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California's Living Marine Resources: A Status Report

Leet, Dewees, Klingbeil and Larson (eds.) CA DFG 2001
California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
      A Status Report              December 2001
        California’s Living Marine Resources:
                A Status Report




                 The Resources Agency
           The California Department of Fish and Game



               California Governor Gray Davis
             Resources Secretary Mary D. Nichols
         Department of Fish and Game Director Robert C. Hight
             Marine Region Manager Patricia Wolf




                     Editors

                   William S. Leet
                 Christopher M. Dewees
                  Richard Klingbeil
                   Eric J. Larson




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME         California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                     A Status Report       1
                        Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements




             The editors wish to acknowledge important contributions from many colleagues. In DFG,
             Joann Eres and her staff compiled a huge amount of landings data for the tables and graphs,
             while Nancy Wright and Chad King created the maps. Chamois Andersen and the Conservation
             Education staff assisted with the editing. Carrie Wilson and Paul Gregory searched out and
             supplied many of the photographs. Bernice Hammer and Susan Ashcraft aided in organizing
             and producing tables and graphs. Kristen Sortais from the California Sea Grant Program
             compiled the glossary and organized the photographs in the document. The ever-enthusiastic
             Tom Jurach of the UC Davis Repro Graphics Department was the lead person for publication
             design and layout.




             This publication fullls the Marine Life Management Act of 1998 requirement for a status
             of the sheries report. Primary funding for this project was provided by the State of
             California to the Marine Region of the California Department of Fish and Game. Additional
             support was supplied by the California Marine Life Management Project with funding from
             the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the National Sea Grant College Program of
             the Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, under grant
             number NA06RG0142, project AE/1 through the California Sea Grant College Program.

             This publication contains a compilation of information from numerous individuals and
             highly regarded sources. All efforts have been made to publish the best available data
             and information.

             This report is not copyrighted. If sections are reproduced elsewhere, the authors and
             the California Department of Fish and Game would appreciate receiving appropriate
             acknowledgment.

             Library of Congress Control Number: 2001098707

                     ISBN 1-879906-57-0

                     University of California

                     Agriculture and Natural Resources

             Publication SG01-11

             For information about ordering copies of this publication, call (800) 994-8849 or visit
             www.anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu.

             To view or download via the Internet, visit www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd



          California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                       December 2001
   2
                   Dedication




                                                    Dedication
                     Dr. Mia J. Tegner


        California’s Living Marine Resources: A Status Report is dedicated to the
        memory of Dr. Mia J. Tegner, a loved and respected colleague, who died
        in a scuba diving accident in January 2001. As a researcher at the
        University of California’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Dr. Tegner
        was an expert in kelp forest ecology and was recognized as one of the
        leading scientists in the world regarding California’s abalone and sea
        urchin resources. She cared deeply about the marine environment and
        became an effective spokesperson for science-based marine conserva-
        tion. She rmly believed that a system of marine protected areas is
        critical to restoration of sheries and the protection of biodiversity and
        worked with others to ensure the enactment of both the Marine Life
        Management Act of 1998 and the Marine Life Protection Act of 1999, and
        the appropriation of funds for their implementation.
        Dr. Tegner’s presence as a scientist and concerned citizen will be
        sadly missed.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                         A Status Report         3
  California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
4
          Purpose and Overview




                                                    Purpose and Overview
        T  he Marine Life Management Act (MLMA), which became law on
          Jan. 1, 1999, opened a new era in the management and conserva-
        tion of living marine resources in California. The MLMA’s overriding
        goal is to ensure the conservation, sustainable use, and restoration
        of California’s living marine resources, including the conservation of
        healthy and diverse marine ecosystems and living marine resources.
        To achieve this goal, the MLMA established an innovative program
        for managing marine sheries. Good sheries managers periodically
        take stock of the effectiveness of their programs. With this in
        mind, the MLMA requires that the Department prepare an annual
        report on the status of sport and commercial marine sheries
        managed by the state. The MLMA requires that these reports do
        three things: 1) identify any marine shery that does not meet the
        MLMA’s sustainability policies; 2) review restricted access programs;
        and 3) evaluate the management system and make recommendations
        for modications. This rst report presents the best available informa-
        tion for all marine and estuarine sheries managed by the state.
        Under the MLMA, later annual reports will cover one-quarter of all
        marine and estuarine sheries managed by the state.
        The rst section of California’s Living Marine Resources: A Status
        Report is meant to provide lay people and specialists alike with
        the best available information on the oceanic, environmental, regula-
        tory, and socioeconomic factors that affect the management affecting
        California’s living marine resources. This discussion is divided into
        ve chapters: California’s Variable Ocean Environment, The Status of
        Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environ-
        ment, The Human Ecosystem Dimension, The Status of Marine Fisher-
        ies Law Enforcement and A Review of Restricted Access Programs.
        The second section of the report includes chapters on the three major
        ecosystems off California: nearshore, offshore, and bays and estuaries.
        Each of these chapters includes a description of the ecosystem, the
        major issues facing sheries managers, and the management frame-
        work. These chapters also include evaluations of individual sheries
        and species of marine wildlife, including a historical description of
        each shery, the status of biological knowledge, and the status of
        the population. Management considerations submitted by authors for
        approximately half the individual sheries are found in Appendix A.
        The report concludes with chapters on Aquaculture, Invasive Species,
        and Marine Birds and Mammals.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                        A Status Report           5
  California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
6
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       7
  California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
8
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements                                         2         Endangered Species Act.............................................. 39




                                                                                                      Table of Contents
                                                           Marine Mammal Protection Act ................................. 40
Dedication                                            3         National Marine Sanctuaries Act ................................ 40
                                                           The Coastal Zone Management Act............................. 40
Purpose and Overview                                       5         Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
                                                           Management Act ......................................................... 41
Table of Contents                                         9
                                                           Oil Pollution Act of 1990............................................. 41
                                                         State
Introduction and Historical Overview                               19
                                                           California Environmental Quality Act......................... 41
                                                           Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act .................. 41
California’s Variable Ocean Environment                             21
                                                           California Endangered Species Act............................. 42
    Climatic Processes, El Niño Events and Regime Shifts.......... 22
                                                           McAteer-Petris Act ...................................................... 42
    El Niño/La Niña Processes .................................................. 22
                                                           California Coastal Act ................................................. 42
    Decadal/Regime Scale Processes ........................................ 23
                                                           Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1990........... 42
    Implications for Nearshore Ecosystems................................ 24
                                                           Regional ..................................................................... 42
    Implications for the Offshore Ecosystem .............................. 26
                                                           CALFED....................................................................... 42
    El Niño - La Niña Fluctuations .............................................. 27
                                                           Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Water Quality
    Regime Scale Climatic Variations ......................................... 27
                                                           Protection Program.................................................... 43
    Conclusions........................................................................... 28
                                                         Local
    References ............................................................................ 28
                                                           Implementation of CEQA and NEPA ............................ 43
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in                                     Coordinated Resource Management Planning ........... 43
California’s Coastal and Marine Environment                           29         Marine Protected Areas.............................................. 43
                                                           Regulatory Gaps ......................................................... 44
Importance of Healthy Waters and Habitats to Marine Life                    29
                                                     Human Ecosystem Dimension                                 47
    Health of Coastal and Marine Water Quality and Habitats ... 29
                                                       Human Benefits of the Marine Ecosystem............................. 47
        Monitoring and Assessment Information ................... 29
                                                       Factors Affecting Commercial and
        Data Limitations/Gaps................................................ 30
                                                       Recreational Fishery Activity................................................. 47
    Sources of Impairment of Water Quality and Habitats.......... 31
                                                       Commercial Fisheries Landings and Ex-vessel Value ............ 48
        Point Source Discharges............................................. 31
                                                       Harvesting Sector.................................................................. 49
        Nonpoint Source Discharges ...................................... 31
                                                       The Processing Sector........................................................... 51
    Spills ..................................................................................... 32
                                                       The Trade Sector................................................................... 51
        Oil Spills ..................................................................... 32
                                                       Sport and Subsistence Fisheries............................................ 52
        Other Spills................................................................. 32
                                                       Effort and Harvest ................................................................. 53
    Dredging and Disposal of Dredged Material ........................ 33
                                                       Recreational Fishery Expenditures ....................................... 53
    Invasive Species .................................................................... 34
                                                       Additional Information on the Salmon and
    Habitat Loss, Destruction and Alteration .............................. 34
                                                       CPFV Sport Fisheries ............................................................. 53
    Water Flow............................................................................. 35
                                                       References............................................................................. 55
        Freshwater Discharges ............................................... 35
        Hydromodification...................................................... 36
                                                     Marine Law Enforcement                                   67
    Recreational and Commercial Activities ............................... 36
                                                       Introduction.......................................................................... 67
        Boating ....................................................................... 36
                                                       Resources.............................................................................. 67
        Jet Skis (Motorized Personal Watercraft) .................. 36
                                                           Personnel.................................................................... 67
        Fishing ........................................................................ 37
                                                           Patrol Boats ................................................................ 67
    Ecosystem-wide Implications................................................ 37
                                                           Teams ......................................................................... 68
    Regulatory Structure for Addressing
                                                           Partnerships ............................................................... 68
    Water Quality and Habitat Issues ......................................... 38
                                                       Fisheries-Specific Enforcement Efforts ................................. 68
     Federal
                                                           Groundfish.................................................................. 68
        Clean Water Act........................................................... 38
                                                           Nearshore Fish............................................................ 68
        Permit Program ....................................................... 38
                                                           Salmon........................................................................ 69
        Nonpoint Pollution Program....................................... 38
                                                           Halibut........................................................................ 69
        Regulation of Discharges into Impaired Waters......... 38
                                                           Striped Bass................................................................ 69
        Discharges under Federal Licenses or Permits .......... 38
                                                           Pacific Herring ........................................................... 69
        Dredge Disposal and Fill ............................................ 38
        Antidegradation.......................................................... 39
        Ocean Dumping Act.................................................... 39
        The National Environmental Policy Act ...................... 39



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                      California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                                  A Status Report                                  9
              Coastal Pelagic Species ......................................................... 70      Purple Sea Urchin ...................................................................... 105
Table of Contents



                 Sardine/Anchovy/Mackerel........................................ 70              History of the Fishery .......................................................... 105
                 Squid .......................................................................... 70      Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 105
                 Abalone....................................................................... 70       Status of the Population ...................................................... 105
                 Sea Urchin .................................................................. 70       References........................................................................... 106
                 Shrimp/Prawns .......................................................... 70        Dungeness Crab ......................................................................... 107
                 Lobster........................................................................ 71      History of the Fishery .......................................................... 107
                 Crab ............................................................................ 71     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 109
                 Other Invertebrates .................................................... 71          Status of the Population ...................................................... 110
              Marine Aquaria ..................................................................... 71       References............................................................................111
              Aquaculture .......................................................................... 71    Rock Crabs................................................................................. 112
              Commercial Fish Businesses................................................. 72           History of the Fishery .......................................................... 112
                                                                Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 112
          A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries                             73     Status of the Populations..................................................... 113
              Background ........................................................................ 73       References............................................................................114
              History ................................................................................ 73   Sheep Crab ..................................................................................115
              California’s Restricted Access Programs .............................. 73              History of the Fishery ...........................................................115
              California’s Commercial Fisheries                                  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 116
              Restricted Access Policy........................................................ 74         Status of the Population .......................................................117
              Federal Restricted Access Programs..................................... 76             References............................................................................117
              Future Actions ....................................................................... 76    Ocean Shrimp ............................................................................ 118
              References ........................................................................... 76      History of the Fishery .......................................................... 118
                                                                Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................119
          California’s Nearshore Ecosystem                                 79
                                                                Status of the Population .......................................................119
                                                                References........................................................................... 120
           The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate
                                                              Spot Prawn ................................................................................. 121
           Resources: Overview                                      87
                                                                History of the Fishery .......................................................... 121
           Abalone ........................................................................................ 89
                                                                Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 122
              History of the Fishery ............................................................ 89
                                                                Status of the Population ...................................................... 123
              Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................. 89
                                                                References........................................................................... 123
                 Red abalone................................................................ 90
                                                              Ridgeback Prawn ....................................................................... 124
                 Pink abalone............................................................... 92
                                                                History of the Fishery .......................................................... 124
                 Green abalone ............................................................ 92
                                                                Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 124
                 Black abalone............................................................. 93
                                                                Status of the Population ...................................................... 125
                 White abalone............................................................. 94
                                                                References........................................................................... 125
              Status of the Populations....................................................... 95
                                                              Red Rock Shrimp ....................................................................... 127
              References............................................................................. 96
                                                                History of the Fishery .......................................................... 127
           California Spiny Lobster............................................................... 98
                                                                Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 127
              History of the Fishery ............................................................ 98
                                                                Status of the Population ...................................................... 128
              Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................. 99
                                                                References........................................................................... 128
              Status of the Population ...................................................... 100
                                                              Coonstripe Shrimp ..................................................................... 129
              References........................................................................... 100
                                                                History of the Fishery .......................................................... 129
           Red Sea Urchin........................................................................... 101
                                                                Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 129
              History of the Fishery .......................................................... 101
                                                                Status of the Population ...................................................... 130
              Southern California Fishery ................................................ 101
                                                                References........................................................................... 130
              Northern California Fishery ................................................ 101
              Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 102
              Status of the Population ...................................................... 103
              References........................................................................... 104




             California’s Living Marine Resources:                               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                                           December 2001
10
Sea Cucumbers........................................................................... 131     Blue Rockfish ............................................................................. 165




                                                                                                    Table of Contents
  History of the Fishery .......................................................... 131         History of the Fishery .......................................................... 165
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 132            Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 165
  Status of the Population ...................................................... 133          Status of the Population .......................................................167
  References........................................................................... 134       References............................................................................167
Pismo Clam ................................................................................ 135    Olive Rockfish ............................................................................ 168
  History of the Fishery .......................................................... 135         History of the Fishery .......................................................... 168
  Status of the Biological Knowledge ..................................... 135             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 168
  Status of the Population ...................................................... 137          Status of the Population ...................................................... 168
  References........................................................................... 137       References........................................................................... 169
Sand Crab................................................................................... 138   Brown Rockfish.......................................................................... 170
  History of the Fishery .......................................................... 138         History of the Fishery .......................................................... 170
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 138            Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 170
  Status of the Population ...................................................... 139          Status of the Population ...................................................... 171
  References........................................................................... 139       References........................................................................... 172
Wavy Turban Snail ..................................................................... 140      Copper Rockfish......................................................................... 173
  History of the Fishery .......................................................... 140         History of the Fishery .......................................................... 173
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 140            Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 173
  Status of the Population ...................................................... 141          Status of the Population .......................................................174
  References........................................................................... 141       References............................................................................174
Rock Scallop .............................................................................. 142    Canary Rockfish ..........................................................................175
  History of the Fishery .......................................................... 142         History of the Fishery ...........................................................175
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 142            Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................175
  Status of the Population ...................................................... 143          Status of the Population .......................................................176
  References........................................................................... 143     Quillback Rockfish .................................................................... 177
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates ...................... 144                 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 177
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 177
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview                        149      Status of the Population ...................................................... 178
California Sheephead..................................................................155         References........................................................................... 178
   History of the Fishery ...........................................................155      Calico Rockfish .......................................................................... 179
   Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................155            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 179
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 156         Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 179
   References........................................................................... 156      Status of the Population ...................................................... 179
Cabezon...................................................................................... 157     References........................................................................... 180
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 157      Monkeyface Prickleback............................................................ 181
   Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 157            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 181
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 158         Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 181
   References........................................................................... 158      Status of the Population ...................................................... 182
California Scorpionfish .............................................................. 160        References........................................................................... 182
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 160      Kelp Greenling ........................................................................... 183
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 160            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 183
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 160         Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 183
   References............................................................................161      Status of the Population ...................................................... 184
Black Rockfish ........................................................................... 162      References........................................................................... 184
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 162      Other Nearshore Rockfishes ...................................................... 185
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 162            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 185
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 163         Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 186
   References........................................................................... 164      Status of the Populations..................................................... 187
                                                  \   References........................................................................... 188
                                                   Vermilion Rockfish .................................................................... 189
                                                     History of the Fishery .......................................................... 189
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 189
                                                     Status of the Population ...................................................... 190
                                                     References........................................................................... 190




