Land and Resource Management Plans and First Nations’ Land Use Plans.
Source: Coastal British Columbia sub-global assessment, 1.3–1.5.
47
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.7 BENEFITS FROM MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: BAHAMAS AND SAMOA [R 5, Box 5.1]
Bahamas
The Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (45,620 ha) was established in 1958 covering both the terrestrial and marine environments associated with
these islands. The Park became a no-take fisheries reserve in 1986. Research has shown that the concentration of conch in the park is 31 times
greater than outside the park, providing several million conchs per year to areas outside the park available to be harvested by fishers. Additionally,
tagged grouper from the Exuma Park have been caught off both north and south Long Island (Bahamas), indicating the Park is replenishing grouper
stocks in areas as far as 250 km away. Tagged spiny lobsters from the Exuma Park are found replenishing the marine environment of Cat Island,
100 km away. The success of fisheries resource replenishment in the Exuma Park led the government to announce a policy decision in 2000 to
protect 20% of the Bahamian marine ecosystem, doubling the size of the national protected areas system.
Samoa
In the Pacific Island of Samoa, as in many countries in the tropics, catches of seafood from coastal areas, lagoons, and inshore reefs have been
decreasing over the past 10 years. Reasons for this decline include overexploitation, the use of destructive fishing methods (including explosives,
chemicals, and traditional plant-derived poisons), and environmental disturbances. In order to address this problem, the Samoan Fisheries Division
initiated in 1995 a community-based extension project in 65 villages which recognized the village fono (council) as the prime agency responsible
for actions. A large number of villages (38) chose to establish small village fish reserves in part of their traditional fishing areas and decided to
actively support and enforce government laws banning the use of explosives and chemicals for fishing. Some villages also set minimum size limits
for capturing fishes. While many of the village reserves are small (ranging from 5,000 to 175,000 m2), their number and the small distance among
them forms a network of fish refuges. In just a few years, fisheries stocks have increased 30–40% and there are signs of recovery in reefs
previously affected by destructive fishing methods. As the fish reserves are being managed by communities which have direct interest in their
success, prospects for long-term sustainability of this initiative are high.
Marine protected areas and reserves are one tool of several well, are most likely to become a very important tool in the
for fisheries management, and an adaptive approach, allowing management of many fisheries and the sustainable use of
for assessment and modification as new information and ecosystems, adding value to other approaches [R 6.3.6].
challenges arise, is required [CT 18.7.4]. Methods for design and location need further development.
The benefits of marine protected areas for adjacent areas and
■ Coastal Protection
fisheries are difficult to assess, due to problems in measuring
those impacts and the fact that few marine protected areas have
been in existence long enough [R 5.2.6; 6.3.6]. However, it has Effectiveness: Effective, promising, problematic
been demonstrated for some cases that fish larvae or adults, Type of response: Technology (T)
migrating outside of the reserve, increase the yields for Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
fishermen in surrounding areas [R 6.3.6]. Despite the national government (GN), business/industry sector (B)
uncertainties over these impacts, marine protected areas and
reserves, and particularly networks of such areas, if managed Land use planning and habitat conservation that protect natural
barriers such as mangroves and intertidal flats are soft or
nonstructural measures for coastal protection. Soft measures are
more flexible, cost-effective, and sustainable, particularly in the
light of climate change-induced increases in flood and storm
events. Expensive hard or structural measures such as
embankments and dykes remain necessary in certain cases. The
restoration of lost or damaged ecosystems remains a major—
and expensive—challenge for coastal protection, facing the
difficulty of anticipating future disturbances [R 11.1; R 11.3; R
17.2.4]. A number of examples of the use of land use planning
for coastal protection are provided in Box 4.8.
■ Management of Nutrient Pollution: Runoff and
Fossil Fuel Combustion
Effectiveness: Effective, problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T)
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), local government (GL)
48 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.8 EXAMPLES OF LAND USE PLANNING FOR COASTAL PROTECTION [R 11, Box 11.2]
Florida
The Standard Building Code (SBC) or the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) governs construction along or near the Florida coastline.
Compliance with these codes makes individuals and businesses within the communities eligible to purchase flood insurance. In the 1980s, Florida
reinforced the stipulations contained in the SBC and the NFIP by establishing the Coastal Construction Control Lines (CCCL), which defines specific
areas along the coastline that are subject to flooding and erosion. The CCCL was adopted throughout Florida between 1982 and 1991 and reflects
storm impact zones over a 100-year period. Distinctions were made between two categories of structures based on the CCCL regulations: (1)
structures located seaward of the CCCL that were built prior to enactment of the CCCL regulation were categorized as non-permitted structures at risk
of sustaining hurricane damage; and (2) structures built after the adoption of the CCCL require a special building permit to certify that the builder will
adhere to a more rigid set of building standards designed to reduce the risk of structural damage that can be sustained during a hurricane.
Canada
New Brunswick completed remapping of the entire coast of the province to delineate the landward limit of coastal features. The setback for new
development is defined from this limit. Some other provinces have adopted a variety of setback policies, based on estimates of future coastal retreat.
Barbados
A national statute establishes a minimum building setback along sandy coasts of
30 m from the mean high-water mark; along coastal cliffs the setback is 10 m from
the undercut portion of the cliff.
Aruba and Antigua
The setback is established at 50 m inland from high-water mark.
Sri Lanka
Setback areas and no-build zones are identified in a Coastal Zone Management Plan.
Minimum setbacks of 60 m from mean sea level are regarded as good planning
practice.
United Kingdom
In 1998, the House of Commons endorsed the concept of managed realignment as the
preferred long-term strategy for coastal defence in some areas.
United States
The states of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and South Carolina have
implemented various forms of rolling easement policies to ensure that wetlands and
beaches can migrate inland as sea-level rises.
Australia
Several states have coastal setback and minimum elevation policies, including those
to accommodate potential sea-level rise and storm surge. In South Australia,
setbacks take into account the 100-year erosional trend plus the effect of a 0.3 m
sea-level rise to 2050. Building sites should be above storm surge flood level for the
100-year return interval.
A number of methodologies to reduce the nitrogen pollution of lower N-load limits for ecosystems that are highly N-sensitive.
coastal waters have been elaborated [R 9.5.1; R 9.5.5; R 9.5.6]. Alternatively, specific N-input levels could be set up for individual
Coastal nutrient pollution should be addressed at its sources, coastal rivers and bays. Site-specific approaches add significantly
including runoff and leaching from agricultural fields, to general N-input reductions as they take the sensitivities of
concentrated animal feeding operations, fossil fuel combustion, individual sites into account.
and urban sources. Watershed, river basin, and national, if not
■ Waste Management: Household and Industrial
international, levels are most suitable to take effective action to
Sewage
reduce the nitrogen (N) input into coastal waters. Wetlands acting
as sinks of both nitrogen and phosphate can help enormously in
reducing coastal water pollution; hence wetland conservation and Effectiveness: Effective, problematic
restoration need to be taken more seriously. A related option is to Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), economic and
allow for higher N-load limits for N-insensitive ecosystems and incentives (E), social and behavioural (S), technological (T)
49
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
For mitigation of climate change, increasing the biological
sequestration of carbon dioxide in the oceans has been
proposed [C18]. Currently, the effects of such measures are
hard to predict on a larger scale. The main methodology would
be the fertilization of low productivity marine waters with
iron. That would stimulate the growth of phytoplankton that
in turn would fix larger amounts of carbon dioxide.
Experiments with this approach have demonstrated significant
changes in the biological community composition but the
medium to long-term impacts are unknown. There is also a
risk of algae outbursts leading to anoxia and the large-scale
production of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas [CT 18.8.4;
R 13.5.4].
■ Economic Interventions: Market-based Instruments
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Economic and incentives (E)
Required actors: National government (GN), business/industry
sector (B)
Economic interventions (market-based instrument) such as
subsidies, taxes, and financial incentives have a long history
with respect to the marine ecosystems, with consequences
varying with countries and the application of the instrument.
Some incentives—including subsidies for fisheries and coastal
development—have had unwanted side effects, while others
have reduced the impacts of fishing or coastal development
[CT 18.5.2]. Incentives might be provided in the form of fees
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI), for the right to fish or for nonexploitative fishing alternatives
national government (GN), local government (GL) such as sports fishing and tour guiding; fiscal expenditure on
retraining of fishers; and incentives for investment in
Control of waste pollution of oceans and coastal waters has alternative economic activity in fishing communities such as
become a major instrument in managing marine and coastal small-scale tourism. Perverse incentives in fisheries continue to
ecosystems, particularly in developed countries that have the be inadequately addressed. They refer to, for example, size
resources and abilities needed. Instruments to address waste limits for landed fish, encouraging undersized bycatch to be
pollution of coastal and marine ecosystems range from a change discarded at sea, and decommissioning schemes that result in
in production and consumption patterns, the strengthening of fleet modernization [CT 18.4]. It remains a major challenge for
reuse and recycling systems, and improved waste management marine and coastal management to introduce payments for
facilities to the use of wetlands for managing sewage sludge and ecosystem services such as coastal protection. So far these
waste water as well as dumping at sea and ballast water services are undervalued [Wetlands SR 6.4].
management. Issues of governance structures, institutional
■ Fisheries Management
arrangements, civil society involvement, and poverty would need
to be integrated into waste management strategies [R 10.3; R
10.4; R 10.6]. Pollution by waste in the high seas has become an Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
even more challenging issue with the discovery of biodiversity- Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)
rich and complex ecosystems such as deep-sea vents. Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), business/industry sector (B), community groups (C)
■ Geo-engineering: Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
Fisheries management options range from strict enforcement of
Effectiveness: Problematic regulations that include the establishment and implementation
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T) of quotas, gear restrictions and spatial closures, programmes to
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI), address unreported and unregulated catches, and
national government (GN), business/industry sector (B) decommissioning schemes. MPAs can help to enhance fisheries
50 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 4.1 MAIN POLICIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF OPEN-ACCESS FISHERIES [Based on R 6, Table 6.3]
POLICIES DESCRIPTION
Fishing effort regulation In this policy, one of the inputs in the index for fishing effort is restricted (for example, number of
days at sea). Effort regulation is usually used with other regulations to ensure that the negative
impacts of reduced effort (e.g. increased gear efficiency) are minimized. Regulations are most
effective when there are enforcement programmes in place and the consequences of breaking the
regulations act as a deterrent.
Decommissioning schemes The purpose of this policy is to bring the capacity in line with catch potentials. This is done by
reducing the fleet capacity through subsidized buy backs. This option needs to be carefully
considered so that the overall fishing capacity of the fleet is reduced and not redistributed.
Total quotas or Total allowable catches In this policy, a total quota is imposed on the fishery and when this quota has been filled, the
(TACs) fishery is closed. The total quota is often recommended to be set at a level where catches can be
sustained. Total quotas have in some cases been used in conjunction with individual quotas (IQs),
for example, in the case of Iceland and New Zealand.
Rations Under a rations policy, the total quota is distributed in short time intervals on vessels, reflecting
seasonal variations in catch possibilities. Rations are used for some species in Denmark.
However, the system of rations creates huge information requirements.
Licence systems A licence system normally specifies who can enter the fishery, how much can be caught and the
weight of this catch. The purpose is to control the catch of each individual vessel. This policy
response can have negative consequences if practices such as high-grading are not managed.
Individual quotas (IQs) This policy sets a nontransferable individual annual quota that cannot be changed during the
year and may, therefore, be thought of as a property right. Indeed property rights regulation is
very popular within fisheries; property rights regulate more than 55 fisheries in the world.
Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) Under this policy, the individual quotas (IQs) are made transferable between fishermen. ITQs are used
in, for example, Iceland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand. ITQs generally benefit the fisheries, but
the economic and social consequences to some fishers can be negative for some fisheries.
Taxes or landing fees In this policy either fishing effort or catch is used to compile the tax. In practice taxes are not
popular among fishermen and there are severe implementation problems.
Bilateral agreements Agreements where one country allows foreign fishing vessels into its EEZ can generate economic
and social benefits to the country with minimal impact on marine ecosystem services. The
effectiveness of these agreements in delivering the potential benefits is high in developed
countries, and much more variable in developing countries. The provisions that are negotiated
need to be carefully considered and resources allocated to enforce the terms of the agreement
by the parties.
Box 4.9 CASE STUDY: NATIONAL FISHERIES SECTOR IN CHILE [R 17, Box 17.3]
In the fisheries sector in Chile, fish stocks started depleting greatly after the industry was privatized in 1973. Particularly affected were artisanal
fisherman who, under the individual transferable quota (ITQ) system, cannot compete with industrial fisheries in the market and lose their
livelihoods. To address this issue, individual transferable quotes were implemented for separate subclasses of fisheries and limited to
industrial/commercial fishers.
The success of the programme is unclear. As structured, the ITQs policy has protected industrial-country fishing interests, but reduced the
potential benefits of the market-based quotas. The issue of artisanal fishermen has not been properly addressed, and regular updating of
information about fishery health remains a problem. The small percentage of total catch currently covered suggests that ITQs are not yet addressing
the higher goal of protecting Chilean fisheries.
The rationale for using these measures was two-fold: to apply regulatory efforts more consistently and to control access rights.
51
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Other Response Options
management measures. The FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries provides voluntary guidelines for New response options are being continually developed; while
managing fisheries. (See Box 4.3.) Implementation of the Code some are still untested, they may prove to be powerful
could be strengthened by national implementation plans [R mechanisms in the future. Future response options may include
6.3.6]. Increasingly, an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries integrated ocean management, ocean zoning, and a range of
management is being emphasized. (See Box 4.9 for a case study ocean policies.
of the national fisheries sector in Chile.) Which policies to
Evaluating Policy Responses
apply depends on the social and institutional context of
particular fisheries. (See Table 4.1 for a summary of the main
policies available to manage open-access fisheries.) Responses need to take into account the trade-offs and the
uncertainties. They also need to address the interests of
■ Aquaculture Management stakeholders, with a view to support vulnerable and weak
stakeholders who are often found in the communities most
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic affected by environmental change. The following guidelines
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I) could support the evaluation and selection of appropriate
Required actors: National government (GN), local government response options [R, Table 18.1]:
(GL), business/industry sector (B), community groups (C)
■ Use the best available information about the social, economic,
The impact of aquaculture in contributing to the Millennium political, technological, and institutional context.
■ Use the best available ecosystem/biophysical information.
Development Goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
■ Consider concerns and implications regarding procedural and
(MDG 1) on other ecosystem services can be managed if the
establishment of aquaculture facilities (land-based or offshore) outcome efficiency.
■ Strive for effective procedures and results.
is done in the context of integrated coastal management and
■ Consider equity concerns and implications, including for
broad fisheries management policies and the operation of these
facilities is in line with the FAO Code of Conduct for stakeholder participation and a transparent outcome; strive
Responsible Fisheries, which provides principles and for consensus among stakeholders.
■ Use the best available information about values, beliefs, and
guidelines for the sustainable development and management
of aquaculture. aspirations of stakeholders.
■ Pursue accountability through clear responsibility assignments
Genetically modified fish raise environmental concerns, such
as risks of genetic pollution or outcompeting of wild stocks, during and after the decision process.
■ Consider concerns and implications for vulnerable
and need to be addressed through strict controls, including the
application of sterile animal techniques that prevent groups/communities.
■ Consider uncertainties, allowing for policy corrections as new
reproduction of genetically modified fish [R 6.3.4; R 6.3.6].
52 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.10
information becomes available or values or positions of BIODIVERSITY IN THE GULF OF THAILAND
UNDER THE MA SCENARIOS [S 10.4]
stakeholders change.
■ Consider cross-scale effects, allowing for incorporation of
The Gulf of Thailand, a shallow tropical coastal shelf system, has
constraints from higher decision-making levels and for
experienced heavy exploitation over the last decades. Large long-
exploring decision needs at lower decision-making level.
lived fish species have widely vanished and fisheries concentrate
■ Take an adaptive approach that incorporates mechanisms to
on invertebrates. All four scenarios foresee a decline in biomass
monitor and review the effectiveness and to make changes to
diversity for the Gulf of Thailand, with few species dominating the
the process in a timely and responsive manner.
system. Under the TechnoGarden scenario, ecosystem
management allows for a temporary increase in species diversity
Tools for Policy Options beginning in 2010. A turn in
policy focus on producing
Multicriteria analysis (MCA) is a decision support tool guiding fishmeal for the increasingly
stakeholders in considering the merits of different management important aquaculture
strategies and in determining management priorities. It enables leaves the biomass diversity
rapidly decreasing between
decision-makers to assess the relative merits of various policy
2030 and 2050. Similar
options by using mathematical programming techniques to
changes are foreseen by the
select options based on objective functions with explicit weights
Global Orchestration and
that stakeholders apply. MCA can reflect multiple goals or
the Adapting Mosaic
objectives for the resources; however, it has large data needs
scenario, while the Order
and can use unrealistic characterization of decision-making. It from Strength scenario lets
has been used to explore regional trade-offs in the design of the biodiversity index
protected areas systems [R 5.2.4; R 15]. decline steadily over the
next 50 years.
Scenarios are storylines that may or may not be harmonized
with quantitative modelling. They show plausible futures,
which can be used to explore the consequences of specific
Policy Response Gaps
policy directions; they are not projections or predictions of
what will happen. The storylines are often developed through The following list of policy response gaps relate to issues that
consensus of experts as to how ecological, economic, and policy so far has not or has only inadequately addressed.
social systems will react under a given set of drivers that are It is recognized that the list may not necessarily be complete
based on distinct conditions. When quantitative models are and that there are likely to be other policy response gaps.
used to model the storylines, scenarios can be powerful tools The reasons for many of the gaps range from the issues
to explore the consequences of major policy shifts that might being insufficiently understood to the lack of political
be considered by decision-makers. Scenarios were used commitment.
extensively in the MA, and Box 4.10 illustrates how they were
■ Dealing with genetic resources within marine and coastal
used to explore the development of biodiversity in the Gulf of
Thailand under the four scenarios [S 8, 9, and 10]. national jurisdictions. Marine and coastal areas may have
considerable potential for bioactive compounds; however, many
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool used by governments have not developed policies to ensure that these
countries and financial and lending institutions such as the resources are used for the benefit of wider society. Similarly, the
World Bank and the regional development banks to assess introduction of industries such as aquaculture also has the
management interventions. It is a structured process that enables potential to impact on the genetic vigour of fish stocks, and few
managers and decision-makers to evaluate the ecological, social, governments have policies or regulations in place to deal with
and economic impact of policy decisions [R 15]. such issues.
■ Lack of integration across sectors. Policies are often lacking
Economic valuation refers to the net benefits of one policy in dealing with a range of impacts such as inclusion of
response over another; it is often used to evaluate which option agricultural issues in marine and coastal areas so that an
is the preferred one. They are often used in trade-off analyses. integrated response can be developed.
■ Policy responses to high-seas conservation issues. There is no
The market and nonmarket value of the ecosystem services
should be used in valuation studies where possible. Cost single international agency which is mandated to coordinate the
information and direct value information is often available, but many options for planning and management of the high seas;
information on benefits or nonmonetary values is usually until an approach is developed to undertake such tasks, the high
limited. The case study from Thailand (Box 4.11) is an seas and associated resources will continue to be threatened by
example of the use of economic valuation studies. inappropriate exploitation practices.
53
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.11 CASE STUDY: THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF RETAINING OR CONVERTING NATURAL MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
IN THAILAND
Relatively few studies have compared the total economic value of ecosystems under alternate management regimes. The total economic
value (TEV) of managing a natural mangrove more sustainably was compared with converting it to other uses. In the case of aquaculture,
the benefit of managing the ecosystem more sustainably exceeded that of the converted ecosystem.
Although conversion for aquaculture made sense in terms of short-term private benefits, it did not once external costs were factored in.
The global benefits of carbon sequestration were considered to be similar in intact and degraded systems. However, the substantial social
benefits associated with the original mangrove cover—from timber, charcoal, non-wood forest products, offshore fisheries, and storm
protection—fell to almost zero following conversion. Summing all measured goods and services, the TEV of intact mangroves was a
minimum of $1,000 and possibly as high as $36,000 per hectare, compared with the TEV of shrimp farming, which was about $200 per
hectare (see Fig. 4.1).
Figure 4.1 ECONOMIC BENEFITS UNDER ALTERNATIVE measure uncertainty and to test methods to measure
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES uncertainty, thus often hindering implementation of novel/new
policy responses. In the face of uncertainty, management
approaches that are robust to the uncertainties and are
consistent with the requirements of the precautionary approach
must be implemented.
■ Valuation studies for a range of marine resources and
activities so that trade-off analyses and other policy responses
can be better measured and assessed. Globally there are few
studies that provide information on the direct and indirect
use values of marine and coastal resources except for
commercial fisheries.
■ Understanding of the outcomes for ecosystem conditions of
ICZM. Assessments of the impacts of integrated coastal zone
management have largely focused on processes rather than
outcomes.
■ MPA and ICM success stories. Scaling up is difficult because
there are few examples of marine protected areas and integrated
coastal management success stories. Policy responses at
international and national levels have fewer examples or success
stories and even fewer evaluations, especially of lessons learned
from mistakes.
■ Long-term monitoring of the impacts of policy options.
The collection of long-term trend data is critical to assessing
the effectiveness of particular policy responses as well as their
appropriateness.
■ Understanding of why current policies to prevent oil spills are
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
ineffective. Oil spills are still causing severe impacts on coastal
ecosystems, after a long history of failed attempts at addressing
■ Consistent policy measures to encourage compliance relating them.
■ Proactive or adaptive policy frameworks that have the ability
to high-seas initiatives (for example, fish stock and compliance
to deal with managing new/emerging issues quickly and
agreements). Although there are internationally agreed plans of
effectively. An example is the lack of an effective policy
action, how they are implemented varies between countries.
■ Understanding of the benefits and costs of MPAs. There are framework for off-shore wind farms.
Ultimately, the continuing degradation and loss of the
few quantitative studies on the benefits and costs of marine
services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems that we
protected areas, especially outside of tropical areas in national
depend on are putting human well-being at risk. It is the
waters, for decision-makers to draw on.
■ Understanding of uncertainty and the methods to quantify it. responsibility of every one of us—guided by the millennium
development goals—to help halt and reverse these trends to
The nature of working in marine environments makes it
ensure that these benefits are available for both present and
difficult to capture long-term data or to ensure that the
future generations.
methods used are consistent, in turn this makes it difficult to
54 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX 1
A SELECTION OF INTERNATIONAL MECHANISMS IN THE MARINE AND COASTAL AREA
Global Legally Binding Agreements Other Global and Regional Mechanisms
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Migratory Fish Stocks
(UNFCCC)
European Water Framework Directive
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Convention) Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone Initiative (LOICZ)
UNEP Regional Seas Programme with the Regional Seas FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
Conventions and Action Plans FAO International Plans of Action on reducing seabird bycatch;
Convention on International Watercourses conserving shark fisheries; reducing fishing capacity; and
reducing illegal, unreported, and unregulated fisheries
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and its Operational
International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’
Networks, including the International Coral Reef Action
Ballast Water and Sediments
Network (ICRAN) and the Global Coral Reef Monitoring
World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Sanitary and
Network (GCRMN)
Phytosanitary Measures
The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Resources
Fauna and Flora (CITES)
The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)
on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation
Animals (CMS), with the following agreements:
of Sea Turtles (IACPCST)
Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea,
■
Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS)
Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and
■
North Seas (ASCOBANS)
Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea
■
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
■
Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures
■
for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa
Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and
■
Management of Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the Indian
Ocean and South-East Asia (IOSEA)
55
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 2
CHAPTERS IN THE MAIN MA VOLUMES
CT.24 Mountain Systems R 11 Flood and Storm Control
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
a Framework for Assessment CT 25 Polar Systems R 12 Ecosystems and Vector-borne
Disease Control
CT 26 Cultivated Systems
CF 1 Introduction and Conceptual
R 13 Climate Change
Framework CT 27 Urban Systems
R 14 Cultural Services
CF 2 Ecosystems and Their Services CT 28 Synthesis
R.15 Integrated Responses
CF 3 Ecosystems and Human Well-being
R 16 Consequences and Options for
CF 4 Drivers of Change in Ecosystems Scenarios: Findings of the Scenarios
Human Health
and Their Services
Working Group
R 17 Consequences of Responses on
CF 5 Dealing with Scale
Summary
Human Well-being and Poverty
CF 6 Concepts of Ecosystem Value and
S1 MA Conceptual Framework Reduction
Valuation Approaches
S2 Global Scenarios in Historic R 18 Choosing Responses
CF 7 Analytical Approaches
Perspective
R 19 Implications for Achieving the
CF 8 Strategic Interventions, Response
S3 Ecology in Global Scenarios Millennium Development Goals
Options, and Decision-making
S4 State of Art in Simulating Future
Changes in Ecosystem Services
Multiscale Assessments: Findings
Current State and Trends: S5 Scenarios for Ecosystem Services:
of the Sub-Global Assessments
Findings of the Condition and Trends Rationale and Overview
Working Group
Working Group S6 Methodology for Developing the
Summary
MA Scenarios
Summary
SG 1 MA Conceptual Framework
S7 Drivers of Change in Ecosystem
CT 1 MA Conceptual Framework
SG 2 Overview of the MA Sub-global
Condition and Services
CT 2 Analytical Approaches for Assessing
Assessments
S8 Four Scenarios
Ecosystems and Human Well-being
SG 3 Linking Ecosystem Services and
S9 Changes in Ecosystem Services and
CT 3 Drivers of Change (note: this is a
Human Well-being
Their Drivers across the Scenarios
synopsis of Scenarios Chapter 7)
SG 4 The Multiscale Approach
S 10 Biodiversity across Scenarios
CT 4 Biodiversity
SG 5 Using Multiple Knowledge Systems:
S 11 Human Well-being across Scenarios
CT 5 Ecosystem Conditions and Human
Benefits and Challenges
Well-being S 12 Interactions among Ecosystem
SG 6 Assessment Process
Services
CT 6 Vulnerable People and Places
SG 7 Drivers of Ecosystem Change
S 13 Lessons Learned for Scenario
CT 7 Fresh Water
SG 8 Condition and Trends of Ecosystem
Analysis
CT 8 Food
Services and Biodiversity
S 14 Policy Synthesis for Key
CT 9 Timber, Fuel, and Fiber
SG 9 Responses to Ecosystem Cjamge
Stakeholders
CT 10 New Products and Industries from amd Their Impacts on Human Well-
Biodiversity being
Policy Responses: Findings of the
CT 11 Biological Regulation of Ecosystem SG 10 Sub-global Scenarios
Responses Working Group
Services
SG 11 Communities, Ecosystems, and
Summary
CT 12 Nutrient Cycling Livelihoods
R1 MA Conceptual Framework
CT 13 Climate and Air Quality SG 12 Reflections and Lessons Learned
R2 Typology of Responses
CT 14 Human Health: Ecosystem
Regulation of Infectious Diseases R3 Assessing Responses
Sub-Global Assessments
CT 15 Waste Processing and Detoxification R4 Recognizing Uncertainties in
SG-Caribbean Caribbean Sea
Evaluating Responses
CT 16 Regulation of Natural Hazards:
SG-CBC Coastal British Columbia
Floods and Fires R5 Biodiversity
SG-SafMA Southern African Assessment
CT 17 Cultural and Amenity Services R6 Food and Ecosystems
SG-Portugal Portugal Assessment
CT 18 Marine Fisheries Systems R7 Freshwater Ecosystem Services
SG-PNG Papua New Guinea
CT 19 Coastal Systems R8 Wood, Fuelwood, and Non-wood
Forest Products
CT 20 Inland Water Systems
R9 Nutrient Management
CT 21 Forest and Woodland Systems
R 10 Waste Management, Processing, and
CT 22 Dryland Systems
Detoxification
CT 23 Island Systems
56 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Publications
Technical Volumes
(available from Island Press)
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
A Framework for Assessment
Current State and Trends: Findings of the
Condition and Trends Working Group,
Volume 1
Scenarios: Findings of the Responses
Working Group, Volume 2
Policy Responses: Findings of the Responses
Working Group, Volume 3
Multiscale Assessments: Findings of the
Sub-global Assessments Working Group,
Volume 4
Our Human Planet: Summary for
Decision-makers
Synthesis Reports
(available at www.Maweb.org)
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Biodiversity Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Desertification Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Human Health Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Wetlands Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Opportunities and Challenges for
Business and Industry
57
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 3
OTHER USEFUL RESOURCES
Below is a selected list of additional resources. Many of the sources included below will be able to point readers towards more detailed
information, in addition to the chapters in Appendix 2.
Global Resources Global Environmental Outlook (GEO): land-based activities:
A participatory and regionally distributed www.gpa.unep.org/about/index.html.
Convention on Wetlands
assessment process with a strong capacity
(Ramsar Convention): A number of
building component: www.unep.org.geo.
resources such as guidelines for The Joint Group of Experts on the
environmental impact assessment and Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental
communication and public awareness may Global International Waters Assessment Protection (GESAMP): Covers all scientific
be downloaded from the website: (GIWA): A comprehensive and integrated aspects on the prevention, reduction, and
www.ramsar.org. Information about global assessment of international waters, control of the degradation of the marine
mangroves their ecological status, and the causes environment to sustain life support systems,
(www.ramsar.org/types_mangroves.htm) of environmental problems in 66 regions resources, and amenities. Reports may be
and coral reefs of the world: www.giwa.net. downloaded from http://gesamp.imo.org.
(www.ramsar.org/types_coral.htm) is also Of particular interest is report number 70,
available. A Sea of Trouble, and number 71,
Global Programme of Action for the
Protecting the Oceans from Land-based
Protection of the Marine Environment
Activities.
Global Biodiversity Outlook 2001: A from Land-based Activities: A source
periodic report on biodiversity published by of conceptual and practical guidance to
the Secretariat of the Convention on be drawn upon by national and/or regional International Coral Reef Initiative Forum
Biological Diversity. Copies are available authorities for devising and implementing (ICRIForum): Provides a range of various
upon request from the Secretariat: sustained action to prevent, reduce, control, on-line resources related to coral reefs. Its
www.biodiv.org/gbo/default.asp. and/or eliminate marine degradation from purpose is to concentrate the various kinds
58 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
of information related to reefs that members communication technologies to ensure Bay of Bengal Large Marine Project: A
might find helpful: www.icriforum.org. sustainability of their resources. regional project focusing on the marine and
Information and key documents may be coastal areas within the Bay of Bengal.
downloaded from: www.sidsnet.org. Information and reports can be downloaded
International Geosphere-Biosphere
from:
Programme (IGBP): Not exclusively marine,
www.fao.org/fi/boblme/website/index.htm.
but has produced a number of scientific The Global Ocean Observing System
reports for marine and coastal ecosystems, (GOOS): A permanent global system
that may be downloaded from: for observations, modelling, and analysis European Iron Fertilization Experiment
www.igbp.kva.se/cgi-bin/php/frameset.php. of marine and ocean variables to support (EIFEX): A project focusing on adaptation
operational ocean services worldwide: strategies of Southern Ocean (SO)
http://ioc.unesco.org/goos. phytoplankton to iron limitation prevalent
IUCN Marine Programme: Provides
in the high nutrient – low chlorophyll
information and links to other marine
(HNLC) regions of the SO. Further
sources. Publications may also be The State of World Fisheries and
information may be found at: www.ifm-
downloaded: www.iucn.org/themes/marine. Aquaculture (SOFIA): Produces reports
geomar.de/index.php?id=2079&L=1.
(available electronically) every two years
with the purpose of providing a
Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
comprehensive, objective, and global view Regional Seas Programme: An action-
Zone (LOICZ): Engages in research such as
of capture fisheries and aquaculture, oriented programme that focuses not only
basin studies to inform the scientific
including associated policy issues: on the mitigation or elimination of the
community, policy-makers, managers, and
www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm consequences but also on the causes of
stakeholders on the relevance of global
environmental degradation. Regional action
environmental change in the coastal zone.
plans can be downloaded from
A numbers of tools and studies can be UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring
www.unep.org/water/regseas/regseas.htm.
downloaded from www.loicz.org. Centre: The marine programme has
produced a number of reports on marine
and coastal issues as part of its biodiversity National Resources
Large Marine Ecosystems of the World
series. These may be downloaded from:
Bangladesh
(LME): A global effort to improve long-
www.unep-wcmc.org
term sustainability of resources and the Bangladesh coastal policy: An example of a
/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_
environment. Reports and data are available national coastal policy including
series.
to download downloadable documents may be found at:
www.edc.uri.edu/lme. www.iczmpbangladesh.org.
WWF Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Programme: Various reports produced by United States of America
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):
WWF can be downloaded from: The PEW Ocean Commission: A scientific
The eight MDGs aim to substantially
www.wwf.org.uk/researcher/issues/livingseas examination of America’s oceans. A full
improve the lives of people around the
/index.asp. report is available to download at
world by 2015:
www.pewtrusts.org/pdf/env_pew_oceans_fin
www.un.org/millenniumgoals.
al_report.pdf and individual scientific
Regional Resources reports are also available to download from
www.pewtrusts.org.
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MA): All
After the Tsunami, Rapid Environmental
chapters and reports are available to
Assessment: A UNEP-produced report on
download, and information and findings
the environmental impact of the tsunami U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy:
from the various sub-global assessments of
that occurred in the Indian Ocean on 26 Produced recommendations for a
the MA: www.MAweb.org.
December 2004. Is available to download coordinated and comprehensive national
from: ocean policy. Documents are available to
www.unep.org/PDF/Tsunami_assessment_re download from:
Small Island Developing States Network:
port/TSUNAMI_report_complete.pdf. www.oceancommission.gov.
Aims to link SIDS to information and
59
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 4
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abundance The total number of individuals communities’ knowledge on biological Deforestation Conversion of forest to
of a taxon or taxa in an area, population, resources; unequal share of benefits non-forest.
or community. Relative abundance refers between a patent holder and the Desertification Land degradation in drylands
to the total number of individuals of one indigenous community whose resource resulting from various factors, including
taxon compared with the total number of and/or knowledge has been used; and climatic variations and human activities.
individuals of all other taxa in an area, patenting of biological resources with no Diversity The variety and relative
volume, or community. respect to patentable criteria. abundance of different entities in a
Adaptation Adjustment in natural or human Bioprospecting The exploration of sample.
systems to a new or changing biodiversity for genetic and biochemical Driver Any natural or human-induced factor
environment. Various types of adaptation resources of social or commercial value. that directly or indirectly causes a change
can be distinguished, including Capital asset An asset that is recorded as in an ecosystem.
anticipatory and reactive adaptation, capital, i.e., property that creates more Driver, direct A driver that unequivocally
private and public adaptation, and property. influences ecosystem processes and can
autonomous and planned adaptation. Capture fisheries See Fishery. therefore be identified and measured to
Alien species Species introduced outside its Carbon sequestration The process of differing degrees of accuracy. (Compare
normal distribution. increasing the carbon content of a Driver, indirect.)
Aquaculture Breeding and rearing of fish, reservoir other than the atmosphere. Driver, indirect A driver that operates by
shellfish, or plants in ponds, enclosures, Cascading interaction See Trophic cascade. altering the level or rate of change of one
or other forms of confinement in fresh or Catch The number or weight of all fish or more direct drivers. (Compare Driver,
marine waters for the direct harvest of caught by fishing operations, whether the direct.)
the product. fish are landed or not. Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant,
Bio-calcification The laying down of Coastal system Systems containing terrestrial animal, and microorganism communities
calcium carbonate by living tissue. areas dominated by ocean influences of and their non-living environment
Biodiversity (a contraction of biological tides and marine aerosols, plus nearshore interacting as a functional unit.
diversity) The variability among living marine areas. The inland extent of coastal Ecosystem approach A strategy for the
organisms from all sources, including ecosystems is the line where land-based integrated management of land, water,
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic influences dominate, up to a maximum of and living resources that promotes
ecosystems and the ecological complexes 100 kilometres from the coastline or 100- conservation and sustainable use. An
of which they are part. Biodiversity metre elevation (whichever is closer to the ecosystem approach is based on the
includes diversity within species, between sea), and the outward extent is the 50- application of appropriate scientific
species, and between ecosystems. metre-depth contour. See also System. methods focused on levels of biological
Biological diversity See Biodiversity. Community (ecological) An assemblage of organization, which encompass the
Biomass The mass of tissues in living species occurring in the same space or essential structure, processes, functions,
organisms in a population, ecosystem, or time, often linked by biotic interactions and interactions among organisms and
spatial unit. such as competition or predation. their environment. It recognizes that
Biome The largest unit of ecological Community (human, local) A collection of humans, with their cultural diversity, are
classification that is convenient to human beings who have something in an integral component of many
recognize below the entire globe. common. A local community is a fairly ecosystems.