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                       California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                                  A Status Report                                11
                                                             Kelp Bass.................................................................................... 222
          Lingcod ...................................................................................... 191
Table of Contents



                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 222
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 191
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 222
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 192
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 223
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 193
                                                               References .......................................................................... 223
             References........................................................................... 194
                                                             Barred Sand Bass....................................................................... 224
          California Halibut ...................................................................... 195
                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 224
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 195
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 224
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 196
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 225
             Status of the Population ..................................................... 196
                                                               References........................................................................... 225
             References........................................................................... 198
                                                             Spotted Sand Bass ...................................................................... 226
          Starry Flounder .......................................................................... 199
                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 226
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 199
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 226
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 199
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 227
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 200
                                                               References........................................................................... 227
             References........................................................................... 200
                                                             California Corbina ..................................................................... 228
          Sanddabs.................................................................................... 201
                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 228
             History of the Fishery ......................................................... 201
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 228
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 201
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 229
             Status of the Population ..................................................... 202
                                                               References........................................................................... 229
             References........................................................................... 202
                                                             Spotfin Croaker .......................................................................... 230
          Other Flatfishes .......................................................................... 203
                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 230
             History of The Fishery ......................................................... 203
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 230
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 203
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 230
             Status of the Populations..................................................... 204
                                                               References........................................................................... 231
             References........................................................................... 205
                                                             Yellowfin Croaker....................................................................... 232
          White Seabass ............................................................................ 206
                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 232
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 206
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 232
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 207
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 232
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 208
                                                               References........................................................................... 233
             References........................................................................... 208
                                                             White Croaker ............................................................................ 234
          Giant Sea Bass ............................................................................ 209
                                                               History of the Fishery .......................................................... 234
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 209
                                                               Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 234
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 209
                                                               Status of the Population ...................................................... 235
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 211
                                                             Surfperches................................................................................ 236
             References........................................................................... 211
                                                               General ............................................................................... 236
          Yellowtail .................................................................................. 212
                                                               Barred Surfperch................................................................ 236
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 212
                                                                   History of the Fishery................................................ 236
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 212
                                                                   Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
             Status of Population ............................................................ 213
                                                                   Status of the Population............................................ 237
             References........................................................................... 214
                                                               Calico Surfperch ................................................................. 237
          Pacific Bonito..............................................................................215
                                                                   History of the Fishery................................................ 237
             History of the Fishery ...........................................................215
                                                                   Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
             Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................217
                                                                   Status of the Population............................................ 237
             Status of the Population .......................................................217
                                                               Pile Perch............................................................................ 237
             References........................................................................... 218
                                                                   History of the Fishery................................................ 237
          California Barracuda ................................................................. 219
                                                                   Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 219
                                                                   Status of the Population............................................ 238
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 220
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 220
             References........................................................................... 221




            California’s Living Marine Resources:                              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                                          December 2001
12
   Redtail Surfperch................................................................ 238       Skates and Rays.......................................................................... 257




                                                                                                      Table of Contents
      History of the Fishery................................................ 238           History of the Fishery .......................................................... 257
      Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 238              Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 257
      Status of the Population............................................ 238            The Skates and Softnose Skates -
   Rubberlip Surfperch ........................................................... 239          Families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae............................... 258
      History of the Fishery................................................ 239           The Guitarfishes and Thornbacks -
      Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239              Families Rhinobatidae and Platyrhinidae........................... 259
      Status of the Population............................................ 239            The Electric Rays - Family Torpedinidae ............................ 259
   Striped Seaperch................................................................. 239         The Myliobatidiform Rays (Stingrays) - Families Urolophidae,
      History of the Fishery................................................ 239           Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae, Gymnuridae, and Mobulidae .... 259
      Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239              Status of the Populations..................................................... 260
      Status of Population.................................................. 239           References .......................................................................... 261
   Walleye Surfperch............................................................... 239       Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish................................. 263
      History of the Fishery................................................ 239         Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish...................................... 269
      Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239
                                                    Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview                         273
      Status of the Population............................................ 240
                                                    Giant Kelp................................................................................... 277
   Surfperch: Discussion......................................................... 240
                                                      History of the Use and Harvest ........................................... 277
   References........................................................................... 240
                                                      Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 278
Opaleye and Halfmoon............................................................... 241
                                                      Status of the Beds................................................................ 279
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 241
                                                      Kelp Restoration.................................................................. 280
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 241
                                                      References........................................................................... 281
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 241
                                                    Bull Kelp..................................................................................... 282
   References........................................................................... 242
                                                      History of the Use and Harvest............................................ 282
Silversides .................................................................................. 243
                                                      Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 282
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 243
                                                      Status of the Beds ............................................................... 283
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 243
                                                      References: ........................................................................ 284
   Status of the Populations..................................................... 244
                                                    Sea Palm .................................................................................... 285
   References........................................................................... 245
                                                      Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 285
Grunion...................................................................................... 246
                                                      Status of the Beds................................................................ 285
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 246
                                                      References........................................................................... 285
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 246
                                                    Agarophytes and Carrageenophytes........................................... 286
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 247
                                                      History of Use and Harvest.................................................. 286
   References........................................................................... 247
                                                      Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 287
Pacific Angel Shark .................................................................... 248
                                                      Status of the Beds................................................................ 287
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 248
                                                      References .......................................................................... 287
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 249
                                                    Commercial Landings - Nearshore Plants.................................. 288
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 250
   References........................................................................... 251
                                                   California’s Offshore Ecosystem                                291
Leopard Shark............................................................................ 252
   History of the Fishery ......................................................... 252       Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview                              293
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 252
                                                    California Market Squid............................................................. 295
   Status of the Population ..................................................... 253
                                                      History of the Fishery .......................................................... 295
   References........................................................................... 254
                                                      Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 297
Soupfin Shark............................................................................. 255
                                                      Status of the Population ...................................................... 297
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 255
                                                      References........................................................................... 298
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 255
                                                    Pacific Sardine ........................................................................... 299
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 256
                                                      History of the Fishery .......................................................... 299
   References........................................................................... 256
                                                      Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 300
                                                      Status of the Population ...................................................... 301
                                                      References........................................................................... 302




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                       California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                                  A Status Report                                  13
          Northern Anchovy ...................................................................... 303     Shortfin Mako Shark .................................................................. 336
Table of Contents



            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 303        History of the Fishery .......................................................... 336
            Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 304           Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 336
            Status of the Population ...................................................... 305         Status of the Population ...................................................... 337
            References........................................................................... 305      References........................................................................... 338
          Pacific Mackerel......................................................................... 306    Thresher Shark .......................................................................... 339
            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 306        History of the Fishery ......................................................... 339
            Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 307           Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 339
            Status of the Population ...................................................... 308         Status of the Population ..................................................... 341
            References........................................................................... 308      References........................................................................... 341
          Jack Mackerel ............................................................................ 309   Blue Shark.................................................................................. 342
            History of the Fishery .......................................................... 309        History of the Fishery .......................................................... 342
            Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 310           Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 342
            Status of the Population ...................................................... 310         Status of the Population ...................................................... 343
            References............................................................................311      References........................................................................... 344
          Commercial Catch - Coastal Pelagics ......................................... 312          Other Mackerel Sharks .............................................................. 345
          Recreational Catch - Coastal Pelagics .........................................314           History of the Fishery .......................................................... 345
                                                              Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 345
          Highly Migratory Species: Overview                             315     Status of the Populations..................................................... 347
          Albacore......................................................................................317    References........................................................................... 347
             History of the Fishery ...........................................................317     Opah .......................................................................................... 348
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 318           History of the Fishery .......................................................... 348
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 320        Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 348
             References........................................................................... 321     Status of the Population ...................................................... 349
          Swordfish ................................................................................... 322    References........................................................................... 349
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 322     Louvar ........................................................................................ 350
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 323           History of the Fishery .......................................................... 350
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 324        Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 350
             References ......................................................................... 324      Status of the Population ...................................................... 351
          Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna.................................................... 325          References........................................................................... 351
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 325     Dolphin ...................................................................................... 352
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 326           History of the Fishery .......................................................... 352
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 326        Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 352
             References........................................................................... 327     Status of the Population ...................................................... 353
          Skipjack Tuna ............................................................................ 328     References........................................................................... 353
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 328     Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks.... 354
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 329         Recreational Catch - Highly Migratory Finfish ........................... 357
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 329
                                                            Groundfish: Overview                                     359
             References........................................................................... 330
          Yellowfin Tuna ........................................................................... 331   Bocaccio .................................................................................... 361
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 331       History of the Fishery .......................................................... 361
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 332          Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 361
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 333        Status of the Population ...................................................... 361
             References........................................................................... 333     References........................................................................... 362
          Striped Marlin............................................................................ 334   Cowcod....................................................................................... 363
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 334       History of the Fishery .......................................................... 363
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 334          Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 364
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 335        Status of the Population ...................................................... 364
             References........................................................................... 335     References........................................................................... 365




            California’s Living Marine Resources:                              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                                          December 2001
14
Chilipepper ................................................................................ 366   Sablefish..................................................................................... 390




                                                                                                     Table of Contents
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 366        History of the Fishery .......................................................... 390
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 366           Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 391
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 366         Status of Population ............................................................ 391
   References........................................................................... 367      References........................................................................... 392
Blackgill Rockfish...................................................................... 368     Pacific Hake ............................................................................... 393
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 368        History of the Fishery .......................................................... 393
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 368           Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 394
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 368         Status of the Population ...................................................... 396
   References........................................................................... 369      References........................................................................... 397
Widow Rockfish ......................................................................... 370     Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish........................ 398
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 370
                                                   Salmonids: Overview                                    405
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 370
                                                   Pacific Salmon ........................................................................... 407
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 371
                                                     History of the Fishery .......................................................... 407
   References........................................................................... 371
                                                     Salmon Management History .............................................. 409
Yellowtail Rockfish .................................................................... 372
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 410
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 372
                                                        Chinook salmon ....................................................... 411
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 372
                                                        Coho salmon............................................................. 412
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 373
                                                     Status of Spawning Populations .......................................... 413
   References........................................................................... 373
                                                     Salmon: Discussion............................................................. 415
Thornyheads .............................................................................. 374
                                                     Challenges to Inland Salmon Management......................... 415
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 374
                                                     Challenges to Ocean Management ...................................... 416
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 375
                                                     References........................................................................... 417
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 376
                                                   Steelhead Rainbow Trout ........................................................... 418
   References........................................................................... 377
                                                     History of the Fishery .......................................................... 418
Bank Rockfish............................................................................ 378
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 418
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 378
                                                     Status of the Populations .................................................... 420
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 378
                                                     References........................................................................... 425
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 378
                                                   Coastal Cutthroat Trout.............................................................. 426
   References........................................................................... 379
                                                     History of Fishery ................................................................ 426
Shortbelly Rockfish .................................................................... 380
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 426
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 380
                                                     Status of Population ............................................................ 427
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 380
                                                     References........................................................................... 427
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 381
                                                   Commercial Landings - Salmonids ............................................ 428
   References........................................................................... 381
                                                   Recreational Catch - Salmonids ................................................. 429
Dover Sole .................................................................................. 382
   History of the Fishery ........................................................ 382
                                                   Bay and Estuary Ecosystems                                 435
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 382
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 383       Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview                     437
   References........................................................................... 383
                                                   Bay Shrimp................................................................................. 439
English Sole................................................................................ 384
                                                     History of Fishery ................................................................ 439
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 384
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ...........................................440
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 384
                                                     Status of the Populations..................................................... 441
   Status of the Population ...................................................... 385
                                                   Pacific Razor Clam ..................................................................... 443
   References........................................................................... 385
                                                     History of Fishery ................................................................ 443
Petrale Sole ................................................................................ 386
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 443
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 386
                                                     Status of the Population ......................................................444
   Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 386
                                                     References...........................................................................444
   Status of Population ............................................................ 386
   References........................................................................... 387
Rex Sole...................................................................................... 388
   History of the Fishery .......................................................... 388
   Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 388
   Status of the Population ..................................................... 389
   References........................................................................... 389




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                      California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                                 A Status Report                                  15
          Gaper Clams............................................................................... 445   True Smelts ................................................................................ 472
Table of Contents



             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 445       General ............................................................................... 472
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 445           Delta Smelt .......................................................................... 472
             Status of the Population ......................................................446            History of the Fishery................................................ 472
             References...........................................................................446         Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 472
          Washington Clams...................................................................... 447           Status of the Population............................................ 473
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 447       Surf Smelt............................................................................ 474
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 447              History of the Fishery................................................ 474
             Status of the Population ......................................................448            Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 474
             References...........................................................................448         Status of the Population............................................ 474
          Geoduck ..................................................................................... 449    Wakasagi............................................................................. 474
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 449           History of the Fishery................................................ 474
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 449              Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 475
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 449            Status of the Population............................................ 475
             References........................................................................... 450     Night Smelt .......................................................................... 476
          Littleneck Clams......................................................................... 451         History of the Fishery................................................ 476
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 451           Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 476
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 451              Status of the Population............................................ 476
             Status of Population ............................................................ 452       Longfin Smelt ...................................................................... 476
             References........................................................................... 452         History of the Fishery................................................ 476
          Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuaries Invertebrates........... 453                      Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 477
                                                                  Status of the Population............................................ 477
          Bay and Estuarine Finfish Resources: Overview                       455     Eulachon ............................................................................. 477
          Pacific Herring........................................................................... 456         History of the Fishery................................................ 477
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 456           Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 477
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 458              Status of Population.................................................. 478
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 458        Whitebait Smelt ................................................................... 478
             References........................................................................... 459         History of the Fishery................................................ 478
          Striped Bass ............................................................................... 460        Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 478
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 460           Status of Population.................................................. 478
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 461           Discussion........................................................................... 478
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 461        References........................................................................... 479
                Young Striped Bass Abundance. .............................. 461            Bay and Estuarine Finfish........................................................... 480
                Adult Striped Bass Abundance. ................................ 462             Commercial Landings ......................................................... 480
                Fishery Restoration. ................................................. 462         Recreational Catch .............................................................. 480
             References........................................................................... 463
                                                            Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview                            481
          Green Sturgeon .......................................................................... 465
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 465
                                                            Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes                            483
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 465
                                                              General Description............................................................ 483
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 466
                                                              Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 484
             References........................................................................... 466
                                                              Status of the Habitat ............................................................484
          White Sturgeon........................................................................... 467
                                                              References........................................................................... 486
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 467
                                                            Submerged Aquatic Plants.......................................................... 487
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 467
                                                              Eelgrass............................................................................... 487
             Status of the Population ......................................................468
                                                                 Introduction ............................................................. 487
             References........................................................................... 469
                                                                 Status of Biological Knowledge.................................488
          Cow Sharks................................................................................. 470
                                                                 Status of the Beds .....................................................488
             History of the Fishery .......................................................... 470
                                                                 Humboldt Bay ...........................................................488
             Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 470
                                                                 Small North Coast Estuaries ..................................... 489
             Status of the Population ...................................................... 471
                                                                 Tomales Bay.............................................................. 489
             References........................................................................... 471
                                                                 San Francisco Bay..................................................... 489
                                                                 Southern California .................................................. 489
                                                                 References ................................................................ 490




            California’s Living Marine Resources:                              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                                          December 2001
16
                                                  Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview                             521
   Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis............................................ 491




                                                                                                     Table of Contents
      History of Harvest..................................................... 491       Pinnipeds ................................................................................... 523
      Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 491             History ................................................................................ 523
      References ................................................................ 491       Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 523
                                                        California Sea Lion ................................................... 523
Aquaculture: Overview                                   493
                                                        Steller Sea Lion ......................................................... 524
Culture of Abalone ..................................................................... 494
                                                        Pacific Harbor Seal................................................... 524
  History ................................................................................ 494
                                                        Northern Fur Seal..................................................... 525
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 495
                                                        Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................. 525
  References........................................................................... 495
                                                        Northern Elephant Seal ............................................ 525
Culture of Mussels...................................................................... 496
                                                    Status of the Populations..................................................... 526
  History ............................................................................... 496
                                                        California Sea Lion ................................................... 526
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 497
                                                        Pacific Harbor Seal................................................... 526
  References........................................................................... 499
                                                        Northern Fur Seal..................................................... 526
Culture of Oysters ...................................................................... 500
                                                        Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................. 526
  History ................................................................................ 500
                                                        Northern Elephant Seal ............................................ 526
  Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 503
                                                    References .......................................................................... 527
  Shellfish and the Environment ............................................ 505
                                                  Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises ..................................................... 529
  Future Trends...................................................................... 505
                                                    History ................................................................................ 529
  References........................................................................... 506
                                                    Current Management .......................................................... 529
Culture of Salmon ...................................................................... 507
                                                    Status of Biological Knowledge and Populations................. 530
  History ................................................................................ 507
                                                        Humpback Whale .................................................... 530
  Status................................................................................... 508
                                                        Blue Whale .............................................................. 530
  References........................................................................... 509
                                                        Fin Whale ................................................................. 531
Culture of Marine Finfish ........................................................... 510
                                                        Minke Whale ........................................................... 531
  History of Finfish Culture.................................................... 510
                                                        Gray Whale .............................................................. 531
  History of the Ocean Resources Enhancement and Hatchery
                                                        Sperm Whale ........................................................... 532
  Program (OREHP).............................................................. 510
                                                        Killer Whale ............................................................. 532
  Culture, Facilities and Systems............................................ 510
                                                        Shortfinned Pilot Whale ........................................... 533
  Aquaculture Potential ..........................................................511
                                                        Common Dolphin ..................................................... 533
  Conclusions .........................................................................511
                                                        Bottlenose Dolphin................................................... 533
  References........................................................................... 512
                                                        Risso s Dolphin ........................................................ 533
Invasive Species ......................................................................... 513
                                                        Northern Right-Whale Dolphin................................. 534
  History ................................................................................ 513
                                                        Pacific white-sided dolphin ...................................... 534
  Examples of Significant Invasive Species ............................ 513
                                                        Harbor Porpoise....................................................... 534
      The European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas)....... 513
                                                        Dall s Porpoise ......................................................... 534
      The Chinese Mitten Crab (Eriocheir sinensis) .........514
                                                    References........................................................................... 535
      An Asian Clam (Potamocorbula amurensis) ...........515
                                                  Sea Otter .................................................................................... 536
      A South African Sabellid Worm
                                                    History ............................................................................... 536
      (Terebrasabella heterouncinata).............................515
                                                    Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 537
      A Tropical Seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia) .................515
                                                    Status of the Population ...................................................... 538
      Other Invasives ......................................................... 516
                                                    Current Management ........................................................ 539
  Existing Regulatory Regime and Regulatory Gaps .............. 516
                                                    References........................................................................... 540
      National Invasive Species Act of 1996....................... 516
                                                  Marine Bird Resources .............................................................. 541
      Clean Water Act......................................................... 516
                                                    History and Utilization ....................................................... 543
      National Environmental Policy Act ............................517
                                                    Seabird Ecology .................................................................. 545
      Endangered Species Act.............................................517
                                                    Management and Conservation........................................... 546
      Presidential Executive Order 13112 ..........................517
                                                    Seabird and Fisheries Interactions ..................................... 547
      California Environmental Quality Act........................517
                                                    References........................................................................... 548
      California Porter-Cologne
                                                        General Seabird References ..................................... 548
      Water Quality Control Act ......................................... 518
                                                        Surveys and Status Reports ...................................... 548
      California Fish and Game Code ................................ 518
                                                        Seabird Ecology ....................................................... 549
      Public Resources Code ............................................. 518
                                                        Conservation and Management ............................... 549
      Local Application of State and Federal Laws............. 518
                                                        Pollution and Other Perturbations .......................... 550
  Conclusions..........................................................................519
                                                        Seabirds and Fisheries ............................................. 550



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                                 A Status Report                                  17
          Appendix A: Management Considerations                           553      Steelhead............................................................................. 564
Table of Contents



                                                               Striped Marlin..................................................................... 564
            Abalone .............................................................................. 553
                                                               Swordfish ............................................................................ 564
            Albacore.............................................................................. 553
                                                               Smelts.................................................................................. 565
            Angel Shark......................................................................... 553
                                                                  Delta Smelt................................................................ 565
            Barred Sand Bass................................................................ 554
                                                                  Eulachon................................................................... 565
            Bay Shrimp.......................................................................... 554
                                                                  Longfin Smelt............................................................ 565
            Bocaccio ............................................................................. 554
                                                                  Night Smelt................................................................ 565
            Bull Kelp.............................................................................. 554
                                                                  Surf Smelt ................................................................. 565
            Cabezon............................................................................... 554
                                                                  Wakasagi .................................................................. 565
            Calico Rockfish ................................................................... 555
                                                                  Whitebait Smelt......................................................... 565
            California Barracuda .......................................................... 555
                                                               Washington Clam ................................................................ 565
            California Corbina .............................................................. 555
                                                               Wavy Turban Snails............................................................. 565
            California Halibut ............................................................... 555
                                                               White Croaker ..................................................................... 566
            California Sheephead.......................................................... 555
                                                               Yellowfin Tuna .................................................................... 566
            Coonstripe Shrimp .............................................................. 555
                                                               Yellowfin croaker................................................................ 566
            Coastal Cutthroat Trout....................................................... 555
                                                               Yellowtail ............................................................................ 566
            Dolphin ............................................................................... 555
            Eel Grass ............................................................................. 556   Appendix B                                         567
            Flatfish ................................................................................ 556
                                                            Glossary ..................................................................................... 567
            Gaper Clam ......................................................................... 556
                                                              References........................................................................... 575
            Geoduck Clam..................................................................... 556
            Giant Kelp............................................................................ 556   Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear                      577
            Giant Sea Bass ..................................................................... 557
                                                            Appendix D: Reviewers                                    583
            Gracilaria............................................................................ 557
            Grunion............................................................................... 557
                                                            Index                                            585
            Jack Mackerel ..................................................................... 557
            Kelp Bass............................................................................. 557
            Louvar ................................................................................. 558
            Monkeyface Prickleback..................................................... 558
            Mussels ............................................................................... 558
            Opah ................................................................................... 558
            Other Nearshore Rockfish................................................... 558
            Pacific Bonito...................................................................... 558
            Pacific Hake ........................................................................ 558
            Pacific Herring.................................................................... 559
            Pacific Razor Clam .............................................................. 559
            Pismo Clam ......................................................................... 560
            Purple Sea Urchin ............................................................... 560
            Red Rock Shrimp ................................................................ 560
            Red Sea Urchin.................................................................... 560
            Ridgeback Prawn ................................................................ 561
            Rock Crabs.......................................................................... 561
            Rock Scallop ....................................................................... 561
            Salmon ................................................................................ 561
            Sand Crab............................................................................ 562
            Scorpionfish........................................................................ 562
            Sea Cucumber ..................................................................... 562
            Sheep Crab .......................................................................... 562
            Shortfin Mako ..................................................................... 563
            Silversides ........................................................................... 563
            Skates and Rays................................................................... 563
            Skipjack Tuna ..................................................................... 563
            Spiny Lobster....................................................................... 563
            Spot Prawn .......................................................................... 564
            Spotfin Croaker ................................................................... 564
            Spotted Sand Bass ............................................................... 564


           California’s Living Marine Resources:                              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                                          December 2001
18
Introduction and                        south of San Francisco, and there are serious concerns

Historical Overview                       about the potential for extinction of the white abalone.




                                                                Introduction and Historical Overview
                                Some major groundsh stocks, especially long-lived rock-
                                shes, continued to decline. Quota reductions, seasonal
                                and area closures, bag limit reductions and long-term

C  alifornia’s Living Marine Resources: A Status Report is
                                stock rebuilding plans are causing major disruption in the
   the fourth edition in a series of reports that address
                                commercial and recreational industries and communities
the status of California’s marine and anadromous sheries
                                dependent on groundsh.
and other marine life. Since the California Department
                                Since the last edition was published, ve California salmon
of Fish and Game published California Ocean Fisheries
                                populations have been listed under the federal Endan-
Resources to the Year 1960 (1961) and California’s Living
                                gered Species Act (ESA): Sacramento River winter chinook,
Marine Resources and Their Utilization (1971), and the
                                Central Valley spring chinook, California coastal chinook,
California Sea Grant Program updated and expanded Cali-
                                California coastal coho (south of the San Francisco Bay),
fornia’s Living Marine Resources and Their Utilization in
                                and steelhead (south of the Klamath-Trinity River system).
1992, the state’s marine resources and their management
                                The principal problem faced by these runs is the habitat
have continued to undergo constant change. For example,
                                degradation that has accrued from water uses that com-
by the early 1990s the sardine shery, which was the
                                pete with the requirements of salmon. Primary among
world’s largest during the rst half of the 20th century
                                these is diversion of water for irrigation and domestic use.
and practically has been non-existent since the 1960s,
                                In addition, alterations of rivers and watersheds to enable
reappeared under precautionary management. In 1998,
                                navigation, provide power, control ooding, and otherwise
the sardine resource was declared fully recovered. Tropi-
                                accommodate the needs of humans have taken their toll.
cal tunas were an extremely valuable segment of Califor-
                                While California’s population continued to grow and diver-
nia sh landings until the tuna canning industry moved
                                sify during the 1990s, participation in marine recreational
overseas during the mid-1980s. Changes in California’s
                                shing measured by license sales continued to be rela-
commercial sheries between 1970 and 1990 included the
                                tively stable. The number of active commercial passenger
development of specialized and valuable sheries for sea
                                shing vessels (partyboats) declined from 308 in 1989 to
urchins, hake, Pacic herring and widow rocksh.
                                300 in 1998. Other forms of marine recreation linked to
Change has continued in many sheries since the 1992 edi-
                                the health of marine living resources such as ecotourism
tion of this report. For example, increased international
                                have grown signicantly and have become an important
demand for squid resulted in a 500 percent increase in
                                segment of California’s coastal dependent economy.
landings to over 300 million pounds annually during non-El
                                The public’s interest and involvement in the management
Niño years. This expansion attracted many new partici-
                                and conservation of marine living resources have
pants from salmon purse seine sheries in the Pacic
                                increased substantially since the 1992 edition of Califor-
Northwest. A squid management plan including restricted
                                nia’s Marine Living Resources and Their Utilization. Major
access is currently being developed. In 1994, gillnets were
                                federal and state legislation is altering the way marine
prohibited in most of the nearshore areas of the coast
                                resources are managed. The 1996 reauthorization of the
and islands of southern and central California. This hap-
                                Magnuson-Stevens Act specied a precautionary approach
pened as a result of a voter approved California constitu-
                                in federally managed sheries. This resulted in establish-
tional amendment (Prop. 132). During the 1990s, a major
                                ing much lower catch limits and designing long term stock
shery developed for nearshore species including rock-
                                rebuilding plans for many Pacic Coast groundsh species,
shes, cabezon, and sheephead that were often marketed
                                especially the rockshes. The MLMA also required the
live for signicantly higher prices. Concerns about sustain-
                                identication and protection of essential sh habitat.
ability of this new intense shery provided much of the
impetus for the Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) of      This report was written during a period of extraordinary
1998 and a moratorium on permits in the nearshore sh-     change in our state. The MLMA of 1998 signicantly altered
ery. The southern California commercial lobster shery     the way the state manages marine life. The MLMA pro-
continued to demonstrate higher catches during the 1990s    vides the mechanisms whereby the management responsi-
resulting in record landings in 1997. California barracuda   bility for commercial sheries can be moved from the
increased as a component of the recreational sheries to    California State Legislature to the Fish and Game Com-
the levels of the 1950s, and the white seabass population   mission. The MLMA mandates the development of shery
is showing signs of a recovery at the end of the century.   management plans incorporating peer-reviewed science,
The California halibut commercial shery continued to     increased constituent involvement in marine life manage-
sustain landings comparable to the 1980s, despite the     ment, implementation of an ecosystem based research
gillnet closure.                        and management approach, and regular analyses of the
                                status of California’s sheries such as those found in
Severe declines in abalone abundance resulted in total
                                this publication. While the initial management plans man-
closure of recreational and commercial abalone shing


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    19
                    dated are for white seabass, nearshore sheries, and      access in sheries. We have also taken advantage of new
Introduction and Historical Overview



                    emerging sheries, it is anticipated that similar manage-    technologies to increase the use and effectiveness of
                    ment plans will be developed for many other California     maps, graphs and tables. For ease of use, historical land-
                    marine sheries.                        ings statistics have been moved to the end of each appro-
                                                    priate chapter rather than being placed in large appendi-
                    Use of marine reserves and marine protected areas to
                                                    ces. A new glossary of technical terms and acronyms as
                    preserve marine wilderness and manage sheries is inten-
                                                    well as a shing gear appendix have been addded.
                    sifying at both the state and national level. California’s
                    Marine Life Protection Act of 1999 requires development     Compiling a publication like this is a collaborative effort.
                    of a master plan for a network of marine reserves. On the    The editors were fortunate to be able to recruit top
                    federal level, intense discussions by panels of scientists   experts from the California Department of Fish and Game,
                    and constituents have occurred regarding plans for marine    other state and federal agencies, universities, and private
                    reserves in large areas of the Santa Barbara Channel      industry in the preparation of this report. Each section
                    Islands. Although no consensus was reached by mid-2001,     has been peer reviewed for accuracy. The author’s name
                    debate regarding MPAs was continuing at both the state     and afliation appear at the end of the section they
                    and federal levels.                       wrote. When signicant portions of the text from the
                                                    1992 edition were left intact, the original author is cred-
                    During the 1990s, overcapitalization was widely recog-
                                                    ited. We want to thank the more that 200 authors and
                    nized as a major problem in some sheries. The difcult
                                                    reviewers who volunteered their time and expertise. We
                    task of designing restricted access programs to improve
                                                    also greatly appreciate the contributions of many photog-
                    the balance between eet shing power and sustainable
                                                    raphers who allowed us to use their images to greatly
                    harvest levels has become a major component of shery
                                                    enhance this publication.
                    management plans seeking to sustain sheries economi-
                    cally as well as biologically.                 All editors participated in the development of the overall
                                                    design and layout of the report. Bill Leet served as
                    Earlier editions of this publication proved to be among
                                                    the lead editor as he did for the 1992 edition. Rick
                    the most valuable general reference works available on
                                                    Klingbeil served as project manager for the Department of
                    California’s economically important marine species. The
                                                    Fish and Game. Christopher Dewees led the University of
                    reports have been widely used by sheries researchers
                                                    California’s participation. Eric Larson coordinated the
                    and managers, policymakers, interested citizens, journal-
                                                    creation of the numerous statistical tables, graphics and
                    ists, the shing industry, enforcement ofcers, educators,
                                                    maps found in the report. Principal publication production
                    and others. Publication of this edition is mandated by
                                                    assistance was provided through a contract with the
                    the MLMA of 1998. A primary purpose of the book is to
                                                    University of California, Davis. Tom Jurach from Repro
                    provide a baseline of information for all concerned with
                                                    Graphics Services and Marianne Post from Creative
                    managing living marine resources in California.
                                                    Communications Services organized the layout, design,
                    The editors of this edition have retained much of the style
                                                    and publication of the document.
                    and format of earlier editions. Many of the conventions of
                    scientic writing are foregone because it was felt that this
                    style better serves the broad interests of readers. Each    Christopher M. Dewees, Marine Fisheries Specialist, Sea
                    species article presented in this report contains a short    Grant Extension Program, Wildlife, Fish and Conservation
                    list of general references for further reading. Detailed sh  Department, University of California, Davis
                    and shellsh landings statistics, which begin in 1916, have   Richard Klingbeil, Program Manager, California Depart-
                    been updated through 1999.                   ment of Fish and Game, Los Alamitos
                    Readers of earlier editions will notice some signicant     Eric J. Larson, Senior Marine Biologist, California Depart-
                    changes and new features. The publication is organized     ment of Fish and Game, Belmont
                    by marine ecosystems (bays and estuaries, nearshore, and
                                                    William S. Leet, Senior Editor, Davis
                    offshore) rather than species-by-species. For species that
                    occur in more than one ecosystem, the discussion appears
                    in the ecosystem section where they spend most of their
                    life and/or their principal harvest location. Descriptions of
                    the three marine ecosystems used for this report are also
                    included. Added or expanded chapters include a detailed
                    description of the human dimensions of marine life man-
                    agement, California’s ocean environment, marine law
                    enforcement, water quality and pollution, and restricted