Terrestrial biomes are typically based on small group of people who share a Ecosystem assessment A social process
dominant vegetation structure (e.g., common place of residence and a set of through which the findings of science
forest, grassland). Ecosystems within a institutions based on this fact, but the concerning the causes of ecosystem
biome function in a broadly similar way, word ‘community’ is also used to refer to change, their consequences for human
although they may have very different larger collections of people who have well-being, and management and policy
species composition. For example, all something else in common (e.g., national options are brought to bear on the needs
forests share certain properties regarding community, donor community). of decision-makers.
nutrient cycling, disturbance, and biomass Cultural services The nonmaterial benefits Ecosystem change Any variation in the
that are different from the properties of people obtain from ecosystems through state, outputs, or structure of an
grasslands. Marine biomes are typically spiritual enrichment, cognitive ecosystem.
based on biogeochemical properties. development, reflection, recreation, and Ecosystem function See Ecosystem process.
The WWF biome classification is used in aesthetic experience, including, e.g., Ecosystem management An approach to
the MA. knowledge systems, social relations, and maintaining or restoring the composition,
Biopiracy The predatory use of biological aesthetic values. structure, function, and delivery of services
resources by corporation. Particular Decision-maker A person whose decisions, of natural and modified ecosystems for the
activities usually covered by the term are: and the actions that follow from them, can goal of achieving sustainability. It is based
unauthorized use of biological resources; influence a condition, process, or issue on an adaptive, collaboratively developed
unauthorized use of traditional under consideration. vision of desired future conditions that
60 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and Gyres A major circular moving body of Keystone species A species whose impact
institutional perspectives, applied within a water. It is created as boundary currents on the community is disproportionately
geographic framework, and defined get deflected by winds and the Coriolis large relative to its abundance. Effects
primarily by natural ecological boundaries. Effect. There are five gyres in our world can be produced by consumption (trophic
Ecosystem process An intrinsic ecosystem ocean. Two gyres occur in each of the interactions), competition, mutualism,
characteristic whereby an ecosystem Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans and one dispersal, pollination, disease, or habitat
maintains its integrity. Ecosystem in the Indian Ocean. They flow clockwise modification (nontrophic interactions).
processes include decomposition, in the Northern Hemisphere and counter- Land cover The physical coverage of land,
production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. usually expressed in terms of vegetation
of nutrients and energy. (Source: Ocean World Glossary cover or lack of it. Related to, but not
Ecosystem services The benefits people http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/students/curre synonymous with, land use.
obtain from ecosystems. These include nts/currents4.htm) Landscape An area of land that contains a
provisioning services such as food and Health, human A state of complete physical, mosaic of ecosystems, including human-
water; regulating services such as flood mental, and social well-being and not dominated ecosystems. The term cultural
and disease control; cultural services such merely the absence of disease or infirmity. landscape is often used when referring
as spiritual, recreational, and cultural The health of a whole community or to landscapes containing significant
benefits; and supporting services such as population is reflected in measurements human populations or in which there
nutrient cycling that maintain the of disease incidence and prevalence, age- has been significant human influence on
conditions for life on Earth. The concept specific death rates, and life expectancy. the land.
‘ecosystem goods and services’ is High seas The area outside national Landscape unit A portion of relatively
synonymous with ecosystem services. jurisdiction, i.e., beyond each nation’s homogenous land cover within the local-
Endangered species Species that face a very exclusive economic zone or other to-regional landscape.
high risk of extinction in the wild. See territorial waters. Marginal benefits Extra benefits arising
also Threatened species. Human well-being See Well-being. from increased consumption of a
Endemic (in ecology) A species or higher Indicator Information based on measured commodity.
taxonomic unit found only within a data used to represent a particular Marine system Marine waters from the
specific area. attribute, characteristic, or property of a low-water mark to the high seas that
Endemism The fraction of species that is system. support marine capture fisheries, as well
endemic relative to the total number of Inland water systems Permanent water as deepwater (>50 metres) habitats. Four
species found in a specific area. bodies other than salt-water systems on sub-divisions (marine biomes) are
Equity Fairness of rights, distribution, and the coast, seas, and oceans. Includes recognized: the coastal boundary zone;
access. Depending on context, this can rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, and trade-winds; westerlies; and polar.
refer to resources, services, or power. inland saline lakes and marshes. See also Market-based instruments Mechanisms that
Eutrophication The increase in additions of System. create a market for ecosystem services in
nutrients to freshwater or marine systems, Institutions The rules that guide how people order to improve the efficiency in the way
which leads to increases in plant growth within societies live, work, and interact the service is used. The term is used for
and often to undesirable changes in with each other. Formal institutions are mechanisms that create new markets, but
ecosystem structure and function. written or codified rules. Examples of also for responses such as taxes,
Fishery A particular kind of fishing activity, formal institutions would be the subsidies, or regulations that affect
e.g., a trawl fishery, or a particular constitution, the judiciary laws, the existing markets.
species targeted, e.g., a cod fishery or organized market, and property rights. Mitigation An anthropogenic intervention to
salmon fishery. Informal institutions are rules governed reduce negative or unsustainable uses of
Freedom The range of options a person has by social and behavioural norms of the ecosystems or to enhance sustainable
in deciding the kind of life to lead. society, family, or community. Also practices.
Globalization The increasing integration of referred to as organizations. Nutrient cycling The processes by
economies and societies around the Interventions See Responses. which elements are extracted from their
world, particularly through trade and Invasive alien species An alien species mineral, aquatic, or atmospheric sources
financial flows, and the transfer of whose establishment and spread modifies or recycled from their organic forms,
culture and technology. ecosystems, habitats, or species. converting them to the ionic form in
Global scale The geographical realm Island systems Lands isolated by which biotic uptake occurs and ultimately
encompassing all of Earth. surrounding water, with a high returning them to the atmosphere, water,
Governance The process of regulating proportion of coast to hinterland. The or soil.
human behaviour in accordance with degree of isolation from the mainland in Nutrients The approximately 20 chemical
shared objectives. The term includes both both natural and social aspects is elements known to be essential for the
governmental and nongovernmental accounted by the isola effect. See also growth of living organisms, including
mechanisms. System. nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon.
61
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Open access resource A good or service Relative strain index An index looking taxonomic unit, based on morphological
over which no property rights are at air temperature and vapour pressure or genetic similarity, that once described
recognized. in defining climatic limits for human and accepted is associated with a unique
Population, human A collection of living well-being. scientific name.
people in a given area. Compare Resilience The level of disturbance that an Species diversity Biodiversity at the species
Community (human, local). ecosystem can undergo without crossing a level, often combining aspects of species
Poverty The pronounced deprivation of threshold to a situation with different richness, their relative abundance, and
well-being. Income poverty refers to a structure or outputs. Resilience depends their dissimilarity.
particular formulation expressed solely on ecological dynamics as well as the Species richness The number of species
in terms of per capita or household organizational and institutional capacity within a given sample, community, or
income. to understand, manage, and respond to area.
Prediction (or forecast) The result of an these dynamics. Stock (in fisheries) The population or
attempt to produce a most likely Responses Human actions, including biomass of a fishery resource. Such stocks
description or estimate of the actual policies, strategies, and interventions, to are usually identified by their location.
evolution of a variable or system in the address specific issues, needs, They can be, but are not always,
future. See also Projection and Scenario. opportunities, or problems. In the context genetically discrete from other stocks.
Primary productivity The amount of of ecosystem management, responses may Storyline A narrative description of a
production of living organic material be of legal, technical, institutional, scenario, which highlights its main
through photosynthesis by plants, economic, and behavioural nature and features and the relationships between the
including algae, measured over a period may operate at various spatial and time scenario’s driving forces and its main
of time. scales. features.
Projection A potential future evolution Riparian Something related to, living on, or Strategies See Responses.
of a quantity or set of quantities, often located at the banks of a watercourse, Subsistence An activity in which the output
computed with the aid of a model. usually a river or stream. is mostly for the use of the individual
Projections are distinguished from Salinization The build-up of salts in soils. person doing it, or their family, and
‘predictions’ in order to emphasize that Scale The measurable dimensions of which is a significant component of their
projections involve assumptions phenomena or observations. Expressed in livelihood.
concerning, for example, future physical units, such as metres, years, Supporting services Ecosystem services that
socioeconomic and technological population size, or quantities moved or are necessary for the production of all
developments that may or exchanged. In observation, scale determines other ecosystem services. Some examples
may not be realized; they are therefore the relative fineness and coarseness of include biomass production, production
subject to substantial uncertainty. different detail and the selectivity among of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation
Property rights The right to specific uses, patterns these data may form. and retention, nutrient cycling, water
perhaps including exchange in a market, Scenario A plausible and often simplified cycling, and provisioning of habitat.
of ecosystems and their services. description of how the future may Sustainable use (of an ecosystem) Human
Provisioning services The products develop, based on a coherent and use of an ecosystem so that it may yield a
obtained from ecosystems, including, for internally consistent set of assumptions continuous benefit to present generations
example, genetic resources, food and about key driving forces (e.g., rate of while maintaining its potential to meet
fibre, and freshwater. technology change, prices) and the needs and aspirations of future
Public good A good or service in which the relationships. Scenarios are neither generations.
benefit received by any one party does predictions nor projections and Sustainability A characteristic or state
not diminish the availability of the sometimes may be based on a ‘narrative whereby the needs of the present and
benefits to others, and where access to storyline’. Scenarios may include local population can be met without
the good cannot be restricted. projections but are often based on compromising the ability of future
Realm Used to describe the three major additional information from other generations or populations in other
types of ecosystems on Earth: terrestrial, sources. locations to meet their needs.
freshwater, and marine. Differs Security Access to resources, safety, and the System In the Millennium Ecosystem
fundamentally from biogeographic realm. ability to live in a predictable and Assessment, reporting units that are
Regime shift A rapid reorganization of an controllable environment. ecosystem-based but at a level of
ecosystem from one relatively stable state Service See Ecosystem services. aggregation far higher than that usually
to another. Species An interbreeding group of applied to ecosystems. Thus the system
Regulating services The benefits obtained organisms that is reproductively isolated includes many component ecosystems,
from the regulation of ecosystem from all other organisms, although there some of which may not strongly interact
processes, including, for example, the are many partial exceptions to this rule in with each other, that may be spatially
regulation of climate, water, and some particular taxa. Operationally, the term separate, or that may be of a different
human diseases. species is a generally agreed fundamental type to the ecosystems that constitute the
62 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
majority, or matrix, of the system overall. data to ambiguously defined terminology
The system includes the social and or uncertain projections of human
economic systems that have an impact on behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be
and are affected by the ecosystems represented by quantitative measures
included within it. For example, the (e.g., a range of values calculated by
Condition and Trends Working Group various models) or by qualitative
refers to ‘forest systems’, ‘cultivated statements (e.g., reflecting the judgment
systems’, ‘mountain systems’, and so on. of a team of experts).
Systems thus defined are not mutually Urbanization An increase in the proportion
exclusive, and are permitted to overlap of the population living in urban areas.
spatially or conceptually. For instance, the Valuation The process of expressing a value
‘cultivated system’ may include areas of for a particular good or service in a
‘dryland system’ and vice versa. certain context (e.g., of decision-making)
Taxon (pl. taxa) The named classification usually in terms of something that can be
unit to which individuals or sets of counted, often money, but also through
species are assigned. Higher taxa are methods and measures from other
those above the species level. For disciplines (sociology, ecology, and so on).
example, the common mouse, Mus See also Value.
musculus, belongs to the Genus Mus, the Value The contribution of an action or
Family Muridae, and the Class object to user-specified goals, objectives,
Mammalia. or conditions. Compare Valuation.
Taxonomy A system of nested categories Vulnerability Exposure to contingencies and
(taxa) reflecting evolutionary stress, and the difficulty in coping with
relationships or morphological similarity. them. Three major dimensions of
Threshold A point or level at which new vulnerability are involved: exposure to
properties emerge in an ecological, stresses, perturbations, and shocks; the
economic, or other system, invalidating sensitivity of people, places, ecosystems,
predictions based on mathematical and species to the stress or perturbation,
relationships that apply at lower levels. including their capacity to anticipate and
For example, species diversity of a cope with the stress; and the resilience of
landscape may decline steadily with the exposed people, places, ecosystems,
increasing habitat degradation to a and species in terms of their capacity to
certain point, then fall sharply after a absorb shocks and perturbations while
critical threshold of degradation is maintaining function.
reached. Human behaviour, especially at Watershed (also catchment basin) The land
group levels, sometimes exhibits threshold area that drains into a particular
effects. Thresholds at which irreversible watercourse or body of water. Sometimes
changes occur are especially of concern to used to describe the dividing line of high
decision-makers. ground between two catchment basins.
Trade-off Management choices that Well-being A context- and situation-
intentionally or otherwise change the dependent state, comprising basic
type, magnitude, and relative mix of material for a good life, freedom and
services provided by ecosystems. choice, health and bodily well-being,
Trend A pattern of change over time, over good social relations, security, peace of
and above short-term fluctuations. mind, and spiritual experience.
Trophic level The average level of an Wetlands Areas of marsh, fen, peat land, or
organism within a food web, with plants water, whether natural or artificial,
having a trophic level of 1, herbivores 2, permanent or temporary, with water that
first-order carnivores 3, and so on. is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or
Uncertainty An expression of the degree to salt, including areas of marine water the
which a future condition (e.g., of an depth of which at low tide does not
ecosystem) is unknown. Uncertainty can exceed six metres. May incorporate
result from lack of information or from riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
disagreement about what is known or wetlands and islands or bodies of marine
even knowable. It may have many types water deeper than six metres at low tide
of sources, from quantifiable errors in the lying within the wetlands.
63
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACCOBAMS – Agreement on the GNP – gross national product OAS – Organization of American States
Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black GPA – Global Programme of Action for the OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-
Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Protection of the Marine Environment operation and Development
Atlantic Area from Land-based Activities
ACS – Association of Caribbean States GPS – Global Positioning System PCBs – polychlorinated biphenyls
AIGA – alternative forms of income POPs – persistent organic pollutants
generation ICCAT – International Commission for the
ASCOBANS – Agreement on the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna R – Responses volume of the MA
Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the ICRAN – International Coral Reef Action
Baltic and North Seas Network S – Scenarios volume of the MA
ICRI – International Coral Reef Initiative SDM – Summary for Decision-makers (of the
CARICOM – Caribbean Community ICRW – International Convention for the MA)
CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity Regulation of Whaling SIDS – small island developing states
CCCL – coastal construction control lines ICZM – integrated coastal zone SG – Sub-global Assessment volume of the MA
CF – Conceptual Framework management SOFIA – State of World Fisheries and
CITES – Convention on International Trade IGBP – International Geosphere-Biosphere Aquaculture (FAO)
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Programme SR – Synthesis Report (of the MA)
and Flora IOSEA – Memorandum of Understanding
CMS – Convention on the Conservation of on the Conservation and Management of TEK – traditional ecological knowledge
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the TEV – total economic value
Convention) Indian Ocean and South-East Asia
CSS – combined storm and sewer systems IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate UBC – University of British Colombia
CT – Condition and Trends volume of the Change UN – United Nations
MA IQ – individual quota UNCCD – United Nations Convention to
ISA – infectious salmon anaemia Combat Desertification
DEWA – Division of Early Warning and ITQ – individual transferable quota UNCLOS – United Nations Convention on
Assessment (UNEP) IUCN – World Conservation Union the Law of the Sea
UNDP – United Nations Development
EEZ – exclusive economic zone LIFDC – low-income food-deficit countries Programme
EIA – environmental impact assessment LME – large marine ecosystems UNEP – United Nations Environment
ENSO – El Niño/Southern Oscillation LOICZ – Land-Ocean Interactions in the Programme
Coastal Zone UNFCCC – United Nations Framework
FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization LPI – Living Planet Index Convention on Climate Change
(United Nations)
MA – Millennium Ecosystem Assessment WCMC – World Conservation Monitoring
GCRMN – Global Coral Reef Monitoring MCA – multicriteria analysis Centre (of UNEP)
Network MDG – Millennium Development Goal WCPA – World Commission on Protected Areas
GDP – gross domestic product MPA – marine protected area WSSD – World Summit on Sustainable
GEO – Global Environment Outlook MSY – maximum sustainable yield Development
GESAMP – The Joint Group of Experts on WWF – World Wide Fund For Nature
the Scientific Aspects of Marine NAFO – North West Atlantic Fisheries
Environmental Protection Organization The Millennium Development Goals commit the international
1
GIWA – Global International Waters NEAFC – North East Atlantic Fisheries community to a commonly accepted framework for measuring
development progress. The eight goals set targets on overcoming
Assessment Commission poverty, illiteracy, hunger, lack of education, gender inequality, child
GMA – Global Marine Assessment NGO – nongovernmental organization and maternal mortality, disease, and environmental degradation.
64 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Picture Credits
Front cover: Songpanich Pairat/ UNEP
Inside front cover: Adel Bouajina/ UNEP
Page Bong Fung Gee/ UNEP
V
Chapter 1
Page 1 Dawee Chaikere/ UNEP
Page 7 Susan M Davis/ UNEP
Page 10 Alvaro Izurieta/ UNEP
Page 15 David Fleetham/ UNEP
Page 17 Ngyuyen Quoc Thinh/ UNEP
Page 18 J.M. Pinto/ UNEP
Page 21 Shoukyu Utsuka/ UNEP
Chapter 2
Page 27 Songpanich Pairat/ UNEP
Chapter 3
Page 29 Cheng Foh Onn/ UNEP
Page 31 Yoshiaki Kawachi/ UNEP
Page 37 Narbeburu/ UNEP
Page 41 UNEP
Chapter 4
Page 44 Robert Yin/ UNEP
Page 46 Marcello Tewkes/ UNEP
Page 48 UNEP
Page 49 Stephen Dalla Costa/ UNEP
Page 50 UNEP
Page 52 L. Wright/UNEP
Page 53 UNEP
Appendixes
Page 55 UNEP
Page 57 Jack Jackson/ UNEP
Page 58 Demi Ivo/ UNEP
Page 63 Anthony Pigone/ UNEP
Page 64 Alvaro Izurieta/ UNEP
Inside back cover: Prasit Chansareekom/UNEP
Back cover: UNEP
5
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL,
United Kingdom
WWW.unep.org
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136 United Nations Environment Programme
Email: info@unep-wcmc.org P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Website: www.unep-wcmc.org Tel: +254 (0) 20 7621234
Fax: +254 (0) 20 7623927
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Email: uneppub@unep.org
Website: www.MAweb.org Website: www.unep.org
DEW/0785/NA
ISBN: 92-807-2679-X
January 2006
COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS
AND HUMAN
WELL-BEING
Synthesis
A synthesis report based on the findings
of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
The production of this
report has been made
possible by the support
of the Netherlands
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs-Development
Cooperation
M ARINE AND
COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS
AND HUMAN
WELL-BEING
Synthesis
A synthesis report based on the findings of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Synthesis editorial team
Claire Brown, Emily Corcoran, Peter Herkenrath, and Jillian Thonell
Synthesis team
Jackie Alder, Russell Arthurton, Neville Ash, Salif Diop, Sherry Heileman, Michael Huber,
Francisco Arias-Izasa, Kwame Koranteng, Carmen Lacambra, Karen McLeod, Elvina Payet,
Nishanthi Perera, Lingzis DanLing Tang, Mark Spalding, and Kaveh Zahedi
Extended writing team
MA Coordinating Lead Authors, Lead Authors, Contributing Authors, and Sub-global Coordinators
This report has been
prepared by UNEP-
WCMC at the request of
and with the support
of UNEP’s Division
of Early Warning
and Assessment
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 (0) 20 7621234
Fax: +254 (0) 20 7623927
Email: uneppub@unep.org
Website: www.unep.org
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Website: www.MAweb.org
Copyright © UNEP 2006
Suggested citation
UNEP (2006) Marine and coastal ecosystems and human well-
being: A synthesis report based on the findings of the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. UNEP. 76pp
Printed by UNEP
A Banson production
The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views
or policies of UNEP or contributory organizations. The desig-
nations employed and the presentation of material in this report
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, or city, or its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Preface iv
Reader’s Guide vi
Acknowledgements vii
Key Messages viii
Summary 1
1 What is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services 7
Introduction 7
Ecosystem Services from Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 7
Habitat and Biodiversity Loss 18
Gaps in Knowledge of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 20
2 What are the drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems? 22
Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 22
Direct Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 22
Indirect Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 27
3 Why should we care about the loss or degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems
and their services? 29
Human Well-being and Ecosystem Services 29
Basic Materials for a Good Life 30
Human Health 33
Good Social Relations 34
Security 35
Trade-offs between Conservation and Other Priorities 35
Gaps in Understanding regarding Human Well-being 36
A Look at the Future: The Four MA Scenarios 37
4 What can be done about the loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services? 42
Introduction 42
Response Options 42
Evaluating Policy Responses 52
Tools for Policy Options 53
Policy Response Gaps 53
Appendix 1 A Selection of International Mechanisms in the Marine and Coastal Area 55
Appendix 2 Chapters in the Main MA Volumes 56
Appendix 3 Other Useful Resources 58
Appendix 4 Glossary of Terms 60
Appendix 5 Abbreviations and Acronyms 64
CONTENTS CONT.
Boxes
Figure 1.3 Estimated Global Fish Catches
Box 1.1 Trophic Levels
(1950–2001) by Target Group and
Box 1.2 Ecotourism and Small Island States
by Biome
Box 1.3 Traditional Knowledge Important to
Figure 1.4 Trophic Level Change (1950–2000)
Environmental Management of Marine and
Figure 1.5 Trend in Mean Depth of Catch and
Coastal Ecosystems
Mean Distance of Catch from Shore since
Box 1.4 Examples of Coastal and Marine Species
1950
under Threat
Figure 1.6 The State of Fish Stocks in 1999
Box 1.5 General Conditions and Trends of Coastal
Figure 1.7 Global Distribution of Mangrove Forests
and Marine Biodiversity
Figure 1.8 Red List Indices for Birds in Freshwater,
Box 3.1 The MA Definition of Human Well-being
Marine, and Terrestrial Ecosystems,
Box 3.2 The Benguela Fishery
and for Birds in Forest and
Box 3.3 Island Ecosystem Case Study
Shrubland/Grassland Habitats
Box 3.4 Polar Region Case Study
Figure 2.1 Growth in Number of Marine Species
Box 3.5 The MA Scenarios
Introductions
Box 3.6 Predictions from the MA Scenarios
Figure 2.2 Estimated Total Reactive Nitrogen
Box 3.7 Case Study: Fisheries and Tourism in the
Deposition from the Atmosphere (Wet and
Caribbean Sea—Jamaica and Bonaire
Dry) in 1860, Early 1990s, and Projected
Box 3.8 Case Study: Dead Zones in the Gulf of
for 2050
Mexico
Figure 3.1 Spatial Distribution of the Total Value of
Box 3.9 Case Study: Predicted Impacts of Global
Food Production for Crops, Livestock,
Warming on the Coastal Zone of Papua
and Fisheries in 2000
New Guinea
Figure 3.2 Collapse of Atlantic Cod Stocks off the
Box 3.10 Case Study: No-take Zones in St. Lucia
East Coast of Newfoundland in 1992
Box 4.1 Large Marine Ecosystems
Figure 3.3 Conceptual Map of Direct and Indirect
Box 4.2 Case Study: The Mankote Mangrove in St.
Drivers of the Dead Zone in the Gulf
Lucia
of Mexico
Box 4.3 Effectiveness of International Instruments
Figure 4.1 Economic Benefits under Alternative
Box 4.4 Examples of Key International Instruments
Management Practices
Box 4.5 Case Study: Challenges for Policy Responses
in the Caribbean
Tables
Box 4.6 Case Study: Participatory Land Use Planning
Table 1.1 Examples of Ecosystem Services
in Coastal British Columbia, Canada
Provided by Different Marine and
Box 4.7 Benefits from Marine Protected Areas:
Coastal Habitats
Bahamas and Samoa
Table 1.2 Summary of Status of Coastal Habitat
Box 4.8 Examples of Land Use Planning for Coastal
Types
Protection
Table 1.3 World Fishery Production and Utilization,
Box 4.9 Case Study: The National Fisheries Sector in
1996–2001
Chile
Table 2.1 Important Drivers in the MA
Box 4.10 Biodiversity in the Gulf of Thailand under
Table 2.2 Drivers of Change in Coastal Ecosystems
the MA Scenarios
Table 2.3 Share of World and Coastal Populations
Box 4.11 Case Study: The Costs and Benefits of
Living within 50 Kilometres of Estuaries,
Retaining or Converting Natural Mangrove
Coral Reefs, Mangroves, and Seagrass
Ecosystems inThailand
Table 3.1 Consequences of Each Scenario for the
Figures Factors Affecting Hypoxia in the Gulf
of Mexico
Figure 1.1 Classification of the World’s Oceans’
Table 4.1 Main Policies for the Management of
Identified Four ‘Biomes’ (Polar, Westerlies,
Open-access Fisheries
Trade Winds, and Coastal Boundary)
Figure 1.2 Definition of the Spatial Occurrence of
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems within
the MA
ii M ARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
FOREWORD
Humankind depends on the oceans and coasts for its survival, with one third of the world’s population living in
coastal areas, approximately 4 percent of Earth’s total land area. Global changes and a range of other drivers are
causing degradation or loss of ecosystem services. Changes to ecosystem services such as food security and
employment of nearly 38 million people in the fisheries industry will cause impacts that will reach far beyond the
coastal zone.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is an international initiative that began in 2001 under the auspices
of the United Nations. The MA establishes a collaborative and scientific approach to assess ecosystems, the services
they provide, and how changes in these services will impact upon human well-being. More than 1,360 leading
scientists from 95 countries carried out the Assessment under the direction of a Board that included representatives
of four international conventions—the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, and the
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)—five United Nations agencies, and international scientific organizations,
as well as leaders from the private sector, nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous groups.
This report is a synthesis of the findings from the reports of the MA working groups (conditions and trends,
scenarios, response and sub-global assessments) concerning marine and coastal ecosystems. UNEP-WCMC and
UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) have coordinated the production of this synthesis
report in recognition that the loss of marine and coastal services has impacts on human well-being.
The aim of this synthesis report is to contribute to the dissemination of the information contained within the
MA to decision-makers and a wide range of stakeholders of marine and coastal ecosystems through seven key
messages. In addition it is envisaged the information contained within this synthesis report will contribute to larger
international processes such as the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA), Global Biodiversity Outlook
(GBO), the Global Marine Assessment (GMA), Global Environmental Outlook (GEO), the Regional Seas, the CBD
and the Ramsar Convention.
The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation, kindly funded the preparation and
publication of this report. This synthesis report has only been possible due to the efforts and commitment of the
authors and reviewers, of the MA working groups who contributed their time and knowledge to the development
of the assessment. I would like to express my gratitude to the team that prepared this synthesis report.
I hope that this synthesis report will provide a tool that will help those who hold the responsibility for the
conservation and sustainable use of our marine and coastal ecosystems through the employment of effective policy,
legislative and response options.
Klaus Toepfer
Executive Director,
United Nations Environment Programme
iii
M ARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
PREFACE
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was carried out between 2002 and 2005 to assess the consequence
of ecosystem change for human well-being and to analyse the options available to enhance the conservation and
sustainable use of ecosystems. The main findings of the MA were released on March 30, 2005.
The human species, while buffered against environmental changes by culture and technology, is ultimately fully
dependent on the flow of ecosystem services. The MA analyses ecosystem services at global and sub-global (local or
regional) scales in terms of current conditions and trends, plausible future scenarios, and possible responses for
sustainable resource use.
What are ecosystems and ecosystem services?
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving
environment interacting as a functional unit. The conceptual framework for the MA assumes that people are
integral parts of ecosystems and the Report focuses on examining the linkages between ecosystems and human
well-being and in particular on ‘ecosystem services’, which are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.
(See Figure A.) Ecosystem services include:
provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre;
regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods, disease, wastes and water quality;
cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and
supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling.
Figure A MA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF INTERACTIONS AMONG BIODIVERSITY, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES,
HUMAN WELL-BEING, AND DRIVERS OF CHANGE
Changes in drivers that indirectly affect short-term
GLOBAL
long-term
biodiversity, such as population,
REGIONAL
technology, and lifestyle (upper right
LOCAL
corner), can lead to changes in drivers
directly affecting biodiversity, such as
the catch of fish or the application of
fertilizers to increase food production Human well-being Indirect drivers for change
and poverty reduction ■ DEMOGRAPHIC
(lower right corner). These result in
v
■ BASIC MATERIAL FOR A GOOD LIFE ■ ECONOMIC (e.g., globalization, trade,
▼
changes to biodiversity and ecosystems market, and policy framework)
v
■ HEALTH
services (lower left corner), thereby ■ SOCIOPOLITICAL (e.g., governance,
v institutional and legal framework)
■ GOOD SOCIAL RELATIONS
▼
affecting human well-being. These v ■ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
■ SECURITY
interactions can take place at more ■ CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS (e.g., beliefs,
■ FREEDOM OF CHOICE AND ACTION consumption choices)
than one scale and can cross scales.
For example, international demand for ▼
▼
timber may lead to a regional loss of
v v
v
v
forest cover, which increases flood
▼
magnitude along a local stretch of a
river. Similarly, the interactions can take Ecosystem services Direct drivers for change
place across different time scales. ■ ■
PROVISIONING CHANGES IN LOCAL LAND USE
(e.g., food, water, fibre, and fuel) AND COVER
Actions can be taken either to respond ■ SPECIES INTRODUCTION OR REMOVAL
■ REGULATING
to negative changes or to enhance ■ TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION AND USE
(e.g., climate regulation, water, and disease),
v
▼
■ EXTERNAL INPUTS (e.g., fertilzer use,
positive changes at almost all points in ■ CULTURAL pest control, and irrigation)
v
(e.g., spiritual, aesthetic, recreation,
■ HARVEST AND RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
this framework. Local scales refer to and education)
■ CLIMATE CHANGE
communities or ecosystems and ■ SUPPORTING
■ NATURAL, PHYSICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL
(e.g., primary production, and soil formation)
DRIVERS (e.g., evolution, volcanoes)
regional scales refer to nations or
biomes, all of which are nested within LIFE ON EARTH – BIODIVERSITY
global-scale processes.
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Strategies and interventions
iv MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Marine and coastal systems within the MA context
Most of Earth (70.8% or 362 million km2) is covered by oceans and major seas. Marine systems are highly
dynamic and tightly connected through a network of surface and deep-water currents. The properties of the water
form stratified layers, tides, and currents. Upwellings break this stratification by mixing layers and creating vertical
and lateral heterogeneity within the ocean biome. The total global coastlines exceed 1.6 million kilometres, and
coastal ecosystems occur in 123 countries around the world.
Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most productive, yet threatened, ecosystems in the world; they
include terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., sand dune systems), areas where freshwater and saltwater mix, nearshore
coastal areas, and open ocean marine areas. In the context of the MA assessment, the ocean (or marine) and
coastal realm has been divided into two major sets of systems: ‘marine fisheries systems’ and ‘inshore coastal
systems and coastal communities’. Marine systems are defined as waters from the low water mark (50m depth) to
the high seas; and coastal systems are defined as <50m depth to the coastline and inland from the coastline to a
maximum of 100 km or 50-metre elevation (whichever is closer to the sea). The MA defines the coastal zone as a
narrower band of terrestrial area dominated by ocean influences of tides and marine aerosols, and defines a marine
area where light penetrates throughout. (See MA Condition and Trends volume, section 19.1 [CT 19.1] for
explanation of the definition.)
v
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
READER’S GUIDE
This report is a synthesis of the findings of the MA on marine and coastal ecosystems, taken from the global and
sub-global assessments.
UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) requested and supported this synthesis report to
contribute to the dissemination of the information contained within the MA to decision-makers and a wide range
of stakeholders of marine and coastal ecosystems. Six other synthesis reports have also been produced for different
audiences: general overview, biodiversity (Convention on Biological Diversity), desertification (UN Convention to
Combat Desertification), wetlands (Convention on Wetlands—Ramsar), the business sector, and the health sector.
These synthesis reports along with the MA technical reports and sub-global assessments are available from
www.MAweb.org.
This synthesis report sets out to provide answers to a series of questions that all stakeholders not just decision-
makers may ask: what is at stake, what is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems, why should we care
if we lose marine and coastal ecosystems, and what can be done to ensure that marine and coastal ecosystems and
services are conserved. A Summary is available at the beginning of the report. Key messages are highlighted in bold,
while the use of italics refers to a key word to help direct the reader. A list of additional resources is provided in
Appendix 3; a glossary of marine and coastal ecosystem terms is provided in Appendix 4; and Appendix 5 contains
a list of acronyms and abbreviations. The reader should also note that while the MA uses the word ‘system’, this
report has chosen to replace the word ‘system’ with ‘ecosystem’. As a result of extensive interlinkages among
ecosystems, the services they provide, and how we use them, it as been impossible to avoid a certain degree of
duplication of text.
All information contained in this synthesis report is derived from chapters of the MA’s four main assessment
reports, and the report on Ecosystems and Human Well-being; A Framework for Assessment, which sets out the
MA’s conceptual framework (CF) and the approach and methodology adopted for the global assessment and
relevant sub-global assessments. Reference to the chapters contained within these reports is presented in square
brackets, which contain the number of the chapter and, where necessary, the section number, being referenced.
These references are coded as follows: the MA Conceptual Framework [CF]; the Condition and Trends volume
[CT]; the Scenarios volume [S]; the Responses volume [R]; the Sub-global Assessments volume [SG]; and
various Synthesis Reports [SR], particularly the General SR, the Biodiversity SR, and the Wetlands SR. Where
reference is made to the MA Summary for Decision-makers, this is coded as [SDM]. A list of chapters in the main
MA volumes is provided in Appendix 2.
Throughout this report, dollar signs indicate U.S. dollars and measurements are metric (that is, billion equals a
thousand million).
The wording of estimates of certainty, such as for the collective judgment of authors, observational evidence,
modelling results, and theory examined is consistent with the MA and other synthesis reports: very certain (98% or
greater probability), high certainty (85–98% probability), medium certainty (65–85% probability), low certainty
(52–65% probability), and very uncertain (50–52% probability). For example, at least a medium confidence (near
65%) may exist for the comment ‘desalinization could alter biodiversity’. Quantitative qualifiers on the amount of
desalinization and the direction and severity of the biodiversity change must be added to the statement. When this
is not appropriate, the standard MA qualitative scale for the level of scientific understanding is implemented: well
established, established but incomplete, competing explanations, and speculative.
Following the synthesis of information from the MA chapters, scientific and policy experts within the marine
and coastal field and selected MA authors provided review comments (a two-staged review process). To supplement
the review process, the final draft of the synthesis report was made available at the meeting of the Global Marine
Assessment in June 2005. All comments were taken into consideration in finalizing this synthesis report.
vi MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation, kindly provided financial support for
the preparation and publication of this MA synthesis report on marine and coastal ecosystems.