                      California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                           A Status Report                        December 2001
  20
California’s Variable
Ocean Environment                       temperatures) and indices of biological productivity (i.e.,




                                                                     California’s Variable Ocean Environment
                               zooplankton densities). These longer term events have


T
                               been shown to greatly alter populations of the dominant
   he habitat of California’s living marine resources is
                               pelagic shes of the California Current and it is probable
   primarily the California Current system. This huge,
                               that they affect the populations of even long-lived benthic
open system is constantly changing in response to weather
                               shes and marine mammals.
systems, seasonal heating and cooling processes, inter-
annual episodes such as El Niño - La Niña events, and    A species physiology determines its preferred temperature
longer term or regime scale climatic changes.        range and its lethal temperature tolerances. The surface
                               and bottom temperatures on the continental shelf off
Small organisms, and the young of most large ones, are
                               California make the northern portion of the state good
impacted by the full temporal range of physical processes.
                               habitat for sub-arctic and cold-temperate species (salmon,
Shorter time scale and local physical processes including
                               market crab, and petrale sole) and the southern portion
intense wind storms, extended periods of calms, infusions
                               good habitat for warm temperate and sub-tropical species
of freshwater runoff, and shorter term variations in
                               (kelp bass, spiny lobster and California halibut). Many
currents heavily impact the growth, survival, and dis-
                               of the most abundant species of the California Current
tribution of most of these organisms. Short-term varia-
                               are transition-zone species that have the center of their
tions in primary production (e.g., diatom blooms) coincide
                               distribution in California (Pacic sardine, Pacic hake,
with upwelling, but the scale of phytoplankton production
                               and northern anchovy). Temperature, like other physical
relates to the history of water masses and weather
                               oceanic factors, is highly variable on seasonal, annual,
conditions. Seasonal scale uctuations are so important
                               and longer time scales and it is the most easily studied.
to many organisms that their life-cycle is often largely
                               In addition, temperature is highly dependent upon large-
adapted to the seasonal cycle and their abundance is
                               scale ocean currents and local upwelling; it is therefore
often heavily inuenced by variations from the seasonal
                               a rough index of the productivity of the lower trophic
norm. Longer term events, El Niños and regime shifts,
                               levels and an indicator of climatic processes that favor
appear to be primarily dependent upon physical processes
                               the colder or the warmer water faunas that occur in
that are centered elsewhere in the Pacic and their
                               California. Temperature is thus the most commonly cor-
effects include alterations in the physical, nutrient, and
                               related climatic variable used to determine associations
biological content of the waters entering the California
                               with biological processes. However, nearly any environ-
Current system. These events also result in alterations in
                               mental factor that is associated with variations in the
local physical processes such as currents and upwelling
                               major currents will also be correlated with biological pro-
that control local inputs of nutrients. El Niño events and
                               cesses and temperature, and we do not know if altera-
regime shifts have extensive effects on kelp forests and
                               tions in currents or the resultant changes in temperature
zooplankton populations.
                               have the largest effect on biological processes in the
The adults of larger shes and other marine vertebrates
                               California Current.
are somewhat buffered from the effects of weather
and other short-term physical uctuations, and extremely
long-lived organisms, such as many of the deep benthic
shes, may have populations that are nearly independent
of normal short-term environmental uctuations. Many
of California’s marine shes have life history adaptations
such as extended spawning seasons, multiple spawnings,
migrations, and extreme longevity that reduce the harm-                         Average Monthly Sea
ful effects of short-term adverse environmental uctua-                         Surface Temperatures
tions and even limit the effects of El Niño events at the                        Off San Francisco
                                                     Sea surface water
population level. In contrast, organisms with shorter life
                                                     temperature offshore of
spans, such as the market squid, that may be only slightly                        San Franciso indicates a
affected by environmental uctuations at the shorter                           distinct summer upwelling
                                                     pattern with cold sea
time scales appear to have extreme population declines
                                                     surface temperatures
during El Niño events. Decadal or regime scale climatic                         nearshore, as well as large
uctuations that alter the basic productivity of the Cal-                        inter-annual variations.
                                                     Within this strong upwelling
ifornia Current system are common, repetitive events
                                                     cell, sea surface tempera-
readily observed in paleo-sediment analyses that extend                         tures can be colder during
back several thousand years. They are also clearly evident                        the summer in cold years
                                                     than they are during the
in time series analyses of physical factors (i.e., ocean
                                                     winter in warm years.


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                          21
                     The living marine resources of California evolved in      poleward ow is not uncommon in the nearshore region
California’s Variable Ocean Environment



                     a dynamic and changing ocean and most populations       over much of the system. The advection of warm, high
                     undoubtedly uctuated in response to environmental       salinity, low-nutrient and plankton-poor water from the
                     alterations long before man exploited them. Many of these   sub-tropics is largely responsible for the warm water ora
                     resources are now heavily exploited and those in the near-   and fauna and lower productivity characteristic of the
                     shore environment are also impacted by human induced      nearshore region south of Point Conception.
                     environmental changes. Some species, such as bocaccio     Like other eastern boundary currents, the California Cur-
                     and lingcod, have been heavily overshed, and their cur-    rent has extensive coastal upwelling that is primarily
                     rent populations are at very low levels. A few very highly   driven by spring and summer winds resulting from tem-
                     overshed stocks, such as Pacic mackerel and Pacic      perature gradients between the relatively cool sea surface
                     sardine, have suffered nearly complete population col-     and the warming continental land mass. Equatorward
                     lapses from which they have recovered after one or more    winds, offshore Ekman transport, and coastal upwelling
                     decades of protection by harvest moratoriums. As dis-     occur nearly all year off of Baja California and the offshore
                     cussed below, there is considerable evidence that regime    region of southern California; however, within the South-
                     shifts exacerbated the effects of shing and delayed the    ern California Bight wind velocities are lower and offshore
                     effects of the moratoriums.                  transport is much reduced. Wind velocities and upwelling
                     Fishery and marine resource management is presently in     are variable but tend to be at a maximum in the spring
                     the middle of a change in philosophy. In the past, our     to early summer in the region between Point Conception
                     management has been based on the view that the envi-      (34.5°N) and the Oregon border (42°N). The duration and
                     ronment can be considered to be constant with only minor    strength of upwelling-favorable winds diminishes north-
                     and temporary perturbations which introduce “random      wards. Off the State of Washington (48°N) upwelling is
                     noise” into our population assessments and management     relatively minor and is largely restricted to the late
                     policies. This has resulted in a management system       spring to early fall; winter storms there result in intense
                     that has failed to protect exploited populations during    downwelling events. Downwelling events diminish in both
                     extended periods of adverse environmental conditions.     magnitude and seasonal duration to the south, below
                     The information in the following sections indicates that    Point Conception they are uncommon and usually of
                     physical factors and biological productivity in the Califor-  minor magnitude.
                     nia Current system are not stationary. It is clear that    Climatic uctuations ranging from strong storms to sea-
                     variations in these processes must be monitored by our     sonal cycles to El Niño/La Niña events to decadal changes
                     research programs and built into our management systems    or regime shifts alter the physical, chemical, and biologi-
                     if we expect to maintain healthy and diverse nearshore     cal environment of California’s marine waters. Average
                     and offshore ecosystems.                    monthly sea surface temperatures (SST) in California
                                                     waters range from a minimum of about 52°F in February
                                                     off northern California to a maximum of about 68°F
                     Climatic Processes, El Niño Events               in August off southern California. The pattern of sea sur-
                     and Regime Shifts                       face temperatures in the California Current varies from
                                                     a clearly latitude dependent situation in the late winter,

                     T  he California Current, one of the world’s major eastern  with isotherms being nearly east-west in orientation, to
                       boundary currents, has its origin in the mid-latitude   the distinct upwelling pattern of cold water near shore
                     west-wind-drift region of the North Pacic, and it could    and warmer water offshore in the late summer. Most of
                     be considered an equatorward owing, surface extension     the area has mild winter SSTs, and cool summer SSTs
                     of the North Pacic Current. The core of the California    caused by the summer upwelling. This results in a very
                     Current normally lies about 90 to 130 miles offshore of    small seasonal variation in SST, no more than 4 to 7° F
                     the shelf break or continental margin. The fauna and      during the year. In contrast, the inter-annual variation in
                     productivity of the California Current system are heavily   SSTs can be as large as the normal summer/winter differ-
                     dependent upon the input of cool, low-salinity, high      ence; off San Francisco SST is colder during the summer in
                     nutrient and plankton-rich waters from the mid-latitude    cold years than it is during the winter in warm years.
                     North Pacic.
                     The system also has a sub-surface, poleward current (the
                                                     El Niño/La Niña Processes
                     Davidson Current) that is often at a maximum just off-
                     shore of, and somewhat deeper than, the shelf break. In

                                                     E  l Niño is a term that describes large-scale changes in
                     the fall, poleward ow often extends to the surface in
                                                       the atmospheric pressure system, trade winds, and sea
                     the southern portion of the California Current and surface
                                                     surface temperatures of the entire tropical Pacic that


                       California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                             A Status Report                        December 2001
  22
occur at approximately three to four-year intervals. The   marily inuenced by large-scale variations in ow of the




                                                                               California’s Variable Ocean Environment
cold water portion of the cycle is now referred to as La   California Current. Increases in southward transport are
Niña. This cyclic process has traditionally been measured   associated with increases in zooplankton production, cold
by the southern oscillation index (SOI), which is the dif-  temperatures, and low salinity (La Niña events), whereas
ference between the atmospheric pressure at Tahiti (an    decreases in this transport result in unusually low zoo-
approximation of the South Pacic High) and the atmo-     plankton biomass, warm temperature, and high salinity (El
spheric pressure at Darwin, Australia (near the Tropical   Niño events).
Pacic Low). The SOI is therefore a measure of the vari-   In addition to substantial declines in zooplankton abun-
ability of the atmospheric circulation in the South Pacic.  dance during El Niño events, analysis of the samples taken
The effects of El Niño events in California include reduced  during the years 1955 to 1959 showed a large rearrange-
input of cold, nutrient-rich waters from the north and    ment of the dominance structure of functional groups
increased advection of warm, nutrient-poor water of sub-   of macrozooplankton. The rank order of abundance for
tropical and tropical origin into the southern California   18 groups, containing an estimated 546 species, changed
area. There may or may not be a reduction in upwelling    over this period. Plankton community structure was sim-
favorable winds; however, nutrient input to the surface    ilar in 1955 to 1957 but underwent an abrupt and
waters from upwelling is decreased due to reduced nutri-   dramatic change coincident with strong El Niño conditions
ents in the subsurface waters and a depressed ther-      in 1958-1959. In addition to changes in zooplankton, other
mocline. Thus, during El Niños the California Current     characteristics of strong El Niño events include deepening
becomes more sub-tropical, and warm-water organisms      of thermocline and nitricline by some 165 feet, and redis-
enter the system in greater numbers. During La Niñas the   tribution of phytoplankton biomass from the upper layers
environment is more sub-arctic and cold water organisms    of the ocean to a deep chlorophyll maximum. Quarterly
are favored.                         patterns of environmental variables and zooplankton bio-
                               mass are now reported annually in the State of the Califor-
Although California occupies a large geographical area,
                               nia Current in CalCOFI Reports.
surface temperature anomalies on scales greater than a
few weeks are common over the entire region. Time
series of SST from northern, central and southern Califor-
                               Decadal/Regime Scale Processes
nia are characterized by strong El Niño events such as


                               D
those occurring in 1940, 1958, 1983, 1992, and 1997. In      uring the last decade it has become increasing appar-
addition, there are decadal scale events where surface       ent that longer term decadal to multi-decadal cli-
temperatures are above or below average for extended     matic cycles are impacting populations of a wide variety
periods. Cold periods occurred prior to 1925, from about   of marine organisms in the California region, and that
1946 to 1956, and from 1962 to 1976. Warm periods       all trophic levels are affected. Analyses of sh scales in
occurred from 1938 to 1945, 1957 to 1961, and from      anaerobic sediments have shown that these cycles have
1977 to 1998. Waters of the Central Pacic, however,     been occurring for thousands of years (i.e., independent
tend to vary in the opposite direction from the California  of shing), and that the most abundant sh stocks have
Current system.
Surface temperature is not necessarily a good indicator
of temperature below the upper mixed layer. In
1972, at the onset of a major El Niño, the surface tem-
perature at Point Conception was the lowest since 1951,
whereas the temperature at 330 feet was among the
warmest recorded.
The 50 year time series of the California Cooperative
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) is probably the
world’s best data set for determining the effects of inter-
annual physical variability on zooplankton populations,
the primary food for larger stages of larval and some
adult shes. As with temperature, strong interannual sig-
nals occur over a very large spatial scale. Anomalies of
zooplankton abundance, 10m temperature, 10m salinity,     Winter and Summer Pacific Coast Sea Surface Temperatures
                               Average (1920-1992) February and August sea surface temperatures (˚F). A cold summer
and southward transport are highly correlated in time
                               upwelling core is apparent in northern California. Data extract from COADS as monthly means.
from southern Baja California to north of San Francisco.
On interannual time scales, zooplankton abundance is pri-


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                              A Status Report                                  23
                     uctuations which occur over an average period of about    in reduced displacement of the thermocline and thus a
California’s Variable Ocean Environment



                     60 years. The implications from a number of these paleo-   shoaling of the source of upwelled waters. The effect is
                     sediment studies are that large-scale physical processes   to decrease the fraction of the year when wind stress is
                     are forcing the biological uctuations. Recent results from  strong enough to lift nutrient-rich waters to the surface
                     ocean/atmosphere models suggest that decadal climatic     near the coast. Because the increased stratication essen-
                     cycles are forced by air/sea interactions in the higher    tially insulates nutrient-bearing waters from the surface,
                     latitude North Pacic. Observed decadal to multi-decadal   a moderate degree of heating can greatly reduce the
                     uctuations in the mid-latitude atmospheric circulation in  surface nutrient supply. These trends appear to be related
                     the Central Pacic have also been suggested to have phys-   to the strengthening of the North Pacic wintertime atmo-
                     ical and biological effects that appear to affect a large   spheric circulation associated with the regime shift that
                     proportion of the North Pacic basin. A major regime shift  began in 1976-1977.
                     occurred in 1976-1977 and the surface waters of the entire  Fish eggs and larvae are also sampled in CalCOFI zooplank-
                     eastern Pacic Ocean from Mexico to Alaska became       ton collections. Although both total larval sh and zoo-
                     warmer. Since 1976, there has also been an increase in    plankton abundance exhibit substantial interannual vari-
                     the frequency, duration and intensity of El Niño events in  ability, there is no clear relation between the two time
                     California waters.                      series. There are weak time-lagged correlations when zoo-
                     The 1976 climatic shift is clearly seen in time series of   plankton leads sh larvae by four to ve months in three
                     California sea surface temperatures. Decadal and regime    of four regions of the California Current, which would
                     shift processes both are evident in a newly proposed     be expected if poor nutrition of adult sh has affected
                     index for the North Pacic, the northern oscillation index  their reproductive success. Although zooplankton is well
                     (NOI). This index is analogous to the southern oscillation  correlated with temperature, salinity, and transport, total
                     index used to describe and predict El Niños. However,     sh larvae are poorly related to these physical param-
                     it is a better measure of the atmospheric circulation in   eters. Nor are larval sh clearly related to anomalies in
                     the North Pacic because it is based on the difference    longshore winds, the basis of coastal upwelling. Analyses
                     between the average position of the North Pacic High     of both larval sh and zooplankton data suffer from the
                     (35°N: 130°W) and the Tropical Low near Darwin. When     obvious complications of lumping large numbers of taxa;
                     the three to four year scale El Niño processes are ltered  studies of individual species may offer better oppor-
                     out, using a 36-month moving average, the NOI exhibits    tunities of relating oceanographic variability to recruit-
                     the decadal cycles that researchers have predicted and    ment success. For example, there are inverse trends for
                     the widely observed climatic shift that occurred in      northern anchovy and Pacic sardine spawning biomass
                     1976-1977.                          and larval standing crop; the declines for anchovy and
                                                    increases for sardines took place during a period of declin-
                     Zooplankton populations also exhibit strong interdecadal
                                                    ing zooplankton abundance and warming temperatures
                     variability. CalCOFI data showed a 70 percent decrease in
                                                    associated with the regime shift. Clearly shes are long-
                     the biomass of macrozooplankton associated with warm-
                                                    lived organisms with complicated life histories; mortality
                     ing of surface layers between 1951 and 1993. Averages
                                                    in poorly assessed stages such as juveniles may account
                     of zooplankton biomass over the initial and nal seven-
                                                    for the poor relationships between physical parameters,
                     year periods of this interval were computed for southern
                                                    larval abundance, and adult stocks.
                     California grid lines . The differences between the two
                     periods appeared to be uniform in space and at least
                     twice the standard deviation of the seven-year mean at
                                                    Implications for Nearshore Ecosystems
                     each station. Over this time period, lines 80 and 90 sur-


                                                    T
                     face temperatures warmed by an average 2.2 and 2.8°F,       he ora and fauna of California’s nearshore communi-
                     respectively, but thermal changes at depth were small.      ties are strongly affected by interannual variability in
                     Therefore, the vertical stratication of the thermocline   the physical environment including both El Niño-Southern
                     substantially increased, resulting in a reduction in the   Oscillation events and the regime shift that began in
                     transfer of nutrients to the surface.             1976-1977. Furthermore, large wave events in this region
                     Long-term trends in temperature and salinity of the upper   are highly correlated with strong El Niño events, so
                     100m, zooplankton biomass, and transport from north to    these two forms of disturbance often co-occur. Thus,
                     south through the present day CalCOFI grid indicate that   in the southern and central regions of the state there
                     interdecadal changes apparently have different physical    has been considerable interdecadal-scale wave variability,
                     forcing mechanisms than those associated with El Niño     with greatly increasing numbers of episodes with signi-
                     events. Because the surface layer has become warmer and    cant wave heights greater than 12 feet in recent years.
                     fresher, the increase in stratication apparently results



                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                             A Status Report                       December 2001
  24
The most dramatic benthic effects of El Niño events are    appear to be important. Drift kelp is the primary food for




                                                                               California’s Variable Ocean Environment
on kelp forests, ecosystems organized around the struc-    sea urchins and abalones. With up to 60 percent of the
ture and productivity provided by giant kelp (Macrocystis)  biomass of a healthy Macrocystis forest in its canopy, the
and bull kelp (Nereocystis). The two-fold effects include   loss of the canopy and varying degrees of mortality of
extreme winter storm waves, which may decimate kelp      adult plants have huge effects on drift availability. With
populations along the entire exposed coast, and anom-     reduced food supplies, urchin gonad production is very
alously-warm, nutrient-depleted waters, whose effects     low, often to the point of making processing uneconomi-
increase in severity with decreasing latitude. With their   cal; because the product is the gonads. Many processors
high growth rate, southern California Macrocystis popula-   closed during the 1982-1984 El Niño, for example. Abalone
tions depend on nutrients supplied by upwelling or inter-   reproduction and recruitment are also affected, leading
nal waves. When these sources are rendered ineffective    to large gaps in size-frequency distributions. The loss
by depression of the thermocline, growth ceases, tissue    of drift food may trigger destructive grazing by sea
decay leads to the loss of the surface canopy, and consid-  urchins, transforming kelp forests to barren grounds with
erable mortality may follow. Kelp forests from the warm-   cascading implications for other organisms in this com-
est regions of the state, Orange County south along the    munity. Anomalously warm waters are also associated with
mainland and the southeastern Channel Islands, suffer     disease outbreaks, especially for sea urchins, sea stars,
massive losses. Further to the north, the addition of the   and abalones.
El Niño temperature anomaly to normal summer-fall tem-    Reductions in Macrocystis populations have critical impli-
peratures apparently maintains the environment within     cations for shes dependent on giant kelp for foraging
the range of suitability (i.e., nutrients did not become   habitat and refuge from predators. Recruitment of young-
limiting), although growth may be reduced.          of-the-year kelp bass is dependent on Macrocystis density.
Sea surface temperature is the best predictor of kelp     The presence of giant kelp has a positive effect on the
harvest and areal extent. The increase in mean SST since   recruitment of other rocky inshore shes such as kelp
the 1976-1977 regime shift has been associated with large   rocksh, giant kelpsh, kelp surfperch, pile surfperch, and
decreases in the size of Macrocystis plants as measured by  black surfperch. On the other hand, the striped surfperch,
number of stipes per individual. Furthermore, this secular  which feeds in foliose red algae, is adversely affected by
increase in SSTs means that each El Niño event is adding   the presence of Macrocystis because of the strong nega-
to a higher temperature base; thus, successive events are   tive relationship between giant kelp and foliose algae.
characterized by increasingly severe temperature anom-    Thus, the structure of a kelp forest has signicant effects
alies. Poor conditions for Macrocystis growth are associ-   on the species composition and local density of the sh
ated with enhanced understory algae and reduced drift     assemblage, and that structure is strongly affected by
kelp production.                       ocean climate.
Aerial surveys illustrate huge variability in Macrocystis   With greatly increased transport from the south, northern
surface canopies in the Southern California Bight. The    range extensions of subtropical, migratory species and
effects of the 1983 and 1998 El Niño winter storms are    larvae are very characteristic of El Niño events. Most
apparent in all areas, but the speed of kelp recovery
varies with location. Cooler areas such as San Miguel
Island recovered from the storms very quickly and had
minimal impacts from the warm, nutrient-depleted waters
that followed. In contrast, many of the Macrocystis popu-
lations on the coastline between Santa Barbara and Point
Conception, which were largely set in sand, were devas-
tated by the storms of the early 1980s and have not recov-
ered. The 1988-1989 La Niña provided excellent growth
conditions after a severe storm largely removed existing
giant kelp populations in many areas; this combination led
to peaks in kelp canopy biomass in the southeastern part
of the bight in 1990.
While effects of El Niño and regime shifts on the kelps
are relatively well known, the implications for higher tro-  California Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies
                               Annual sea surface temperature anomalies (˚F) off northern, central, and southern California,
phic levels and community structure are only beginning
                               with means of three time periods (1920-1937, 1938-1976, and 1977-1997). Data extract from
to be understood. The effects of storms, warm, nutri-     COADS as monthly means.
ent-depleted waters, and anomalous current patterns all



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                              A Status Report                                   25
                     migratory species are pelagic, but pelagic red crabs are   sensitive to El Niño conditions, because it was poor during
California’s Variable Ocean Environment



                     conspicuous nearshore visitors. Spiny lobsters and sheep-   1983 and 1992. Poleward advection, downwelling, delayed
                     head, two important predators of sea urchins in the South-  and reduced phytoplankton blooms, and low zooplankton
                     ern California Bight, both have their centers of distribu-  abundance appear to be important factors in reproductive
                     tion off Baja California and recruit heavily to southern   failure during these periods. Modeling has demonstrated
                     California (and sheephead as far north as Monterey) during  that shery management practices can exacerbate El Niño
                     strong El Niño events. Conversely, La Niña events with    effects if harvest is not decreased in response to the
                     enhanced transport from the north result in increased     environmentally induced decrease in biomass.
                     recruitment of cool water shes such as blue rocksh in    In northern California, where the red sea urchin shery
                     southern California.                     is limited by poor recruitment, there has been strong
                     Observations of shallow water reef sh assemblages in     interest in understanding the role of oceanographic vari-
                     the Southern California Bight from 1974 to 1993 indicate   ability on the temporal and spatial patterns of settlement.
                     substantial changes in species composition and productiv-   Recent studies have shown increased settlement in some
                     ity that appear to relate to the increased frequency of    sites during both the 1992-1993 and 1997 El Niños, but
                     El Niño events and the regime shift. At two sites off Los   the sampling periods were short and settlement was not
                     Angeles, species diversity fell 15 to 25 percent and the   consistent among areas. Regional patterns of circulation
                     composition shifted from dominance by northern to south-   in northern California and the delivery of larvae to the
                     ern species by 1990. By 1993, 95 percent of all species    coast during upwelling relaxation are the best explanation
                     had declined in abundance by an average of 69 percent.    for the observed pattern of recent recruitment for several
                     Similar declines of surfperch populations off Santa Cruz   invertebrate species. Understanding the role of larger
                     Island were linked to declines of their crustacean prey    scale processes will require longer time series.
                     and biomass of understory algae where the sh foraged.
                     Recruitment of young-of-the-year at the three sites fell
                                                    Implications for the Offshore Ecosystem
                     by over 90 percent, and the decline was highly correlated
                     with the decrease in macrozooplankton abundance in the

                                                    C  alifornia’s marine fauna and ora are principally com-
                     CalCOFI data. These changes in population abundances
                                                       ponents of the subarctic, transition, and central (or
                     and trophic structure were apparently caused by lower
                                                    subtropical) zones. Subarctic species are more common
                     productivity associated with the regime shift of 1976-1977.
                                                    off northern California and subtropical species more abun-
                     Statistics from the commercial passenger shing vessel    dant off southern California. With the exception of marine
                     rocksh shery of southern California for the period 1980   mammals, birds, and a very few shes (tunas), marine
                     to 1996 illustrate a substantial decline in catch-per-unit  organisms are cold blooded. They are therefore highly
                     effort. Three species abundant in 1980 were absent by     affected by temperature, making water temperature one
                     1996. Catch of others such as bocaccio declined as much    of the most signicant physical factors that marine organ-
                     as 98 percent. On average, mean length declined due to    isms have to cope with. In fact, the most obvious effect
                     the removal of larger size classes, and in the case of    of climatic variation in the California offshore ecosystem
                     the vermilion rocksh, the take changed from primarily    is the appearance of tropical species such as tunas and
                     adults to almost entirely juveniles. On some trips, the    pelagic red crabs in association with El Niño events. As
                     catch now mostly consists of dwarf or small species of    mentioned earlier, variations in the major current pat-
                     Sebastes. Such population declines probably result from    terns greatly inuence uctuations in ocean temperatures.
                     poor long-term juvenile recruitment caused by adverse
                                                    Wind driven upwelling also alters temperature and trans-
                     oceanographic conditions combined with overshing of
                                                    port patterns. In the California current, the most obvious
                     adults and sub-adults. This combination results in recruit-
                                                    consequence is the nearshore core of cold upwelled water
                     ment overshing that reduces spawning stocks to levels
                                                    that is at a peak in the Cape Mendocino region in the
                     too low to ensure adequate production of young sh for
                                                    summer. Nearshore species that have pelagic eggs are
                     future shing.
                                                    highly susceptible to the offshore loss of their early life
                     Dramatic effects on sh assemblages are reported in cen-   history stages by wind-driven surface transport. Many spe-
                     tral California as well, where El Niño events are asso-    cies are therefore unable to reproduce successfully in
                     ciated with improved recruitment of southern species,     the region between Point Conception and Cape Blanco,
                     recruitment failures of rockshes, and poor growth and    Oregon (about 35-43°N), where upwelling and offshore
                     condition of adult rockshes. In addition to sheephead,    transport are at a maximum. Many of the important spe-
                     blacksmith and bluebanded goby are southern species that   cies that are permanent residents of this region have
                     were observed near Monterey. Reproductive success of     reproductive adaptations that reduce the offshore disper-
                     many species of central California rocksh appears to be   sion of reproductive products. These include bearing live


                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                             A Status Report                       December 2001
  26
young (rockshes and surfperches), demersal spawning      With the exception of the salmons, the colder water shes




                                                               California’s Variable Ocean Environment
(herring, lingcod and many littoral species), anadromous    are much less likely to make seasonal migrations. Most of
spawning (salmonids and true smelts), and late winter     the California groundsh and nearshore shes make very
spawning (Dover sole, sablesh and most rockshes) to     limited geographical movements, other than the larval
avoid the intense upwelling season (late spring to early    drift that occurs during their planktonic early life history
summer). The most abundant California Current shes      stages. Once they settle in good habitat, individuals of
have pelagic eggs and larvae and these shes have exten-    these species tend to remain in relatively small areas. La
sive spawning and feeding migrations (Pacic hake, Pacic   Niña events therefore are not remarkable in the appear-
sardine, Pacic mackerel, and jack mackerel). The adults    ance of large numbers of the adults of cold water species
of these stocks feed in the more northern portions of the   moving down from Alaska and Canada. However, they may
region during the summer and fall, and then return to the   result in increased recruitment at the southern edges of
area near, or to the south of Point Conception to spawn in   the range of colder water species.
the late winter and early spring.