We would like to acknowledge the review panel for providing comment on this synthesis report: Martin
Adriaanse, Tundi Agardi, Margarita Astralaga, Charles Victor Barber, Kevern Cochrane, Nick Davidson, Ed Green,
Stefan Hain, Tom Laughlin, Jackie McGlade, Elizabeth McLanahan, Edmund McManus, Rolph Payet, Henrique
Pereira, Marjo Vierros, Sue Wells, and Christian Wild.
We would also like to further acknowledge all of the MA authors and review editors who contributed to this
report through their contributions to the underlying assessment chapters, which this report is based upon.
We would also like to acknowledge the many donors that provided major financial support for the MA,
particularly: Global Environment Facility, United Nations Foundation, David and Lucile Packard Foundation,
World Bank, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, United Nations Environment Programme,
Government of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Norway, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and
the Swedish International Biodiversity Programme. The full list of organizations that provided financial support to
the MA is available at www.MAweb.org.
The synthesis editorial team would also like to thank Ryan Walker for his assistance in collating comments
from reviewers.
vii
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
KEY MESSAGES
People are dependent on the ocean and coasts and their resources for their survival and well-being. Marine
■
and coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of services to human society, including food provision, natural
shoreline protection against storms and floods, water quality maintenance, support of tourism and other
cultural and spiritual benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life support systems. The effects of coastal
degradation and a loss of these services are felt inland and often a long way from the coast.
The major drivers of change, degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and services are mainly
■
anthropogenic. Important drivers of marine and coastal ecosystems include: population growth, land use
change and habitat loss, overfishing and destructive fishing methods, illegal fishing, invasive species, climate
change, subsidies, eutrophication, pollution, technology change, globalization, increased demand for food,
and a shift in food preferences.
Marine and coastal ecosystems are among the most productive and provide a range of social and economic
■
benefit to humans. More than one third of the world’s population live in coastal areas and small islands that
make up just over 4% of Earth’s total land area. Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to
38 million people. Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of global tourism and provides
employment for many people and generates local incomes. For example, reef-based tourism generates over
$1.2 billion annually in the Florida Keys (of the United States) alone.
Most services derived from marine and coastal ecosystems are being degraded and used unsustainably
■
and therefore are deteriorating faster than other ecosystems. Unsustainable use of services can result in
threatened food security for coastal communities due to overexploited fish stocks; loss of habitat that in turn
causes damage to the thriving tourism industry; health impacts through increasing loads of waste released
into coastal waters; and vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-induced disasters. The
MA scenarios forecast a great risk of collapse of all major fish stocks and climate change-induced sea-level
rise (with mean value of 0.5–0.7 m).
The highly threatened nature of marine and coastal ecosystems and the demand for their services highlight
■
the need for a local, regional, and global response. A range of options exists to respond to the challenges
that the degradation of ecosystems is posing (for example, implementation of regional and global agreements
or stakeholder participation and capacity development). Addressing uncertainties and elaborating trade-offs
provide useful mechanisms for operational responses.
Trade-offs in meeting the Millennium Development Goals and other international commitments are
■
inevitable. However, implementing the established ecosystem-based approaches (for example, integrated
coastal management) adopted by the CBD, the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar), and FAO, amongst
others, as well as existing local and regional legislation, policy, and guidelines on the future condition of
marine and coastal ecosystem services could be substantially improved by balancing economic development,
ecosystem preservation, and human well-being objectives.
Improved capacity to predict the consequences of change of drivers in marine and coastal ecosystems
■
would aid decision-making at all levels. Long-term and large-area ecological processes are particularly
poorly understood; and yet, in a number of areas, issues and well-defined policies have not been sufficiently
developed. Monitoring of biodiversity change at the ecosystem and species level is essential.
viii MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
SUMMARY
What is the current status of marine and coastal The seas and coasts around the world are of great spiritual
ecosystems and their services? importance to many people, providing cultural and spiritual
services. Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors
of global tourism and is an essential component of the
Key Message # 1 People are dependent on the ocean and economies of many small island developing states (SIDS).
coasts and their resources for their survival and well-being. Much of the economic value of coral reefs is generated from
Marine and coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of
nature-based and dive tourism, with net benefits estimated at
services to human society, including food provision, natural
nearly $30 billion annually. The cultures of many peoples are
shoreline protection against storms and floods, water quality
closely connected to coasts and oceans, and traditional
maintenance, support of tourism and other cultural and
knowledge has become an integral part of the dynamics of
spiritual benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life
island and coastal ecosystems and their management. In
support systems. The effects of coastal degradation and a
addition, coastal and marine habitats are areas of research and
loss of these services are felt inland and often a long way
efforts in education and public awareness.
from the coast.
Marine and coastal ecosystems provide supporting services
in the form of a wide range of habitats. Estuaries, mangroves,
lagoons, seagrasses, and kelp forests serve as nurseries for both
Coastal and marine ecosystems are amongst the most
inshore and offshore fish and other species, many of which are
productive ecosystems in the world and provide many services
commercially significant. Other habitats such as beaches,
to human society; however, many of these ecosystems have
dunes, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats play an important
become degraded. Food provisioning in the form of fisheries
role in the life cycle of, for example, fish, shellfish, and
catch is one of the most important services derived from
migratory birds. Marine and coastal ecosystems play an
coastal and marine ecosystems. With more than a billion
important role in photosynthesis and productivity. Through
people relying on fish as their main or sole source of animal
mixing nutrients from upstream and tidal sources, estuaries are
protein, fisheries in developing countries are a particularly
one of the most fertile coastal environments.
important source of protein. Fisheries and fish products
provide direct employment to 38 million people, with a
further 162 million people indirectly involved in the fisheries
industry (FAO 2004). The state of industrial fisheries is of Box 1 SERVICES PROVIDED BY COASTAL AND MARINE
concern as many people depend on their existence for food ECOSYSTEMS
and employment, with many fisheries being overexploited.
The MA recognizes a range of benefits that people obtain from
(See Figure 1.) Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-
coastal and marine ecosystems. These ecosystem services include:
producing sector, accounting for 30% of total fish
provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre;
consumption.
regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods,
Other provisioning services from these ecosystems
disease, wastes, and water quality;
include curios and ornamentals for the aquarium trade,
cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual
building materials (for example, for boat construction and benefits; and
house construction), and bioprospecting (the exploration supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and
of biodiversity for new biological resources, such as nutrient cycling.
pharmaceuticals).
1
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 1 THE STATE OF FISH STOCKS IN 1999 [CT 4.5.1.5, Figure 4.21]
The state of stocks in 1999
Ecosystems such as mangroves,
seagrasses, and mudflats provide key
regulating services through shoreline
1%
R
stabilization, protection from floods and
soil erosion, processing pollutants, and
D 9%
stabilizing land in the face of changing
sea levels by trapping sediments and
O 18%
buffering land from storms. Marine
systems play significant roles in climate
regulation and nutrient cycling. CO2 is F 47%
continuously exchanged between the
atmosphere and ocean; it dissolves in
M 21%
surface waters and is then transported
into the deep ocean.
U 4%
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
R = recovering D = depleted O = overexploited
F = fully exploited M = moderately exploited U = underexploited
What are the drivers of change in marine and Figure 2 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF MARINE
coastal ecosystems? SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS
Number of new records of established non-native invertebrate and algae species
Key Message # 2 The major drivers of change, reported in marine waters of North America, shown by date of first record, and
degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and
number of new records of non-native marine plant species reported on the
services are mainly anthropogenic. Important drivers of
European coast, by date of first record [General SR, Figure 1.7].
marine and coastal ecosystems include: population growth,
land use change and habitat loss, overfishing and destructive
fishing methods, illegal fishing, invasive species, climate Number of species
175
change, subsidies, eutrophication, pollution, technology
Non-native marine plant species
change, globalization, increased demand for food, and a reported on European coast
shift in food preferences. Non-native invertebrates and
150 plants reported in marine
waters of North America
Within the coastal population, 71% live within 50 kilometres of
125
estuaries, and in tropical regions, settlements are concentrated
near mangroves and coral reefs. These marine and coastal
habitats have been degraded or transformed, mainly through
100
anthropogenic impacts.
In particular, coastal habitats have been affected by land use
change and habitat loss, resulting in severe negative impacts on
75
ecosystems and species. Excessive amounts of sedimentation and
agricultural practices upstream have resulted in degradation of
estuaries. Mangroves have been converted to allow for coastal
50
zone development, aquaculture, and agriculture. Mudflats,
saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrasses are commonly
destroyed for port and other industrial and infrastructure
25
development or maintenance dredging. Coral reefs suffer from
destructive fishing, use of coral for road and building
construction, collection for the ornamental trade, 0
sedimentation, and dumping of pollutants. 1790–1819 1820–49 1850–79 1880–1909 1910–39 1940–69 1970–99
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Overfishing and destructive fishing methods, such as some
forms of bottom trawling (for example, the use of heavy gear
2 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 3 ESTIMATED TOTAL REACTIVE NITROGEN
on sensitive substrates), dredging, and the use of explosives and
DEPOSITION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE (WET AND
fish poisons such as cyanide impact on marine ecosystems by
DRY) IN 1860, EARLY 1990S, AND PROJECTED FOR
physically altering or destroying the systems or changing
2050 (milligrams of nitrogen per square metre per year)
community structure and altering trophic and other interactions
between ecosystem components. The global decline of
Atmospheric deposition currently accounts for roughly 12% of the
commercially important fish stocks is well documented, with
reactive nitrogen entering terrestrial and coastal marine ecosystems
many fishery resources being overexploited. Subsidies are
globally, although in some regions, atmospheric deposition accounts for
amongst the most powerful drivers of overfishing. The value of
a higher percentage (about 33% in the United States) [R9, Figure 9.2].
fisheries subsidies as a percentage of the gross value of
production in the OECD area was about 20% in 2002. The
development and operation of aquaculture often has serious
environmental impacts, concerning habitat loss (for example,
removal of mangroves), salinization of adjacent lands, releasing
effluents into the surrounding waters, use of high quality
fishmeal to produce fish, and infectious diseases being spread
into wild fish populations.
Invasive species are expected to grow in importance as a
driver of ecosystem change in marine and coastal areas. (See
Figure 2.) A major source of marine introductions of non-native
species is through the release of ballast water from ships.
1860
Increased nutrient loading from agricultural run-off, sewage,
and burning of fossil fuels is causing widespread eutrophication
of coastal and marine ecosystems. (See Figure 3.) For example,
this nutrient pollution stimulates algal growth and reduces
the quality of light in the water column, leading to a depletion
of oxygen, which reduces the ability of other marine organisms
to persist. This is a particular problem near centres of
human population where pollution through the release
of: often untreated human waste, pollutants such as
persistent organic pollutants, and toxic waste contribute to
the problems.
Climate change is increasingly becoming one of the dominant
drivers of change in vulnerable habitats such as mangroves,
coral reefs, and coastal wetlands, which are especially at risk
from resulting sea-level rises and increased storm events. Coral
Early 1990s
reefs are vulnerable to climate-change-induced bleaching. It has
been suggested by many that coral mortality through global
warming will reduce the major coral reefs substantially in a very
short time frame, with one estimate even suggesting that all
current coral reefs could disappear by 2040 due to warming
sea temperatures.
A number of indirect drivers of change in marine and coastal
ecosystem have been identified. Technology change contributes
to overexploitation of fish stocks. The same is true for the shift
in food preferences and globalization, with some marine
products becoming a luxury food, driving up demand and fish
prices. Illegal fishing also contributes to overexploitation and is
particularly due to lack of surveillance, enforcement, and
monitoring. Also, demographic developments in coastal zones
drive changes in ecosystems, with coastal population densities
being nearly three times that of inland areas. An important
2050
ecosystem service, tourism can also have a negative impact upon
marine and coastal areas, for example through people walking
on coral reefs at low tide. Source: Galloway et al. 2004
3
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Why should we care about the loss or degradation of Coastal communities are at risk from natural (for example,
marine and coastal ecosystems and their services? hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis, and floods) and human-induced
disasters. Losses of habitats such as mangrove forests threaten
the safety of people in 118 coastal countries. Mangroves and
Key Message # 3 Marine and coastal ecosystems are saltmarshes not only serve as a buffer from storm damage, but
among the most productive and provide a range of social also provide areas for fish spawning and nursery areas for both
and economic benefits to humans. More than one third of the inshore and offshore capture fisheries; they also absorb heavy
world’s population live in coastal areas and small islands that metals and other toxic substances.
make up just over 4% of Earth’s total land area. Fisheries and
fish products provide direct employment to 38 million people.
What can we do about the loss of marine and coastal
Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of global
ecosystems and their services?
tourism and provides employment for many people and
generates local incomes. For example, reef-based tourism
generates over $1.2 billion annually in the Florida Keys alone. Key Message # 5 The highly threatened nature of marine
and coastal ecosystems and the demand for their services
highlight the need for a local, regional, and global
response. A range of options exists to respond to the
challenges that the degradation of ecosystems is posing (for
Key Message # 4 Most services derived from marine and
example, implementation of regional and global agreements
coastal ecosystems are being degraded and used
or stakeholder participation and capacity development).
unsustainably and therefore are deteriorating faster than
Addressing uncertainties and elaborating trade-offs provide
other ecosystems. Unsustainable use of services can result in
useful mechanisms for operational responses.
threatened food security for coastal communities due to
overexploited fish stocks, loss of habitat resulting in damage
to the thriving tourism industry, health impacts through
increasing loads of waste released into coastal waters, to
Key Message # 6 Trade-offs in meeting the Millennium
vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-
Development Goals and other international commitments
induced disasters. The MA scenarios forecast a great risk of
are inevitable. However, implementing the established
collapse of all major fish stocks, and climate-change-induced
ecosystem-based approaches (for example, integrated coastal
sea-level rise (with mean value of 0.5–0.7m).
management) adopted by the CBD, the Convention on
Wetlands (Ramsar), and FAO, amongst others, as well as
existing local and regional legislation, policy, and guidelines
Human well-being is closely linked to the availability of the
on the future condition of marine and coastal ecosystem
services that marine and coastal ecosystems provide. The
services could be substantially improved by balancing
degradation and loss of many of these ecosystems therefore
economic development, ecosystem preservation, and human
gives reason for concern. The decreasing fish stocks threaten
well-being objectives.
food security in many coastal areas but have implications far
beyond. For example, the decreased availability of fish for
subsistence in West Africa has driven an increase in illegal bush The MA has identified a number of major options for
meat trade, which in turn threatens many species and is thought responding to the challenges posed by the degradation of the
to contribute to outbreaks of primate-borne and other viruses in services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems. These can
human populations. be divided into operational and specific responses. (See Table 1.)
Fisheries and tourism are major sources of employment, often Implementing responses necessitates recognizing that trade-
in developing countries. Loss of habitat and degrading stocks offs and uncertainties will need to be considered along with
(see Figure 4) could heavily impact on employment. The massive addressing the interests of stakeholders. To select the best
coral bleaching in 1998 is expected to result in an estimated response, decision-makers should take into consideration:
long-term damage over 20 years of between $600 million and $8 available information; implication regarding procedure and
billion with costs incurred through declines in tourism-generated efficiency; effectiveness in producing required results;
income and employment, decreases in fish productivity, and loss stakeholder participation and transparency of outcomes; values
of reefs functioning as a protective barrier. and beliefs of stakeholders; uncertainties; and cross-scale effects.
Human communities are at risk from the health implications A range of tools exists that support the application of policy
of degraded ecosystems, with waterborne diseases such as options. They include multi-criteria analyses, scenarios,
cholera being on the rise in coastal countries, which can be environmental impact assessment, and economic valuation. The
related to cigufera poisoning associated with algal blooms. last has been successful in demonstrating the value of protecting
Severe health problems are caused by pollution of nearshore natural coastal wetlands over their conversion for commercial use.
waters where people consume fish or other marine products It is important that existing global, regional, and national
contaminated by heavy metals, PCBs, and other toxins. legislation, policy, and guidelines are implemented and enforced.
4 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 4 COLLAPSE OF ATLANTIC COD STOCKS OFF THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN 1992
This collapse forced the closure of the fishery after hundreds of years of exploitation. Until the late 1950s, the fishery was exploited by
migratory seasonal fleets and resident inshore small-scale fishers. From the late 1950s, offshore bottom trawlers began exploiting the
deeper part of the stock, leading to a large catch increase and a strong decline in the underlying biomass. Internationally agreed quotas in
the early 1970s and, following the declaration by Canada of an Exclusive Fishing Zone in 1977, national quota systems ultimately failed to
arrest and reverse the decline. The stock collapsed to extremely low levels in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and a moratorium on
commercial fishing was declared in June 1992. A small commercial inshore fishery was reintroduced in 1998, but catch rates declined and
the fishery was closed indefinitely in 2003 [General SR, Figure 3.4].
900 000
800 000
700 000
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
0
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
What are the major knowledge gaps? biodiversity, especially those that are significant for the delivery
of ecosystem services.
The information available to assess the consequences
Key Message # 7 Improved capacity to predict the for human well-being of changes in ecosystem services is
consequences of change of drivers in marine and coastal still limited, not least due to the nonlinearity of the
ecosystems would aid decision-making at all levels. Long- relationship between human well-being and ecosystem
term and large-area ecological processes are particularly
services.
poorly understood; and yet, in a number of areas, issues and
Policy responses would benefit from addressing a range of
well-defined policies have not been sufficiently developed.
uncertainties, including the understanding of the benefits and
Monitoring of biodiversity change at the ecosystem and
costs of marine protected areas and the outcomes for ecosystem
species level is essential.
conditions of integrated coastal management and integrated
coastal zone management. Improved knowledge would enable
Long-term and large-area ecological processes are poorly better-defined trade-offs.
Policies are currently weak or widely lacking, particularly in
understood in marine ecosystems. This lack of knowledge
particularly refers to the oceanic nitrogen cycle, the El areas such as the impacts from agriculture in marine and coastal
Niño/Southern Oscillation, basic data on the past and current areas; addressing new and emerging issues (for example, off-
shore wind farms); compliance relating to high-seas initiatives
extent of marine and coastal habitats, the variability of marine
fish stocks, and the understanding of marine biodiversity in and agreements; and genetic resources.
Existing policy and legislation often still lack consistent
general.
implementation and enforcement because funding, political will,
Most existing biological measures such as indicators do not
and human resources are lacking.
reflect many important aspects of marine and coastal
5
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1 OPERATIONAL AND SPECIFIC RESPONSE OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO ADDRESS THE ALTERATION AND LOSS OF
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR SERVICES
<Effectiveness> Type of Required
RESPONSE Effective Promising Problematic Responses Actors
Operational responses
Stakeholder participation in decision-making X I, S GN, GL, NGO, B, C, R
Capacity development X I GN, GL, NGO, C, R
Communication, education, public awareness X S GN, GL, NGO, C
Alternative income-generating activities X X ES GL, NGO, C
Monitoring X X I, T, K GI, GN, GL, NGO, C, R
Addressing uncertainty X X I, K GN, GL, C, R
Trade-off analysis X X I, E GN, GL, C
Specific responses
Applying international/regional mechanisms X X I GI, GN
Large marine ecosystems X X I GI, GN
Integrated coastal management and planning X X I, S GN, GL, C R
Marine protected areas X X I, S GN, GL, NGO, C
Coastal protection X X X T GI, GN, B
Management of nutrient pollution—runoff, fossil fuel combustion X X I, T GI, GN, GL
Waste management—household and industrial sewage X X I, E, S, T GI, GN, GL
Geo-engineering—CO2 sequestration X I, T GI, GN, B
Economic interventions: market-based instruments X X E GN, B
Fisheries management X X I GN, GL, B, C
Aquaculture management X X I GN, GL, B, C
Key to codings Required actors
Type of response GI = government at a international level
I = institutional and legal GN = national government
E = economic and incentives GL = local government
S = social and behavioural B = business/industry sector
T = technology NGO = civil society including non-governmental organizations
K = knowledge C = community-based and indigenous people’s organizations
R = research institutions
What Is at Stake? More than one third of the world’s population lives in coastal
areas and small islands, which together make up just 4% of the
total land area, and this population is increasing rapidly. In
Humankind depends on the oceans and coasts and their resources
addition to the impacts of global change, the expansion of
for its survival. Ocean circulation is largely driven by climate, and
development activities in coastal areas and their related
it determines not only the distribution and abundance of marine
catchments is increasingly causing the loss of habitats and
living resources but also the transfer, through evaporation and
degrading the services that have been available to humans from
rainfall, of freshwater to the land. Changes in human activities at
the coastal and marine ecosystems. Pollution from agricultural,
the global scale are causing climate warming, which is significantly
industrial, and urban sources far and near is creating ocean dead
altering the occurrence of these resources on which people rely.
zones and costing $16 billion per year, largely in response to
The warming is influencing ocean circulation and latitudinal
resulting human health problems. People at all levels in society can
transport of heat, causing sea level to rise and endangering the
help to reverse these trends and improve societal well-being. In
long-term security of people living in low-lying coastal areas.
particular, decision-makers in government, industry, and civil
Rising sea-surface temperatures can also threaten the survival of
society must raise awareness and instigate appropriate and
coral reefs.
cooperative response actions. Changes ranging from adaptation in
Marine living resources are additionally severely impoverished
farming methods through to the removal of fishing subsidies will
by many drivers, including the growth in industrial-scale fishing.
have profound remedial effects. Arresting the further degradation
Humankind derives 16% of its animal protein from the sea, but by
of coastal and marine ecosystem resources for the benefit of both
1999, 27% of global marine fish stocks had been exhausted or
present and future generations is an urgent imperative to ensure
were overexploited. Continuing overexploitation is jeopardizing
greater food security, lower health impacts, and reduce poverty
food security and the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people.
(and ultimately meet the Millennium Development Goals).
Coastal populations in particular are affected by these changes.
6 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
SYNTHESIS
1 What is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services?
■ Marine and coastal ecosystems provide many services to human oceans. The coastal chapter [CT 19] of the MA focuses on
nearshore habitats and significant associated flora and fauna.
society, including food and other goods, shoreline protection,
Figure 1.2 illustrates the spatial definition of marine and coastal
water quality maintenance, waste treatment, support of tourism and
ecosystems within the MA.
other cultural benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life
support systems.
■ The provision of these services is threatened by the worldwide Ecosystem Services from Marine and Coastal
Ecosystems
degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems. Fisheries are in
global decline. Coastal habitats have been modified and lost, and in
The assessment focuses on the linkages between ecosystems and
many cases the rate of degradation is increasing. Habitat loss and
human well-being and in particular on ‘ecosystem services’ (the
modification result in a loss of ecosystem services and also threaten
benefits that people obtain from ecosystems). An ecosystem is a
biodiversity.
■ There are major gaps in our knowledge of marine and coastal dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and the nonliving environment interacting as a
ecosystems and in methodology to assess and manage them. Data
functional unit. Maintaining biodiversity underpins all
and knowledge gaps include inadequate understanding of the marine
ecosystem services.
nitrogen and other nutrient cycles and of the El Nino/Southern
Coastal and marine ecosystems provide a wide range of
Oscillation (ENSO). The inadequacy of data on the extent and status
services to human beings. These include provisioning services
of many marine and coastal ecosystems makes it difficult to estimate
such as supply of food, fuel wood, energy resources, natural
the extent of past change and future trends. Inadequate
products, and bioprospecting; regulating services, such as
understanding of variability in fish stocks increases the risk of major
shoreline stabilization, flood prevention, storm protection,
stock collapses. Gaps in methodology include inadequate
climate regulation, hydrological services, nutrient regulation,
development of multi-species fisheries management tools and the
carbon sequestration, detoxification of polluted waters, and
inadequate development of agreed biodiversity indicators.
waste disposal; cultural and amenity services such as culture,
Introduction tourism, and recreation; and supporting services such as habitat
provision, nutrient cycling, primary productivity, and soil
The marine chapter [CT 18] of the MA focuses largely on the formation. These services are of high value not only to local
condition and trends of fisheries resources (including nearshore communities living in the coastal zone (especially in developing
and deep-seas) and the impact of human use. The MA touches countries) but also to national economies and global trade
only briefly on other activities impacting marine ecosystems [CT 19.3.2]. Table 1.1 provides examples of ecosystem services
such as tourism, mining (for example, gold, diamonds, and tin), provided by various marine and coastal habitats.
and gas and oil. The reasons for this focus are the huge impact
Provisioning Services
of fishing over the last 50 years and inadequate information
about other aspects of offshore systems. Figure 1.1 shows the Provisioning services are the products people obtain from
classification used in the MA and this report of the world’s ecosystems, such as food, fuel, timber, fibre, building materials,
7
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
around the world. Table 1.2 summarizes the status of
medicines, genetic and ornamental resources. Coastal and
recognized costal habitats.
marine ecosystems provide a wide range of these services;
The mid-twentieth century saw the rapid expansion of fishing
they are among the most productive ecosystems in the world
fleets throughout the world, and with it, an increase in the
[CT 23.3.3].
volume of fish landed. (See Figure 1.3.) This trend continued
■ Fisheries as Food Provisioning in Marine and until the late 1980s, when global marine landings reached
Coastal Ecosystems slightly over 80 million tonnes per year, then either stagnated or
began to slowly decline. However, regional landings peaked at
Food provisioning in the form of fisheries catch is one of the
different times throughout the world, which in part masked the
most important services derived from all coastal and marine
decline of many fisheries [CT 18.2.1].
ecosystems. For example, mangroves are important in
With fleets now targeting the more abundant fish at lower
supporting fisheries due to their function as fish nurseries.
trophic levels (called ‘fishing down the food chain’), it would be
Fisheries yields in waters adjacent to mangroves tend to be high
expected that global catches would be increasing, rather than,
[CT 19.2.1.2]. Coral reef-based fisheries are also valuable, as
as is actually occurring, stagnating or decreasing. (See Box 1.1
they are an important source of fisheries products for coastal
and Figure 1.4.) The decline in catches is largely due to the loss
residents, tourists, and export markets. In developing countries,
of large, slow-growing predators at high trophic levels; these are
coral reefs contribute about one quarter of the annual total fish
gradually being replaced, in global landings, by smaller, shorter-
catch, providing food to about one billion people in Asia alone
lived fish, at lower trophic levels. Until a few decades ago,
[CT 19.3.2]. Other ecosystems such as rocky intertidal,
depth and distance from coasts protected much of the deep
nearshore mudflats, deltas, kelp forests, and beaches and dunes
ocean fauna from the effect of fishing. However, fleets now fish
also provide food.
further offshore and in deeper water with greater precision and
Overall, coastal and marine fisheries landings averaged 82.4
efficiency, compromising areas that acted as refuges for the
million tonnes per year during 1991-2000, with a stagnating or
spawning of many species of commercial interest to both
declining trend now largely attributed to overfishing [CT 18.1].
industrial and artisanal fleets [CT 18.2.1]. (See Figure 1.5.)
Certain areas of the ocean are more productive than others. The
Of the four ocean areas—the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian,
coastal biome produces approximately 53% (in 2001) of the
and the Mediterranean—the Atlantic was the first to be fully
world’s marine catches [CT 18.2.2]. The coastal biome is also
exploited and, eventually, overfished. This process is about to
the most impacted by human activities. Coral reef fisheries in
be completed in the Pacific. There still seems to be some minor
this biome, for example are overexploited in many reef systems
Figure 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORLD’S OCEANS’ IDENTIFIED FOUR ‘BIOMES’ (POLAR, WESTERLIES, TRADE-WINDS,
AND COASTAL BOUNDARY)
A black border around each continent indicates the coastal boundary. Each of these biomes is subdivided into biogeographical provinces (BGP)
[CT 18.1, Figure 18.1].
winds
8 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 1.2 DEFINITION OF THE SPATIAL OCCURRENCE OF MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS WITHIN THE MA
[CT 19.1, Figure 19.1]d i
■ Coastal ecosystems
[CT 8.2.2.3] and average annual per capita fish supply in 2004
potential for expansion of sustainable capture fisheries in the
only increased to 16.2 kg (FAO 2004).
Indian Ocean and—against expectations—in the Mediterranean,
Continuation of current fisheries trends, including the build-
although this may be due to environmental changes including
up of fishing capacities, poses a serious risk of losing more
eutrophication [CT 18.2.2].
fisheries. In numerous cases, however, responses to fisheries
Although the global decline of commercially important fish
management problems have mitigated or reversed the impact of
stocks or populations is relatively well documented, little is
fisheries. For example, the introduction of community-based
known about the ecology of the majority of fish populations.
management of reef areas in the Philippines has resulted in
Most industrial fisheries are either fully or overexploited. (See
increased fish landings that ultimately improved the well-being
Figure 1.6.) Twenty-eight percent of the fish stocks under
of those communities. Increasingly effective enforcement
various assessment programmes have declined to levels lower
measures for Namibian fisheries and the nationalization of the
than that at which a maximum sustainable yield (MSY) can be
fishery sector appear to be contributing to improving
taken, and a further 47% require stringent management (which
socioeconomic conditions for many coastal communities. In
may or may not already be in place) to prevent their declining
general, relatively small and often single-species fisheries can be
into a similar situation. Thus 75% of the assessed fish stocks
restored, as has occurred in the Peruvian hake (Merluccius gayi
need management to prevent further declines and/or to bring
peruanus) fishery [18.7.1].
about recovery in spawning stock biomass. Conversely, 72% of
the stocks are still capable of producing a maximum sustainable
■ Aquaculture as Food Provisioning in Marine and
yield. Further, trend analysis since 1974 shows the percentage of
Coastal Ecosystems
underexploited stocks has declined steadily, while the
proportion of stocks exploited beyond MSY levels have Growth in demand for fish as a food source is being met in
increased steadily over this time period (see section 1.4.2 for part by aquaculture, which now accounts for 30% of total fish
gaps in this methodology). If these data are representative of consumption. According to FAO statistics, the contribution of
fisheries as a whole, they indicate an overall declining trend in (freshwater and marine) aquaculture to global supplies of fish,
spawning-stock biomass for commercially important fish species crustaceans, and molluscs continues to grow, increasing from
over the last 30 years [CT 4.4.1.5]. 3.9% of total global production weight in 1970 to 27.3% in
During the last four decades, the rise in per capita fish 2000. Aquaculture is growing more rapidly than all other
consumption has been quite rapid for the world as a whole. animal food-producing sectors [CT 26.2.3] and was worth $57
Table 1.3 shows fish consumption and production over the last billion in 2000 [CT 18.1]. Demands for coastal aquaculture
half of the 1990s. By 2000, average per capita fish supply have been on the rise, increasing the price of some fish (for
reached around 16 kg per year, but growth rates are slowing example, salmon) and the need to supply cheap protein, but the
9
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1.1 EXAMPLES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY DIFFERENT MARINE AND COASTAL HABITATS
(X indicates the habitat provides a significant amount of the service)
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Coastal Marine
Deep sea and
Estuaries and
Outer shelves
edges slopes
& mid-ocean
central gyres
Lagoon and
Seamounts
Mangroves
Coral reefs
Inner shelf
salt ponds
shell reefs
Rock and
Seagrass
Intertidal
marshes
ridges
Kelp
Biodiversity X X X X X X X X X X X X
Provisioning services
Food X X X X X X X X X X X
Fibre, timber, fuel X X X X X X
Medicines, other resources X X X X X X
Regulating services
Biological regulation X X X X X X
Freshwater storage and retention X X
Hydrological balance X X
Atmospheric and climate regulation X X X X X X X X X X
Human disease control X X X X X X X
Waste processing X X X X X
Flood/storm protection X X X X X X X X
Erosion control X X X X X
Cultural services
Cultural and amenity X X X X X X X X X
Recreational X X X X X X
Aesthetics X X X X
Education and research X X X X X X X X X X X X
Supporting services
Biochemical X X X X
Nutrient cycling and fertility X X X X X X X X X X X
10 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1.2 SUMMARY OF STATUS OF COASTAL HABITAT TYPES
(many of the habitat types included in this table often overlap in their natural state)
HABITAT TYPE STATUS COMMENTS
Estuaries Substantial loss e.g., < 10% natural coastal wetlands remain in California,
with over half of U.S. coastal wetlands substantially altered
Mangroves 35% loss in last two decades >80% loss in some countries
for countries with data
Coral reefs 20% severely damaged and Caribbean and Southeast Asia most degraded
unlikely to recover (2004 estimate);
70% are destroyed, critical, or threatened
(2004 estimate)
Intertidal habitats and deltas Substantial degradation 37% loss on Yellow Sea coast of China since 1950;
43% loss in South Korea since 1918
Beaches and dunes Complete loss or degradation
in many places
Seagrass beds Major losses in Mediterranean, Degradation expected to accelerate, especially in
Florida, and Australia Southeast Asia and the Caribbean
Kelp forests Probably none exists in a natural condition
Saltmarshes or ponds Massive alteration and loss
Semi-enclosed seas Becoming highly degraded
Other bottom communities Severely impacted by effects of fishing Strong evidence for impacts on ecosystem function
and resilience
doubling of aquaculture production in the last 10 years has also Figure 1.3 ESTIMATED GLOBAL FISH CATCHES (1950–2001)
driven habitat loss, overexploitation of fisheries for fishmeal BY TARGET GROUP (TOP) AND BY BIOME (BOTTOM)
and fish oil, and pollution [CT 19, Main Messages]. Includes adjustment for overreporting [CT 18, Figure 18.3].
Export fisheries have also influenced the aquaculture
industry, especially for salmon and shrimp, which are bred to 50
meet the demands from industrial countries for luxury high-
value seafood. Increased export demand often leads to 40
expansion of aquaculture practices. In 1998, salmon (much of it
farmed) was the leading fish export commodity of the EU. 30
Countries (such as Thailand) that are the leading producers of
shrimp (much of it from aquaculture) are also often the leading 20
exporters [CT 18.3.7].
Coastal areas provide the foundation for the mariculture 10
(marine aquaculture) industry, which uses coastal space or relies
on wild stock to produce valuable fisheries products, from tiger
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
prawns to bluefin tuna. Human reliance on farmed fish and
shellfish is significant and growing. Global annual per capita
50
consumption of seafood averages 16 kilograms, and one third
of that supply currently comes from aquaculture. Globally,
40
aquaculture production rates have doubled in weight and value
from 1989 to 1998. Much of that growth has occurred in the
30
shrimp and salmon farming industries [CT 19.3.2.1].
Aquaculture on its own will not stem the overexploitation of
20
wild capture fisheries.
Freshwater aquaculture is generally considered more
10
environmentally sustainable than brackish water and marine
winds
aquaculture because of its much greater reliance on omnivore or
herbivore species. Carnivores are found in higher trophic levels
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
and their culture involves the use of formulated diets containing
Year
a high percentage of fishmeal (in some cases as much as 40% of
11
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 1.4 TROPHIC LEVEL CHANGE (1950–2000)
Changes in trophic levels of global and regional catches are considered a better reflection of trends in fisheries than the proportion of fish
stocks that are reported as depleted, overexploited, fully exploited, and moderately exploited. Focusing on trophic levels ensures that an
overestimation of fisheries does not occur [CT 18.2.1, Figure 18.4].
Trophic Level Change
<-1
>1
No Data Available
Figure 1.5 TREND IN MEAN DEPTH OF CATCH (LEFT) AND MEAN DISTANCE OF CATCH FROM SHORE (RIGHT) SINCE 1950
Both panels show that fisheries catches increasingly originate from deep, offshore areas, especially in the Southern Hemisphere
[CT 18.2.1, Figure 18.5].
12 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
the total ingredients). Fishmeal, especially high-quality fishmeal,
Box 1.1 TROPHIC LEVELS [CT 8, Box 8.3]
is often derived from fish that are suitable for human
consumption. Feeding fish to produce fish has a high protein
One way to understand the structure of ecosystems is to arrange
conversion rate. It is particularly controversial where fishmeal is
them according to who eats what along a food chain. Each level
derived from already depleted capture fisheries, with negative
along the chain is called a trophic level. Levels are numbered
according to how far particular organisms are along the chain from impacts on the trophic structure. Freshwater fish feeds contain a
the primary producers at level 1 to the top predators at the highest minimal amount of fishmeal and are composed of
level. Within marine ecosystems, large predators such as sharks and predominantly low-cost plant proteins [CT 26.1.2.6].