                                Regime Scale Climatic Variations
El Niño - La Niña Fluctuations
                                L  onger-term climatic processes appear to be forced by

T  he most obvious biological effect of El Niño Southern     factors outside of the California Current region. Early
   Oscillation events is that environmental factors, espe-  studies showed that sea surface temperatures are out
cially temperature, affect the behavior and distribution of  of phase off of California and Japan. The dominant
larger marine organisms. These effects are most marked     pelagic shes of the California, Japan, and Peru/Chile
in the adults of pelagic, migratory, or nomadic species    regions have been shown to have strikingly similar popula-
that are able to greatly expand or contract their ranges    tion uctuations, and paleo-sediment studies in both the
by actively moving among regions with seasonal cycles or    California Current and the Peru Current suggest that
other climatic uctuations such as El Niño events. South-   regime scale climatic changes have been occurring for
ern species that have the center of their distribution south  thousands of years. Salmon production in the Pacic
of California such as bonito, barracuda, white sea bass,    Northwest (chinook and coho) has recently been related
and swordsh normally move into southern and central      to interdecadal climatic patterns in the North Pacic and
California during the late summer and fall. Both these     it is out of phase with production of pink and sockeye
shes and tropical shes such as yellowtail, skipjack, and   salmon in Alaska.
yellown tuna move into southern California in larger     In contrast with short term La Niña events, cold water
numbers during El Niños. Major El Niño events also cause    organisms are able to extend their populations into the
extended migrations of Pacic sardine, jack mackerel, and   southern portion of the state during extended cold peri-
Pacic mackerel to as far north as Alaska. This migratory   ods. Many rockshes that have the center of their distribu-
response to warmer surface temperatures is primarily      tion in the subarctic zone exhibit this pattern. The reverse
behavioral and it may or may not be associated with      pattern occurs in subtropical shes. Some transition zone
increased population size of the individual species.      pelagic species move as far north as southern Alaska
Sub-tropical species with limited swimming ability, such    during very warm years but essentially abandon the area
as pelagic red crabs and smaller zooplankton species,     north of California during extended cold periods.
often occur in dense concentrations off of California, sug-  The California Current has recently been in its longest
gesting that advection also plays a signicant role in com-  recorded period of warm water. During the last two
munity structure during El Niño events. El Niños are known   decades, there have been marked population declines in
to alter the population levels of zooplankton and other    a number of cold water species (salmon, lingcod, and
animals with short life spans. The market squid, which     rockshes) and several stocks are now threatened or
normally lives for no more than one year, appears to be    endangered. In contrast, several transition zone shes
heavily impacted by El Niños and the California shery for   that spawn off southern California and migrate to feeding
this species has suffered near total collapse in major El   grounds between northern California and Canada experi-
Niño years. Population effects on longer-lived animals are   enced large population increases following the shift to
likely, but population time series are lacking for most spe-  warm water conditions (Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel
cies. El Niños and other warm water events can result in    and Pacic hake). It is clear that physical climatic factors
decreased growth rates and reproductive output in shes,    may be as important as shing in regulating the productiv-
and decreased size at maturity in market squid.        ity of some exploited species.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                    27
                     Conclusions                          References
California’s Variable Ocean Environment




                     T  he organisms of the California Current are adapted to   Baumgartner, T.R., A. Soutar and V. Ferreria-Bartrina.
                       an environment that varies on scales from local and    1992. Reconstruction of the history of Pacic sardine and
                     short term to very large scale and multidecadal. Growth,    northern anchovy populations over the past two millennia
                     reproduction, and larval survival may be depressed for     from sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California.
                     variable periods during short-term adverse environmental    CalCOFI Rep. Vol. 33:24-40.
                     conditions, but most adults of larger species survive. The   Chelton, D. B., P. A. Bernal, and J. A. McGowan. 1982.
                     addition of decades of intense shing pressure onto long    Large-scale interannual physical and biological interaction
                     term climate disturbances such as those experienced since   in the California Current. J. Mar. Res. 40: 1095-1125.
                     the 1976-1977 regime shift, however, makes population
                                                     Dayton, P. K. and M. J. Tegner. 1990. Bottoms beneath
                     decline almost inevitable for species adversely affected
                                                     troubled waters: benthic impacts of the 1982-84 El Niño
                     by the changed environment. The challenge facing shery
                                                     in the temperate zone. In: P. W. Glynn (ed.), Ecological
                     managers is how to respond on time scales that will
                                                     consequences of the 1982-83 El Niño to marine life.
                     protect spawning stocks during periods of poor reproduc-
                                                     Elsevier Oceanography Series No. 52, p. 433-472.
                     tion. One approach is to signicantly decrease shing
                                                     Holbrook, S. J., M. H. Carr, R. J. Schmitt, and J. A. Coyer.
                     effort on existing, heavily pressured stocks to create a
                                                     1990. Effect of giant kelp on local abundance of reef
                     buffer for hard times. El Niño events are being predicted
                                                     shes: the importance of ontogenetic resource require-
                     with increasing skill; if shing effort on sensitive species
                                                     ments. Bull. Mar. Sci. 47: 104-114.
                     could be sharply curtailed in favor of species that thrive
                     under warm conditions, the negative effects of these      Holbrook, S. J., R. J. Schmitt, and J. S. Stephens. 1997.
                     climatic events could be reduced. Another approach is to    Changes in an assemblage of temperate reef shes associ-
                     establish marine protected areas large enough to ensure    ated with a climate shift. Ecol. Appl. 7(4): 1299-1310.
                     surviving populations in every region. If some rocksh
                                                     Love, M. S. , J. R. Caselle, and W. Van Buskirk. 1998. A
                     stocks had been protected in southern California during
                                                     severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
                     the present regime shift, for example, recovery during
                                                     rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the Southern California
                     cold water periods would be far faster than the present
                                                     Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Rep.39: 180-195.
                     situation that will largely depend on recruitment from
                                                     MacCall, A.D. 1996. Patterns of low frequency variability
                     depressed central California populations.
                                                     in sh populations of the California Current. CalCOFI Rep.
                     Too much of our sheries management has been based
                                                     Vol 37:100-110.
                     on the assumption that environmental variability is not
                                                     McGowan, J.A. 1972. The nature of oceanic ecosystems. In
                     important. With 20/20 hindsight and the increasing pros-
                                                     The Biology of the Oceanic Pacic. Ed C.B. Miller. Oregon
                     pects of human impacts on climate, we know that this
                                                     State Univ. Press. 9-28.
                     cannot continue. It is clear that over the next decade
                     a major research effort will have to be made to better     McGowan, J. A., D. R. Cayan, and L. M. Dorman. 1998.
                     understand the climatic connection and that shery man-    Climate-ocean variability and ecosystem response in the
                     agement will have to consider policies to reduce exploi-    northeast Pacic. Science 281: 210-217.
                     tation rates when species are impacted by adverse
                                                     Roemmich, D. and J. A. McGowan. 1995a. Climatic warm-
                     climatic factors.
                                                     ing and the decline of zooplankton in the California Cur-
                                                     rent. Science 267: 1324-1326.
                     Richard R. Parrish
                                                     Tegner, M. J. and P. K. Dayton. 1987. El Niño effects on
                     National Marine Fisheries Service
                                                     Southern California kelp forest communities. Adv. Ecol.
                     Mia J. Tegner                         Res. 47: 243-279.
                     University of California Scripps Institution of Oceanography
                                                     Tegner, M. J. and P. K. Dayton. 1991. Sea urchins, El Niños,
                                                     and the long-term stability of Southern California kelp
                                                     forest communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 77: 49-63.
                                                     Tegner, M. J., P. K. Dayton, P. B. Edwards, and K. L. Riser.
                                                     1997. Large-scale, low-frequency effects on kelp forest
                                                     succession: a tale of two cohorts. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
                                                     146: 117-134.




                       California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                             A Status Report                        December 2001
  28
The Status of Habitats
and Water Quality in                       shing and tourism that depend on a healthy coast and




                                                                The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
                                 ocean contribute more than 17 billion dollars to the

California’s Coastal                       state’s economy every year, and provide 370,000 jobs to
                                 California’s citizens.



and Marine                            Health of Coastal and Marine Water
                                 Quality and Habitats
Environment                            Monitoring and Assessment Information


                                 G  ood water quality and healthy aquatic habitats
Importance of Healthy Waters and                   depend upon the activities that occur nearby. Land
Habitats to Marine Life                     use practices, population densities, point and nonpoint
                                 source discharges, agriculture, urbanization, industry, and

C  lean water is essential to a healthy coastal and marine
                                 recreation all inuence the water quality and habitat of
   environment. Seventy-ve percent of all commercial
                                 a specic locality or region. To determine the nature and
sh in the United States depend on estuaries and associ-
                                 extent of impacts that these activities have on water
ated coastal wetlands for some portion of their life-cycle.
                                 quality and habitat, monitoring and assessment programs
Unfortunately, these are probably the most threatened of
                                 are conducted at the state, federal, and local levels.
all habitats in California today.
                                 The state’s Bay Protection and Toxic Cleanup Program
Because pollution impairs the breeding grounds for many     and Mussel Watch Program, the San Francisco Bay
species of sea life, it is a substantial contributing factor   Regional Monitoring Program, the Southern California
to declines in these species. Impacts to coastal-depen-     Bight Regional Study, and the National Oceanographic and
dent species include declines in the species’ populations,    Atmospheric Administration’s Status, and Trends Program
reproductive problems, birth defects, behavioral changes,    are but a few examples of the many programs underway in
and increased susceptibility to disease. For example, ill-    California. Monitoring and assessment information is used
nesses and deaths of sea otters and other marine mam-      to determine compliance with state and federal statutes
mals from viruses, many of which had had little effect      such as the federal Clean Water Act and the state’s Porter-
on the animals only a few years ago, are on the rise       Cologne Water Quality Control Act, as well as with permit
in California. Studies indicate that coastal pollution may    regulations and water quality standards protecting marine
be a signicant factor in these increased illnesses and     resources and their habitats.
deaths, possibly due to its negative impacts on immune
                                 Though monitoring efforts in the state are limited and
systems responses.
                                 can be much improved, some conclusions can be drawn
Pollution can come from direct discharges (“point        about the health of certain state’s waters. For example,
sources”) and runoff from land-based activities (“non-      existing data indicate that uses of 100 percent of the
point source pollution”). Plumes of contaminated runoff     state’s surveyed tidal wetlands, 71 percent of surveyed
can oat on top of the heavier seawater and have been      bays and harbors, 91 percent of surveyed estuaries, 78
shown to extend 25 or more miles offshore. Nutrient pol-     percent of surveyed freshwater wetlands, 71 percent
lution, such as from farms, can create toxic algal blooms,    of surveyed lakes and reservoirs, and 81 percent of sur-
or “red tides,” in marine waters. One 1998 toxic algal      veyed rivers and streams are impaired or threatened in
bloom produced domoic acid, a harmful biotoxin that       some way by water pollution. Examples of uses that are
affects the nervous system in animals and humans. This      being impaired or threatened by pollution include drinking
algal bloom resulted in the death of more than 50 Cali-     water, sh consumption, aquatic life support, swimming,
fornia sea lions along California’s central coast. Inland,    and aquaculture. It should be noted that these gures are
nonpoint source pollution from logging and other activi-     only for those waters that are monitored, which may over-
ties impair critical habitats for marine life, including north  represent the more contaminated waters in the state. On
coast streams essential to threatened and endangered       the other hand, a recent federal report indicates that the
species such as Pacic Coast coho salmon.            number of impaired waters is likely much higher than that
                                 currently recorded.
The health, safety, and welfare of California residents
who use marine resources similarly depends upon clean      The state’s latest report on water quality generally
coastal and ocean waters. Eighty percent of Californians     describes the major water pollution concerns along the
live within 30 miles of the coast. Industries such as      California coast. In the north coast region, nonpoint



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                            29
                                             source pollution from logging and agriculture pose the    source discharges and it becomes readily apparent that
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             most signicant problems. In the San Francisco Bay area,   impacts to marine and estuarine resources are inevitable.
                                             point source discharges from petroleum reneries and     Some improvements, however, have been realized over
                                             cities along the bay, and nonpoint source runoff from     the years as a result of additional controls and require-
                                             Marin County dairies and farms in the Central Valley and   ments applied to point source discharges, and due to
                                             Napa County, cause coastal pollution problems. Along the   phase out of particularly toxic chemicals. For example, a
                                             central coast, agriculture creates the most signicant pol-  recent study reports that concentrations of DDT and PCBs
                                             lution problems. Along the densely populated southern     in livers of bottom sh collected throughout the southern
                                             California coast, storm-water pollution is a major problem,  California coastal shelf are at concentrations 95 percent
                                             though agricultural runoff and sewage discharges also are   lower than 20 years ago, though health advisories still
                                             important pollution sources.                 exist for these constituents. The major challenge remain-
                                             States are required to identify water bodies within the    ing is the control of nonpoint source pollution.
                                             state’s jurisdiction that do not meet water quality stan-
                                                                            Data Limitations/Gaps
                                             dards. To this end, the State Water Resources Control


                                                                            E
                                             Board, in conjunction with the state’s nine Regional       xisting water quality and habitat data are not as com-
                                             Water Quality Control Boards, has used monitoring data      plete or comprehensive as needed to assess the overall
                                             to develop a list of impaired water bodies for the State   health of marine ecosystems. California does not yet have
                                             of California. A water body can be listed as impaired for   a system to comprehensively monitor water quality in the
                                             any number of chemical constituents or conditions such    inland watershed, enclosed waters, or nearshore ocean
                                             as nutrients, heavy metals, petroleum products, sediment   zones, and the vast majority of California’s waterways
                                             toxicity, bacteria, pesticides, polynuclear aromatic hydro-  and small estuarine systems are not monitored by the
                                             carbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), etc.    state on a regular basis. For example, over 90 percent
                                             California has over 500 water bodies that are “impaired,”   of California’s rivers and streams and about half of the
                                             that is, they are not meeting water quality standards     state’s coastal shoreline are simply never monitored by
                                             under current regulations; many of these are coastal.     the state. Sediment and water quality assessment pro-
                                                                            grams such as the statewide Mussel Watch Program, Bay
                                             Waters from the Oregon border to north of San Francisco
                                                                            Protection and Toxics Cleanup Program and the San Fran-
                                             Bay are listed as “impaired” primarily because of sedi-
                                                                            cisco Bay Regional Monitoring Program, all need to be con-
                                             ments. There are, however, some northern embayments,
                                                                            tinued and expanded. These programs have, over recent
                                             (e.g., Humboldt Bay and Tomales Bay) that have been
                                                                            years, supplied critical data on the health of the coastal,
                                             identied as impaired by other assorted constituents such
                                                                            bay, and estuarine waters of the state. However, years of
                                             as heavy metals and nutrients. southern California, with
                                                                            funding cuts have left the health of much of California’s
                                             a substantially higher number of impaired coastal waters,
                                                                            waters unknown.
                                             bays, and estuaries, faces problems from a much wider
                                             variety of sources and contaminants, with urban runoff    Programs that will collect data on contaminants and
                                             playing a prominent role. A southern California example is  marine life populations, as well as pollutant source identi-
                                             Santa Monica Bay, which has been listed as impaired for    cation, are necessary to ensure that adequate informa-
                                             several heavy metals, marine debris, sediment toxicity,    tion is available to make sound regulatory and man-
                                             chlordane, DDT, PAHs, and PCBs. San Pablo Bay, located    agement decisions regarding water quality issues. In addi-
                                             in the northern San Francisco area, has been identied as   tion, a statewide baseline inventory of various habitats
                                             impaired for several heavy metals, exotic species, diazi-   such as rocky intertidal, subtidal, kelp beds, rock reef,
                                             non, PCBs, chlordane, DDT, dieldren, dioxin, and furan    beach areas, mudats, and subtidal vegetation is critical
                                             compounds. In central California, Morro Bay is impaired    to make sound scientically-based resource management
                                             because of heavy metals, sedimentation/siltation, and     decisions. Additional information also needs to be gath-
                                             pathogens. San Diego Bay has been listed for copper, sedi-  ered on marine and estuarine habitat restoration and
                                             ment toxicity, and benthic community effects; and Lower    enhancement opportunities.
                                             Newport Bay for a variety of pesticides, metals, nutrients
                                                                            In 1999, the Legislature passed a law that required the
                                             and pathogens. In many of these areas, degraded subtidal
                                                                            State Board to prepare a comprehensive, statewide sur-
                                             and intertidal habitat has also been identied.
                                                                            face water quality monitoring program by November 2000.
                                             The coastal waters of California have been utilized for    This will serve as the blueprint for much-needed improve-
                                             waste disposal for many years. Ocean outfalls for the     ments in coastal water quality monitoring.
                                             discharge of treated sewage, power plant cooling waters,
                                             and various industrial discharges are common throughout
                                             the state. Add to this the substantial volumes of nonpoint



                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                       December 2001
    30
Sources of Impairment of Water Quality             City of San Francisco, which is one of the few major cities




                                                               The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
                                left in the nation that has a combined storm water and
and Habitats                          sewage system. This aging system frequently overloads
                                during heavy storm events and discharges raw sewage to
                                the Pacic Ocean.
Point Source Discharges