Pollock (saithe) are at a high trophic level, cod and sardines are in
the middle, and shrimp are at a low trophic level, with microscopic
■ Bioprospecting
plants (mainly phytoplankton) at the bottom sustaining marine life.
Bioprospecting (the exploration of biodiversity for new
biological resources of social and economic value) has yielded
numerous products derived from species in marine and coastal
ecosystems (for example, antibiotics, antifreeze, fibre optics, and
antifouling paints). Coral reefs are exceptional reservoirs of
natural bioactive products, many of which exhibit structural
features not found in terrestrial natural products [CT 19.3.2.1].
Mangrove forests are good reservoirs for medicinal plants.
The pharmaceutical industry has discovered several
potentially useful substances, such as cytotoxicity (useful for
anti-cancer drugs) among sponges, sea mosses, jellyfish and
starfish [CT 10.2.1]. Cone shells of the molluscan family
Conidae are highly prized for their highly variable toxins
(conotoxins), applicable to many areas of medicine including
pain control, cancer treatment, and microsurgery [CT 10.7.4].
■ Provision of Building Materials
Many marine and coastal ecosystems provide coastal
communities with construction materials (such as lime for use in
Figure 1.6 THE STATE OF FISH STOCKS IN 1999 [CT 4.5.1.5, Figure 4.21]
The state of stocks in 1999
R 1%
D 9%
O 18%
F 47%
M 21%
4%
U
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
R = recovering D = depleted O = overexploited
F = fully exploited M = moderately exploited U = underexploited
Source: FAO
13
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 1.3 WORLD FISHERY PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION, 1996–2001 [CT 8, Table 8.4]
2001 data are projections from Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
PRODUCTION (million tonnes)
Inland 23.3 25.0 26.5 28.7 30.2 31.2
Capture 7.4 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.8 8.8
Aquaculture 15.9 17.5 18.5 20.2 21.4 22.4
Marine 96.9 97.5 91.3 98.0 100.2 97.6
Capture 86.0 86.4 79.2 84.7 86.0 82.5
Aquaculture 10.8 11.2 12.0 13.3 14.1 15.1
Total Production 120.2 122.5 117.8 126.7 130.4 128.8
Total capture 93.5 93.9 87.3 93.2 94.8 91.3
Total aquaculture 26.7 28.6 30.5 33.4 35.6 37.5
UTILIZATION
Human consumption 88.0 90.8 92.7 94.5 96.7 99.4
Non-food uses 32.2 31.7 25.1 32.2 33.7 29.4
Population (billions) 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.1
Per capita fish consumption (kg) 15.3 15.6 15.7 15.8 16.0 16.2
mortar and cement) and other building materials from the mining surface waters and deep waters is a much slower process
of coral reefs [CT 19.2.1.4 and 19.5.1]. Mangroves provide coastal allowing for the uptake of increased atmospheric CO2, over
and island communities in several world regions with building decades to centuries. Marine plants (phytoplankton) fix CO2 in
materials for boat construction. The existence of alternative the ocean (photosynthesis) and return it via respiration. It has
materials for boat building is not always apparent. Conservation been widely assumed that ocean ecosystems are at steady state
projects play an important role in highlighting the alternatives and at present, but there is now much evidence of large-scale trends
in providing training on how to use them [CT 19.6]. and variations. Changes in marine ecosystems, such as increased
phytoplankton growth rate due to the fertilizing effect of iron in
Regulating Services dust and shifts in species composition, have the potential to
Regulating services are the benefits people obtain from the alter the oceanic carbon sink. The net impact of biological
regulation of ecosystem processes, including air quality changes in oceans on global CO2 fluxes is unknown [CT
maintenance, climate regulation, erosion control, regulation of 13.2.1]. A case study of the Paracas National Reserve, Peru (a
human diseases, and water purification, among others. Ramsar site, that is, designated as an internationally important
Ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrass, rocky intertidal, wetland) showed the value of indirect use; its value—calculated
nearshore mudflats, and deltas play a key role in shoreline through a model accounting for carbon sequestration by
stabilization, protection from floods and soil erosion, processing phytoplankton—was $181,124.00 per year [CT 19, Box 19.1].
pollutants, stabilizing land in the face of changing sea level by
Cultural and Amenity Services
trapping sediments, and buffering land from storms. Mangroves
have a great capacity to absorb heavy metals and other toxic Cultural services encompass such things as tourism and
substances in effluents, while coral reefs buffer land from waves recreation; aesthetic and spiritual services; traditional
and storms and prevent beach erosion. Estuaries, marshes, and knowledge; and educational and research services.
lagoons play a key role in maintaining hydrological balance and
■ Tourism and Recreation
filtering water of pollutants [CT 19.2.1.1]. Dune systems and
seagrass also play a notable role in trapping sediments (acting Among the most important cultural services provided by the
as sediment reserves) and stabilizing shorelines. coastal and marine ecosystems are tourism and recreation, but
Marine ecosystems play significant roles in climate regulation the capacity of these ecosystems to provide/deliver the services is
[CT 18.1]. CO2 is continuously exchanged between the being seriously degraded.
atmosphere and ocean; it dissolves in surface waters and is then Global tourism has been deemed the world’s most profitable
transported to the deep ocean (the ‘solubility pump’). It takes industry, and coastal tourism is one of its fastest growing
roughly one year for CO2 concentration in surface waters to sectors. Despite multiple international crises (economic
equilibrate with the atmosphere. Subsequent mixing of the recession, SARS, terrorist attacks, and the war on terrorism),
14 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
international tourism has grown 4–5% in the past decade the aboriginal culture of the Northeast Pacific. The seas and
[23.2.5.2]. Much of this tourism centres on aesthetically coasts are also of great spiritual importance to many people
pleasing landscapes and seascapes; intact healthy coastal around the world, such values are difficult to quantify. For
ecosystems with good air and water quality; and opportunities example, the Bajau peoples of Indonesia and the aboriginal
to see diverse wildlife. Biodiversity plays a key role in the people of the Torres Strait (Australia) have a culture intimately
nature-based tourism industry of many islands and is the major connected to oceans, while many of the native peoples of
tourism attraction for islands. (See Box 1.2.) For instance, coral North America have similar strong ties to coastal ecosystems
reefs support high biodiversity that in turn supports a thriving [CT 19.3.2.2].
and valuable dive tourism industry [CT 19.2.1.4] and recreation
■ Traditional Knowledge
industry (such as recreational fishing) [CT 18.4].
Natural amenities are highly valued by people and contribute The term ‘traditional ecological knowledge’ (TEK) commonly
to human welfare, thus providing significant economic value. refers to the knowledge that indigenous and other traditional
Stretches of beach, rocky cliffs, estuarine and coastal marine peoples have about their environment, which is used to sustain
waterways, and coral reefs provide numerous recreational and themselves and to maintain their cultural identity [CT 23.2.5.1].
scenic opportunities. Boating, fishing, swimming, walking, Our understanding of the tangible benefits derived from TEK,
beachcombing, scuba diving, and sunbathing are among the such as medicinal plants and local species of food, is relatively
numerous leisure activities that people enjoy worldwide and well developed [CT 17, Main Message #2] and covers a wide
thus represent significant economic value [CT 19.3.2.2]. range of subjects, from agriculture, fishing, plants, and forests
Rapid and uncontrolled tourism growth can be a major cause to general aspects of culture [CT 23.2.5.1]. (See Box 1.3.)
of ecosystem degradation and destruction, and can lead to the TEK is an integral part of the dynamics of some island
loss of cultural diversity [CT 23.2.5.2]. For example in several ecosystems and the islanders who live there. Many stories and
small island developing states, freshwater shortage is amplified beliefs of islanders show the role of traditional villages and
by the lack of effective water delivery systems and waste communities in improving the marine environment [CT 23.2.5.1].
treatment, coupled with increasing human populations and The greatest use of TEK on islands relates to sustainable use
expanding tourism, both of which may result in the and management within customary inshore fishing grounds, for
overabstraction of water, contamination through poor example in Fiji, in the customary prohibition on the use of
sanitation and leaching from solid
waste, and the use of pesticides and
fertilizers [CT 23.2.3.1].
Tourism development without
proper planning and management
standards and guidelines poses a
threat to biodiversity. This is
compounded by the fact that
environmental impacts are often not
clearly visible until their cumulative
effects have destroyed or severely
degraded the natural resources that
attract tourists in the first place, and
some destinations have only
recognized the costs of environmental
damage after significant and often
irreversible damage has been done
[CT 23.2.5.2].
Biopiracy has also been recorded in
areas used for ecotourism, and the
Maldives and Pacific Island states
have been particularly vulnerable to
such thefts [CT 23.2.5.1].
■ Cultural and Spiritual
Some species are of considerable
cultural importance, for example
the cultural significance of salmon in
15
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
resources (ra’ui) in Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and in the much of our knowledge of predator-prey interactions, keystone
village reserves in Samoa in the Pacific. Traditional ecological species, and other biological regulations [19.2.1.3].
knowledge and customary sea tenure are also integrated into the Education on marine ecosystems is underfunded and
conservation management of bumphead parrotfish underdeveloped. Further applied multidisciplinary research on
(Bolbometopon muricatum) in Roviana Lagoon in the Solomon ecosystem function, sustainable yields, and economic valuation
Islands [CT 23.2.5.1]. of coastal ecosystems is also needed. Research focused on
TEK has also been of direct benefit in the protection of reefs fundamental questions about ecosystem function, impacts, and
from adverse impacts from commercial and recreational efficacy of management measures will aid decision-makers in
fisheries, scuba diving, snorkelling, aquarium fish collection, mitigating loss and degradation of these habitats. Fully
and onshore development. For example, it has helped ensure protected areas help in this regard because they provide crucial
sustainable development of the intertidal zone, with a focus on control sites to test management interventions and allow for
shellfish gathering and marine tenure in the atoll communities baseline monitoring. Better economic valuations (particularly
of western Kiribati, Micronesia, which are under pressure from quantitative estimates of marginal benefits) are also required to
population growth, urbanization, extractive technologies, and understand fully the importance of coastal ecosystems
expanding market opportunities [CT 23.2.5.1]. [CT 19.5.2].
■ Education and Research Supporting Services
Marine and coastal ecosystems are areas that have received Supporting services include provision of habitats, primary
attention through research. Rocky intertidal habitats have been productivity, nutrient cycling, and soil formation.
the main focus of research that has provided the foundation for
■ Provision of Habitats and Nurseries
It is important to recognize that many habitats discussed
Box 1.2 ECOTOURISM AND SMALL ISLAND STATES throughout this report are both regionalized and widespread
[CT 23.2.5.2] throughout the word. Habitats provide a range of services, for
example mangrove forests. (See Figure 1.7.)
A large number of marine species use coastal areas, especially
Tourism is an important contributor to or dominates the economies
of many small island states. The Caribbean is the most tourism- estuaries, mangroves, and seagrasses, as nurseries. Estuaries are
dependent region in the world and accounts for about 50% of the particularly important as nursery areas for fisheries and other
world’s cruise tourism berths; the Maldives is the most tourism- species, and they form one of the strongest linkages between
dependent country. Tourism based on the natural environment is a
coastal, marine, and freshwater ecosystems and the ecosystem
fast-growing component of the tourism industry. In the last decade,
services they provide [CT 19.2.1.1].
nature (or eco-) tourism, which can be defined as travel to unspoiled
In some places, mangroves not only provide nursery areas for
places to enjoy nature, has emerged as the fastest growing segment
reef organisms but also link seagrass beds with associated coral
of the industry, with an estimated growth rate of 10–30% annually.
reefs. Removal of mangrove can interrupt these linkages and
Of the various forms of nature tourism, coastal/marine tourism,
cause biodiversity loss and lower productivity in reef and seagrass
including islands, is the largest component. Biodiversity plays a key
habitats. Mangroves also have a great capacity to absorb heavy
role in the nature tourism development of many islands and is the
metals and other toxic substances in effluents [CT 19.2.1.2].
major tourism attraction for islands such as Madagascar and Borneo.
Ecotourism extends as far as the sub-Antarctic islands, where special Seagrass is important in providing nursery areas in the
voyages give tourists the experience of a variety of marine and tropics, where it provides crucial habitat for coral reef fishes
pelagic fauna, using the islands as a base. and invertebrates. Seagrass is an important source of food for
There is a great potential in many SIDS for the further
many species of coastal and marine organisms in both tropical
development of ecotourism, which is often a small but rapidly
and temperate regions. Drift beds, composed of mats of seagrass
growing share of their market economy. Ecotourism can provide
floating at or near the surface, provide important food and
employment and generate income while helping to protect and
shelter for young fishes, and the deposit of seagrass castings and
conserve natural resources and contributing to the implementation
macroalgae remnants on beaches is thought to be a key
of national biodiversity action plans.
pathway for nutrient provisioning to many coastal
Tourism has great potential for biodiversity conservation and the
invertebrates, shorebirds, and other organisms [CT 19.2.1.5].
promotion of the sustainable use of natural resources. In the
Kelp forests and other macroalgae provide specialized nursery
Seychelles, for instance, tourism has been a major force and source
of funding for biodiversity management and conservation, as well habitats for some species. For instance, the canopy or upper
as ecosystem rehabilitation. In many cases, tourism is the only layers of kelp provides nursery habitat for young rockfish and
means by which a management infrastructure can be put in place other organisms. Kelp communities consist of several distinct
on isolated islands to enable conservation activities. Indeed,
canopy types supporting many herbivores (for example, sea
well-informed tourists are increasingly the driving force behind the
urchins) [CT 19.2.1.6]. The interaction between sea urchins and
tourism industry’s involvement in biodiversity management.
sea otters maintains the kelp forests’ structure.
16 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 1.3 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANT TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF MARINE AND COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS [modified from CT 23.2.5.1]
Fishing
■ Fishing methods and materials
■ Knowledge of fish species and their behaviour, migration, and reproduction
■ Best fishing locations, times, and techniques for each species
■ Controls on fishing: limited access to fishing areas, taboo areas or seasons, catch restrictions
■ Changes in fishing resources, effects of overfishing, ‘how things used to be’
General
■ Traditional names for, and classifications of, species and communities
■ Calendars related to the weather, to celestial bodies (solar and lunar cycles, appearance or
movement of stars), or to the migration of birds and fish
■ Weather patterns and prediction, cycles of rain and drought, changes in climate
■ Natural catastrophes, cyclones, tsunamis, floods; signs and warnings; effects and areas affected
■ Changes in the environment, former locations and populations of villages
■ Environmental knowledge: who possessed it, how it was used and transmitted
■ Primary Productivity
Estuaries also provide a range of habitats to sustain diverse
flora and fauna. For example, there are many more estuarine- Marine and coastal ecosystems play an important role in
dependent species than estuarine-resident species [19.2.1.1]. photosynthesis and productivity of the systems. Marine plants
Mudflats are also critical habitat for migrating shorebirds and (phytoplankton) fix CO2 in the ocean (photosynthesis) and
many marine organisms, including commercially important return it via respiration. It had been widely assumed that ocean
species like the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) and a ecosystems are currently at a steady state; however, there is now
variety of clam species. Soft bottom coastal habitats are highly much evidence of large-scale trends and variations. Changes in
productive, and can have a species diversity that may rival that marine ecosystems, such as increased phytoplankton growth rate
of tropical forests. due to the fertilizing effect of iron in dust and shifts in species
Dunes support high species diversity in certain taxonomic composition, have the potential to alter the oceanic carbon sink
groups, including endangered bird, plant, and invertebrate and primary productivity; activities that trigger such changes
species [CT 19.2.1.3]. should be considered with extreme caution [CT 13.2.1].
All of these ecosystems—beaches, sandy shores, dune
■ Nutrient Cycling and Fertility
systems, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats—provide feeding
and nesting habitats to numerous species of birds, fish, One of the most important processes occurring within
molluscs, crustaceans, and other ecologically and commercially estuarine environment is the mixing of nutrients from upstream
important organisms [CT 19.2.1.1]. as well as from tidal sources, making estuaries one of the most
Figure 1.7 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVE FORESTS
Map A shows mangrove distribution in Latin America, Map B shows mangrove distribution in Africa, and Map C displays mangrove distribution in
the Asia-Pacific region [CT 19, Figure 19.5].
17
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
fertile coastal environments. Mangroves and saltmarshes play a estuarine and wetland areas have been substantially altered. In
key role together in cycling nutrients. For example, saltmarshes Australia, 50% of estuaries remain undamaged, although these
in the Red Sea region contribute nitrogen to adjacent mangroves. estuaries are away from current population centres.
Beaches and sandy shores are important in the delivery of land-
■ Mangroves
based nutrients to the nearshore coastal ecosystem.
Global mangrove forest cover currently is estimated between
Habitat and Biodiversity Loss 16 and 18 million hectares. Much of the coastal population of
the tropics and subtropics resides near mangroves; 64% of all
Overfishing, destructive fishing practices, habitat loss, pollution, the world’s mangroves are currently within 25 km of major
and other human impacts have resulted in the destruction urban centres having 100,000 people or more [CT 19.2.1.2].
and modification of coastal habitats around the world (Table Many of the world’s mangrove areas have become degraded due
1.2), reducing their ability to provide these services and to population pressures, widespread habitat conversion, and
threatening biodiversity. (See Box 1.4 for examples of pollution. For countries with available data (representing 54%
threatened species.) Coastal habitats are tightly interlinked, of total current mangrove area) an estimated 35% of mangrove
so that the loss of one habitat can have flow-on effects that forests have disappeared in the last two decades at the rate of
degrade and reduce the services provided by linked habitats. 2.1% per year, or 2,834 km2 per year, and mangroves have
(See Box 1.5 for general information about condition and dramatically declined in nearly every country for which data
trends of marine and coastal ecosystems.) have been compiled. In some countries, more than 80% of
original mangrove cover has been lost due to deforestation.
■ Estuaries The leading human activities that contribute to mangrove
Worldwide, over 1,200 major estuaries have been identified loss are: 52% aquaculture (38% shrimp plus 14% fish), 26%
and mapped, with a total area of approximately 500,000 km2. forest use, and 11% freshwater diversion. Restoration has been
These 1,200 estuaries, including lagoons and fiords, account for successfully attempted in some places, but has not kept pace
approximately 80% of the world’s freshwater discharge. Sixty- with wholesale destruction in most areas [CT 19.2.1.2].
two percent of the world’s major estuaries occur within 25 km
■ Coral Reefs
of urban centres having 100,000 or more people [CT 19.2.1.1].
There has been a substantial loss of estuarine habitat and Coral reefs are highly degraded throughout the world, and it
associated wetlands globally. In California (United States), for is likely that there are no pristine reefs remaining. Most
example, less than 10% of natural coastal wetlands remain, tropical reefs occur in developing countries, and this is where
while in the United States more generally, over half of original the most intensive degradation is occurring. Of all the world’s
Box 1.4 EXAMPLES OF COASTAL AND MARINE SPECIES UNDER THREAT
■ All seven species of sea turtles are listed under the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
According to the IUCN Red List, three are critically
endangered, three are endangered, and the status of the
Australian flatback turtle (Chelonia depressa) is unknown
[CT 19.2.2.1 and 19.2.2.2].
■ The Atlantic grey whale and Caribbean monk seal have been
driven to extinction.
■ Many dolphins are threatened by bycatch [CT 19.2.2.2.].
■ Globally, 91% of albatross species, 59% of penguins, 43%
of shearwaters, and 40% of frigate birds are threatened
[CT 19.2.2.3].
■ Shorebirds are declining worldwide: of populations with a
known trend, 48% are declining and only 16% are increasing.
Overall 45 (34%) of African-Eurasian migratory shorebird
populations are regarded as ‘of conservation concern’ due to
their decreasing and/or small populations [CT 19.2.2.3].
■ Of the shark, ray, and chimaera species assessed by IUCN,
18% are listed as threatened, 19% near threatened, 37.5% data deficient, and 26% least concern [CT 4.4.2.2]. On the coast
of southern California, the California mussel Mytelus californianus has become very rare, the ochre sea star is now almost never seen,
the once abundant black abalone can no longer be found, and dozens of formally abundant nudibranch species are now rare.
■ Some species of crocodiles are under threat of extinction, although none of the 23 known species has actually gone extinct.
18 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 1.5 GENERAL CONDITIONS AND TRENDS OF COASTAL AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY
An increasing number of studies are highlighting the inherent vulnerability of marine species to overexploitation. Particularly susceptible species
tend to be both valuable and relatively easy to catch as well as having relatively slow population production rates. Thus species such as large
groupers, croakers, some sharks, and skates are particularly vulnerable.
Assessment of the condition and trends of marine biodiversity is limited by a lack of knowledge and previous assumptions of marine fish and
invertebrate abundance. Information on habitat types, as well as species diversity and distributions and the factors that influence them, is only
just emerging, as are methods for measuring diversity and its patterns. Our understanding of the condition and trends of marine biodiversity will
improve significantly if new methods are applied and monitoring activities are put into place [CT 18.3.6.1].
There is, however, increasing evidence of threats to, and the loss of, marine and coastal biodiversity. The World Wide Fund for Nature’s
(WWF) Living Planet Index (LPI), currently one of the best estimate of global population trends, estimates a decline of 30% in the marine
species population index between 1970 and 2000 [CT 4.4.1]. The status of coastal and sea birds is deteriorating in all parts of the world and
across all major habitat types. The IUCN Red List demonstrates that birds dependent on marine and coastal ecosystems have declined faster
than other birds (see Figure 1.8).
■ Intertidal Habitats and Deltas
known tropical reef systems, 58% occur within 25 km of
major urban centres having populations of 100,000 or more. In Food and bait collection (including molluscs and seaweeds)
1999, it was estimated that approximately 27% of the world’s and human trampling have substantially depleted many of the
known reefs had been badly degraded or destroyed in the last organisms in these habitats. In the United States, the rocky
few decades. The coral reefs of the Caribbean Sea and portions intertidal zone has undergone major transformation in the last
of Southeast Asia have suffered the greatest rates of few decades. Similar trends have been observed elsewhere in
degradation and are expected to continue to be the most the world. Along the Yellow Sea coast, China has lost around
threatened [CT 19.2.1.4]. 37% of habitat in intertidal areas since 1950, and South Korea
Our knowledge of cold-water coral diversity is limited, with has lost an estimated 43% since 1918 [CT 19.2.1.3].
many new reefs still being discovered. The biggest threat to Deltas are high population and human land use areas and
deep-sea coral reefs comes from bottom trawling activities. have been identified, along with estuaries and small islands,
WWF suggests that 30–50% of the cold water corals along the by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as the
Norwegian coast have already been lost due to bottom coastal ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change and
trawling, marine pollution, and oil and gas exploration sea-level rise.
[CT 18.3.6.2].
Figure 1.8 RED LIST INDICES FOR BIRDS IN FRESHWATER, MARINE, AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS, AND FOR BIRDS IN
FOREST AND SHRUBLAND/GRASSLAND HABITATS [CT 20, Figure 20.67]
It has been widely assumed that marine fish and 100
invertebrates are less susceptible to extinction
than most other marine species such as marine
mammals or than terrestrial and freshwater
Red List Index (1988 = 100)
98 < Better
organisms. However, there is an emerging
consensus that marine fish are no more resilient
to extirpation or extinction than other wildlife
96
species [CT 18.3.6.1]. The reduced biomass and
fragmented habitats resulting from
overexploitation of marine resources is likely to
Worse >
94
lead to numerous extinctions, especially among
large, long-lived, late-maturing species, which
also tend to be valuable and easy to catch. One
well-documented example of localized extinction 92
is that of the historic fishing grounds ranging from
New England to Newfoundland and Labrador that
once supported immense fisheries of cod [CT 90
18.3.6.3]. There is also increasing evidence that
1988 1994 2000 2004
many marine populations do not recover from
Forest Freshwater Marine
severe depletion, even when fishing has stopped
Shrubland/grassland Terrestrial
[CT 4.3.5]. Source: IUCN
19
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Beaches and Dunes impacted by fishing methods such as bottom trawling and
Disruptions to the sand balance through activities such as dredging. This type of human disturbance is one of the most
sand mining, nearshore aggregate extraction, and the significant threats to marine biodiversity. Soft bottoms cover
construction of artificial coastal barriers in many locations are about 70% of the earth’s seafloor and are characterized by
causing the total disappearance of beaches. Encroachment in extremely high species diversity. There is now strong evidence
dune areas often results in shoreline destabilization, resulting of fishing effects on seafloor communities that have important
in expensive public works projects such as the building of ramifications for ecosystem function and resilience. Fishing
breakwaters or seawalls and sand re-nourishment has already destroyed many hard-bottom communities
[CT 19.2.1.3]. [CT 19.2.1.7].
Seamounts interrupting the ocean floor’s soft sediments are
■ Seagrass Beds crucial to many pelagic fish species for breeding, spawning, and
Major losses of seagrass habitat have been reported from the as safe havens for juvenile fishes seeking refuge from open
Mediterranean, Florida Bay, and Australia. Present losses are ocean predators. These highly structured and diverse
expected to accelerate, especially in Southeast Asia and the communities are also extremely vulnerable to fishing impacts
Caribbean [CT 19.2.1.5]. [CT 19.2.1.7].
Increased nutrient input to shallow-water coastal areas with
Gaps in Knowledge of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
limited flushing (prime areas for seagrass growth) encourages
the growth of fouling organisms causing algal and epifaunal
Gaps in Knowledge and Data
encrustation of seagrass blades, limiting the ability of the
seagrass to photosynthesize and in extreme cases smothering the Long-term and large-scale ecological processes are generally
meadows altogether [CT 19.2.1.5]. poorly understood, and nowhere is this more true than in
marine ecosystems [S 3.4.6]. For example:
■ Kelp Forests ■ There is a lack of understanding of the oceanic nitrogen cycle,
The biological communities of many kelp forests have been including biological N2 fixation and N2O production. This
so destabilized by fishing that they retain only a fraction of their makes predicting the impacts of anthropogenic N inputs very
former diversity. It is likely that no kelp systems exist in their difficult [S 3.4.6].
■ The El Niño/Southern Oscillation, deriving from
natural condition. Fishing impacts can reduce diverse kelp
forests to greatly simplified sea urchin-dominated barren interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere in the
grounds [CT 19.2.1.6]. Pacific, strongly influences the oceanic productivity in the
eastern Pacific. It alternates on a period of between two to
■ Saltmarshes or Ponds seven years. Understanding of this phenomenon has
Saltmarshes and coastal peat swamps have undergone substantially improved over recent years, but it remains
massive change and destruction, both in estuarine systems and difficult to make predictions about its occurrence and
along the coast. Saltmarsh subsidence has occurred in part due impacts [S 3.4.4].
to reduced sediment delivery from watersheds. Countries
monitoring changes in peat swamps in Southeast Asia find that Basic data on the past and current extent and status of many
such swamps have declined from 46–100% [CT 19.2.1.1]. marine and coastal ecosystems are not available or are of
questionable quality. This makes accurate calculations of
■ Semi-enclosed Seas change and trends difficult. For example, in relation to the
Semi-enclosed seas are becoming highly degraded. adequate delineation of coastal inland water, in particular
Freshwater inflows to semi-enclosed seas have been severely wetlands, the following has been noted: ‘The extent and
curtailed in most areas, robbing them of recharging waters and distribution of inland waters is unevenly or even poorly known
nutrients. A particularly acute case of this degradation has at the global and regional scales, due to differences in
occurred in the Gulf of California, which now receives only a definitions as well as difficulties in delineating and mapping
trickle of water through the now dry, but once very fertile, habitats with variable boundaries due to fluctuations in water
delta of the Colorado River. Poor water quality results from levels’. In many cases comprehensive documentation at the
land-based sources of pollution such as agricultural and regional or national levels does not exist. Larger wetlands,
industrial waste. Limited flushing and long recharge times in lakes, and inland seas have been mapped along with the major
semi-enclosed seas means that pollutants are not as quickly rivers, but for many parts of the world, the valuable and
diluted as in the open sea, and eutrophication and toxics smaller wetlands are not well mapped or delineated. Mapped
loading often results [CT 19.2.1.8]. data contain many inaccuracies and gaps as well as differences
due to scale and resolution. An example is northern Australia,
■ Other Benthic Communities where estimates of the area of inland water ecosystems from 10
data sources varied from 0–98,700 km2 [CT 20.3.1].
Hard bottom and soft sediment seafloor habitats are severely
20 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Assessment of the extent of and change in inland water
habitats at the continental level is compromised by the
inconsistency and unreliability of the data. This is especially so
when referring to smaller systems [CT 20.1].
Marine fish stocks are highly variable. Inadequate
understanding of this variability greatly compounds the
difficulties of fisheries management [CT 18.8.1]. It has not so
far been possible to predict the critical thresholds beyond which
a fish stock will collapse, and the major stock collapses that
have happened in recent decades have been a surprise, even to
those involved in monitoring and managing these stocks
[CT 18.7.2]. With the unpredictability of these thresholds,
precautionary approaches such as marine protected areas and
reductions in fishing effort (and therefore fishing mortality) are
likely to safeguard against such thresholds being reached
[CT 18.8.2].
In general, our knowledge of biodiversity is uneven, with
particular gaps in knowledge regarding the status of marine
biota, along with freshwater biota, tropical ecosystems, plants,
invertebrates, micro-organisms and subterranean biota. There
are strong biases towards the species level, large animals,
temperate ecosystems, and components of biodiversity used by
people [CT 4, Main Message #3]. There is also limited
knowledge of the subdivision of species into populations with
distinct characteristics that are of evolutionary importance and
of potential human use [CT 18.2.6.4]. Recent initiatives such
as Census of Marine Life are increasing the rate at which new
knowledge on marine life is becoming available [CT 18.2.6.1].
Gaps in Methodology to Assess Ecosystem Services
Assessment of fisheries has been dominated by single-species
approaches, such as the widely applied maximum sustained
yield (MSY) concept. These approaches look at target fish
populations in isolation from the ecosystem. The MSY
approach has been criticized for failing to recognize the role of
trophic interactions and risking sharp population declines [S
3.5.2, 4.8]. Single-species approaches will continue to have a
role in evaluating the dynamics of exploited stocks, but they
need to be complemented by multi-species models [S 4.8].
Existing biodiversity indicators do not adequately reflect
many important aspects of biodiversity, especially those that
are significant for the delivery of ecosystem services [CT 4.5.1],
and there is no agreement (at the time of writing) on a
complete set of indicators to be used for the 2010 target,
whose aim is ‘to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the
current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and
national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to
the benefit of all life on earth’. There are no comprehensive
global-scale measures to assess success in meeting the target.
Available evidence, however, indicates that it is unlikely to be
met: trends are still downwards for most species and
populations, and the rate of decline is generally not slowing.
This is also true for aggregate indices such as the Living Planet
Index and the Red List Index [CT 4.5.3].
21
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
2 What are the drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems?
■ Anthropogenic causes are the major drivers of change, presents a typology of drivers of change in coastal systems and
ecosystem services.
degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and services.
■ The direct drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems are:
Direct Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal
land use change;
Ecosystems
development of aquaculture;
overfishing and destructive fishing methods;
Land Use Change and Habitat Loss
invasive species;
Land use change and habitat loss and destruction have degraded
pollution and nutrient loading (eutrophication); and
or altered marine and coastal ecosystems in many areas and
climate change.
■ The major indirect drivers of change in marine and coastal have a direct negative impact on biodiversity [CT 4.3]. Natural
land cover has changed drastically under the pressure of
ecosystems are:
growing human populations and consequent exploitation of the
shifting food preferences and markets;
land mass and its offshore regions. On some islands, the impact
subsidies;
has exceeded the critical point (that is, impacting human well-
illegal fishing;
being), particularly along the coastal fringe [CT 23, Main
population growth;
Messages].
technology change; and
Excessive amounts of sedimentation due to land disturbance
globalization.
■ Terrestrial drivers also impact upon marine and coastal ecosystems. have been a global problem and coastal-marine habitats have
been severely degraded. Sedimentation has also caused or
Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems accelerated infilling of many wetland habitats and lakes. It is
possible that the retention of inland water systems would have
An array of anthropogenic and natural impacts has degraded, ameliorated the impact of sedimentation on coastal ecosystems
altered, or eliminated coastal and marine ecosystems. Drivers [CT 20.2.2].
may either directly or indirectly impact upon ecosystems. The In estuarine habitats, poor management and the destruction
strongest drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystem are of large areas of an estuary’s watershed often lead to
land use change and habitat loss, fisheries, invasive species, degradation of estuaries. Agricultural and grazing practices that
pollution, nutrient loading (eutrophication), and climate change. destroy natural riparian habitats have resulted in floods, and
Although terrestrial drivers also cause change to the marine and changes to freshwater flows through river impoundment and
coastal ecosystems and services, they are not the primary focus diversion have altered sediment delivery. Recent estimates
of this discussion. Climate change and the introduction of suggest worldwide sediment delivery (and thus delivery of
invasive alien species are highlighted as the two direct drivers of important nutrients) to estuaries has been reduced to 30% of
change in marine and coastal ecosystems that are most difficult original levels due to diversion and damming. Further,
to reverse [CT 4.3.1]. Table 2.1 lists the important direct and urbanization of watersheds interrupts natural flows of both
indirect drivers identified in the MA overall, while Table 2.2 freshwater and nutrients and increases pollution [CT 19.2.1.1].
Table 2.1 IMPORTANT DRIVERS IN THE MA
DIRECT DRIVERS INDIRECT DRIVERS
Changes in climate Demographic
Plant nutrient use Economic
Land use management and change Sociopolitical
Diseases Scientific and technological
Invasive species Cultural and religious
Pollution
22 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 2.2 DRIVERS OF CHANGE IN COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS [CT 19, Table 19.5]
DIRECT DRIVERS INDIRECT DRIVERS
Habitat Loss or Conversion
Coastal development Population growth; poor siting due to undervaluation; poorly developed
(ports, urbanization, tourism-related development, industrial sites) industrial policy; tourism demand; environment refugees and internal migration
Destructive fisheries Shift to market economies; demand for aquaria fish and live food fish;
(dynamite, cyanide, bottom trawling) increasing competition in light of diminishing resources
Coastal deforestation Lack of alternative materials; increased competition; poor lack of
(especially mangrove deforestation) implementation of existing ones
Mining Lack of alternative materials; global commons perceptions
(coral, sand, minerals, dredging)
Civil engineering works Transport and energy demands; poor public policy; lack of knowledge about
impacts and their costs
Environmental change brought about by war and conflict Increased competition for scarce resources; political instability; inequality
in wealth distribution
Aquaculture-related habitat conversion International demand for luxury items (including new markets); regional demand
for food; demand for fishmeal in aquaculture and agriculture; decline in wild
stocks or decreased access to fisheries (or inability to compete with larger-scale
fisheries)
Habitat Degradation
Eutrophication from land-based sources Urbanization; lack of sewage treatment or use of combined storm and sewer
(agricultural waste, sewage, fertilizers) systems (CSS); unregulated agricultural development, loss of wetlands and other
natural controls
Pollution: toxics and pathogens from land-based sources Lack of awareness; increasing pesticide and fertilizer use (especially as
soil quality diminishes); unregulated industry
Pollution: dumping and dredge spoils Lack of alternative disposal methods; increased enforcement and stiffer penalties
for land disposal; belief in unlimited assimilative capacities, waste as a commodity
Pollution: shipping-related Substandard shipping regulations; no investment in safety; policies
promoting flags of convenience; increases in ship-based trade
Salinization of estuaries due to decreased freshwater inflow Demand for electricity and water; territorial disputes
Alien species invasions Lack of regulations on ballast discharge; increased aquaculture-related
escapes; lack of international agreements on deliberate introductions
Climate change and sea-level rise Insufficient controls on emission; poorly planned development
(vulnerable development); stressed ecosystems less able to cope
Overexploitation
Directed take of low-value species at high volumes exceeding Population growth; demand for subsistence and market (food and medicinal)
sustainable levels industrialization of fisheries; improved fish-finding technology; poor regional
agreements, lack of enforcement, breakdown of traditional regulation
systems, subsidies
Directed take for luxury markets (high value, low volume) Demand for specialty foods and medicines, aquarium fish, and curios; lack of
exceeding sustainable levels awareness or concern about impacts; technological advances; commodification
Incidental take or bycatch Subsidies; bycatch has no cost
Directed take at commercial scales; decreasing availability of Marginalization of local peoples; breakdown of traditional
resources for subsistence and artisanal use social institutions
23
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Mangroves have been converted to allow for coastal zone including excess nutrients from uneaten fish feed and fish waste,
development, aquaculture, and agriculture, including grazing antibiotic drugs, and other chemicals, including disinfectants
and stall feeding of cattle and camels (which in Pakistan, for such as chlorine and formaline, antifoulants such as tributyltin,
instance, is the second most serious threat to mangrove and inorganic fertilizers such as ammonium phosphate and
ecosystems). Mangrove forests are also affected by removal of urea. The use of antibiotics and other human-made drugs can
trees for fuelwood and construction material, removal of also have serious health effects on humans, the ecosystem, and
invertebrates for use as bait, changes to hydrology in both other species [CT 7.4.5.2].
catchment basins or nearshore coastal areas, and excessive Infectious disease is currently a serious problem in
pollution [CT 19.2.1.2]. aquaculture, not only to the fish being farmed but to wild
Mudflats and saltmarshes are commonly destroyed during populations as well. When infected farmed fish escape from
port and other infrastructure development or maintenance aquaculture facilities, they can transmit these diseases and
dredging, and coastal muds in many areas are highly parasites to wild stocks. Infectious salmon anemia (ISA), a
contaminated by heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls deadly disease affecting Atlantic salmon, poses a serious threat
(PCBs), and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs), leading to the salmon farming industry. Norwegian field studies
to mortality and morbidity in marine species and human health observed that wild salmon often become heavily infected with
impacts. Beaches and sandy shores have undergone massive sea lice (parasites that eat salmon flesh) while migrating through
alteration due to coastal development, pollution, erosion, coastal waters, with the highest infection levels occurring in
storms, alteration to freshwater hydrology, sand mining, salmon-farming areas [CT 4.3.4].
groundwater use, and harvesting of organisms [CT 19.2.1.3]. The expansion of the shrimp industry in Ecuador has brought
Coral reefs are at high risk from many kinds of human about economic growth and employment, but it has also
activity, including destructive fishing (for example, use of changed the allocation and flow of labour, reduced flexibility
cyanide to stun and capture fish and explosives); collecting for and diversity of household economies, and brought about large-
the marine ornamental trade; diving; snorkelling; walking on scale loss of mangroves.
reefs during low tide; tourism; collecting for use in construction
Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Methods
and lime production; overfishing for both local consumption
and export; inadequate sanitation and poor control of run-off Overfishing and destructive fishing methods such as trawling
leading to eutrophication; dumping of debris and toxic waste; (for example, use of heavy gear on sensitive substrates),
land use practices leading to siltation; oil spills; and degradation dredging, and the use of explosives and poisons such as cyanide
of linked habitats such as seagrass, mangrove, and other coastal impact on the marine ecosystems in two ways: by changing
ecosystems [CT 19.2.1.4]. Similar processes affect seagrasses, community structure and altering trophic and other interactions
but habitat conversion for algae farming is a major cause of between ecosystem components and by physically modifying
damage to seagrasses globally [CT 19.2.1.5]. habitats, notably when trawlers erode biogenic bottom
structures. Once altered, ecological states may be impossible to
Development of Aquaculture restore to former conditions [CT 18.2.6.2]. A large number of
Aquaculture often has serious environmental impacts, issues marine species use coastal areas, especially estuaries, mangroves,
concerning sustainability, and trade-offs between land uses. As and seagrasses, as nurseries. Thus modifying coastal habitat and
discussed above, aquaculture is not considered to be sustainable if coastal pollution, as well as inshore fishing, can adversely
wild fisheries capture is used for feed [CT 8.2.1]. The rapid impact offshore fisheries by reducing the supply of recruits to
increase in coastal aquaculture has led to the loss of many the offshore adult stocks [CT 18.3.2]. Area closures and the
mangrove ecosystems, typically through conversion to shrimp or halt of destructive fishing have resulted in improvements to the
prawn farms. This destruction of mangrove is particularly wasteful fisheries, especially in coral reefs. Overall, however, the trend is
and costly in the long term, since shrimp ponds created out of that overfishing and habitat destruction continue throughout
mangrove forest lose their productivity over time and tend to the world [CT 18.4.1.3].
become fallow within 2–10 years. Historically, abandoned shrimp Fisheries bycatch is a major threat to biodiversity. Turtles
ponds were rarely restored, but new policy directives and a shift in [CT 19.2.2.1], seabirds [CT 19.2.2.3], and sharks [CT 4.4.1.5],
the aquaculture industry are helping to make aquaculture less for example, all suffer declines due to bycatch from pelagic
destructive and more prone to supporting restoration and/or longline fisheries. It is well documented that the main driver for
regrowth in some parts of the world [CT 19.2.1.2]. adult mortality among albatrosses, the seabirds showing the
Aquaculture operations have impacts on water quality and most dramatic current population declines, is caused by pelagic
salinization of adjacent agricultural lands, although effluents longline fisheries in the southern oceans.
from freshwater aquaculture are less polluting than those from
Invasive Species
brackish water and marine aquaculture [CT 26.2.2.3].
Discharge from aquaculture facilities can be loaded with Invasive species have been recognized as a major driver of
pollutants which degrade the surrounding environment, ecosystem change and are expected to grow in importance,
24 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 2.1 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF MARINE SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS
Number of new records of established non-
Number of species
native invertebrate and algae species
175
reported in marine waters of North America,
Non-native marine plant species
reported on European coast shown by date of first record, and number of
new records of non-native marine plant
Non-native invertebrates and
150 plants reported in marine species reported on European coasts, by
waters of North America
date of first record [General SR, Figure 1.7].
125
100
75
50
25
0
1790–1819 1820–49 1850–79 1880–1909 1910–39 1940–69 1970–99
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
contributing to species extinction and the deterioration of safely on the ground or in burrows. These mammals generally
ecosystem services. This is due to the expected increase of reduced, and in some cases drove to extinction, populations
unintended introductions of non-native organisms as a side of marine birds, waterfowl, and other ground-nesting birds,
effect of growing global trade. The exchange of non-native through either habitat alteration or direct predation
species between the Baltic Sea in Europe and the North [CT 25.3.6].
American Great Lakes region has been well studied. A high There is also now strong evidence in several marine
proportion of the 100 or so non-native species in the Baltic ecosystems that species richness increases invasion resistance.
region derive from the Great Lakes; and in the latter region, Diverse ecosystems more completely utilize resources such as
75% of the recent arrivals of the 150 non-native species come available space. In experimentally assembled benthic (sea floor)
from the Baltic Sea. Some of those species have even been communities, decreasing the richness of native taxa was
introduced to the Baltic Sea from other regions. (See Figure correlated with increased survival and percent cover of invading
2.1.) A major source of marine introductions of non-native species. Open space was the limiting resource for invaders, and
species is the unintentional release through the ballast water a higher species richness buffered communities against invasion
from ships [S 10.5]. through increasing temporal stability (for example, reducing
The introduction of alien species—in some cases intentional fluctuations of open space) [CT 11.4.1].
(for example, species released for hunting or introduced as a
Pollution and Nutrient Loading (Eutrophication)
biological control) but more commonly unintentional (for
example, introduced with traded goods such as lumber or in the Eutrophication, or nutrient pollution, has become a driver of
ballast water of ships)—has the effect of homogenization and in change for coastal and marine ecosystems. The nutrients
many cases extirpation of native endemic species and habitat (nitrogen and phosphorus) come from three main sources:
alterations [CT 4.3.2]. Introductions of exotic mammals (for agricultural run-off, sewage, and burning of fossil fuels.
example, rats, cats, rabbits, pigs) have had substantial impacts Through the stimulated growth of algae, eutrophication leads to
on many island ecosystems, particularly on seabirds nesting a depletion of oxygen (creating ‘dead zones’), which reduces the
25
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
survival of other marine organisms, including fish. There are
Figure 2.2 ESTIMATED TOTAL REACTIVE NITROGEN
several marine areas of low oxygen. Some of this variation can
DEPOSITION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE (WET AND
be clearly seen in the rates of nitrogen deposition, which are far
DRY) IN 1860, EARLY 1990S, AND PROJECTED FOR 2050
higher in Europe, East and South Asia, eastern North America,
and southeastern South America than elsewhere in the world
[S 8.7; 9.3]. (See Figure 2.2.)
Eutrophication is pervasive close to most of the world’s large
estuaries and all centres of human population, and the resulting
ecosystem changes are difficult (though perhaps not impossible)
to reverse once algae take over benthic habitats or cause shifts in
trophic structure [CT 19.2.1.1]. Maintenance of an adequate flow
of good-quality water is needed to maintain the health of inland
water ecosystems as well as estuaries and deltas [CT 20.6].
Agriculture is the major user of industrially fixed nitrogen,
and only a fraction of this fertilizer is used and retained in food
products [CT 26.2.1.4]. Poor control of run-off of the excess
1860
nitrogen leads to biodiversity loss in inland water, coastal, and
marine systems through eutrophication [CT 19.2.1.4 and
26.2.1.4]. Nitrogen loads in rivers eventually find their way to
the coastal zone, where they also cause eutrophication
[S9.3.7.1.2]. Phosphorus transportation into aquatic ecosystems
is the principal cause of blue-green algae blooms in reservoirs,
and the anoxia in the Gulf of Mexico is one example of
eutrophication attributable to nutrient enrichment
[CT 26.2.2.3].
Sewers convey human waste out of urban locations, often
releasing it untreated in local waterways or coastal waters.
Human waste not only poses a health risk for people, who might
ingest the contaminated water, but also causes eutrophication and
damages aquatic ecosystems downstream [CT 27.2.3.2]. Other
Early 1990s pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants, accumulate in
marine mammals, seabirds, top carnivores, and predatory fish
and are passed on to humans through consumption. POPs are
stable, fat-soluble, carbon-based compounds that volatilize at
warm temperatures and are transported towards the poles by
wind, water, and wildlife [CT 25.2.3].
Based on projections for food production and wastewater
effluents, an increase of 10–20% of global river nitrogen flow to
coastal ecosystems in the next three decades can be expected,
following a global increase of 29% during the period 1970–95.
In the Indian Ocean, the increase is likely to be faster than in the
previous three decades; in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, river
nitrogen flow will continue to increase, but at a slower rate than
in the last three decades in the Pacific and the Atlantic [S 9.3].
2050 Climate Change
Climate change is becoming the dominant driver of change,
particularly in vulnerable habitats such as mangroves, coral
Source: Galloway et al. 2004
reefs, and coastal wetlands, which are especially at risk from
(milligrams of nitrogen per square metre per year) Atmospheric
resulting sea-level rises. Both recent empirical evidence and
deposition currently accounts for roughly 12% of the reactive nitrogen
predictive modelling studies suggest that climate change will
entering terrestrial and coastal marine ecosystems globally, although
increase population losses [CT 4, Main Message #10]. For
in some regions, atmospheric deposition accounts for a higher
example, changes in the non-breeding distribution of coastal
percentage (about 33% in the United States) [R 9.1, Figure 9.2].
wintering shorebirds in western Europe have been attributed to
26 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
rising mid-winter temperatures; and seabird breeding failures residence time of phytoplankton at the surface, near light.
in the North Sea in 2004 have been linked to a northwards shift Models indicate the net effect is reduced phytoplankton
in plankton distribution driven by rising sea temperatures productivity. Models estimate that the combined effect of
[CT 19.2.2.3]. warming and circulation changes on ocean physics and biology
Coral reefs are vulnerable due to coral bleaching (which will reduce the oceanic CO2 uptake (that is, ability to absorb)
sometimes causes coral mortality) and the spread of pathogens by 6–25% in 1990–2050, thus providing a positive climate
leading to the spread of coral diseases. It has been suggested feedback (that is, increased warming) [CT 13.5.2].
that global warming will reduce the world’s major coral reefs in Changes in ocean circulation, pH, and temperature are also
exceedingly short time frames—one estimate suggests that all likely to have additional effects on ocean biology that have not
current coral reefs will disappear by 2040 due to warming sea been quantified in these models and that may induce further
temperatures [CT 19.2.1.4]. CO2 feedbacks. These include changes in the community
Changing wind patterns and sea temperatures impact structure, net production, and bio-calcification. The effect of bio-
oceanographic processes, including upwellings (for example, calcification is estimated to increase the ocean carbon sink by
Benguela) and surface currents (for example, Gulf Stream), as less than 2.5%. The quality and magnitude of biological changes
well as nutrient availability affecting primary productivity. will vary over space and time and is highly uncertain. While the
Recent results from monitoring of sea temperatures in the combined inorganic and biological changes tend to reduce global
North Atlantic suggest that the Gulf Stream may be slowing uptake of anthropogenic carbon, the global net effect on carbon
down and affecting abundance and seasonality of plankton that uptake of the ocean biological changes alone is unknown.
are food for larval fish. Declining larval fish populations and Altered size and timing of phytoplankton blooms due to climate
lower adult fish stocks will impact the ability of overexploited change can also potentially reduce fish production [CT 13.5.2].
stocks to recover [CT 18.3.1]. In the Arctic, regional warming
Indirect Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal
interacts with socioeconomic change to reduce subsistence
Ecosystems
activities by indigenous and other rural people, the segments of
society with the greatest cultural and economic dependence on
Demand, Fish Prices, and Shifting Food
natural resources. Warming has reduced access to marine
Preferences
mammals (less sea ice) by people dependent on subsistence
activities and made the physical and biotic environment less Marine products are in demand as a luxury food, as a
predictable [CT 25, Main Message #5]. subsistence food source for many coastal communities, and as
In the oceans, sea surface temperature increase reduces the feed for aquaculture and livestock. Per capita consumption of
solubility of CO2 in the ocean and tends to increase vertical fish is increasing rapidly—total fish consumption has declined
stratification (layering) and to slow down global ocean somewhat in developed countries, while it has nearly doubled
circulation. Stratification slows the mixing into deep layers of in the developing world since 1973 [CT 8, Main Message #9].
excess carbon in the surface water. Stratification further reduces The growing demand and corresponding increase in prices has
nutrient input into the surface zone and leads to a prolonged contributed to overfishing [CT 18.3.3].
27
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 2.3 SHARE OF WORLD AND COASTAL POPULATIONS LIVING WITHIN 50 KILOMETRES OF
ESTUARIES, CORAL REEFS, MANGROVES, AND SEAGRASS
Based on spatially referenced population data; due to overlap of some habitat types, figures do not add up to 100%
[CT 19, Table 19.4].
Subtypes Population Share of World Population Share of Coastal Population
(%) (%)
Estuaries 1 598 940 542 27 71
Coral reefs 710 583 010 12 31
Mangroves 1 030 295 102 18 45
Seagrass 1 146 100 829 19 49
Total 5 996 803 192
Persistent and widespread misconceptions about the ability of near major centres. This means that pressures from
marine fish populations to withstand and recover from fishing urbanization, including habitat conversion as cities and their
continue to undermine initiatives to address the root causes of areas of influence grow, are affecting the majority of these key
these problems [CT 18.3.8]. coastal habitats [CT 19.3.1].
Demand for fish as a food source and various other products
Subsidies from the sea are driven by population growth, human migration
Financial subsidies are considered to be one of the most toward coastal areas, and rising incomes and hence demand for
significant drivers of overfishing. The value of fisheries subsidies luxury seafood [CT 18.1]. There has been a decrease in the rate
as a percentage of the gross value of fish production in the at which interior populations are increasing relative to coastal
OECD area was about 20% in 2002 [CT 8.4.1.2.2]. In most populations. If population growth is divided land area, we
cases, government subsidies have resulted in an initial increase observe the highest value in the coastal zone, where over the
of overall effort (number of fishers and size of fleet), which 1990s population grew by 23.3 people per square kilometre
translates into increased fishing pressure and overexploitation of [CT 5.3.4]. Coastal population densities are nearly three times
a number of species. While it appears that the number of fishing that of inland areas: in 2000, population density in coastal
vessels and fishers stabilized in the late 1990s, other subsidies areas was 99.6 people per km2, while in inland areas density
(for example, cheap fuel subsidies) can keep fleets operating was 37.9 people per km2. At the turn of the millennium nearly
even when fish are scarce. Without such subsidies, many of half (49.7%) of the world’s major cities (having more than
these fisheries would cease to be economically viable [CT 500,000) people were found within 50 kilometres of the coast.
18.3.2]. Growth in these cities since 1960 was significantly higher than
in inland cities of the same size. It is increasingly difficult for
Illegal Fishing coastal ecosystems to accommodate the increased collective
This practice exists due to high profits; lack of surveillance, demands of growing populations and markets [CT 19.3.1].
enforcement, and monitoring; tolerance due to the economic
Technology Change
conditions or social obligations within a country; and cheating
in some fisheries that are supposedly regulated. It has led to the The incorporation of an enormous array of electronic devices
introduction of international on-board observers in some facilitating fish detection, including the introduction of radar
fisheries to attempt to bring an end to these. It is now widely and acoustic fish finders on fishing vessels, culminating with the
agreed that independent surveillance is an essential part of any introduction of GPS technology and detailed seabed mapping
fishery management and enforcement plan [CT 18.3.6]. that occurred at the end of the cold war have contributed to
overexploitation [CT 18.3.5].
Population Growth
Globalization
Human pressures stress many of the most ecologically
important and valuable ecosystems within the coastal zones. Fish represent the fastest growing food commodity entering
(See Table 2.3.) This is not accidental, as these habitats and the international trade. Accordingly, fish and fish products
ecosystems services they provide present many of the ‘pull’ represent an extremely valuable source of foreign exchange to
factors that resulted in initial settlement on the coast as well as many countries. Traditional local fish foods are, in many cases,
subsequent migration to it. Fifty-eight percent of the world’s no longer available to local consumers due to their inability to
major coral reef systems occur within 25 km of urban centres match the prices that can be obtained by shipping the products
greater than 100,000 people; 62% of major estuaries occur near elsewhere. An example is Senegal, where exports have disrupted
such urban centres, and 64% of major mangrove forests occur local supplies of fish [CT 18.3.7].
28 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
3 Why should we care about the loss or degradation of marine and coastal
ecosystems and their services?
Box 3.1
■ Coastal areas are characterized by high productivity and high THE MA DEFINITION OF HUMAN WELL-BEING
human well-being but also high vulnerability to natural disasters,
The basic materials for a good life include adequate income,
diseases, and pollution. Island communities are particularly
household assets, food, water, and shelter. Considerable effort goes
vulnerable to changes in marine and coastal services and habitat
into measuring and monitoring these dimensions of well-being.
conditions.
Although great effort goes into these measurement efforts, they
■ More than a billion people rely on fish as their main or sole
do not provide a complete enough picture to support a full
source of animal protein, especially in the coastal zone of understanding of the distribution of well-being and its relationship
developing countries. The reliance and demand for food fish, the to ecosystem services [CT 5.2.1].
overcapacity of the global fleet, and overfishing results in declining
food availability in the long term. Decreased availability of seafood Freedom is defined as the range of options a person has in deciding
and other resultant impacts of ecosystem services degradation have on and realizing the kind of life to lead. At a broad scale, only a few of
the many specific phenomena that are relevant to this dimension of
implications that reach far beyond the coastal zone.
well-being are measured at all, and many of those that are measured
■ Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to nearly
are problematic [CT 5.2.2].
38 million people. The fishing sector has declined as a source of
employment in many industrial countries, but in many developing
Human health is measured in a variety of ways, and knowledge about
countries and island communities there is still a strong traditional
broad trends and patterns concerning health is good. Life expectancy,
dependence on marine and coastal resources for employment.
infant mortality, and child mortality are measured fairly intensively [CT
■ The global economic costs related to pollution of coastal waters is 5.2.3].
$16 billion annually, much of which is due to human health impacts.
■ Other benefits—such as spiritual and cultural values and Humans enjoy a state of good social relations when they are able
tourism—are threatened. Spiritual and cultural values are as to realize aesthetic and recreational values, express cultural and
important as other services for many local communities. Global spiritual values, develop institutional linkages that create social capital,
show mutual respect, have good gender and family relations, and have
tourism is one of the world’s most profitable industries and much of
the ability to help others and provide for their children [CT 5.2.4].
it is linked to coastal and marine ecosystems.
■ Coastal communities are at risk from a range of natural disasters.
Humans can be said to live in a state of security when they do not
This risk increases as coastal and marine ecosystems are degraded.
suffer abrupt threats to their well-being. Some of the most salient
threats are organized violence, economic crises, and natural disasters.
Human Well-being and Ecosystem Services Comparable measures of organized
violence are available for
Over historical time frames, human well-being has on aggregate international warfare and civil war,
improved by several orders of magnitude. Incomes have but generally not for banditry and
increased, populations have grown, life expectancies have risen, other forms of crime. Natural
and political institutions have become more participatory. In the disasters are not measured well,
though various international
global aggregate, human well-being continues to expand,
organizations and research centres
although there are variations across geographical regions.
are seeking to improve
Changes in ecosystem services influence all components of
measurement. The most glaring
human well-being. The degradation of ecosystem services
deficiency in efforts to measure
disproportionately affects the poor, although even wealthy
natural disasters is in the area of
populations cannot be fully insulated from the effects of
human impacts. Although some
degradation. The MA has defined well-being as the basic insurance companies undertake
material needs for a good life, health, good social relations, considerable efforts to quantify
security, and freedom of choice and action. Many of these insured economic losses due to
elements of well-being are difficult to measure or are not natural disasters, many of the
measured adequately, often causing uncertainty or gaps in our grossest effects on human well-being
are not insured economic losses, but
understanding. (See Box 3.1.)
rather loss of life and shelter in poor
Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most
communities [CT 5.2.5]. (Further
productive ecosystems in the world and provide a wide range of
information on natural disasters can
services to human beings. Coastal ecosystems tend to be
be found in CT 6 and CT 16.)
characterized by high human well-being; however, coastal
communities are at risk from natural disasters and diseases
29
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
[CT 5, Main Message #3]. Coastal inhabitants on average Overfishing threatens human well-being through declining
experience higher well-being than those of inland communities. food availability in the long term, since fewer fish are available
Of the world’s total gross national product of approximately for consumption and the price of fish increases. This is a
$44 trillion, 61% comes from coastal areas within particular issue in the developing world, where the combination
100 kilometres of the coastline. Whereas per capita GNP in of overfishing and degradation or conversion of habitats is
1999 averaged only $4,018 across all inland areas, per capita aggravated by export-driven fisheries that overexploit their
GNP in the 100-kilometre coastal area was nearly four times as resource base, diverting food away from the domestic market
much at $16,035 globally. However, we should not lose sight of [CT 18.5.1]. This is of major concern if the Millennium
the fact that fishing communities in many developing countries Development Goal of eradicating poverty and hunger (MDG 1)
are among the very poorest. Infant mortality and life expectancy is to be achieved, as many areas where overfishing is a concern
indices are also thought to be relatively better in coastal areas. are also low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). For
This situation partly explains why rates of population increase example, in West Africa, the exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
are highest in coastal areas [CT 19.3.1]. of Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, and Sierra
Marine and coastal ecosystems are also an important source Leone all accommodate large distant-water fleets, which catch
of economic benefits, with capture fisheries alone worth significant quantities of fish.
approximately $81 billion in 2000; aquaculture $57 billion in Much of the fish is exported or shipped directly to Europe
2000; offshore gas and oil $132 billion in 1995; marine while compensation for access is often low compared to the
tourism, much of it in the coast, $161 billion in 1995; and trade value of the product landed [CT 18.4.1.4]. Similarly, in several
and shipping $155 billion in 1995. Much of this value comes small Caribbean islands, seafood consumption is higher than
from the overexploitation of marine and coastal ecosystems. local production and must be satisfied by imports. This pattern
holds true for countries such as Haiti (70% higher than local
Basic Materials for a Good Life food production), Jamaica (78%), Martinique (80%). The
composition of imports in these small island states is dominated
Food Provision by dried, salted, and smoked fish, but fresh, chilled, and frozen
products are also imported, mainly by countries with a tourism
More than one sixth of the world’s population relies on fish as
industry [CT 23.2.2].
their main or sole source of animal protein. Global annual per
The decreased availability of marine fisheries can have
capita consumption of seafood averages 16 kilograms. Fisheries
implications that reach far beyond the coastal zone. For
are a particularly important source of protein in developing
example, the decreased availability of coastal and freshwater
countries. The supply of wild marine fish as a cheap source of
fish for subsistence fisheries in West Africa has driven an
protein for many countries is declining. Annual per capita wild
increase in the illegal bush meat trade. This trade, in turn, has
marine fish consumption in developing countries (excluding
imperilled many endangered species in the region and is thought
China) has declined from 9.4 kilograms per person in 1985 to
to contribute to outbreaks of primate-borne and other viruses in
9.2 kilograms in 1997 [CT 18 Main Message #7].
Figure 3.1 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL VALUE OF FOOD PRODUCTION FOR CROPS, LIVESTOCK,
AND FISHERIES IN 2000
Indicates where the major calorie and
protein sources of the world are
concentrated. Note the high production
values of both marine and terrestrial food
sources around Asia [CT 8, Figure 8.2].
30 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
human populations [CT 19.2.3]. Such
long-distance connections are evident
elsewhere in Africa. For example, the
warming of the Indian Ocean has caused
recent droughts in the Sahal, directly
affecting millions of people through
increased crop failure [CT 19.2.3].
Conflicts can arise between users with
different property rights, largely driven by
overexploitation of the resource. Marine
ecosystems are often described as
‘commons’ (for everyone’s use). While this
may hold true for the open ocean, complex
property rights exist in many coastal areas.
The property rights in question can be
traditional (aboriginal), historical/local,
and commercial (that is, government sells
the right to access resources). The
boundaries between these rights are
frequently unclear in the absence of
effective management or enforcement and,
in some cases, generate conflicts [CT 18.6].
For example, the small islands of the
Pacific, Caribbean, and Indian oceans have
disproportionately as demand for those services has grown.
narrow coastal shelves surrounded by deep waters. A simple
Coastal habitats are often converted to other uses, frequently
fishing pressure index based on estimates of the number
for aquaculture ponds or cage culturing of highly valued species
of people actively fishing (according to FAO) per kilometre of
such as shrimp and salmon. Despite the fact that the area is still
coastline suggests that fishing pressure is greatest in the
used for food production, local residents are often displaced,
China-Philippines area.
and the food produced is usually not for local consumption but
Overfishing in the near shore of these islands has led
for export [CT 18.5.1]. However, food production in terrestrial
artisanal fishers to venture further offshore to access pelagic
ecosystems is higher than in marine ecosystems. (See Figure 3.1.)
resources such as the large tunas. This has led to encounters and
Fish products are heavily traded, and approximately 50% of
conflict with the already well-established industrial factory ships
exports are from developing countries. Exports from developing
of more industrialized countries and/or other island states
countries presently offset much of the shortfall of supply in
fishing in these waters using longlines or purse seines to exploit
European, North American, and East Asian markets [CT
these resources. These conflicts over marine resources are
18.4.1.4]. Trade has increased the quantity and quality of fish
increasingly being arbitrated through the provisions of the
supplied to wealthy countries, in particular the United States,
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
European countries, and Japan, despite reductions in marine
[CT 23.2.2].
fish catch [CT18.4.1.1].
Another example is the growth of shrimp farming and the
consequent damage of such aquaculture on mangroves (see CT
Employment
19.). In Honduras, social conflict has increased between shrimp
farm concession holders and those who are not concession Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to nearly
holders but believe that shrimp farms are intruding on 38 million people (FAO 2004), with approximately 15 million
government-reserved natural resources [CT 5.5]. fishers employed aboard decked and undecked fishing vessels in
The ecosystem service of food production contributes by far the marine capture fisheries sector [CT 18.1]. However the
the most to economic activity and employment. In 2000, the fishing sector has declined as a source of employment in many
market value of global food production was $981 billion, or industrial countries [CT 18.4.1]. For example, in Canada, the
roughly 3% of gross world product (although it is a much collapse of the cod fishery resulted in severe unemployment
higher share of GDP within developing countries). Of this, compounded by restrictions on subsistence fishing [18.5.1].
marine and coastal fisheries (wild and aquaculture) contribute Although the fishing sector has declined as a source of
$124.2 billion, or 12% of world food production [CT 8, employment in many industrial countries, many developing
Table 8.1]. countries and small island communities still have a strong
Poor people historically have lost access to ecosystem services traditional dependence on marine and coastal biodiversity for
31
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 3.2 THE BENGUELA FISHERY [SAfMA sub-global assessment, Box 5.5]
The Benguela fishery lies almost entirely within the economic zone of three countries: South Africa, Namibia, and Angola. These countries
cooperate closely in the management of fish stocks to ensure that they persist. A contributing factor to the longevity of the fishery is its
dependence on small pelagic fish, which live for a year and recruit annually in large numbers, compared to fisheries based mostly on
high-trophic-level, long-lived fish.
Following the inception of commercial fisheries during the early twentieth century, and especially from about mid-century, the combined
catch of the five main species in the Benguela system grew to a peak around 1970 and then declined. In recent years, many of the stocks
have shown a gradual recovery. However, the collapsed anchovy and pilchard stocks off Namibia have not recovered. Several marine fish
species harvested on the west coasts have shown large fluctuations in the stock (see Figure), the causes of which are poorly understood.
In the case of the Namibian anchovy, the increasing frequent southward intrusion of warm tropical water, a phenomenon similar to (but
apparently unconnected with) the El Niño in the Pacific Ocean, may be associated with their decline. In the case of the other species,
overfishing is the probable main factor causing the fluctuations.
Trends in Marine Fish Catches in the Benguela Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) off the west coast of Southern
Africa. This system provided 44% of the total catch in the region during the 1990s. The fluctuation in stocks
appears to be synchronized with stock fluctuations in other major fisheries around the world, and is therefore
suggested to be partly influenced by the climate system [CT 8, Figure 8.2].
Other Marketable Goods
employment. The reliance on and demand for food fish, the
overcapacity of the global fleet, and overfishing result in A global picture of the potential economic value associated with
declining food availability in the long term. (See Box 3.2.) the coastal zone can be built up by aggreggating a number of
The early 1990s collapse of the Newfoundland cod fishery existing valuation studies. A preliminary estimate of the total
(see Figure 3.2) due to overfishing resulted in the loss of tens of economic value of ecosystem services provided by global
thousands of jobs and has cost at least $2 billion in income ecosystems showed that while the coastal zone covers only 8%
support and retraining [General SR 3]. Globally, the bulk of of the world’s surface, the goods and services provided by it are
people employed in fisheries are poor and many are without responsible for approximately 43% of the estimated total value
alternative sources of work and subsistence. of global ecosystem services: $12.6 trillion (1997 dollars). While
Tourism also is a major source of coastal employment. Loss of controversial, this preliminary study made it abundantly clear
habitat can impact heavily on local employment. For example, that coastal ecosystem services do provide significant
the total damages for the Indian Ocean region over 20 years contribution to human well-being at a global scale.
(with a 10% discount rate) resulting from the long-term impacts Furthermore, it demonstrated the need for additional research
of massive coral bleaching in 1998 are estimated to be between and indicated the fact that coastal areas are among the
$608 million (if there is only a slight decrease in tourism- ecosystems most in need of additional study [CT 19.3.2].
generated income and employment results) and $8 billion (if Coastal ecosystems provide other types of marketable goods
tourism income and employment and fish productivity drop such as genetic, medical, and ornamental (aquarium trade)
significantly and reefs cease to function as a protective barrier). resources. Coral reefs have been shown to be an exceptional
32 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Figure 3.2 COLLAPSE OF ATLANTIC COD STOCKS OFF THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN 1992
This collapse forced the closure of the
fishery after hundreds of years of 900 000
exploitation. Until the late 1950s, the
fishery was exploited by migratory
800 000
seasonal fleets and resident inshore
small-scale fishers. From the late
700 000
1950s, offshore bottom trawlers began
exploiting the deeper part of the stock,
leading to a large catch increase and a 600 000
strong decline in the underlying
biomass. Internationally agreed quotas
500 000
in the early 1970s and, following the
declaration by Canada of an Exclusive
400 000
Fishing Zone in 1977, national quota
systems ultimately failed to arrest and
reverse the decline. The stock collapsed 300 000
to extremely low levels in the late
1980s and early 1990s, and a
200 000
moratorium on commercial fishing was
declared in June 1992. A small
100 000
commercial inshore fishery was
reintroduced in 1998, but catch rates
declined and the fishery was closed 0
indefinitely in 2003 [General SR,
Figure 3.4]. Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Mangrove forests are estimated to provide an annual net
reservoir of natural bioactive products, many of which exhibit
benefit of $15 per hectare for medicinal plants, and up to $61
structural features not found in terrestrial natural products [CT
per hectare for medicinal values. Similarly large economic
19.3.2.1].
benefits are calculated for the shoreline stabilization and erosion
Biological monitoring is an industry developing in response
control functions of mangroves [CT 19.2.1.2].
to the necessities of tracking down sources of pollution across
large geographical areas. This would normally require vast
Human Health
resources in terms of conventional instrumentation but the
status of the environment can also be monitored by using
organisms that routinely ‘sample’ the environment, such as Human communities are also at risk from the health
aquatic or marine filter-feeding animals (for example, paddle implications of degraded ecosystems. Cholera and other
worms, sea squirts) [CT 10.2.7]. waterborne diseases are on the rise in coastal countries, and
Some marine species have been overharvested for natural may be related to declining water quality, climate, and
products research such as cone shells of the molluscan family eutrophication-driven algal blooms. Algal blooms (including red
Conidae for their highly variable toxins (conotoxins) for tides) have caused neurological damage and death in humans
application to many areas of medicine [CT 10.7.4]. through consumption of affected seafood. The toxins in red tide
The market price of seafood products is often used as a proxy species may be accumulated in marine organisms and cause a
when calculating the value of ecosystems. The annual market number of different types of toxic effects to humans [CT
value of seafood supported by mangroves, for example, has been 19.3.1]. The incidence of diseases of marine organisms and
calculated to range from $750 to $16,750 (1999 dollars) per emergence of new pathogens is increasing, and some of these,
hectare [CT 19.3.2.1]. The wide range indicates the varying such as ciguatera, harm human health [CT 19.3.1]. Cholera
importance of different seafood and is not an accurate indication impacts human well-being directly by increasing human
of the worth of mangroves. Due to their function as nurseries, morbidity and mortality rates, but it also has severe economic
fisheries yields in waters adjacent to mangroves tend to be high; impacts in coastal countries. For instance, tuna coming from
annual net values of $600 per hectare per year for this fishery countries having incidences of cholera are required to be
benefit have been suggested [CT 19.2.1.2]. Coral reef-based quarantined; this restriction affects many of the major tuna
fisheries are also valuable: the coral reef-based fisheries in producing and exporting countries [CT 19.3.1].
Southeast Asia, for example, generate $2.4 billion per year. Human health effects are also caused by pollution of
33
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Tourism and Recreation
nearshore waters, whereby humans consume fish or other
marine products that contain heavy metals, PCBs, POPs, and Natural amenities are highly valued by people and contribute to
other toxins that have bioaccumulated in the food chain. human welfare, thus providing significant economic value.