P
                                Sewage treatment plants discharging into the marine envi-
  oint source discharges are generally those that have a
                                ronment are another signicant pollution source. The dis-
  discrete, identiable source, such as a pipe carrying
                                charges for those plants that provide secondary treatment
treated waste from a pulp mill or a sewage treatment
                                to the waste stream contain low levels of heavy metals,
plant. Point sources also include municipal, industrial,
                                pesticides, nutrients, and high volumes of fresh water.
and construction storm water discharges and offshore oil
                                Some heavy metals, though discharged at low levels, bio-
well platforms.
                                accumulate up the food chain. These have the potential
Point source discharges into the marine environment con-
                                to alter body burdens in sh and other marine life feeding
tain a variety of contaminants. They include suspended
                                in the vicinity of the discharge pipe. While levels at the
and dissolved solids, heated water, petroleum hydro-
                                end of the pipe in the water column may be considered
carbons, heavy metals, nutrients, pesticides, chlorine,
                                relatively insignicant, over the reproductive life of the
brines, fresh water, and oil and grease. All discharges into
                                affected marine organisms, effects may be signicant.
the marine or estuarine environment are required to be in
                                This is particularly true in areas where discharges receive
compliance with provisions of the State Water Resources
                                only primary treatment to remove solids. For example,
Control Board’s California Ocean Plan or the respective
                                San Diego uses only “advanced primary” treatment for the
Basin Plans developed by the Regional Water Quality Con-
                                city’s sewage, which it then deposits into the ocean.
trol Boards. Conditions on permitted discharges are sup-
                                Point source discharges lead to a variety of impacts. Beach
posed to be set so that discharge of pollutants will not be
                                closures, degraded bay and estuarine habitats, increased
deleterious to sh, wildlife and other resources.
                                levels of contaminants in marine sediments, bioaccumula-
Point source discharges to marine waters of the state
                                tion of pollutants in the tissues of marine organisms,
are substantial both in volume and pollutant load. Many
                                degraded benthic communities, loss of kelp beds, and
millions of gallons of treated efuent from sewage treat-
                                sediment toxicity are some of the more notable impacts
ment plants, cooling water discharges from power plants,
                                identied. Beaches are posted or closed for thousands
storm water, and other point sources ow into marine and
                                of beach days each year due to point source discharges
estuarine waters every day.
                                from combined sewer overows and storm water. Non-
Historically, there have been many discharges of pollut-    point source pollution, which is not conned to a discrete
ants that, although discontinued, continue to have adverse   and easily regulated source, plays an even greater role in
impacts upon the environment. For example, in the 1960s    water pollution and habitat degradation in California.
and 1970s, regional industrial facilities discharged DDT
and PCBs into what is now the County of Los Angeles Joint   Nonpoint Source Discharges
Water Pollution Control Plant, which discharged these

                                N  onpoint source pollution occurs when water from rain-
toxins directly into the Pacic Ocean at the Palos Verdes
                                  fall, snowmelt, oods, or irrigation runs over land
shelf. Today, the discharge area is identied as a U.S. EPA
                                or through the ground, picks up pollutants, and deposits
superfund site and is undergoing extensive evaluation and
                                them into rivers, lakes, bays, estuaries, nearshore coastal
remediation planning.
                                waters or groundwater. In California, nonpoint source
One of today’s foremost issues with respect to ongoing     discharges have been categorized into eight large group-
coastal water quality and habitat impacts is storm-water    ings: agricultural, urban, silviculture, marinas and boat-
discharge. Although storm water discharges are regulated    ing, grazing, mine drainage, on-site sewage treatment
by National Pollution Discharge Elimination System       systems, and hydromodication.
(NPDES) permits, the current contribution of pollutant
                                According to the U.S. EPA, agriculture is the leading con-
load by this source to waters of the state is staggering. In
                                tributor nationwide to water quality impairments, degrad-
the National Water Quality Inventory: 1998 Report to Con-
                                ing most of the impaired river miles and lake acreage
gress, U.S. EPA found that urban runoff and storm sewers
                                surveyed by states, territories, and tribes. By contrast,
are the leading source of pollution in coastal waters.
                                runoff from urban areas is the largest source of
Urban runoff and storm water discharges include pollut-
                                water quality impairments to surveyed estuaries. The
ants such as heavy metals, pesticides, salts, sediments,
                                most common nonpoint source pollutants are sediments
trash, debris, nutrients, bacteria, petroleum products,
                                and nutrients.
and sewage overows. This problem is heightened in the



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                            31
                                             Some examples of impacts from nonpoint source pollution    much higher, but current resource limitations make full
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             in central California include agricultural runoff releases   detection impossible.
                                             of DDT into the Salinas River Lagoon and Monterey Bay     In nearly all cases, wildlife are injured or even killed by
                                             National Marine Sanctuary at levels that have been dem-    contact with oil. Aquatic birds, shorebirds, and marine
                                             onstrated to be deleterious to aquatic life; and severe    mammals, particularly sea otters, are the sea life most
                                             oxygen depletion and eutrophication, as well as shellsh    visibly affected. However, birds collected at an oil spill
                                             contamination, in Tomales and Bodega bays and their      site often may die with no external signs of oil contact
                                             tributaries due to nutrients from dairy runoff. Data from   because they have ingested oil while cleaning it off their
                                             the National Shellsh Register document that in 1995 (the   feathers. Once ingested, the oil is almost always fatal to
                                             most recent year reported) shellsh harvesting was pro-    the birds. Impacts to sh and other aquatic organisms are
                                             hibited for 9,000 out of 24,000 acres of harvesting areas in  not often observed because the affected organisms sink
                                             California due to water quality concerns. Coastal nonpoint   out of sight.
                                             source pollution, including both urban and agricultural
                                                                             The use of oil dispersants to prevent an oil slick from
                                             runoff, also contributes to the thousands of days of beach
                                                                             coming ashore generally serves to break up the spill’s
                                             closures and postings in the state each year.
                                                                             integrity. However, they allow the oil to remain emulsied
                                             Alteration of water ow (hydromodication) and channel     in the water column, and add dangerous chemicals that
                                             erosion are two nonpoint source pollution categories      may adversely affect water column communities below
                                             that have been linked to the decline of anadromous sh-    the surface. Oil spills that do come ashore impact coastal
                                             eries (e.g., chinook salmon), especially in habitat areas   and marine wildlife as well as valuable rocky intertidal,
                                             where spawning success is determined. The increased      sand beach, and coastal wetlands habitats.
                                             sedimentation, siltation, and turbidity resulting from
                                                                             In 1991, the California Department of Fish and Game cre-
                                             these pollution sources lead to habitat loss and modica-
                                                                             ated the Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR)
                                             tion. These impacts may then adversely affect species
                                                                             to implement legislation to address oil pollution issues in
                                             population numbers.
                                                                             the marine environment. In 1997 (last year for available
                                             Harbors and marinas provide their share of nonpoint      data), 767 marine oil spills were reported to OSPR. Again,
                                             source pollutants including oily bilge water, detergents    these are only reported spills; the actual amount of oil
                                             from the washing of decks and hulls, runoff from shipyards   discharged into coastal waters is likely far higher than
                                             with paint akes containing heavy metals and organotins,    reported. For example, these gures do not include the
                                             and dish detergent and occasionally sewage material from    8.5 to 20 million gallons of diluent released over many
                                             live-aboards. Marinas and harbors also can add a sig-     years at the Unocal/Guadalupe oil eld near the City of
                                             nicant sediment plume to local waters during dredging     San Luis Obispo.
                                             activities for channel and basin depth maintenance, as
                                             well as associated pollutant and sediment loads from the    Other Spills
                                             dumping of these dredged materials into coastal waters.

                                                                             S  ewage spills are the most common of non-oil related
                                                                               spills. Effects can range from minimal losses to thou-
                                                                             sands of sh and other marine animals killed or impaired.
                                             Spills                             A recent sewage spill into the Salinas River resulted in
                                                                             a portion of the river becoming completely depleted of
                                             Oil Spills                           oxygen and in the loss of hundreds of shes, including

                                             O  f all deleterious materials spilled into the marine    steelhead trout (a federally listed species). Sewage spills
                                                environment, crude oil and rened petroleum prod-     also have the potential to release harmful chemicals into
                                             ucts are the most common. Oil enters state waters from     the environment, as the sewage has not reached the treat-
                                             many sources, such as storm drains and runoff from road-    ment plant where these chemicals normally are removed
                                             ways, as well as medium-to-large oil spills. Oil spills come  or reduced to non-toxic levels prior to discharge. Sewage
                                             in many forms, from the discharge of oily bilge water by    spills are a signicant source of beach closings and health
                                             tens of thousands of boats plying the waters of California,  advisories each year.
                                             to breakage in oil pipelines due to earthquakes or age.    Even some chemical compounds commonly thought to be
                                             From 1991 to 1998, “signicant” oil spills released at least  non-toxic can have an adverse effect on wildlife when
                                             18,650 barrels of oil into California’s coastal waters. Data  spilled into an aquatic environment. For example, the
                                             complied by U.S. EPA of signicant California spills from   release of 2,300 gallons of vegetable oil into Monterey Bay
                                             1971 to February 2000 record 627,415 barrels of oil spilled  in 1997 impacted a variety of birds species. Among other
                                             that resulted in identied environmental damage. The      things, birds were poisoned through ingestion of the oil,
                                             actual number of spills and amount of damage is likely     and oil on feathers made the birds less buoyant and more


                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                        December 2001
    32
susceptible to hypothermia. Several hundred birds died,     homeporting project. Upland or aquatic disposal for ben-




                                                                The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
while hundreds more were rehabilitated and released.      ecial reuse is encouraged throughout the state to mini-
                                mize open-water unconned disposal at authorized in-bay
                                (e.g., San Francisco Bay), nearshore (e.g., Moss Landing) or
Dredging and Disposal of                    ocean (e.g., Los Angeles, San Diego, Eureka, etc.) disposal
                                sites. Dredged material that is physically suitable, but
Dredged Material                        is chemically unsuitable for aquatic disposal because of

D
                                elevated levels of certain contaminants, may be used
  redging is the deepening or enlargement of a naviga-
                                as ll, or in certain wetland construction and habitat
  tional channel, harbor/marina basin, or berthing area.
                                improvement projects, provided the contaminated materi-
Construction of new channels, basins, or berthing areas
                                als are conned (e.g., parking lots, container piers, etc.).
involves the removal of previously undisturbed sediment,
while “maintenance dredging” removes accumulated sedi-     Beach nourishment is one of the more common reuses
ment from previously dredged areas. Maintenance dredg-     of clean dredge material from routine dredging projects.
ing also occurs at the mouths of coastal lagoons, creeks,    Compatible material, which matches the receiving beach
and rivers where accumulated sediment is removed to       in grain size and quality, is usually pumped directly onto
keep the system open to the ocean.               the beach and then spread by use of heavy equipment, or
                                directly placed in the nearshore environment where it will
At the ports of San Francisco, Oakland, Los Angeles, Long
                                be transported onshore through natural littoral processes.
Beach, and San Diego, increasing global economic pres-
                                Large-scale beach nourishment projects, using material
sures have resulted in the need for larger, deeper draft
                                from offshore borrow areas, are currently being planned
ships to transport cargo. This has led to a demand
                                for southern California, particularly in San Diego County.
for new construction dredging to widen and deepen
channels, turning basins, berths, and slips to accommo-     Dredging activities can cause signicant negative impacts
date the larger vessels. Maintenance dredging has simi-     to marine life, including a direct loss of benthic habitat,
larly increased. More often, dredging activities are permit-  as well as potential loss or injury to slow moving or immo-
ted for annual or multiannual maintenance of previously     bile benthic species such as polychaete worms, crabs,
dredged areas. Although infrequent, dredging activities     seastars, clams, and bottom-dwelling shes. Studies have
are increasingly being used for wetland restoration and     shown that benthic invertebrate species can re-colonize in
enhancement projects such as the dredging of Batiquitos     the dredged area as early as six months after a dredging
Lagoon in San Diego County, the Port of Los Angeles’      project has been completed. However, this type of recov-
shallow water habitat, and the Port of Oakland’s middle     ery can be delayed indenitely if there is repeated dredg-
harbor enhancement area.                    ing activity. Depending on the scale of dredging, there
                                also could be a loss of marine plants such as eelgrass.
The selection of a disposal site for dredged sediments is
                                In addition to the direct loss of habitat and associated
dependent upon the physical and chemical characteristics
                                infauna and epifauna, dredging operations displace mobile
of the material to be placed. Physically and chemically
                                sh and invertebrates, affect the foraging habits of marine
suitable material (i.e., appropriate grain size and minimal
                                birds, and displace other water birds such as ducks, geese,
contamination) may be disposed of at unconned, open-
                                terns, loons, grebes, and cormorants. Newly dredged sub-
water disposal sites authorized by the U.S. EPA and U.S.
                                strate also is more susceptible for colonization by opportu-
Army Corps of Engineers, such as the deep-ocean disposal
                                nistic and invasive non-endemic organisms.
site near the Farallon Islands off San Francisco.
                                Dredging may also result in the resuspension and redistri-
In some instances, clean material may be benecially
                                bution of sediments, potentially increasing marine and
reused for structural ll, wetland construction and resto-
                                estuarine life to exposure to chemical contaminants,
ration, habitat improvement and enhancement, capping
                                as well as a temporary decrease in dissolved oxygen.
material for sites with contaminated sediments, or for
                                Increases in turbidity and suspended solids decrease light
beach nourishment. Dredge material has been used in Los
                                penetration, resulting in reduced photosynthesis by phyto-
Angeles Harbor to regain acreage of shallow water habitat
                                plankton, kelp, eelgrass, and surfgrass. Prolonged turbid-
historically lost to past dredge and ll projects. In the Los
                                ity can clog the apparatuses of lter-feeding invertebrates
Angeles Harbor project, clean dredge material was used
                                and the gills of shes. Turbidity also reduces the ability
to cap contaminated sediments. A recent Port of Oakland
                                of sight-foraging birds, such as the federal- and state-
channel deepening project resulted in the creation of the
                                endangered California least tern and brown pelican, to
Sonoma Baylands, a more than 300-acre tidal wetland res-
                                successfully capture prey items.
toration project located in Sonoma County. In San Diego
Bay, the Navy has proposed a 30-acre shallow water hab-     For small dredging projects, many impacts are assumed
itat site to be built with dredge material from their      to be short term and temporary; however, the larger the


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                            33
                                             dredging project, the longer the duration of the dredging   Asian clam, the European green crab, the New Zealand sea
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             and the greater the impacts to marine organisms. The      slug, the Chinese mitten crab, several species of sponges,
                                             method of dredging also affects turbidity and resuspension   jellysh, several species of sh, and numerous species of
                                             of sediments. For example, a clamshell dredge results     anemone, snails, mussels, clams, and barnacles.
                                             in more turbidity at the dredging site than a hydraulic    It is widely accepted that the discharge of ballast water is
                                             dredge, but at the disposal site the opposite occurs.     the primary mechanism by which coastal invasive species
                                             There are a number of ways to minimize some of the       are spread. For example, from 53 percent to up to 88
                                             impacts associated with dredging. Mitigation measures     percent of the aquatic non-indigenous species introduced
                                             include the use of silt curtains to contain ne sediments,   into San Francisco Bay in the last decade originated in bal-
                                             water-tight clamshell buckets for minimizing the disper-    last water discharges. Other sources include aquaculture
                                             sion of contaminants, and seasonal restrictions (e.g., no   imports and deliberate introductions (the possible source
                                             dredging during the nesting seasons of least terns and     of the invasive Chinese mitten crab in the San Francisco
                                             snowy plovers, or during the migration of endangered      Bay Estuary).
                                             salmonid species).                       This topic is addressed in more detail in the chapter on
                                             Open-water disposal buries most immobile epibenthic and    invasive species.
                                             infaunal organisms within the footprint of the disposal
                                             site, and there are expectations that the site will be
                                                                             Habitat Loss, Destruction and Alteration
                                             degraded over time. Approved ocean disposal sites are
                                             designed to minimize adverse impacts to living marine