Chronic exposure to heavy metals and other bioaccumulating Much of what people value in the coastal zone—natural
pollutants may not cause death in large numbers of people, but amenities (open spaces, attractive views), good beaches for
their cumulative effect can lead to reproductive failure and recreation, high levels of water quality, protection from storm
significantly decreased well-being [CT 19.3.1]. UNEP and the surges, and waste assimilation/nutrient cycling—are provided by
Water Supply and Sanitation Council estimate the global key habitats within coastal ecosystems. Stretches of beach,
economic costs related to pollution of coastal waters is $16 rocky cliffs, estuarine and coastal marine waterways, and coral
billion annually (www.wsscc.org), much of which is due to reefs provide numerous recreational and scenic opportunities.
human health impacts [CT 19.3.1]. Coastal waters in both Boating, fishing, swimming, walking, beachcombing, scuba
industrial and developing countries are frequently contaminated diving, and sunbathing are among the numerous leisure
with sewage [CT 14.2.1.5]. activities that people enjoy worldwide and thus represent
significant economic value [CT 19.3.2.2]. The seas and coasts
Good Social Relations are also of great spiritual importance to many people around
the world, although such values are difficult to quantify. For
Spiritual and Cultural Values example, the Bajau peoples of Indonesia and the aboriginal
Spiritual and cultural values of ecosystems are as important as people of the Torres Strait (Australia) have a culture intimately
other services for many local communities. Human cultures, connected to oceans, while many of the native peoples of North
knowledge systems, religions, heritage values, and social America have similar strong ties to coastal ecosystems [CT
interactions have always been influenced and shaped by the 19.3.2.2].
nature of the ecosystem and ecosystem conditions in which Reef-based tourism generated over $1.2 billion annually in
culture is based. People have benefited in many ways from the Florida Keys (of the United States) alone and the Great
cultural ecosystem services, including aesthetic enjoyment, Barrier Reef (Australia) attracts 1.6 million visitors each year
recreation, artistic and spiritual fulfilment, and intellectual and generates over $1 billion annually in direct revenue [CT
development [CT 17, Main Messages]. 18.6]. Much of this tourism centres on aesthetically pleasing
The degradation of marine and coastal habitats affects the landscapes and seascapes; intact healthy coastal ecosystems with
well-being of all people in many ways that cannot be measured good air and water quality; and opportunities to see diverse
in economic terms. Open space, proximity to clean water, and wildlife. Tourism and recreational values are particularly high
scenic vistas are often cited as primary attractors of residents for semi-enclosed seas, many of which are becoming highly
who own property and live within the coastal fringe. Even for degraded (for example, Gulf of California, Black Sea, Baltic Sea,
people who live far inland with no direct reliance on coastal and large parts of the Mediterranean Sea). Many of the world’s
areas, surveys show that humans maintain strong spiritual great civilizations sprang up along the shorelines of these seas,
connections to the sea and care about its condition. Additionally, and thus they have historically provided food, trade routes, and
for many cultures, such as First Nations of the Pacific Northwest waste processing services to their burgeoning populations [CT
of North America, coastal species such as salmon are of 19.2.1.8]. Harmful algal blooms, including red tides, can be
considerable importance and often define the ‘quality of life’ quite costly in these areas. For example, a bloom in 1989 cost
of people with a cultural tradition of harvesting the sea the Italian tourism industry $11.4 million [CT 19.3.1]. Another
[CT 18.4.1.2]. important activity associated with tourism is recreational
Box 3.3 ISLAND ECOSYSTEM CASE STUDY
Island communities are particularly vulnerable to changes in marine and coastal services and habitat conditions. Many small islands have a
strong traditional dependence on marine and coastal biodiversity for their food, employment, tools, building materials, industry, medicine,
transport, and waste disposal. With increasing human population pressures through high migration and reproductive rates, island ecosystems
face several serious issues both in the immediate and near future [CT 23, Main Message #1]. Overfishing has already deprived island
communities of subsistence fishing and caused conflicts in many tropical islands across Asia. Island states and their exclusive economic zones
comprise 40% of the world’s oceans and earn significant foreign exchange from the sale of offshore fishery licences, but this situation cannot
last forever [CT 23, Main Message #3]. One of the most important roles of fisheries in island states is the employment opportunities it offers for
thousands of people in a region where high levels of unemployment continue to be a major concern. The fisheries sector on small island
developing states in the Caribbean provides stable full-time and part-time direct employment for more than 200,000 people and indirect
employment for another approximately 100,000 people in the secondary sector (processing, marketing), boat building, net making, and other
support industries [CT 23.2.2]. Islands also face increased problems of coastal and beach erosion due to inappropriate forms of coastline
engineering and tourism development that often use coral and beach sand as building material [CT 23.3.3].
34 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
fishing. For example, there is a growing population of Box 3.4 POLAR REGION CASE STUDY
recreational fishers within the Caribbean where dozens of
international, regional, and national fishing tournaments are In polar regions, products derived from locally available fish
held each year [CT 23.2.5.2]. and wildlife resources often offer important sources of cash
Much of the economic values of coral reefs (with net benefits that supplement wages and transfer payments from
estimated at nearly $30 billion each year) are generated from governments. However, subsistence economies are vulnerable
nature-based and dive tourism. Coral reef-based recreational to declines in global markets for these commodities; examples
include seal or muskrat pelts (as changes in cultural values
fisheries generate over $100 million annually. The annual
reduced global demand for furs), salmon (as fish farming
recreational value of the coral reefs of each of six Marine
increased alternative supplies), and reindeer antler (as cultural
Management Areas in the Hawaiian Islands in 2003 ranged from
change in Asia reduced demand). When world market prices
$300,000 to $35 million [General SR 3]. ‘Willingness to pay’
are high, regional resource management institutions may be
studies in the Indian Ocean suggest that health of coral reefs is
unable to respond to the increased incentives for unregulated
an important factor for tourists: tourists were willing to pay, on or illegal harvest (for example, Kamchatka salmon, Greenland
average, $59-$98 extra per holiday to experience high-quality cod) or overgrazing by reindeer. On the other hand, government
reefs. In Jamaica and Barbados, destruction of coral reefs has policies to conserve stocks may prevent Arctic people from
resulted in dramatic declines in visitation; loss of revenue taking advantage of the only viable commercial activities
streams subsequently led to social unrest and even further available (as with the International Whaling Commission ban
tourism declines (MA Subglobal Assessment—Caribbean Sea). In on commercial whaling) [CT 25.4.2].
Florida, reef degradation is rapidly changing the structure of the
tourism market, from high-value, low-volume tourism towards
larger numbers of budget travellers [CT 19.3.2.2].
Despite the value of coastal areas to the tourism industry, much as 15 metres (49 feet) shoreline erosion inland per
coastal tourism development also contributes to the continued year. Erosion threatens homes, roads and urban infrastructure,
degradation of these ecosystems. For example, it often uses and the safety of individuals, and affects biodiversity as well
habitats such as estuaries, mangroves, marshes, and atoll [CT 19.6]. Coastal erosion can have significant economic
lagoons for waste disposal, reducing their capacity to provide consequences. For example, in the United States alone, coastal
ecosystem services such as waste processing and coastal erosion of dunes and beaches costs $500 million in property
protection. Tourism development also results in conversion of loss annually [CT 19.2.1.3].
habitat to accommodate infrastructure, resulting in loss of dune
Trade-offs between Conservation and Other Priorities
systems, wetlands, and even coral reefs [CT 19.4.1].
Security Trade-offs in meeting Millennium Development Goals and
other international commitments are inevitable. There is
Natural Disasters strong evidence that the condition of inland waters and
Coastal communities are at risk from natural disasters such as coastal ecosystems has been compromised by the conventional
hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis, and storm surge flooding, as sectoral approach to water management and, if continued,
well as losses incurred from both sudden and chronic shoreline will jeopardize human well-being. In contrast, through
erosion. Losses of habitats such as mangrove forests (35% have implementation of the established ecosystem-based approaches
disappeared in the last two decades) threaten the safety of adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity, the
people living in the 118 coastal countries where mangroves Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar), FAO, and others, the future
occur. Mangroves not only serve as a buffer from storm damage condition of water provisioning services could be substantially
for these communities, but also serve to absorb heavy metals improved by balancing economic development, ecosystem
and other toxic substances in effluents [CT 19.2.1.2]. Projected preservation, and human well-being objectives [CT 7, Main
sea-level rise due to climate change (1–2 mm/yr over the next Message #6].
century) is expected to have serious consequences for millions of A ‘business as usual’ approach is projected to lead to
people living on low-lying islands, atolls, or flood-prone areas continued loss of habitats and species, with attendant changes
like much of Bangladesh [CT 19.3.1] through the effects of to ecosystem services and negative impacts on many coastal-
flooding and coastal erosion. In turn, flooding and coastal dependent industries and coastal communities. Yet enough is
erosion will have serious consequences for the tourism industry known to change the current approach and begin to
[CT 23, Main Messages #9]. systematically develop strategic plans for more effective
protection and more sustainable use of coastal ecosystems
Erosion [CT 19.6].
Boxes 3.3 and 3.4 demonstrate some of the vulnerabilities
A fifth of the coastline of the newly enlarged European Union is
for two particular marine influenced regions.
eroding away due to human-induced causes, in a few cases as
35
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Gaps in Understanding regarding Human Well-being national accounts do not include measures of resource
depletion or of the degradation of renewable resources. As a
Human well-being depends on ecosystem services but also on result, a country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries,
the supply and quality of social capital, technology, and and this would show only as a positive gain to GDP despite
institutions. These factors mediate the relationship between the loss of the capital asset. Moreover, many ecosystem
ecosystem services and human well-being in ways that remain services are available freely to those who use them
contested and incompletely understood. The relationship (freshwater in aquifers, for instance, or the use of the
between human well-being and ecosystem services is not atmosphere as a sink for pollutants), and so, again, their
linear. When an ecosystem service is abundant relative to the degradation is not reflected in standard economic measures
demand, a marginal increase in ecosystem services generally [General SR 3].
contributes only slightly to human well-being (or may even The information available to assess the consequences of
diminish it). But when the service is relatively scarce, a small changes in ecosystem services for human well-being is
decrease can substantially reduce human well-being [SG 3.4]. relatively limited. Many ecosystem services have not been
The degradation of ecosystem services represents a loss of a monitored and it is also difficult to estimate the relative
capital asset. Both renewable resources such as ecosystem influence of changes in ecosystem services in relation to other
services and nonrenewable resources such as mineral deposits, social, cultural, and economic factors that also affect human
soil nutrients, and fossil fuels are capital assets. Yet traditional well-being [General SR 3].
Box 3.5 THE MA SCENARIOS [Biodiversity SR]
It is important to remember that no scenario will match the future as it protect their borders, attempting to confine poverty, conflict,
actually occurs. None of the scenarios represents a ‘best’ path or a environmental degradation, and deterioration of ecosystem services
‘worst’ path. There could be combinations of policies and practices that to areas outside the borders. These problems often cross borders,
produce significantly better or worse outcomes than any of these however, impinging on the well-being of those within.
scenarios. The future will represent a mix of approaches and The Adapting Mosaic scenario explores the benefits and risks of
consequences described in the scenarios, as well as events and environmentally proactive local and regional management as the
innovations that could not be imagined at the time of writing [S 5]. primary approach to sustainability. In this scenario, lack of faith in
The focus on alternative approaches to sustaining ecosystem global institutions, combined with increased understanding of the
services distinguishes the MA scenarios from previous global scenario importance of resilience and local flexibility, leads to approaches that
exercises. The four approaches were developed based on interviews favour experimentation and local control of ecosystem management.
with leaders in NGOs, governments, and business on five continents, The results are mixed, as some regions do a good job managing
on scenario literature, and on policy documents addressing linkages ecosystems but others do not. High levels of communication and
between ecosystem change and human well-being. The approach to interest in learning lead regions to compare experiences and learn
scenario development used in the MA consists of a combination of from one another. Gradually the number of successful experiments
qualitative storyline development and quantitative modelling based on begins to grow. While global problems are ignored initially, later
assumptions about the evolution of indirect drivers such as economic in the scenario they are approached with flexible strategies based
and population growth [S 6]. on successful experiences with locally adaptive management.
The Global Orchestration scenario explores the possibilities of a However, some ecosystems suffer long-lasting degradation.
world in which global economic and social policies are the primary The TechnoGarden scenario explores the potential role of
approach to sustainability. The recognition that many of the most technology in providing or improving the provision of ecosystem
pressing global problems seem to have roots in poverty and inequality services. The use of technology and the focus on ecosystem services
evokes fair policies to improve the well-being of those in poorer is driven by a system of property rights and valuation of ecosystem
countries by removing trade barriers and subsidies. Environmental services. In this scenario, people push ecosystems to their limits of
problems are dealt with in an ad-hoc reactive manner, as it is assumed producing the optimum amount of ecosystem services for humans
that improved economic well-being will eventually create demand for, through the use of technology. Often, the technologies they use are
and the means to achieve, environmental protection. Nations also more flexible than today’s environmental engineering, and they allow
make progress on global environmental problems, such as greenhouse multiple needs to be met from the same ecosystem. Provision of
gas emissions and the depletion of pelagic marine fisheries. However, ecosystem services in this scenario is high worldwide, but flexibility is
some local and regional environmental problems are exacerbated. low due to high dependence on a narrow set of optimal approaches.
The results for ecosystem services are mixed. Human well-being is In some cases, unexpected problems created by technology and
improved in many of the poorest countries (and in some rich ones), but erosion of ecological resilience lead to vulnerable ecosystem services,
a number of ecosystem services deteriorate by 2050, placing at risk which may break down. In addition, success in increasing the
the long-term sustainability of the well-being improvements. production of ecosystem services often undercuts the ability of
The Order from Strength scenario examines the outcomes of a ecosystems to support themselves, leading to surprising interruptions
world in which protection through boundaries becomes paramount. of some ecosystem services. These interruptions and collapses
The policies enacted in this scenario lead to a world in which the rich sometimes have serious consequences for human well-being.
36 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
The reliance of the rural poor on ecosystem services is
rarely measured and thus typically overlooked in national
statistics and in poverty assessments, resulting in inappropriate
strategies that do not take into account the role of the
environment in poverty reduction [General SR 3].
A Look at the Future: The Four MA Scenarios
The MA explores the future for ecosystem services and human
well-being through four different plausible scenarios. Scenarios
are a means to explore future changes that are difficult to
describe using the extrapolation of known current or past
trends to analyse how ecosystems might respond to different
future policy regimes and a range of drivers affecting ecosystems
and human well-being. The four scenarios—Global
Orchestration; Order from Strength; Adapting Mosaic; and
TechnoGarden—cover a wide range of possible developments
for the years up to 2050. (See Box 3.5.) It is likely that the real
future will not mirror one of the scenarios but will rather
consist of a mix of the elements of all four scenarios.
■ Cross-cutting Issue 1: Fisheries
Cross-cutting Issues across the Four Scenarios
Due to the lack of basic information on marine and coastal Across all four scenarios, an increase in the demand for fish
ecosystems, the MA scenarios cover only some of the major as food is forecasted, accompanied by a decline of fish stocks
drivers of change in those ecosystems. The following sections that differs among the scenarios. The forecasts for industrial
explore those changes for some factors affecting ecosystem and developing countries differ substantially. Uncertainties in
change and ecosystem services. Fisheries, eutrophication, and the interpretation of recent fish stock trends make forecasting
climate change (with the accompanying sea-level rise and difficult.
coastal protection) are amongst the strongest drivers (see A range of factors will determine future wild capture
Chapter 1 for information on other drivers), while biodiversity fisheries. They include changes in the degree of overfishing due
is a fundamental key ecosystem service in the coastal and to fisheries mismanagement; fishing subsidies affecting the catch
marine realm. Box 3.6 highlights the major predictions of the at the fisheries level; climate and climate variability, causing
scenarios. shifts in species distributions and abundance; and population
growth and food preferences affecting the demand for marine
products [S 9.4.3]. Other interactive effects are also occurring,
Box 3.6 PREDICTIONS FROM THE MA SCENARIOS
such as eutrophication and coastal development.
All scenarios predict: In the Global Orchestration scenario, many of the world’s
■ An increase in demand for fish for food and a massive major fisheries collapse between 2030 and 2050. The scenario
decline, if not a collapse, of the major fish stocks over the expects some global cooperation in managing species, but open
next decades. The decline of fish stocks under the scenarios in
borders and reduced trade barriers would lead to
the next decades is of major concern and will impact upon
insurmountable obstacles to effective monitoring of many
achieving Millennium Development Goal 1, eradication of extreme
stocks, which would be exploited unsustainably and severely
poverty.
overfished [S 8.3]. However, economic incentives, regulation,
and the creation of marine protected areas help to establish
■ Climate-change-induced sea-level rise. The scenarios
sustained catches in some areas of industrial countries. This also
variously predict a 50–70 cm rise with a further rise in the next
applies to some developing countries with stable governance,
century. Sea-level rise is expected to have severe impacts for
coastal communities under all scenarios except the Adapting but the race against climate changed-induced degradation of
Mosaic scenario. As poverty is concentrated in the coastal coral reefs and other marine areas does hamper such efforts.
zone, this will have repercussions for MDG 1. Illegal fishing, corruption, and lack of enforcement lead to
overexploitation of fish stocks in developing countries with
■ Increase in eutrophication of coastal and marine
poor governance.
ecosystems. The scenarios differ in their ability to address dead
High-seas fisheries are expected to rise in importance under
zones of hypoxia.
the Global Orchestration scenario, driven by industrial
countries. This relates mainly to pelagic sources, while deep-sea
37
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
resources in developing countries suffer from the decline in
fisheries on seamounts and deep-sea corals cease. Many more
protein supply. In the longer term, however, industrial countries
high-seas marine protected areas will finally become established.
manage to improve conditions of marine and coastal ecosystems,
Coastal aquaculture is forecasted to expand in both industrial
through phasing-out of destructive fishery practices, formation
and developing countries. In the latter more than the former,
of marine protected areas, and construction of artificial coral
aquaculture is accompanied by negative impacts on the
reefs. Some developing countries, through assistance from
environment and small-scale coastal fisheries. High-seas
regional bodies and some industrial countries, achieve
aquaculture is slowly on the rise, with costs for technological
stabilization of coastal and marine ecosystems, while countries
development limiting its expansion during the first decades of
with poor governance face further stock collapses. Top predators
the 21st century. Conflicts about access rights on the high seas
are likely to vanish from most marine ecosystems.
ultimately lead to the formation of a global oceans commission
Aquaculture will only slowly expand in industrial countries
[S 8.7].
and those developing countries with good governance, due to
In the Order from Strength scenario, global issues such as
the reliance on wild-caught fishmeal. In developing countries
climate change or marine fisheries are very difficult to address.
with poor governance, aquaculture may be likely to be forced
Hence, climate change, sea-level rise, and events such as the El
to expand, but the high economic costs, accompanied by major
Niño/Southern Oscillation severely impact the fishing options
impacts on ecosystem services, eventually lead to it being
for poor countries and, within those, in particular the poor
abandoned.
coastal communities. While global agreements become almost
Further expansion of fisheries into the high seas is not
impossible to establish, some regional agreements succeed in
controlled, due to the lack of global agreements. But the high
providing protection for fish stocks, mainly in regions of
costs eventually limit high-seas fisheries, particularly for those
industrial countries and regions that receive assistance from
industrial countries that manage to develop sustainable near-
those. This would include, to a limited extent, the closure of
coast fisheries and freshwater aquaculture [S 8.5].
areas to fisheries and the formation of marine protected areas.
The TechnoGarden scenario forecasts an increased regulation
These industrial countries reduce their outflow of fish products
of high-seas fisheries, addressing the severe stock declines.
to secure food security and social benefits within their own
Ranching of important fish such as tuna helps in managing the
boundaries.
stocks. The focus on global solutions tends to leave small-scale
In the scenario, aquaculture expands rapidly, bearing high
fisheries neglected, and local resource users are in danger of
costs for biodiversity, coastal protection, and related ecosystem
losing their income. In industrial countries, fishery practices are
services. The lack of control of high-seas fisheries leaves high-
improved with the help of technology. This is particularly
sea fish stocks unprotected and, hence, stocks reach the stage of
relevant for high-value fish for food species such as large
collapse rather quickly [S 8.4; S 8.7].
shrimp, salmon, and cod. Technology allows for a massive
Under the Adapting Mosaic scenario, the world fish catch
expansion of aquaculture, with less and less need for wild-
may decline severely by 2020—the tragedy of the Global
caught fishmeal and the development of feed alternatives.
Commons. Coastal communities and those depending on marine
Box 3.7 CASE STUDY: FISHERIES AND TOURISM IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA—JAMAICA AND BONAIRE [S 12.4.3]
Many ecosystem services are provided by the Caribbean Sea. reported algal overgrowth. In Bonaire, the Reef Environmental
Two of the most prized are fisheries and recreation. The Caribbean Educational Foundation has recently generated statistics from
attracts about 57% of scuba diving tours worldwide. In the 1950s, about 60,000 coral reef fish surveys, which rate seven dive sites
1960s, and 1970s, Jamaica was the prime dive location, and hard in Bonaire among the top 10 worldwide for fish species
corals covered as much as 90% of shallow coastal areas. By the richness, with over 300 species. Bonaire banned spear fishing
late 1960s, chronic overfishing had reduced fish biomass by about from its reefs in 1971. In 1979, the Bonaire Marine Park was
80% compared to the previous decade. Then, in the early 1980s, created. In 1992, active management of the park started with
two extreme events hit Jamaican coral reefs, causing their collapse. the introduction of mandatory permits for divers, bringing in
In 1980, Hurricane Allen broke many large elkhorn and staghorn about $170,000 a year to support protected area management.
corals into pieces. In 1983, an unidentified disease spread Economic activities (dive operators, hotels, etc.) connected with
throughout the Caribbean and killed 99% of black spined sea the park attract about 10,000 people annually; such activities
urchins (Diadema antillarum), the primary grazer of algae on the are valued at over $23 million per year. In contrast, the cost of
reefs. Without the ecosystem services provided by grazing fish or park management is under $1 million per annum. In this case,
sea urchins, fleshy macro-algae came to dominate coral reefs regulating provision of one service (the fishery) maintained
(more than 90% cover) in just two years. The lucrative dive tourism resilience in the ecosystem and led to a long-term gain in
industry in Jamaica declined. provision of recreation as well as a stable, long-term fishery.
When the sea urchin mass mortality occurred throughout the These synergistic interactions among ecosystem services allow
region, most sites suffered algal overgrowth, but a few sites—like for the simultaneous enhancement of the supply of more than
Bonaire—did not. With abundant grazing fish, Bonaire had no one ecosystem service.
38 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 3.1 CONSEQUENCES OF EACH SCENARIO FOR THE FACTORS AFFECTING HYPOXIA IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
[S 8, Table 8.8]
FACTOR GLOBAL ORCHESTRATION ORDER FROM STRENGTH ADAPTING MOSAIC TECHNOGARDEN
Farming Decrease in area; no change Increase in area; increase Increase in area; less Decrease in area; less
in nutrients; some in fertilizer use; limited fertilizer use; better land fertilizer use; better land
improvement in land improvement in land management practices; management practices;
management; constant or management; increased less nutrient runoff less nutrient runoff
minor decrease in nutrient nutrient runoff
runoff
Managing Management of river for Some local addition of Some levee removal Levee removal and re-
the river barges eliminates some riparian buffers and driven by farming and engineering of floodplains
wetlands and increases wetlands combined with flood protection; restored with ecologically
channelization; some decrease in wetlands and wetlands and riparian sophisticated levees and
increase in wetlands and building levees; increased buffers; decreased engineered wetlands;
buffers elsewhere; no change proportion of nutrients proportion of nutrients decreased proportion of
in proportion of nutrients entering Mississippi entering Mississippi nutrients entering
entering Mississippi Mississippi
Managing Investment in human well- Some area abandoned; Local projects, but Federal ecological
the river delta being in delta results in many regulation of river; further disagreements about what re-engineering of the delta
local improvements; however, decrease in delta despite to do about the river; leads to greatly increased
river channelization leads to some local increases in slightly increased flow area of wetlands
only small increases in flow wetland through the delta
through delta
Changes Slow growth in area Substantial growth in area Initial increase in area, Reduction in area
in hypoxia then gradual decline
Changes Sport fishery persists, Fishery eliminated Local management and Fishery increased and
in fishery commercial fishery closed improvement of fishery combined with delta;
due to low profitability aquaculture maintained
■ Cross-cutting issue 2: Eutrophication
Offshore aquaculture is developed for high-value fish such as
tuna. Technological solutions, however, remain vulnerable to Eutrophication is a major driver of loss of ecosystem services
surprise events such as the spread of diseases and pests. in the marine and coastal zone. A drastic example of the
Corporations from the industrial world take over substantial effects of eutrophication on marine and coastal ecosystems
parts of developing-country fisheries, which export large is the Gulf of Mexico, where agricultural run-offs created,
amounts to the developed world. International aid is required to by 2002, an area of hypoxia of more than 20,000 km2. (See
support the collapsing fishing communities in developing Box 3.8.)
countries. The expansion of aquaculture counters this impact to The hypoxia zone in the Gulf of Mexico would be reduced
some extent. Aquaculture in the developing world focuses more most in the TechnoGarden scenario, due to improved
on lower-value fish, to support food security and provide cheap agricultural practices and better management of the Mississippi
export products. Large tracks of coastal land are lost to river, the Mississippi delta, and New Orleans. The Adapting
aquaculture, with impacts on ecosystem services such as erosion Mosaic scenario predicts an initial increase in the amount of
control and storm and flood protection. the dead zone, but due to local efforts the situation would be
High-seas fisheries face further losses of stocks and tend reversed slowly. Under the Global Orchestration scenario,
increasingly to focus on aquaculture operations outside of positive and negative impacts would equal each other, and in
national exclusive economic zones. This sector is completely effect, the hypoxia zone would increase further. The cumulative
dominated by industrial countries able to afford the new effects of the Order from Strength scenario makes it the worst
technologies [S 8.6]. for the future development of the dead zone in the Gulf of
The case study on fisheries and tourism from Jamaica Mexico [S 8.7.9]. Table 3.1 summarizes the consequences of
and Bonaire (see Box 3.7) demonstrates how natural factors each of the four MA scenarios for these main factors. Climate
and management decisions influence the development of change will not be very different across the scenarios; warming
ecosystem services, a link that has been used extensively by the of the Gulf and increased rainfall in the catchment area will
four scenarios. worsen the situation in the hypoxia zone.
39
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 3.8 CASE STUDY: DEAD ZONES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
Five factors have been identified that influence the extent of the hypoxia zone in the Gulf of Mexico: climate, agricultural management in
the Mississippi catchment area, the management of the Mississippi river, the management of the Mississippi river delta and New Orleans,
and fishing practices. These factors largely depend on decisions that have been taken, often decades ago, far away from the Gulf itself.
Figure 3.3 shows the direct and indirect drivers of this process.
Figure 3.3 CONCEPTUAL MAP OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DRIVERS OF THE DEAD ZONE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
The colours represent different levels of direct and indirect drivers influencing the dead zone [S 8, Figure 8.7].
Wetlands mgmt
Population, economics, inequality
Flood control, levees
Fishing
Managing the Managing
Delta & New the Mississippi
Orleans River
Hurricanes
Area
Dead zone in Landscape
Gulf of Mexico context (buffers)
Temp in gulf
Agriculture
Climate in US Midwest
Precipitation
in Midwest
Temp
amount timing Ag practices
in Midwest
fertilizer manure
■ Cross-cutting Issue 3: Sea-level Rise and Coastal as the protection of society from storm and related damage
Protection through natural buffers such as coral reefs, mangrove forests,
Climate change is expected to impact (through sea-level rise) and sand bars. The future of this service depends particularly on
severely on coastal wetlands, with substantial losses for the degree of sea-level rise and sea surface temperature.
estuaries, deltas, and tidal flats as well as accelerating coral In the Global Orchestration and the Order from Strength
bleaching through the increase of sea surface temperatures. scenarios, coastal protection for industrial countries—focused
This effect is least developed in the TechnoGarden scenario on the repair of damage after it occurrs rather than an active
[Wetlands SR 5]. The four scenarios predict a mean global ecosystem management system for prevention—is likely to
sea-level rise of between 50 cm (TechnoGarden) and 70 cm remain about the same. In developing countries, coastal
(Global Orchestration). protection is expected to suffer severely in both these scenarios.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has Under the Adapting Mosaic and the TechnoGarden scenarios,
described how climate change affects the sea level. Warmer air ecosystem management actively addresses coastal protection,
temperatures result in an expansion of ocean water and a which will generally improve. In developing countries, however,
melting of ice from ice caps and glaciers. In addition, stronger the efforts under the TechnoGarden scenario are frequently
winds in the landward direction will also contribute to sea-level hampered by unforeseen responses of ecosystems, and in effect,
rise along the coastline. coastal protection is likely to remain rather unchanged [S 9.5].
Coastal protection as an ecosystem service can be described Developing countries are likely to be more negatively
40 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
impacted by climate change-induced sea-level rise. This is due,
Box 3.9 CASE STUDY: PREDICTED IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
amongst other reasons, to sea-level rise requiring new technical ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA
solutions such as more efficient dykes and flood gates, which [PNG sub-global assessment, 8.2]
are more affordable in industrial than in developing countries
[S 9.5]. Other impacts of global warming on coastal zones The direct impacts of global warming on the coastal zone of Papua New
are shown in the case study from Papua New Guinea. (See Guinea (PNG) have been assessed in a report covering the whole of the
Box 3.9.) South Pacific region, and may be summarized as follows:
■ Cross-cutting Issue 4: Biodiversity ■ Temperature rise with no decrease in humidity will increase the
relative strain index for coastal PNG, with deterioration in human
Forecasts for biodiversity in marine and coastal ecosystems
comfort, and increased stress and lower productivity for manual
are severely hampered by the lack of ecological knowledge.
workers. There will be higher demand for building air conditioning,
Often, even information on the species level is missing.
increased energy use, and hence increased cost of work productivity.
Methodologies such as species-area curves, proven useful for
terrestrial ecosystems, do not necessarily work for marine
■ Waterborne vector diseases (malaria, dengue fever, filariasis)
systems for many reasons, including the fact that species
and skin fungal diseases may have prolonged seasonal virility in
extinctions are rarely observed [S 10.4]. coastal areas.
The MA has developed the four scenarios in the coastal and
marine realm for three different areas, the Gulf of Thailand, the ■ Limestone-based soils are likely to become less fertile as increased
Central North Pacific, and the northern Benguela upwelling temperature changes sodium/calcium ratios.
ecosystem. For biodiversity, the MA uses an index for biomass
■ Ecosystems particularly vulnerable to global warming will be coastal
that takes the number of species and the number of individuals
forests, especially mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs.
(biomass) into account. A high value represents a high evenness
(even distribution of biomass across a high number of species),
a low value the domination of very few species amongst a low
number of species [S 10.4.1].
The northern Benguela upwelling current is a highly
productive upwelling system off the coast of Southern Africa,
with a rich diversity, supporting small, medium, and large
pelagic fisheries. The four scenarios all foresee only small
changes in the biomass index for the North Benguela, despite
differences in emphasis on supporting employment
opportunities and ecosystem management.
In the Central North Pacific, fisheries are focusing on tuna.
Small tunas have increased in the area with the decline of their
large top predators. The TechnoGarden and Global
Orchestration scenarios are able to maintain the initial level of
biomass diversity, while the Order from Strength scenario
Box 3.10 CASE STUDY: NO-TAKE ZONES IN ST. LUCIA [S 12.4]
predicts an initial decrease, but then a recovery of the biomass
index, mainly due to changes in drift net fishing. The Adapting
The Soufrière Marine Management Area, created in 1995 along 11
Mosaic scenario allows the index to rise initially due to the km of the coast of St. Lucia in the Caribbean, includes five small
closure of turtles fishery and the focus on tuna fishing. With the marine reserves alternating with areas where fishing is allowed.
rebuilding of the most valuable tuna stocks by 2030 increasing Roughly 35% of the fishing grounds in this area have been set aside
the value of fisheries, the overall biomass diversity begins to and protected. The initial cost of restricting access to fishers in about
decrease again. In summary, in the Central North Pacific a third of the available area (a decline in a provisioning ecosystem
service) has been easily compensated for by the benefits. As may be
system, biomass diversity could be increased if the management
expected, fish biomass inside the reserves tripled in just four years,
imperatives for increasing the value of fisheries were
but, more importantly, biomass in the fished areas doubled during
substantially reduced [S 10.4].
the same period, and remained stable thereafter. In less than the
The most efficient way to rebuild marine biodiversity is an
typical term of an elected governmental official, the fishery recovered
ecosystem-focused policy. Efforts to increase the value of
and landings increased. There is growing evidence from around the
individual stocks and thus increasing their value for fisheries
world supporting marine reserves and fishery closures as an effective
appear to result in a decline of biodiversity. (See Box 3.10 tool for managing fish, one of the most important provisioning
for an example of an ecosystem-based approach in St. Lucia ecosystem services. Wise local management of fisheries averted a
that focuses on marine reserves within a wider zone of negative impact, possibly for the long term.
fisheries management.)
41
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
4 What can be done about the loss of marine and coastal ecosystems
and their services?
■ The MA explores a wide range of responses to the human impact made between operational and specific responses, with the
former not being bound to specific sectors but being important
on ecosystems. Operational responses are important to consider for
to consider for all policy options. The responses are outlined
all policy options, whereas specific responses relate to sectors.
■ The operational response options include the following: below, indicating their effectiveness, the type of responses, and
the required actors.
stakeholder participation in decision-making from global to local
levels;
Response Options
development of stakeholder capacity;
communication, education, and public awareness, and the
In the following paragraphs, a response is considered to be
empowerment of communities;
effective when its assessment indicates that it has enhanced the
generating alternative incomes;
particular ecosystem service and contributed to human well-
monitoring of biophysical and socioeconomic effects of responses,
being without significant harm to other ecosystem services or
addressing of uncertainties, such as basic knowledge of
harmful impacts to other groups of people. A response is
biodiversity and ecosystem processes; and
considered promising either if it does not have a long track
addressing trade-offs among uses of ecosystem services.
■ The specific response options include the following: record to assess but appears likely to succeed or if there are
known means of modifying the response so that it can become
international and regional mechanism that may focus on
effective. A response is considered problematic if its historical
biodiversity, fisheries, habitat loss, or wider aspects of
use indicates either that it has not met the goals related to
sustainable development;
service enhancement (or conservation and sustainable use of
successful implementation of international agreements;
biodiversity) or that it has caused significant harm to other
integrated coastal management requiring a holistic view including
ecosystem services. Labelling a response as effective does not
land-based and freshwater influences;
mean that the historical assessment has not identified problems
marine protected areas;
or harmful trade-offs. Such trade-offs almost always exist, but
coastal protection against storms and floods through provision of
they are not considered significant enough as to negate the
natural barriers;
effectiveness of the response. Similarly, labelling a response as
management of nutrient pollution and waste at source point;
problematic does not mean that there are no promising
geo-engineering for CO sequestration;
opportunities to reform the response in a way that can meet its
economic interventions such as financial incentives, taxes,
policy goals without undue harm to ecosystem services.
and subsidies;
The typology of responses presented in the following
fisheries management; and
paragraphs is defined by the nature of the intervention, classified
aquaculture management.
■ Important tools for applying policy options include multicriteria as follows: institutional and legal (I), economic and incentives (E),
social and behavioural (S), technological (T), and knowledge and
analysis, scenarios, environmental impact assessment, and
cognitive (K). Note that the dominant class is presented. The
economic valuation.
■ Effort needs to be made in the implementation and enforcement actors who make decisions to implement a response are
governments (G) at different levels, such as international (GI)
of existing legislation and policy.
(mainly through multilateral agreements or international
Introduction conventions), national (GN), and local (GL); the business/industry
sector (B); and civil society, which includes nongovernmental
organizations (NGO), community-based and indigenous people’s
People have been influencing ecosystems as long as humankind
organizations (C), and research institutions (R). The actors are
has existed, and there has always been a challenge to address
not necessarily equally important [General SR, Appendix B].
human impacts on the ecosystems and the services they provide.
The recent dramatic scale of harmful impacts, however, many of
Operational Responses
them visible beyond local, national or regional boundaries,
underlines the need for increasing the regulation of human
■ Stakeholder Participation in Decision-making
activities, with a need to choose the appropriate response
level—local, national, regional or global. It is essential however,
that existing relevant policies and legislation are also Effectiveness: Effective
implemented and enforced. This chapter examines the main Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and
responses that societies have recently applied for regulating their behavioural (S)
interaction with coastal and marine ecosystems. A distinction is Required actors: National government (GN), local government
42 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.1 LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS [CT 19.5.2]
Regional agreements are thought to be a more effective way to manage shared coastal and marine resources, especially when such agreements
capitalize on better understandings of costs and benefits accruing from shared responsibilities in conserving the marine environment. Large marine
ecosystems (LMEs) have been put forward as a logical way to frame area-based approaches of many agreements and mechanisms. The world’s
seas have been divided into 64 LMEs, with each LME covering an area of around 200,000 km2 and characterized by specific bathymetry,
hydrology, productivity, and trophically dependent populations.
Using an LME framework ensures a holistic approach by facilitating a process where issues both environmental and sociopolitical are first
considered at a regional level through the creation of an action plan and then addressed again through a series of national planning exercises.
Such planning can take into consideration many of the different response options available to decision-makers.
Several recent international instruments refer to LMEs, and the geographic units serve as the basis for some global assessments, such as
UNEP’s Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA). In many parts of the world, however, the political constituency for nations to cooperate to
conserve large-scale ecosystems is lacking, though this situation may well be improving.
(GL), nongovernmental organization (NGO), business/industry policy objectives and priorities for the allocation of services, and
(B), community groups (C), research institutions (R) create space for deliberation and learning accommodating multiple
perspectives [R 7]. The case studies on the Mankote Mangrove in
Stakeholders include government bodies, local and indigenous St. Lucia (Box 4.2) and the village fish reserves in Samoa (Box 4.7)
communities, nongovernmental organizations as well as the provide examples of successful stakeholder participation.
private sector, the latter particularly in the case of industrial
■ Capacity Development
fisheries [CT 18.9]. Local-level involvement has in many cases
proven to improve the recovery of coastal ecosystems. Local or
indigenous perspectives might provide for alternative management Effectiveness: Effective
priorities [R 3.5]. Key steps to improve participatory processes are Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)
to increase the transparency of information, improve the Required actors: National government (GN), local government
understanding of the issues, improve the representation of (GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
marginalized stakeholders, engage them in the establishment of groups (C), research institutions (R)
Box 4.2 CASE STUDY: THE MANKOTE MANGROVE IN ST. LUCIA [R 17, Box 17.2]
The Mankote Mangrove constitutes 20% of the total mangrove area in St. Lucia. Uncontrolled charcoal harvesting through excessive tree loggings
created a severe environmental decline of the mangroves, which posed a serious threat to many of the ecosystem services that the mangrove
provided, including water quality, coastal stability, bird habitat, and fish breeding. Local communities, consisting primarily of poor people, undertook
the practice of harvesting charcoal. These communities had no legal right to use the publicly owned mangrove resources. With no possibility for
substitution, the loss of access to the mangroves by these poor populations due to resource depletion or degradation would have created
permanent loss of their only source of income.
To address this problem, the following solution was implemented:
■ The local communities were organized into informal cooperatives and given communal legal and exclusive rights to harvest the charcoal.
■ They were involved in monitoring the programme, to get accurate information on the overall health of the mangrove.
■ Measures to increase the supply of wood outside the mangrove reserve were put in place, as were alternative job options for charcoal
harvesters, including in tourism.
The effort yielded the following results:
■ The decline in the Mankote Mangrove was halted and reversed.
■ The density and size of trees increased.
■ Charcoal harvests were maintained.
■ The range of employment options for the poor population somewhat increased.
This is a clear case where a property and legal rights approach made sense, because the subsistence harvesters were the primary source of the
problem due to uncontrolled harvesting of charcoal. The use of formal rights to the resource gave the poor an incentive for long-term management
of the mangrove as an asset over which they had control. The introduction of a monitoring programme further improved the level of and access to
information they had about the general condition of the mangrove.
43
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Communication, education, and public awareness are important
components of successful ecosystem management, ensuring that
decision-makers, managers, and other actors fully understand
the background to and implications of their activities.
Communication, education, and public awareness bear
particularly good results when accompanied by efforts to
empower communities to take decisions on the management of
ecosystems [R 5.2.9]. Providing the human and financial
resources to undertake effective work in this area is a
continuing barrier [R 5]. The Mankote mangrove in St. Lucia
provides an example of the successful use of communication
and public awareness raising in a coastal context.
(See Box 4.2.)
■ Alternative Income-generating Activities
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Economic and incentives (E), social and
behavioural (S)
Required actors: Local government (GL), nongovernmental
organizations (NGO), community groups (C)
It is increasingly recognized that some human activities are no
longer appropriate or sustainable in marine and coastal
ecosystems and alternative forms of income generation (AIGAs)
are needed for those users who will be directly affected.
Developing AIGAs requires a long-term commitment from all
actors and considerable effort to build capacity, change
attitudes, provide a social net and financial resources to ensure
that users do not return to their former livelihoods. The case
study on the Mankote mangrove in St. Lucia (Box 4.2)
illustrates an example of alternative income-generation.
■ Monitoring
Effectiveness: Effective, promising
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T),
knowledge and cognitive (K)
Management of marine and coastal ecosystems and the Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
associated impacts on human well-being is often inadequate, national government (GN), local government (GL),
leading to conflicts and a decrease in services. A particular nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community groups (C),
challenge is provided by the need to take into account the research institutions (R)
impacts of external influences on the marine and coastal
systems, such as climate change or land-based pollution and Monitoring is a crucial component of any management
degradation [CT 19.1]. A crucial component of such an strategy. It is best used by applying indicators. Given the
approach is the development of capacity. substantial deficiencies in understanding marine and coastal
ecosystems, the development of indicators for biophysical
■ Communication, Education, and Public Awareness and socioeconomic responses to management measures is
currently limited. Indicators for institutional and governance
Effectiveness: Effective responses are available to an even lesser degree [ Wetlands SR
Type of response: Social and behavioural (S) 6.3; R 18.3 ]. The involvement of the community in the
Required actors: National government (GN), local government monitoring of ecosystems is key to the success. Monitoring
(GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community plays an important role in the Mankote mangroves in St. Lucia.
groups (C) (See Box 4.2.)
44 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Addressing Uncertainty Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN)
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), knowledge and There is a multitude of global and regional agreements,
cognitive (K) instruments, and programmes facilitating international
Required actors: National government (GN), local government cooperation concerning the conservation and sustainable use
(GL), community groups (C), research institutions (R) of marine and coastal ecosystems [C18, 19; R5, 15]. (For a
list of agreements see Appendix 1; for two examples, see Box
To a larger degree than terrestrial ecosystems, marine 4.3). Their effectiveness is dependent on government
systems confront decision-makers, ecosystem managers, commitment to build the capacity to implement and enforce
and researchers with a high degree of uncertainty. compliance of the provisions of the instrument [C18, 19;
Uncertainty results from a lack of understanding of coastal R5, 15]. (See Box 4.4.) This includes the
and marine ecosystems [CT 4; S 3.4.6: S 4.8; R 6.2.3], availability/provision of human and financial resources.
particularly about: Better coordination among conventions across national
■ knowledge of deep-sea biodiversity, including taxonomy jurisdictions and on the high seas would increase their
and ecosystem composition; usefulness. Attention is needed on integrating these
■ patterns of endemism; instruments into national and local institutions. Local
■ habitat data such as long-term and large-area ecological stakeholders can take advantage of international instruments
processes; to gain wider exposure for their issues and concerns. (For a
■ understanding of the oceanic nitrogen cycle; and case study on the governance challenge for the Caribbean
■ population dynamics and related recovery potential region, see Box 4.5.)
of commercially exploited resources.
Box 4.3 EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERNATIONAL
INSTRUMENTS
A precautionary approach, taking these uncertainties into
account, is needed for policy responses in the coastal and
An analysis of the compliance by 11 European and North American
marine realm.
countries with treaties and conventions that apply to North Atlantic
Fisheries found that compliance has very little to do with sustainable
■ Trade-off Analysis
fisheries management [C 18.6]. Many of the stocks such as tuna,
cod, and herring managed by the various instruments are
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
overexploited, threatened, or collapsed.
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), economic and
incentives (E) Instrument Average Compliance
Required actors: National government (GN), local government (see Appendix 1 for full titles) Score (%)
(GL), community groups (C)
UNCLOS 79
Trade-offs between ecosystem services will be essential in the
Fish Stocks 47
future to make equitable and sustainable use of the world’s
resources. Policy decisions will need to address trade-offs
Compliance 33
between activities that impact coastal and marine well-being
and land uses such as fisheries, agricultural production, water
NAFO 68
quality, and upstream barriers to water flow to coastal zones.
The lack of understanding of ecosystem services, including their NEAFC 81
economic values, contributes to difficulties in finding the right
balance [CT 19.5.1]. Tools for addressing trade-offs include, for ICCAT 54
example, environmental impact assessment (see page 53) and
the zoning of areas, which has been applied in many terrestrial ICES 52
areas, but less so in marine and coastal systems.
CFP 49
Specific Responses
Coop Agreement 41
■ Applying International/Regional Mechanisms
NSS herring 78
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic Capelin 71
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)
45
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.4 EXAMPLES OF KEY INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) regulates all aspects of the resources of the sea and the uses of the ocean, such
as navigational rights, territorial sea limits, economic jurisdiction, legal status of resources on the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,
passage of ships through narrow straits, conservation and management of living marine resources, protection of the marine environment, a marine
research regime, and (a more unique feature) a binding procedure for settlement of disputes between States.
UNCLOS gives national sovereignty to nations over their marine resources within 200 nautical miles of their coasts, while outside of the 200
mile limit, conservation and management of marine resources becomes a collaborative effort between nations accessing those resources. UNCLOS
provides the framework to develop agreements such as the Straddling Stocks and Compliance Agreements to deal with high seas issues.
The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
The code includes technical guidelines as well as recommendations to:
■ apply an ecosystem approach to fisheries;
■ manage stocks using the best available science;
■ apply the precautionary principle, using conservative management
approaches when the effects of fishing practices are uncertain;
■ avoid overfishing and prevent or eliminate excess fishing capacity;
■ minimize waste (discards) and bycatch;
■ prohibit destructive fishing methods;
■ restore depleted fish stocks;
■ implement appropriate national laws, management plans, and means
of enforcement;
■ monitor the effects of fishing on all species in the ecosystem, not just
the target fish stock;
■ work cooperatively with other states to coordinate management policies
and enforcement actions;
■ recognize the importance of artisanal and small-scale fisheries and the
value of traditional management practices; and
■ integrate fishery management into coastal area management.
Article 9 of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries sets
principles and guidelines for the sustainable development and
management of aquaculture.
The Code of Conduct is a voluntary instrument and its effectiveness
depends on the willingness of countries to implement it.
Box 4.5 CASE STUDY: CHALLENGES FOR POLICY RESPONSES IN THE CARIBBEAN
The Caribbean Sea comprises territorial waters and coastal areas of 33 bordering countries and territories, which makes a coordinated approach to
management of the area extremely difficult. Players are not only those countries and territories, but also the colonial powers from North America
and Europe; international institutions such as UNEP UNDP World Bank, and the Organization of American States; international NGOs; the Western
, ,
Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission of the FAO (WECAFC); donor agencies; and regional intergovernmental organizations such as the Association
of Caribbean States (ACS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).
The scale of problems such as overfishing, pollution, and expanding tourism is not matched by an appropriate managerial response, as
management is organized along the lines of individual countries or political blocks such as CARICOM.
The existing governance framework makes for much complexity, presenting many challenges such as the lack of harmonization. This extends into
the nongovernmental sector where NGOs are not well integrated into the policy analysis and decision-making process. On the other hand, the
diversity of the governance structure offers a variety of opportunities for exercise of authority in relation to shared issues and interests. However, it
has been suggested to create another decision-making body at the highest regional intergovernmental level.
Globally, the United Nations has recently addressed attention to the Caribbean Sea, stressing, in UN Resolution 57/216, the need for a
comprehensive and integrated approach to the management of the Caribbean Sea. This Resolution offers a high-level and up-to-date common
policy basis upon which wider Caribbean states might take concerted action among themselves and upon which they might enlist global
cooperation in an effort to meet the objectives of the policy.
Source: Caribbean Sea sub-global assessment, 1.3 and 6.2.
46 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Linking the Integrated Management and Planning ■ Marine Protected Areas
of River Catchments and Coastal Areas (integrated Effectiveness: Effective, promising
coastal management and planning) Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and
behavioural (S)
Effectiveness: Effective, promising Required actors: National government (GN), local government
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and behavioural (S) (GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
Required actors: National government (GN), local government groups (C)
(GL), community groups (C), research institutions (R)
Marine protected areas (MPAs) can be defined as areas of the
An integrated approach to coastal management requires a holistic ocean designated to enhance conservation of marine resources;
view that includes land-based and freshwater influences, and the marine reserves are those protected areas of the ocean that are
necessary political, economic, and social conditions [CT 19.5.2]. completely protected from all extractive and destructive activities
Land use planning and inshore resource management—including [R 5.2.6]. MPAs are important in conserving biodiversity and
zoning, catchment management, and impact assessments—are managing marine and coastal ecosystems, as well as in
linked to integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) contributing to the sustainable use of marine resources. MPAs
horizontally (across sectors) and vertically (across levels of that exclude extractive activities (marine reserves) tend to lead to
government) [R 15.5.3]. This approach to management and increases in the density, biomass, individual size, and diversity of
planning provides a balance among the users and ecosystem needs vertebrate species, thus conserving biodiversity and reducing the
which is often found by exploring the trade-offs that are needed. risk of extinction for some marine species. Networks of reserves
ICZM deals with the drivers of coastal change through three are necessary for long-term fishery and conservation benefits;
major ways [R 15.5.3]: and increased reserve size, up to an optimal maximum
■ addressing conflicts between uses and users of natural depending on objectives, tends to lead to increased benefits, but
even small reserves often have positive effects. Some coastal
resources;
■ regulating increasing demands on coastal resources by areas under some form of community management can yield
better results for biodiversity and human well-being than
improving management and planning processes; and
■ promoting institutional changes relating to decision-making officially recognized areas [CT 19.5.2]. Box 4.7 provides
examples of successful marine protected areas in the Bahamas
about coastal zones through more inclusive decision-making,
and Samoa. Notwithstanding their potential benefits, marine
capacity-building, and inter-agency coordination.
protected areas need to be properly designed and managed in
order to achieve their objectives. Enforcement of MPAs can be
The case of coastal planning in British Columbia (see Box 4.6)
problematic and to be effective they must enjoy the full support
provides an example of how a participatory process supports
of all stakeholders.
integrated coastal management.
Box 4.6 CASE STUDY: PARTICIPATORY LAND USE PLANNING IN COASTAL BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
In coastal British Columbia, the economy strongly depends on natural resources. Uncertainties about land resource use issues led the Provincial
Government to initiate a major planning process for the central and north coasts and the Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Island area. Its purpose was
to enable all parties—the Provincial Government, First Nations, local governments and communities, the forestry, fishing, tourism, and mining
sectors, environmental groups, and others—to reach agreement on the future development and conservation of land resources. In 2001, this
process established:
■ a government-to-government relationship between the Province and the First Nations,
■ a commitment of all land-use planning to promote ecosystem-based management,
■ the Coast Information Team (CIT), an independent body providing the best available information and expertise for ecosystem-based development.
The CIT consisted of scientists, practitioners, and traditional and local experts, overseen by a Management Committee and supported by a
secretariat.
The CIT was tasked to produce information to support governments and participants in the planning processes reach decisions that achieved
ecosystem-based management, and specifically to provide:
■ an ecosystem-based management framework;
■ regional and subregional analyses;
■ a hydro-riparian decision tool;
■ technical support for pilot projects investigating local applications of ecosystem-based management;
■ additional information to assist Land and Resource Management Plans and First Nations’ Land Use Plans.
Source: Coastal British Columbia sub-global assessment, 1.3–1.5.
47
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.7 BENEFITS FROM MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: BAHAMAS AND SAMOA [R 5, Box 5.1]
Bahamas
The Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (45,620 ha) was established in 1958 covering both the terrestrial and marine environments associated with
these islands. The Park became a no-take fisheries reserve in 1986. Research has shown that the concentration of conch in the park is 31 times
greater than outside the park, providing several million conchs per year to areas outside the park available to be harvested by fishers. Additionally,
tagged grouper from the Exuma Park have been caught off both north and south Long Island (Bahamas), indicating the Park is replenishing grouper
stocks in areas as far as 250 km away. Tagged spiny lobsters from the Exuma Park are found replenishing the marine environment of Cat Island,
100 km away. The success of fisheries resource replenishment in the Exuma Park led the government to announce a policy decision in 2000 to
protect 20% of the Bahamian marine ecosystem, doubling the size of the national protected areas system.
Samoa
In the Pacific Island of Samoa, as in many countries in the tropics, catches of seafood from coastal areas, lagoons, and inshore reefs have been
decreasing over the past 10 years. Reasons for this decline include overexploitation, the use of destructive fishing methods (including explosives,
chemicals, and traditional plant-derived poisons), and environmental disturbances. In order to address this problem, the Samoan Fisheries Division
initiated in 1995 a community-based extension project in 65 villages which recognized the village fono (council) as the prime agency responsible
for actions. A large number of villages (38) chose to establish small village fish reserves in part of their traditional fishing areas and decided to
actively support and enforce government laws banning the use of explosives and chemicals for fishing. Some villages also set minimum size limits
for capturing fishes. While many of the village reserves are small (ranging from 5,000 to 175,000 m2), their number and the small distance among
them forms a network of fish refuges. In just a few years, fisheries stocks have increased 30–40% and there are signs of recovery in reefs
previously affected by destructive fishing methods. As the fish reserves are being managed by communities which have direct interest in their
success, prospects for long-term sustainability of this initiative are high.
Marine protected areas and reserves are one tool of several well, are most likely to become a very important tool in the
for fisheries management, and an adaptive approach, allowing management of many fisheries and the sustainable use of
for assessment and modification as new information and ecosystems, adding value to other approaches [R 6.3.6].
challenges arise, is required [CT 18.7.4]. Methods for design and location need further development.
The benefits of marine protected areas for adjacent areas and
■ Coastal Protection
fisheries are difficult to assess, due to problems in measuring
those impacts and the fact that few marine protected areas have
been in existence long enough [R 5.2.6; 6.3.6]. However, it has Effectiveness: Effective, promising, problematic
been demonstrated for some cases that fish larvae or adults, Type of response: Technology (T)
migrating outside of the reserve, increase the yields for Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
fishermen in surrounding areas [R 6.3.6]. Despite the national government (GN), business/industry sector (B)
uncertainties over these impacts, marine protected areas and
reserves, and particularly networks of such areas, if managed Land use planning and habitat conservation that protect natural
barriers such as mangroves and intertidal flats are soft or
nonstructural measures for coastal protection. Soft measures are
more flexible, cost-effective, and sustainable, particularly in the
light of climate change-induced increases in flood and storm
events. Expensive hard or structural measures such as
embankments and dykes remain necessary in certain cases. The
restoration of lost or damaged ecosystems remains a major—
and expensive—challenge for coastal protection, facing the
difficulty of anticipating future disturbances [R 11.1; R 11.3; R
17.2.4]. A number of examples of the use of land use planning
for coastal protection are provided in Box 4.8.
■ Management of Nutrient Pollution: Runoff and
Fossil Fuel Combustion
Effectiveness: Effective, problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T)
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), local government (GL)
48 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.8 EXAMPLES OF LAND USE PLANNING FOR COASTAL PROTECTION [R 11, Box 11.2]
Florida
The Standard Building Code (SBC) or the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) governs construction along or near the Florida coastline.
Compliance with these codes makes individuals and businesses within the communities eligible to purchase flood insurance. In the 1980s, Florida
reinforced the stipulations contained in the SBC and the NFIP by establishing the Coastal Construction Control Lines (CCCL), which defines specific
areas along the coastline that are subject to flooding and erosion. The CCCL was adopted throughout Florida between 1982 and 1991 and reflects
storm impact zones over a 100-year period. Distinctions were made between two categories of structures based on the CCCL regulations: (1)
structures located seaward of the CCCL that were built prior to enactment of the CCCL regulation were categorized as non-permitted structures at risk
of sustaining hurricane damage; and (2) structures built after the adoption of the CCCL require a special building permit to certify that the builder will
adhere to a more rigid set of building standards designed to reduce the risk of structural damage that can be sustained during a hurricane.
Canada
New Brunswick completed remapping of the entire coast of the province to delineate the landward limit of coastal features. The setback for new
development is defined from this limit. Some other provinces have adopted a variety of setback policies, based on estimates of future coastal retreat.
Barbados
A national statute establishes a minimum building setback along sandy coasts of
30 m from the mean high-water mark; along coastal cliffs the setback is 10 m from
the undercut portion of the cliff.
Aruba and Antigua
The setback is established at 50 m inland from high-water mark.
Sri Lanka
Setback areas and no-build zones are identified in a Coastal Zone Management Plan.
Minimum setbacks of 60 m from mean sea level are regarded as good planning
practice.
United Kingdom
In 1998, the House of Commons endorsed the concept of managed realignment as the
preferred long-term strategy for coastal defence in some areas.
United States
The states of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and South Carolina have
implemented various forms of rolling easement policies to ensure that wetlands and
beaches can migrate inland as sea-level rises.
Australia
Several states have coastal setback and minimum elevation policies, including those
to accommodate potential sea-level rise and storm surge. In South Australia,
setbacks take into account the 100-year erosional trend plus the effect of a 0.3 m
sea-level rise to 2050. Building sites should be above storm surge flood level for the
100-year return interval.
A number of methodologies to reduce the nitrogen pollution of lower N-load limits for ecosystems that are highly N-sensitive.
coastal waters have been elaborated [R 9.5.1; R 9.5.5; R 9.5.6]. Alternatively, specific N-input levels could be set up for individual
Coastal nutrient pollution should be addressed at its sources, coastal rivers and bays. Site-specific approaches add significantly
including runoff and leaching from agricultural fields, to general N-input reductions as they take the sensitivities of
concentrated animal feeding operations, fossil fuel combustion, individual sites into account.
and urban sources. Watershed, river basin, and national, if not
■ Waste Management: Household and Industrial
international, levels are most suitable to take effective action to
Sewage
reduce the nitrogen (N) input into coastal waters. Wetlands acting
as sinks of both nitrogen and phosphate can help enormously in
reducing coastal water pollution; hence wetland conservation and Effectiveness: Effective, problematic
restoration need to be taken more seriously. A related option is to Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), economic and
allow for higher N-load limits for N-insensitive ecosystems and incentives (E), social and behavioural (S), technological (T)
49
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
For mitigation of climate change, increasing the biological
sequestration of carbon dioxide in the oceans has been
proposed [C18]. Currently, the effects of such measures are
hard to predict on a larger scale. The main methodology would
be the fertilization of low productivity marine waters with
iron. That would stimulate the growth of phytoplankton that
in turn would fix larger amounts of carbon dioxide.
Experiments with this approach have demonstrated significant
changes in the biological community composition but the
medium to long-term impacts are unknown. There is also a
risk of algae outbursts leading to anoxia and the large-scale
production of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas [CT 18.8.4;
R 13.5.4].
■ Economic Interventions: Market-based Instruments
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Economic and incentives (E)
Required actors: National government (GN), business/industry
sector (B)
Economic interventions (market-based instrument) such as
subsidies, taxes, and financial incentives have a long history
with respect to the marine ecosystems, with consequences
varying with countries and the application of the instrument.
Some incentives—including subsidies for fisheries and coastal
development—have had unwanted side effects, while others
have reduced the impacts of fishing or coastal development
[CT 18.5.2]. Incentives might be provided in the form of fees
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI), for the right to fish or for nonexploitative fishing alternatives
national government (GN), local government (GL) such as sports fishing and tour guiding; fiscal expenditure on
retraining of fishers; and incentives for investment in
Control of waste pollution of oceans and coastal waters has alternative economic activity in fishing communities such as
become a major instrument in managing marine and coastal small-scale tourism. Perverse incentives in fisheries continue to
ecosystems, particularly in developed countries that have the be inadequately addressed. They refer to, for example, size
resources and abilities needed. Instruments to address waste limits for landed fish, encouraging undersized bycatch to be
pollution of coastal and marine ecosystems range from a change discarded at sea, and decommissioning schemes that result in
in production and consumption patterns, the strengthening of fleet modernization [CT 18.4]. It remains a major challenge for
reuse and recycling systems, and improved waste management marine and coastal management to introduce payments for
facilities to the use of wetlands for managing sewage sludge and ecosystem services such as coastal protection. So far these
waste water as well as dumping at sea and ballast water services are undervalued [Wetlands SR 6.4].
management. Issues of governance structures, institutional
■ Fisheries Management
arrangements, civil society involvement, and poverty would need
to be integrated into waste management strategies [R 10.3; R
10.4; R 10.6]. Pollution by waste in the high seas has become an Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
even more challenging issue with the discovery of biodiversity- Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)
rich and complex ecosystems such as deep-sea vents. Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), business/industry sector (B), community groups (C)
■ Geo-engineering: Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
Fisheries management options range from strict enforcement of
Effectiveness: Problematic regulations that include the establishment and implementation
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T) of quotas, gear restrictions and spatial closures, programmes to
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI), address unreported and unregulated catches, and
national government (GN), business/industry sector (B) decommissioning schemes. MPAs can help to enhance fisheries
50 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Table 4.1 MAIN POLICIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF OPEN-ACCESS FISHERIES [Based on R 6, Table 6.3]
POLICIES DESCRIPTION
Fishing effort regulation In this policy, one of the inputs in the index for fishing effort is restricted (for example, number of
days at sea). Effort regulation is usually used with other regulations to ensure that the negative
impacts of reduced effort (e.g. increased gear efficiency) are minimized. Regulations are most
effective when there are enforcement programmes in place and the consequences of breaking the
regulations act as a deterrent.
Decommissioning schemes The purpose of this policy is to bring the capacity in line with catch potentials. This is done by
reducing the fleet capacity through subsidized buy backs. This option needs to be carefully
considered so that the overall fishing capacity of the fleet is reduced and not redistributed.
Total quotas or Total allowable catches In this policy, a total quota is imposed on the fishery and when this quota has been filled, the
(TACs) fishery is closed. The total quota is often recommended to be set at a level where catches can be
sustained. Total quotas have in some cases been used in conjunction with individual quotas (IQs),
for example, in the case of Iceland and New Zealand.
Rations Under a rations policy, the total quota is distributed in short time intervals on vessels, reflecting
seasonal variations in catch possibilities. Rations are used for some species in Denmark.
However, the system of rations creates huge information requirements.
Licence systems A licence system normally specifies who can enter the fishery, how much can be caught and the
weight of this catch. The purpose is to control the catch of each individual vessel. This policy
response can have negative consequences if practices such as high-grading are not managed.
Individual quotas (IQs) This policy sets a nontransferable individual annual quota that cannot be changed during the
year and may, therefore, be thought of as a property right. Indeed property rights regulation is
very popular within fisheries; property rights regulate more than 55 fisheries in the world.
Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) Under this policy, the individual quotas (IQs) are made transferable between fishermen. ITQs are used
in, for example, Iceland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand. ITQs generally benefit the fisheries, but
the economic and social consequences to some fishers can be negative for some fisheries.
Taxes or landing fees In this policy either fishing effort or catch is used to compile the tax. In practice taxes are not
popular among fishermen and there are severe implementation problems.
Bilateral agreements Agreements where one country allows foreign fishing vessels into its EEZ can generate economic
and social benefits to the country with minimal impact on marine ecosystem services. The
effectiveness of these agreements in delivering the potential benefits is high in developed
countries, and much more variable in developing countries. The provisions that are negotiated
need to be carefully considered and resources allocated to enforce the terms of the agreement
by the parties.
Box 4.9 CASE STUDY: NATIONAL FISHERIES SECTOR IN CHILE [R 17, Box 17.3]
In the fisheries sector in Chile, fish stocks started depleting greatly after the industry was privatized in 1973. Particularly affected were artisanal
fisherman who, under the individual transferable quota (ITQ) system, cannot compete with industrial fisheries in the market and lose their
livelihoods. To address this issue, individual transferable quotes were implemented for separate subclasses of fisheries and limited to
industrial/commercial fishers.
The success of the programme is unclear. As structured, the ITQs policy has protected industrial-country fishing interests, but reduced the
potential benefits of the market-based quotas. The issue of artisanal fishermen has not been properly addressed, and regular updating of
information about fishery health remains a problem. The small percentage of total catch currently covered suggests that ITQs are not yet addressing
the higher goal of protecting Chilean fisheries.
The rationale for using these measures was two-fold: to apply regulatory efforts more consistently and to control access rights.
51
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
■ Other Response Options
management measures. The FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries provides voluntary guidelines for New response options are being continually developed; while
managing fisheries. (See Box 4.3.) Implementation of the Code some are still untested, they may prove to be powerful
could be strengthened by national implementation plans [R mechanisms in the future. Future response options may include
6.3.6]. Increasingly, an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries integrated ocean management, ocean zoning, and a range of
management is being emphasized. (See Box 4.9 for a case study ocean policies.
of the national fisheries sector in Chile.) Which policies to
Evaluating Policy Responses
apply depends on the social and institutional context of
particular fisheries. (See Table 4.1 for a summary of the main
policies available to manage open-access fisheries.) Responses need to take into account the trade-offs and the
uncertainties. They also need to address the interests of
■ Aquaculture Management stakeholders, with a view to support vulnerable and weak
stakeholders who are often found in the communities most
Effectiveness: Promising, problematic affected by environmental change. The following guidelines
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I) could support the evaluation and selection of appropriate
Required actors: National government (GN), local government response options [R, Table 18.1]:
(GL), business/industry sector (B), community groups (C)
■ Use the best available information about the social, economic,
The impact of aquaculture in contributing to the Millennium political, technological, and institutional context.
■ Use the best available ecosystem/biophysical information.
Development Goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
■ Consider concerns and implications regarding procedural and
(MDG 1) on other ecosystem services can be managed if the
establishment of aquaculture facilities (land-based or offshore) outcome efficiency.
■ Strive for effective procedures and results.
is done in the context of integrated coastal management and
■ Consider equity concerns and implications, including for
broad fisheries management policies and the operation of these
facilities is in line with the FAO Code of Conduct for stakeholder participation and a transparent outcome; strive
Responsible Fisheries, which provides principles and for consensus among stakeholders.
■ Use the best available information about values, beliefs, and
guidelines for the sustainable development and management
of aquaculture. aspirations of stakeholders.
■ Pursue accountability through clear responsibility assignments
Genetically modified fish raise environmental concerns, such
as risks of genetic pollution or outcompeting of wild stocks, during and after the decision process.
■ Consider concerns and implications for vulnerable
and need to be addressed through strict controls, including the
application of sterile animal techniques that prevent groups/communities.
■ Consider uncertainties, allowing for policy corrections as new
reproduction of genetically modified fish [R 6.3.4; R 6.3.6].
52 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.10
information becomes available or values or positions of BIODIVERSITY IN THE GULF OF THAILAND
UNDER THE MA SCENARIOS [S 10.4]
stakeholders change.
■ Consider cross-scale effects, allowing for incorporation of
The Gulf of Thailand, a shallow tropical coastal shelf system, has
constraints from higher decision-making levels and for
experienced heavy exploitation over the last decades. Large long-
exploring decision needs at lower decision-making level.
lived fish species have widely vanished and fisheries concentrate
■ Take an adaptive approach that incorporates mechanisms to
on invertebrates. All four scenarios foresee a decline in biomass
monitor and review the effectiveness and to make changes to
diversity for the Gulf of Thailand, with few species dominating the
the process in a timely and responsive manner.
system. Under the TechnoGarden scenario, ecosystem
management allows for a temporary increase in species diversity
Tools for Policy Options beginning in 2010. A turn in
policy focus on producing
Multicriteria analysis (MCA) is a decision support tool guiding fishmeal for the increasingly
stakeholders in considering the merits of different management important aquaculture
strategies and in determining management priorities. It enables leaves the biomass diversity
rapidly decreasing between
decision-makers to assess the relative merits of various policy
2030 and 2050. Similar
options by using mathematical programming techniques to
changes are foreseen by the
select options based on objective functions with explicit weights
Global Orchestration and
that stakeholders apply. MCA can reflect multiple goals or
the Adapting Mosaic
objectives for the resources; however, it has large data needs
scenario, while the Order
and can use unrealistic characterization of decision-making. It from Strength scenario lets
has been used to explore regional trade-offs in the design of the biodiversity index
protected areas systems [R 5.2.4; R 15]. decline steadily over the
next 50 years.
Scenarios are storylines that may or may not be harmonized
with quantitative modelling. They show plausible futures,
which can be used to explore the consequences of specific
Policy Response Gaps
policy directions; they are not projections or predictions of
what will happen. The storylines are often developed through The following list of policy response gaps relate to issues that
consensus of experts as to how ecological, economic, and policy so far has not or has only inadequately addressed.
social systems will react under a given set of drivers that are It is recognized that the list may not necessarily be complete
based on distinct conditions. When quantitative models are and that there are likely to be other policy response gaps.
used to model the storylines, scenarios can be powerful tools The reasons for many of the gaps range from the issues
to explore the consequences of major policy shifts that might being insufficiently understood to the lack of political
be considered by decision-makers. Scenarios were used commitment.
extensively in the MA, and Box 4.10 illustrates how they were
■ Dealing with genetic resources within marine and coastal
used to explore the development of biodiversity in the Gulf of
Thailand under the four scenarios [S 8, 9, and 10]. national jurisdictions. Marine and coastal areas may have
considerable potential for bioactive compounds; however, many
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool used by governments have not developed policies to ensure that these
countries and financial and lending institutions such as the resources are used for the benefit of wider society. Similarly, the
World Bank and the regional development banks to assess introduction of industries such as aquaculture also has the
management interventions. It is a structured process that enables potential to impact on the genetic vigour of fish stocks, and few
managers and decision-makers to evaluate the ecological, social, governments have policies or regulations in place to deal with
and economic impact of policy decisions [R 15]. such issues.
■ Lack of integration across sectors. Policies are often lacking
Economic valuation refers to the net benefits of one policy in dealing with a range of impacts such as inclusion of
response over another; it is often used to evaluate which option agricultural issues in marine and coastal areas so that an
is the preferred one. They are often used in trade-off analyses. integrated response can be developed.
■ Policy responses to high-seas conservation issues. There is no
The market and nonmarket value of the ecosystem services
should be used in valuation studies where possible. Cost single international agency which is mandated to coordinate the
information and direct value information is often available, but many options for planning and management of the high seas;
information on benefits or nonmonetary values is usually until an approach is developed to undertake such tasks, the high
limited. The case study from Thailand (Box 4.11) is an seas and associated resources will continue to be threatened by
example of the use of economic valuation studies. inappropriate exploitation practices.
53
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Box 4.11 CASE STUDY: THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF RETAINING OR CONVERTING NATURAL MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
IN THAILAND
Relatively few studies have compared the total economic value of ecosystems under alternate management regimes. The total economic
value (TEV) of managing a natural mangrove more sustainably was compared with converting it to other uses. In the case of aquaculture,
the benefit of managing the ecosystem more sustainably exceeded that of the converted ecosystem.
Although conversion for aquaculture made sense in terms of short-term private benefits, it did not once external costs were factored in.
The global benefits of carbon sequestration were considered to be similar in intact and degraded systems. However, the substantial social
benefits associated with the original mangrove cover—from timber, charcoal, non-wood forest products, offshore fisheries, and storm
protection—fell to almost zero following conversion. Summing all measured goods and services, the TEV of intact mangroves was a
minimum of $1,000 and possibly as high as $36,000 per hectare, compared with the TEV of shrimp farming, which was about $200 per
hectare (see Fig. 4.1).
Figure 4.1 ECONOMIC BENEFITS UNDER ALTERNATIVE measure uncertainty and to test methods to measure
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES uncertainty, thus often hindering implementation of novel/new
policy responses. In the face of uncertainty, management
approaches that are robust to the uncertainties and are
consistent with the requirements of the precautionary approach
must be implemented.
■ Valuation studies for a range of marine resources and
activities so that trade-off analyses and other policy responses
can be better measured and assessed. Globally there are few
studies that provide information on the direct and indirect
use values of marine and coastal resources except for
commercial fisheries.
■ Understanding of the outcomes for ecosystem conditions of
ICZM. Assessments of the impacts of integrated coastal zone
management have largely focused on processes rather than
outcomes.
■ MPA and ICM success stories. Scaling up is difficult because
there are few examples of marine protected areas and integrated
coastal management success stories. Policy responses at
international and national levels have fewer examples or success
stories and even fewer evaluations, especially of lessons learned
from mistakes.
■ Long-term monitoring of the impacts of policy options.
The collection of long-term trend data is critical to assessing
the effectiveness of particular policy responses as well as their
appropriateness.
■ Understanding of why current policies to prevent oil spills are
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
ineffective. Oil spills are still causing severe impacts on coastal
ecosystems, after a long history of failed attempts at addressing
■ Consistent policy measures to encourage compliance relating them.
■ Proactive or adaptive policy frameworks that have the ability
to high-seas initiatives (for example, fish stock and compliance
to deal with managing new/emerging issues quickly and
agreements). Although there are internationally agreed plans of
effectively. An example is the lack of an effective policy
action, how they are implemented varies between countries.
■ Understanding of the benefits and costs of MPAs. There are framework for off-shore wind farms.
Ultimately, the continuing degradation and loss of the
few quantitative studies on the benefits and costs of marine
services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems that we
protected areas, especially outside of tropical areas in national
depend on are putting human well-being at risk. It is the
waters, for decision-makers to draw on.
■ Understanding of uncertainty and the methods to quantify it. responsibility of every one of us—guided by the millennium
development goals—to help halt and reverse these trends to
The nature of working in marine environments makes it
ensure that these benefits are available for both present and
difficult to capture long-term data or to ensure that the
future generations.
methods used are consistent, in turn this makes it difficult to
54 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX 1
A SELECTION OF INTERNATIONAL MECHANISMS IN THE MARINE AND COASTAL AREA
Global Legally Binding Agreements Other Global and Regional Mechanisms
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Migratory Fish Stocks
(UNFCCC)
European Water Framework Directive
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Convention) Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone Initiative (LOICZ)
UNEP Regional Seas Programme with the Regional Seas FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
Conventions and Action Plans FAO International Plans of Action on reducing seabird bycatch;
Convention on International Watercourses conserving shark fisheries; reducing fishing capacity; and
reducing illegal, unreported, and unregulated fisheries
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and its Operational
International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’
Networks, including the International Coral Reef Action
Ballast Water and Sediments
Network (ICRAN) and the Global Coral Reef Monitoring
World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Sanitary and
Network (GCRMN)
Phytosanitary Measures
The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Resources
Fauna and Flora (CITES)
The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)
on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation
Animals (CMS), with the following agreements:
of Sea Turtles (IACPCST)
Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea,
■
Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS)
Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and
■
North Seas (ASCOBANS)
Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea
■
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
■
Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures
■
for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa
Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and
■
Management of Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the Indian
Ocean and South-East Asia (IOSEA)
55
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 2
CHAPTERS IN THE MAIN MA VOLUMES
CT.24 Mountain Systems R 11 Flood and Storm Control
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
a Framework for Assessment CT 25 Polar Systems R 12 Ecosystems and Vector-borne
Disease Control
CT 26 Cultivated Systems
CF 1 Introduction and Conceptual
R 13 Climate Change
Framework CT 27 Urban Systems
R 14 Cultural Services
CF 2 Ecosystems and Their Services CT 28 Synthesis
R.15 Integrated Responses
CF 3 Ecosystems and Human Well-being
R 16 Consequences and Options for
CF 4 Drivers of Change in Ecosystems Scenarios: Findings of the Scenarios
Human Health
and Their Services
Working Group
R 17 Consequences of Responses on
CF 5 Dealing with Scale
Summary
Human Well-being and Poverty
CF 6 Concepts of Ecosystem Value and
S1 MA Conceptual Framework Reduction
Valuation Approaches
S2 Global Scenarios in Historic R 18 Choosing Responses
CF 7 Analytical Approaches
Perspective
R 19 Implications for Achieving the
CF 8 Strategic Interventions, Response
S3 Ecology in Global Scenarios Millennium Development Goals
Options, and Decision-making
S4 State of Art in Simulating Future
Changes in Ecosystem Services
Multiscale Assessments: Findings
Current State and Trends: S5 Scenarios for Ecosystem Services:
of the Sub-Global Assessments
Findings of the Condition and Trends Rationale and Overview
Working Group
Working Group S6 Methodology for Developing the
Summary
MA Scenarios
Summary
SG 1 MA Conceptual Framework
S7 Drivers of Change in Ecosystem
CT 1 MA Conceptual Framework
SG 2 Overview of the MA Sub-global
Condition and Services
CT 2 Analytical Approaches for Assessing
Assessments
S8 Four Scenarios
Ecosystems and Human Well-being
SG 3 Linking Ecosystem Services and
S9 Changes in Ecosystem Services and
CT 3 Drivers of Change (note: this is a
Human Well-being
Their Drivers across the Scenarios
synopsis of Scenarios Chapter 7)
SG 4 The Multiscale Approach
S 10 Biodiversity across Scenarios
CT 4 Biodiversity
SG 5 Using Multiple Knowledge Systems:
S 11 Human Well-being across Scenarios
CT 5 Ecosystem Conditions and Human
Benefits and Challenges
Well-being S 12 Interactions among Ecosystem
SG 6 Assessment Process
Services
CT 6 Vulnerable People and Places
SG 7 Drivers of Ecosystem Change
S 13 Lessons Learned for Scenario
CT 7 Fresh Water
SG 8 Condition and Trends of Ecosystem
Analysis
CT 8 Food
Services and Biodiversity
S 14 Policy Synthesis for Key
CT 9 Timber, Fuel, and Fiber
SG 9 Responses to Ecosystem Cjamge
Stakeholders
CT 10 New Products and Industries from amd Their Impacts on Human Well-
Biodiversity being
Policy Responses: Findings of the
CT 11 Biological Regulation of Ecosystem SG 10 Sub-global Scenarios
Responses Working Group
Services
SG 11 Communities, Ecosystems, and
Summary
CT 12 Nutrient Cycling Livelihoods
R1 MA Conceptual Framework
CT 13 Climate and Air Quality SG 12 Reflections and Lessons Learned
R2 Typology of Responses
CT 14 Human Health: Ecosystem
Regulation of Infectious Diseases R3 Assessing Responses
Sub-Global Assessments
CT 15 Waste Processing and Detoxification R4 Recognizing Uncertainties in
SG-Caribbean Caribbean Sea
Evaluating Responses
CT 16 Regulation of Natural Hazards:
SG-CBC Coastal British Columbia
Floods and Fires R5 Biodiversity
SG-SafMA Southern African Assessment
CT 17 Cultural and Amenity Services R6 Food and Ecosystems
SG-Portugal Portugal Assessment
CT 18 Marine Fisheries Systems R7 Freshwater Ecosystem Services
SG-PNG Papua New Guinea
CT 19 Coastal Systems R8 Wood, Fuelwood, and Non-wood
Forest Products
CT 20 Inland Water Systems
R9 Nutrient Management
CT 21 Forest and Woodland Systems
R 10 Waste Management, Processing, and
CT 22 Dryland Systems
Detoxification
CT 23 Island Systems
56 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Publications
Technical Volumes
(available from Island Press)
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
A Framework for Assessment
Current State and Trends: Findings of the
Condition and Trends Working Group,
Volume 1
Scenarios: Findings of the Responses
Working Group, Volume 2
Policy Responses: Findings of the Responses
Working Group, Volume 3
Multiscale Assessments: Findings of the
Sub-global Assessments Working Group,
Volume 4
Our Human Planet: Summary for
Decision-makers
Synthesis Reports
(available at www.Maweb.org)
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Biodiversity Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Desertification Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Human Health Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Wetlands Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Opportunities and Challenges for
Business and Industry
57
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 3
OTHER USEFUL RESOURCES
Below is a selected list of additional resources. Many of the sources included below will be able to point readers towards more detailed
information, in addition to the chapters in Appendix 2.
Global Resources Global Environmental Outlook (GEO): land-based activities:
A participatory and regionally distributed www.gpa.unep.org/about/index.html.
Convention on Wetlands
assessment process with a strong capacity
(Ramsar Convention): A number of
building component: www.unep.org.geo.
resources such as guidelines for The Joint Group of Experts on the
environmental impact assessment and Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental
communication and public awareness may Global International Waters Assessment Protection (GESAMP): Covers all scientific
be downloaded from the website: (GIWA): A comprehensive and integrated aspects on the prevention, reduction, and
www.ramsar.org. Information about global assessment of international waters, control of the degradation of the marine
mangroves their ecological status, and the causes environment to sustain life support systems,
(www.ramsar.org/types_mangroves.htm) of environmental problems in 66 regions resources, and amenities. Reports may be
and coral reefs of the world: www.giwa.net. downloaded from http://gesamp.imo.org.
(www.ramsar.org/types_coral.htm) is also Of particular interest is report number 70,
available. A Sea of Trouble, and number 71,
Global Programme of Action for the
Protecting the Oceans from Land-based
Protection of the Marine Environment
Activities.
Global Biodiversity Outlook 2001: A from Land-based Activities: A source
periodic report on biodiversity published by of conceptual and practical guidance to
the Secretariat of the Convention on be drawn upon by national and/or regional International Coral Reef Initiative Forum
Biological Diversity. Copies are available authorities for devising and implementing (ICRIForum): Provides a range of various
upon request from the Secretariat: sustained action to prevent, reduce, control, on-line resources related to coral reefs. Its
www.biodiv.org/gbo/default.asp. and/or eliminate marine degradation from purpose is to concentrate the various kinds
58 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
of information related to reefs that members communication technologies to ensure Bay of Bengal Large Marine Project: A
might find helpful: www.icriforum.org. sustainability of their resources. regional project focusing on the marine and
Information and key documents may be coastal areas within the Bay of Bengal.
downloaded from: www.sidsnet.org. Information and reports can be downloaded
International Geosphere-Biosphere
from:
Programme (IGBP): Not exclusively marine,
www.fao.org/fi/boblme/website/index.htm.
but has produced a number of scientific The Global Ocean Observing System
reports for marine and coastal ecosystems, (GOOS): A permanent global system
that may be downloaded from: for observations, modelling, and analysis European Iron Fertilization Experiment
www.igbp.kva.se/cgi-bin/php/frameset.php. of marine and ocean variables to support (EIFEX): A project focusing on adaptation
operational ocean services worldwide: strategies of Southern Ocean (SO)
http://ioc.unesco.org/goos. phytoplankton to iron limitation prevalent
IUCN Marine Programme: Provides
in the high nutrient – low chlorophyll
information and links to other marine
(HNLC) regions of the SO. Further
sources. Publications may also be The State of World Fisheries and
information may be found at: www.ifm-
downloaded: www.iucn.org/themes/marine. Aquaculture (SOFIA): Produces reports
geomar.de/index.php?id=2079&L=1.
(available electronically) every two years
with the purpose of providing a
Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
comprehensive, objective, and global view Regional Seas Programme: An action-
Zone (LOICZ): Engages in research such as
of capture fisheries and aquaculture, oriented programme that focuses not only
basin studies to inform the scientific
including associated policy issues: on the mitigation or elimination of the
community, policy-makers, managers, and
www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm consequences but also on the causes of
stakeholders on the relevance of global
environmental degradation. Regional action
environmental change in the coastal zone.
plans can be downloaded from
A numbers of tools and studies can be UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring
www.unep.org/water/regseas/regseas.htm.
downloaded from www.loicz.org. Centre: The marine programme has
produced a number of reports on marine
and coastal issues as part of its biodiversity National Resources
Large Marine Ecosystems of the World
series. These may be downloaded from:
Bangladesh
(LME): A global effort to improve long-
www.unep-wcmc.org
term sustainability of resources and the Bangladesh coastal policy: An example of a
/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_
environment. Reports and data are available national coastal policy including
series.
to download downloadable documents may be found at:
www.edc.uri.edu/lme. www.iczmpbangladesh.org.
WWF Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Programme: Various reports produced by United States of America
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):
WWF can be downloaded from: The PEW Ocean Commission: A scientific
The eight MDGs aim to substantially
www.wwf.org.uk/researcher/issues/livingseas examination of America’s oceans. A full
improve the lives of people around the
/index.asp. report is available to download at
world by 2015:
www.pewtrusts.org/pdf/env_pew_oceans_fin
www.un.org/millenniumgoals.
al_report.pdf and individual scientific
Regional Resources reports are also available to download from
www.pewtrusts.org.
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MA): All
After the Tsunami, Rapid Environmental
chapters and reports are available to
Assessment: A UNEP-produced report on
download, and information and findings
the environmental impact of the tsunami U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy:
from the various sub-global assessments of
that occurred in the Indian Ocean on 26 Produced recommendations for a
the MA: www.MAweb.org.
December 2004. Is available to download coordinated and comprehensive national
from: ocean policy. Documents are available to
www.unep.org/PDF/Tsunami_assessment_re download from:
Small Island Developing States Network:
port/TSUNAMI_report_complete.pdf. www.oceancommission.gov.
Aims to link SIDS to information and
59
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 4
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abundance The total number of individuals communities’ knowledge on biological Deforestation Conversion of forest to
of a taxon or taxa in an area, population, resources; unequal share of benefits non-forest.
or community. Relative abundance refers between a patent holder and the Desertification Land degradation in drylands
to the total number of individuals of one indigenous community whose resource resulting from various factors, including
taxon compared with the total number of and/or knowledge has been used; and climatic variations and human activities.
individuals of all other taxa in an area, patenting of biological resources with no Diversity The variety and relative
volume, or community. respect to patentable criteria. abundance of different entities in a
Adaptation Adjustment in natural or human Bioprospecting The exploration of sample.
systems to a new or changing biodiversity for genetic and biochemical Driver Any natural or human-induced factor
environment. Various types of adaptation resources of social or commercial value. that directly or indirectly causes a change
can be distinguished, including Capital asset An asset that is recorded as in an ecosystem.
anticipatory and reactive adaptation, capital, i.e., property that creates more Driver, direct A driver that unequivocally
private and public adaptation, and property. influences ecosystem processes and can
autonomous and planned adaptation. Capture fisheries See Fishery. therefore be identified and measured to
Alien species Species introduced outside its Carbon sequestration The process of differing degrees of accuracy. (Compare
normal distribution. increasing the carbon content of a Driver, indirect.)
Aquaculture Breeding and rearing of fish, reservoir other than the atmosphere. Driver, indirect A driver that operates by
shellfish, or plants in ponds, enclosures, Cascading interaction See Trophic cascade. altering the level or rate of change of one
or other forms of confinement in fresh or Catch The number or weight of all fish or more direct drivers. (Compare Driver,
marine waters for the direct harvest of caught by fishing operations, whether the direct.)
the product. fish are landed or not. Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant,
Bio-calcification The laying down of Coastal system Systems containing terrestrial animal, and microorganism communities
calcium carbonate by living tissue. areas dominated by ocean influences of and their non-living environment
Biodiversity (a contraction of biological tides and marine aerosols, plus nearshore interacting as a functional unit.
diversity) The variability among living marine areas. The inland extent of coastal Ecosystem approach A strategy for the
organisms from all sources, including ecosystems is the line where land-based integrated management of land, water,
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic influences dominate, up to a maximum of and living resources that promotes
ecosystems and the ecological complexes 100 kilometres from the coastline or 100- conservation and sustainable use. An
of which they are part. Biodiversity metre elevation (whichever is closer to the ecosystem approach is based on the
includes diversity within species, between sea), and the outward extent is the 50- application of appropriate scientific
species, and between ecosystems. metre-depth contour. See also System. methods focused on levels of biological
Biological diversity See Biodiversity. Community (ecological) An assemblage of organization, which encompass the
Biomass The mass of tissues in living species occurring in the same space or essential structure, processes, functions,
organisms in a population, ecosystem, or time, often linked by biotic interactions and interactions among organisms and
spatial unit. such as competition or predation. their environment. It recognizes that
Biome The largest unit of ecological Community (human, local) A collection of humans, with their cultural diversity, are
classification that is convenient to human beings who have something in an integral component of many
recognize below the entire globe. common. A local community is a fairly ecosystems.
Terrestrial biomes are typically based on small group of people who share a Ecosystem assessment A social process
dominant vegetation structure (e.g., common place of residence and a set of through which the findings of science
forest, grassland). Ecosystems within a institutions based on this fact, but the concerning the causes of ecosystem
biome function in a broadly similar way, word ‘community’ is also used to refer to change, their consequences for human
although they may have very different larger collections of people who have well-being, and management and policy
species composition. For example, all something else in common (e.g., national options are brought to bear on the needs
forests share certain properties regarding community, donor community). of decision-makers.
nutrient cycling, disturbance, and biomass Cultural services The nonmaterial benefits Ecosystem change Any variation in the
that are different from the properties of people obtain from ecosystems through state, outputs, or structure of an
grasslands. Marine biomes are typically spiritual enrichment, cognitive ecosystem.
based on biogeochemical properties. development, reflection, recreation, and Ecosystem function See Ecosystem process.
The WWF biome classification is used in aesthetic experience, including, e.g., Ecosystem management An approach to
the MA. knowledge systems, social relations, and maintaining or restoring the composition,
Biopiracy The predatory use of biological aesthetic values. structure, function, and delivery of services
resources by corporation. Particular Decision-maker A person whose decisions, of natural and modified ecosystems for the
activities usually covered by the term are: and the actions that follow from them, can goal of achieving sustainability. It is based
unauthorized use of biological resources; influence a condition, process, or issue on an adaptive, collaboratively developed
unauthorized use of traditional under consideration. vision of desired future conditions that
60 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and Gyres A major circular moving body of Keystone species A species whose impact
institutional perspectives, applied within a water. It is created as boundary currents on the community is disproportionately
geographic framework, and defined get deflected by winds and the Coriolis large relative to its abundance. Effects
primarily by natural ecological boundaries. Effect. There are five gyres in our world can be produced by consumption (trophic
Ecosystem process An intrinsic ecosystem ocean. Two gyres occur in each of the interactions), competition, mutualism,
characteristic whereby an ecosystem Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans and one dispersal, pollination, disease, or habitat
maintains its integrity. Ecosystem in the Indian Ocean. They flow clockwise modification (nontrophic interactions).
processes include decomposition, in the Northern Hemisphere and counter- Land cover The physical coverage of land,
production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. usually expressed in terms of vegetation
of nutrients and energy. (Source: Ocean World Glossary cover or lack of it. Related to, but not
Ecosystem services The benefits people http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/students/curre synonymous with, land use.
obtain from ecosystems. These include nts/currents4.htm) Landscape An area of land that contains a
provisioning services such as food and Health, human A state of complete physical, mosaic of ecosystems, including human-
water; regulating services such as flood mental, and social well-being and not dominated ecosystems. The term cultural
and disease control; cultural services such merely the absence of disease or infirmity. landscape is often used when referring
as spiritual, recreational, and cultural The health of a whole community or to landscapes containing significant
benefits; and supporting services such as population is reflected in measurements human populations or in which there
nutrient cycling that maintain the of disease incidence and prevalence, age- has been significant human influence on
conditions for life on Earth. The concept specific death rates, and life expectancy. the land.
‘ecosystem goods and services’ is High seas The area outside national Landscape unit A portion of relatively
synonymous with ecosystem services. jurisdiction, i.e., beyond each nation’s homogenous land cover within the local-
Endangered species Species that face a very exclusive economic zone or other to-regional landscape.
high risk of extinction in the wild. See territorial waters. Marginal benefits Extra benefits arising
also Threatened species. Human well-being See Well-being. from increased consumption of a
Endemic (in ecology) A species or higher Indicator Information based on measured commodity.
taxonomic unit found only within a data used to represent a particular Marine system Marine waters from the
specific area. attribute, characteristic, or property of a low-water mark to the high seas that
Endemism The fraction of species that is system. support marine capture fisheries, as well
endemic relative to the total number of Inland water systems Permanent water as deepwater (>50 metres) habitats. Four
species found in a specific area. bodies other than salt-water systems on sub-divisions (marine biomes) are
Equity Fairness of rights, distribution, and the coast, seas, and oceans. Includes recognized: the coastal boundary zone;
access. Depending on context, this can rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, and trade-winds; westerlies; and polar.
refer to resources, services, or power. inland saline lakes and marshes. See also Market-based instruments Mechanisms that
Eutrophication The increase in additions of System. create a market for ecosystem services in
nutrients to freshwater or marine systems, Institutions The rules that guide how people order to improve the efficiency in the way
which leads to increases in plant growth within societies live, work, and interact the service is used. The term is used for
and often to undesirable changes in with each other. Formal institutions are mechanisms that create new markets, but
ecosystem structure and function. written or codified rules. Examples of also for responses such as taxes,
Fishery A particular kind of fishing activity, formal institutions would be the subsidies, or regulations that affect
e.g., a trawl fishery, or a particular constitution, the judiciary laws, the existing markets.
species targeted, e.g., a cod fishery or organized market, and property rights. Mitigation An anthropogenic intervention to
salmon fishery. Informal institutions are rules governed reduce negative or unsustainable uses of
Freedom The range of options a person has by social and behavioural norms of the ecosystems or to enhance sustainable
in deciding the kind of life to lead. society, family, or community. Also practices.
Globalization The increasing integration of referred to as organizations. Nutrient cycling The processes by
economies and societies around the Interventions See Responses. which elements are extracted from their
world, particularly through trade and Invasive alien species An alien species mineral, aquatic, or atmospheric sources
financial flows, and the transfer of whose establishment and spread modifies or recycled from their organic forms,
culture and technology. ecosystems, habitats, or species. converting them to the ionic form in
Global scale The geographical realm Island systems Lands isolated by which biotic uptake occurs and ultimately
encompassing all of Earth. surrounding water, with a high returning them to the atmosphere, water,
Governance The process of regulating proportion of coast to hinterland. The or soil.
human behaviour in accordance with degree of isolation from the mainland in Nutrients The approximately 20 chemical
shared objectives. The term includes both both natural and social aspects is elements known to be essential for the
governmental and nongovernmental accounted by the isola effect. See also growth of living organisms, including
mechanisms. System. nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon.
61
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Open access resource A good or service Relative strain index An index looking taxonomic unit, based on morphological
over which no property rights are at air temperature and vapour pressure or genetic similarity, that once described
recognized. in defining climatic limits for human and accepted is associated with a unique
Population, human A collection of living well-being. scientific name.
people in a given area. Compare Resilience The level of disturbance that an Species diversity Biodiversity at the species
Community (human, local). ecosystem can undergo without crossing a level, often combining aspects of species
Poverty The pronounced deprivation of threshold to a situation with different richness, their relative abundance, and
well-being. Income poverty refers to a structure or outputs. Resilience depends their dissimilarity.
particular formulation expressed solely on ecological dynamics as well as the Species richness The number of species
in terms of per capita or household organizational and institutional capacity within a given sample, community, or
income. to understand, manage, and respond to area.
Prediction (or forecast) The result of an these dynamics. Stock (in fisheries) The population or
attempt to produce a most likely Responses Human actions, including biomass of a fishery resource. Such stocks
description or estimate of the actual policies, strategies, and interventions, to are usually identified by their location.
evolution of a variable or system in the address specific issues, needs, They can be, but are not always,
future. See also Projection and Scenario. opportunities, or problems. In the context genetically discrete from other stocks.
Primary productivity The amount of of ecosystem management, responses may Storyline A narrative description of a
production of living organic material be of legal, technical, institutional, scenario, which highlights its main
through photosynthesis by plants, economic, and behavioural nature and features and the relationships between the
including algae, measured over a period may operate at various spatial and time scenario’s driving forces and its main
of time. scales. features.
Projection A potential future evolution Riparian Something related to, living on, or Strategies See Responses.
of a quantity or set of quantities, often located at the banks of a watercourse, Subsistence An activity in which the output
computed with the aid of a model. usually a river or stream. is mostly for the use of the individual
Projections are distinguished from Salinization The build-up of salts in soils. person doing it, or their family, and
‘predictions’ in order to emphasize that Scale The measurable dimensions of which is a significant component of their
projections involve assumptions phenomena or observations. Expressed in livelihood.
concerning, for example, future physical units, such as metres, years, Supporting services Ecosystem services that
socioeconomic and technological population size, or quantities moved or are necessary for the production of all
developments that may or exchanged. In observation, scale determines other ecosystem services. Some examples
may not be realized; they are therefore the relative fineness and coarseness of include biomass production, production
subject to substantial uncertainty. different detail and the selectivity among of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation
Property rights The right to specific uses, patterns these data may form. and retention, nutrient cycling, water
perhaps including exchange in a market, Scenario A plausible and often simplified cycling, and provisioning of habitat.
of ecosystems and their services. description of how the future may Sustainable use (of an ecosystem) Human
Provisioning services The products develop, based on a coherent and use of an ecosystem so that it may yield a
obtained from ecosystems, including, for internally consistent set of assumptions continuous benefit to present generations
example, genetic resources, food and about key driving forces (e.g., rate of while maintaining its potential to meet
fibre, and freshwater. technology change, prices) and the needs and aspirations of future
Public good A good or service in which the relationships. Scenarios are neither generations.
benefit received by any one party does predictions nor projections and Sustainability A characteristic or state
not diminish the availability of the sometimes may be based on a ‘narrative whereby the needs of the present and
benefits to others, and where access to storyline’. Scenarios may include local population can be met without
the good cannot be restricted. projections but are often based on compromising the ability of future
Realm Used to describe the three major additional information from other generations or populations in other
types of ecosystems on Earth: terrestrial, sources. locations to meet their needs.
freshwater, and marine. Differs Security Access to resources, safety, and the System In the Millennium Ecosystem
fundamentally from biogeographic realm. ability to live in a predictable and Assessment, reporting units that are
Regime shift A rapid reorganization of an controllable environment. ecosystem-based but at a level of
ecosystem from one relatively stable state Service See Ecosystem services. aggregation far higher than that usually
to another. Species An interbreeding group of applied to ecosystems. Thus the system
Regulating services The benefits obtained organisms that is reproductively isolated includes many component ecosystems,
from the regulation of ecosystem from all other organisms, although there some of which may not strongly interact
processes, including, for example, the are many partial exceptions to this rule in with each other, that may be spatially
regulation of climate, water, and some particular taxa. Operationally, the term separate, or that may be of a different
human diseases. species is a generally agreed fundamental type to the ecosystems that constitute the
62 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
majority, or matrix, of the system overall. data to ambiguously defined terminology
The system includes the social and or uncertain projections of human
economic systems that have an impact on behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be
and are affected by the ecosystems represented by quantitative measures
included within it. For example, the (e.g., a range of values calculated by
Condition and Trends Working Group various models) or by qualitative
refers to ‘forest systems’, ‘cultivated statements (e.g., reflecting the judgment
systems’, ‘mountain systems’, and so on. of a team of experts).
Systems thus defined are not mutually Urbanization An increase in the proportion
exclusive, and are permitted to overlap of the population living in urban areas.
spatially or conceptually. For instance, the Valuation The process of expressing a value
‘cultivated system’ may include areas of for a particular good or service in a
‘dryland system’ and vice versa. certain context (e.g., of decision-making)
Taxon (pl. taxa) The named classification usually in terms of something that can be
unit to which individuals or sets of counted, often money, but also through
species are assigned. Higher taxa are methods and measures from other
those above the species level. For disciplines (sociology, ecology, and so on).
example, the common mouse, Mus See also Value.
musculus, belongs to the Genus Mus, the Value The contribution of an action or
Family Muridae, and the Class object to user-specified goals, objectives,
Mammalia. or conditions. Compare Valuation.
Taxonomy A system of nested categories Vulnerability Exposure to contingencies and
(taxa) reflecting evolutionary stress, and the difficulty in coping with
relationships or morphological similarity. them. Three major dimensions of
Threshold A point or level at which new vulnerability are involved: exposure to
properties emerge in an ecological, stresses, perturbations, and shocks; the
economic, or other system, invalidating sensitivity of people, places, ecosystems,
predictions based on mathematical and species to the stress or perturbation,
relationships that apply at lower levels. including their capacity to anticipate and
For example, species diversity of a cope with the stress; and the resilience of
landscape may decline steadily with the exposed people, places, ecosystems,
increasing habitat degradation to a and species in terms of their capacity to
certain point, then fall sharply after a absorb shocks and perturbations while
critical threshold of degradation is maintaining function.
reached. Human behaviour, especially at Watershed (also catchment basin) The land
group levels, sometimes exhibits threshold area that drains into a particular
effects. Thresholds at which irreversible watercourse or body of water. Sometimes
changes occur are especially of concern to used to describe the dividing line of high
decision-makers. ground between two catchment basins.
Trade-off Management choices that Well-being A context- and situation-
intentionally or otherwise change the dependent state, comprising basic
type, magnitude, and relative mix of material for a good life, freedom and
services provided by ecosystems. choice, health and bodily well-being,
Trend A pattern of change over time, over good social relations, security, peace of
and above short-term fluctuations. mind, and spiritual experience.
Trophic level The average level of an Wetlands Areas of marsh, fen, peat land, or
organism within a food web, with plants water, whether natural or artificial,
having a trophic level of 1, herbivores 2, permanent or temporary, with water that
first-order carnivores 3, and so on. is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or
Uncertainty An expression of the degree to salt, including areas of marine water the
which a future condition (e.g., of an depth of which at low tide does not
ecosystem) is unknown. Uncertainty can exceed six metres. May incorporate
result from lack of information or from riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
disagreement about what is known or wetlands and islands or bodies of marine
even knowable. It may have many types water deeper than six metres at low tide
of sources, from quantifiable errors in the lying within the wetlands.
63
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
APPENDIX 5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACCOBAMS – Agreement on the GNP – gross national product OAS – Organization of American States
Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black GPA – Global Programme of Action for the OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-
Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Protection of the Marine Environment operation and Development
Atlantic Area from Land-based Activities
ACS – Association of Caribbean States GPS – Global Positioning System PCBs – polychlorinated biphenyls
AIGA – alternative forms of income POPs – persistent organic pollutants
generation ICCAT – International Commission for the
ASCOBANS – Agreement on the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna R – Responses volume of the MA
Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the ICRAN – International Coral Reef Action
Baltic and North Seas Network S – Scenarios volume of the MA
ICRI – International Coral Reef Initiative SDM – Summary for Decision-makers (of the
CARICOM – Caribbean Community ICRW – International Convention for the MA)
CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity Regulation of Whaling SIDS – small island developing states
CCCL – coastal construction control lines ICZM – integrated coastal zone SG – Sub-global Assessment volume of the MA
CF – Conceptual Framework management SOFIA – State of World Fisheries and
CITES – Convention on International Trade IGBP – International Geosphere-Biosphere Aquaculture (FAO)
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Programme SR – Synthesis Report (of the MA)
and Flora IOSEA – Memorandum of Understanding
CMS – Convention on the Conservation of on the Conservation and Management of TEK – traditional ecological knowledge
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the TEV – total economic value
Convention) Indian Ocean and South-East Asia
CSS – combined storm and sewer systems IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate UBC – University of British Colombia
CT – Condition and Trends volume of the Change UN – United Nations
MA IQ – individual quota UNCCD – United Nations Convention to
ISA – infectious salmon anaemia Combat Desertification
DEWA – Division of Early Warning and ITQ – individual transferable quota UNCLOS – United Nations Convention on
Assessment (UNEP) IUCN – World Conservation Union the Law of the Sea
UNDP – United Nations Development
EEZ – exclusive economic zone LIFDC – low-income food-deficit countries Programme
EIA – environmental impact assessment LME – large marine ecosystems UNEP – United Nations Environment
ENSO – El Niño/Southern Oscillation LOICZ – Land-Ocean Interactions in the Programme
Coastal Zone UNFCCC – United Nations Framework
FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization LPI – Living Planet Index Convention on Climate Change
(United Nations)
MA – Millennium Ecosystem Assessment WCMC – World Conservation Monitoring
GCRMN – Global Coral Reef Monitoring MCA – multicriteria analysis Centre (of UNEP)
Network MDG – Millennium Development Goal WCPA – World Commission on Protected Areas
GDP – gross domestic product MPA – marine protected area WSSD – World Summit on Sustainable
GEO – Global Environment Outlook MSY – maximum sustainable yield Development
GESAMP – The Joint Group of Experts on WWF – World Wide Fund For Nature
the Scientific Aspects of Marine NAFO – North West Atlantic Fisheries
Environmental Protection Organization The Millennium Development Goals commit the international
1
GIWA – Global International Waters NEAFC – North East Atlantic Fisheries community to a commonly accepted framework for measuring
development progress. The eight goals set targets on overcoming
Assessment Commission poverty, illiteracy, hunger, lack of education, gender inequality, child
GMA – Global Marine Assessment NGO – nongovernmental organization and maternal mortality, disease, and environmental degradation.
64 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
Picture Credits
Front cover: Songpanich Pairat/ UNEP
Inside front cover: Adel Bouajina/ UNEP
Page Bong Fung Gee/ UNEP
V
Chapter 1
Page 1 Dawee Chaikere/ UNEP
Page 7 Susan M Davis/ UNEP
Page 10 Alvaro Izurieta/ UNEP
Page 15 David Fleetham/ UNEP
Page 17 Ngyuyen Quoc Thinh/ UNEP
Page 18 J.M. Pinto/ UNEP
Page 21 Shoukyu Utsuka/ UNEP
Chapter 2
Page 27 Songpanich Pairat/ UNEP
Chapter 3
Page 29 Cheng Foh Onn/ UNEP
Page 31 Yoshiaki Kawachi/ UNEP
Page 37 Narbeburu/ UNEP
Page 41 UNEP
Chapter 4
Page 44 Robert Yin/ UNEP
Page 46 Marcello Tewkes/ UNEP
Page 48 UNEP
Page 49 Stephen Dalla Costa/ UNEP
Page 50 UNEP
Page 52 L. Wright/UNEP
Page 53 UNEP
Appendixes
Page 55 UNEP
Page 57 Jack Jackson/ UNEP
Page 58 Demi Ivo/ UNEP
Page 63 Anthony Pigone/ UNEP
Page 64 Alvaro Izurieta/ UNEP
Inside back cover: Prasit Chansareekom/UNEP
Back cover: UNEP
5
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL,
United Kingdom
WWW.unep.org
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136 United Nations Environment Programme
Email: info@unep-wcmc.org P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Website: www.unep-wcmc.org Tel: +254 (0) 20 7621234
Fax: +254 (0) 20 7623927
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Email: uneppub@unep.org
Website: www.MAweb.org Website: www.unep.org
DEW/0785/NA
ISBN: 92-807-2679-X
January 2006