                                                                             N  earshore coastal and estuarine habitats are signif-
                                             resources outside of the site boundaries. Beach replenish-
                                                                               cantly impacted by ll, residential and commercial
                                             ment can also have negative impacts on marine resources
                                                                             development, and ood control projects. Fill, or the
                                             and their habitats. Sensitive and valuable habitats includ-
                                                                             placement of sediments, pilings, bulkheads, retaining
                                             ing kelp beds, rocky reefs, and surfgrass could be poten-
                                                                             walls, piers, etc. in marine waters, has occurred in every
                                             tially buried by nearshore disposal operations. Direct
                                                                             major port and many other developed coastal areas.
                                             placement of sand on the beach may also bury incubating
                                                                             The man-made Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach
                                             California grunion eggs, destroy nests of western snowy
                                                                             were created by the dredging and lling of the former
                                             plover and least tern, and preclude shorebird foraging.
                                                                             3,450-acre Wilmington Lagoon. Large-scale ll projects
                                                                             continue today as increasing economic pressures dictate a
                                             Invasive Species                        need for additional container terminals. In fact, the Port
                                                                             of Los Angeles just recently completed an over 580-acre

                                             I nvasive species are the number two threat to endan-     landll project for its Pier 400 project. In the San Fran-
                                              gered and threatened species nationwide, second only     cisco Bay area, the San Francisco International Airport
                                             to habitat destruction. Specic environmental threats     is proposing a runway reconguration project that would
                                             include consumption of native species and their food      potentially ll up to 1,500 acres of San Francisco Bay.
                                             sources, dilution of native species through cross-breeding,  The lling of marine waters with large volumes of sedi-
                                             and poisoning of native species through bioaccumulation    ment clearly has signicant adverse impacts on the near-
                                             of toxics that are passed up the food chain. Commercial    shore marine and estuarine environment, permanently
                                             shermen nationwide are seeing signicant impacts to      eradicates benthic habitat, and likely kills most epibenthic
                                             sh and shellsh populations due to invasive marine life.   and infaunal organisms within the footprint of the ll.
                                             Moreover, unlike threats posed by most chemical or other    Additionally, ll removes the surface-air interface, reduc-
                                             types of pollution, biological pollution by non-indigenous   ing foraging areas for surface feeding species, and
                                             species has permanent impacts, as aquatic invasive spe-    reduces water column habitat, adversely affecting plank-
                                             cies are virtually impossible to eradicate once established.  ton, shes, diving birds, and marine mammals.
                                             Though many areas along California’s coast have been      Structures, such as wharves, piers, seawalls, groins, and
                                             impacted, San Francisco Bay has seen some of the most     breakwaters, also impact and modify the marine and estu-
                                             signicant damage from invasive species. Extensive stud-    arine environment. There is often a permanent loss of
                                             ies conrm that at least 234 alien plant and animal spe-    habitat from the ll used to install the structure, such as
                                             cies now live in San Francisco Bay, and that recently     pilings for piers. Some overlying structures (e.g., pier plat-
                                             introduced alien species are nding a viable niche in the   forms) cover a portion of the water column, resulting in
                                             bay and delta at the rate of one new species every 14     the loss of foraging habitat for sight-feeding marine birds
                                             weeks. Those invasive species that have been positively    such as terns and pelicans. Additionally, the structure may
                                             identied as permanent residents of the bay include the    shade marine plants such as eelgrass, as well as algae



                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                        December 2001
    34
and benthic invertebrates. Groins and breakwaters may     valued for their capacity to recharge groundwater and




                                                              The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
deect wave or water current energy and inuence water    cleanse runoff.
currents, ushing, sedimentation, and normal sediment     However, these habitats are an increasingly scarce
transport. Materials used to construct structures exposed   resource. For example, 90 percent of California’s coastal
to water may have negative impacts on water quality,     wetlands have been diked, paved over, developed or oth-
such as creosote-treated wood products. The operation of   erwise destroyed, and only ve percent of the state’s
the structure may also result in additional water quality   coastal wetlands remain intact. Development continues
impacts, such as runoff from piers and platforms.       to pose a signicant threat to the few remaining natural
In addition to the structures themselves, construction    coastal wetlands. The vast majority of California’s popula-
activities associated with projects also impact the marine  tion lives within a short drive from the coast, and the
environment, and, although the impacts are not perma-     number of people settling in coastal counties continues
nent, they may have signicant effects on resources. This   to grow.
is particularly true for large-scale or long-term projects  Development not only can directly destroy coastal habi-
or where there are multiple small project phases in the    tats, but also can contaminate them through the urban
same area. Surface turbidity caused by dredging is one    runoff and other discharges generated by the develop-
of the major impacts from in-water construction activities  ment activities. Increased controls on urban runoff will be
affecting marine plants, birds, and shes. Shock waves    implemented shortly through a new round of regulations
from demolition and pile driving can further impact forag-  on smaller municipalities, helping to control this problem
ing birds by making prey more difcult to capture. They    somewhat, but it is unclear whether this effort will be
are also capable of breaking up concentrated schools of    outweighed by the sheer rate of growth in these areas.
sh, forcing schools to seek deeper waters or avoid an
                               The California Coastal Act limits the lling of wetlands
area altogether. Noise associated with construction opera-
                               and estuaries to certain types of projects including
tions also displaces marine birds and mammals.
                               port, energy, and coastal-dependent industrial facilities,
Groins and breakwaters convert one habitat type to      entrance channels for new or expanded boating facilities;
another resulting in a change in community structure.     new boating facilities in a degraded wetland; and restora-
For example, placement of riprap over subtidal/intertidal   tion, nature study, and aquaculture. Despite these protec-
habitat converts a soft bottom surface to a rocky habitat.  tions, coastal wetlands are still being developed today.
Habitat conversion becomes an issue when a majority of    Development projects are currently anticipated at Bolsa
the habitat in the area has already been altered. For     Chica, Ballona, and Los Cerritos wetlands, some of the few
example, in San Diego Bay, only 26 percent of the bay’s    remaining wetlands in southern California.
shoreline remains natural, whereas the remainder is cov-
ered with man-made structures.
                               Water Flow
Flood control projects can be another source of habitat
loss and alteration. The natural hydrology of bays
and estuaries has been greatly affected by human activi-   Freshwater Discharges
ties in an attempt to control ooding. Flood control meth-

                               T  he two principal sources of freshwater discharges into
ods such as channelization of rivers and streams have
                                 marine and estuarine habitats are sewage treatment
impacted or destroyed riparian habitat and increased the
                               plants and power plant cooling water. Sewage treatment
rate of sedimentation into bays and estuaries. Breaching
                               plants discharge treated wastewater into coastal waters
of sand bars on coastal rivers and streams for the purpose
                               and bays. There, the freshwater dilutes the salinity of
of ood control has changed riverine habitat from fresh
                               the receiving environment, impacting and changing that
water to brackish or tidal. One of the many functions of
                               habitat. This problem is particularly acute in south San
wetland habitat is to provide ood control during high ow
                               Francisco Bay, which has a low ushing rate.
years, but development on coastal wetlands has, among
                               With respect to power plant discharges, California has
other things, removed this natural benet.
                               more power plants discharging into salt and brackish
Coastal habitats such as wetlands and estuaries are vital
                               water than any other state. Although these plants use
to the survival of numerous invertebrates, shes, birds,
                               once-through cooling systems, the water is heated to
mammals, and plants. Already an essential component of
                               several degrees above ambient during transit through the
commercial and sport shing industries worth hundreds
                               plant. Impacts from heated water can vary depending
of millions of dollars, these habitats help fuel the
                               upon where the discharge structure is located. Discharges
state’s economy and support California’s diverse marine
                               into environments that normally experience wide tem-
wildlife population. California’s coastal wetlands also are
                               perature ranges during tidal and annual cycles (e.g., estu-



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                            35
                                             aries) are more resistant to changes from thermal effects   smothering gravels with silt during high ow releases, and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             than those that do not normally experience such changes.    by emptying summer rearing pools. Dams also contribute
                                             Power plant discharges can result in decreased diversity    to poor water quality by releasing warm surface water
                                             and density of species at the community and ecosystem     that has been mostly depleted of oxygen; or by releasing
                                             levels. In addition to heat, power plant discharges can    water, through spillways, that may contain oxygen levels
                                             contain high levels of suspended solids, which decrease    too high for sh survival (supersaturation). The lakes that
                                             light penetration of the water column and affect adjacent   are formed by large dams cover miles of former spawning
                                             kelp bed production.                      rifes, and many dams have been built without passage
                                                                             facilities, blocking the upstream migration of anadromous
                                             Power plants also cause problems related to water ow.
                                                                             sh trying to nd suitable spawning habitat.
                                             Electricity generating power plants take in billions of gal-
                                             lons of water on a daily basis. Diablo Canyon Nuclear     Water conveyance structures (i.e., water canals) remove
                                             Power Plant circulates 2.5 billion gallons of water per day,  essential water from rivers and streams that historically
                                             which pulls in creatures in the seawater en route to pass-   produced the bulk of California’s salmon runs. These
                                             ing the water through the plant in its once-through cooling  structures not only remove water, they also alter existing
                                             cycle. This water circulation causes temperature increases   habitat. For example, canals that leak repeatedly create
                                             in the area of discharge (thermal pollution), impingement   riparian habitat entirely dependent on that leakage. When
                                             (marine animals caught on water intake screens), and      these canals are repaired, the ecosystem that has devel-
                                             entrainment (destruction of marine animals pulled inside    oped over the years is lost. Water canals also have the
                                             the plant). Entrainment is generally limited to those     potential to transport sh between watersheds and intro-
                                             organisms not capable of swimming against the intake      duce species into unfamiliar habitats. Many newly created
                                             current (e.g., larval forms). Most energy company-spon-    reservoirs behind dams contain non-native sh that also
                                             sored studies of power plant entrainment limit analysis    have the potential to escape from the lake into the outlet
                                             to effects on larval sh, arguing that plankton losses     stream, such as the in the case of the northern pike
                                             are too difcult to enumerate and analyze for ecosystem    introduced into Lake Davis.
                                             effects. It has been estimated, however, that plankton
                                             losses can signicantly increase the estimates of overall
                                                                             Recreational and Commercial Activities
                                             wildlife losses due to entrainment. Larval entrainment
                                             losses are often estimated at 100 percent due to a multi-
                                             plicity of factors, including physical changes in pressure,  Boating
                                             discharge velocity, turbulence, and temperature increase

                                                                             C ruise ships, yachts, and other large recreational ves-
                                             effects. If the power plant has a mechanism to return
                                                                              sels discharge sewage, gray water, toxic chemicals, oil
                                             impinged organisms to the water (most do not), those
                                                                             and gas, and air pollutants into sensitive coastal waters.
                                             losses are lower, but do contribute to the cumulative
                                                                             Smaller vehicles also can do signicant harm.
                                             effects of power plants on the ecosystem.
                                                                             Jet Skis (Motorized Personal Watercraft)
                                             Hydromodication

                                                                             F  or example, jet skis, more generically referred to as

                                             D  ams in California range from large, permanent struc-
                                                                               “motorized personal watercraft” (MPWC) can do sig-
                                                tures to small, temporary structures. Millions of gal-
                                                                             nicant nearshore harm. For example, their noise, which
                                             lons of water, often diverted from rivers that empty into
                                                                             is rated at 85-105 decibels, can disrupt wildlife communi-
                                             the ocean or estuaries, are stored for agricultural use,
                                                                             ties through alteration of behavior and nest abandonment.
                                             drinking water supplies, ood control, or groundwater
                                                                             MPWCs also pollute more than other boats. From 25 to
                                             recharge. Dams change the landscape both at the con-
                                                                             33 percent of the oil and gasoline used by MPWCs is
                                             struction site and the downstream conveyance to the
                                                                             discharged unburned, impacting local water quality. A
                                             ocean or estuary. Loss of upstream habitat due to water
                                                                             two-hour ride on an MPWC can discharge up to three
                                             diversion has the effect of reducing the production capa-
                                                                             gallons of unburned gasoline and oil, or the same amount
                                             bility of anadromous species that depend on continuous
                                                                             of pollution as driving 139,000 miles in a 1998 passenger
                                             summer ows for rearing and transport of juveniles that
                                                                             car. The impact of accumulated oil pollution in the marine
                                             travel downstream to the ocean for growth prior to
                                                                             environment is particularly signicant in sensitive near-
                                             returning to natal streams. Diversion of freshwater inow
                                                                             shore environments such as estuaries and bays. This pol-
                                             to estuarine systems also reduces the productivity of the
                                                                             lution can have cumulative effects throughout the food
                                             estuaries by reducing the nutrient input which diatom and
                                                                             web as the hydrocarbons bioaccumulate, posing a threat
                                             other bottom trophic level organisms require. Dams also
                                                                             to larger marine life.
                                             change stream morphology by altering sediment ow, by



                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                        December 2001
    36
For these reasons, MPWC regulations have been estab-      Measures to minimize these impacts include prohibiting




                                                               The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
lished in sensitive areas such as the waters of the Mon-    the use of damaging gear in sensitive areas and modifying
terey Bay and Gulf of the Farallones National Marine      gear so that damage to bottom habitats is minimized.
Sanctuaries. In justifying the regulation of MPWC, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration noted
                                Ecosystem-wide Implications
that, “the small size, maneuverability and high-speed of
these craft is what causes these craft to pose a threat

                                A  n ecosystem can be dened as the balanced and
to resources. Resources such a sea otters and sea birds
                                  sustained interaction of a biological community with
are either unable to avoid these craft or are frequently
                                its physical and chemical environment. The sh, inverte-
alarmed enough to signicantly modify their behavior
                                brate, marine mammal, aquatic bird, and aquatic plant
such as cessation of feeding or abandonment of young.”
                                populations in California’s coastal, bay, and estuarine
Indeed, the narrow draft and smaller size of MPWCs
                                waters are all components of a vast array of discrete and
allows them to access the most fragile nearshore habitats,
                                overlapping communities and ecosystems. Although most
causing signicant environmental impacts including: ight
                                members of a biological community are linked through
responses in shorebirds and alteration of nesting habits;
                                elaborate food webs based upon predation, competitive
destruction of critical bird and sh habitat, including eel-
                                and mutualistic relationships also play an important role.
grass beds; and harassment of or collisions with marine
                                Add to this complexity the myriad of effects on individual
mammals (several of which are federally protected spe-
                                organisms and populations from changes in the chemical
cies under the Endangered Species Act) and other wildlife.
                                and physical environment, and measuring and evaluating
While these impacts are most critical in the nearshore
                                ecosystem responses to these changes becomes a chal-
environment, the risk of collision with or harassment of
                                lenging task.
marine mammals and seabirds is signicant throughout
                                The current state of environmental science allows us to
areas frequented by MPWC.
                                use both individual evaluation measures and combinations
Fishing                            of measures depending upon the information at hand.


T
                                These may include population numbers and structure,
  here is growing evidence that shing has a signicant
                                biological testing (e.g., bioassays, bioaccumulation, etc.),
  impact on coastal habitats. For example, the complex-
                                concentration of contaminants in organisms or the sur-
ity of the marine habitat can be altered by the scraping,
                                rounding habitat, movement of contaminants into aquatic
shearing and crushing effects of shing gear. Physical
                                ecosystems, and size and/or availability of habitat. Based
effects of trawling include plowing and scraping of the
                                upon these and other measurements, it appears that bay
sea oor and resuspension of sediments. Resulting benthic
                                and estuarine ecosystems are much more threatened than
troughs can last as little as a few hours or days in mud
                                those of the nearshore coastal environment with regard
and sand sediments over which there are strong tides or
                                to habitat quality and quantity. This is particularly true
currents, to between a few months to over ve years in
                                with regard to contaminants in the water column and
sea beds with a mud or sandy-mud substrate at depths
                                benthic sediments, and impacts from dredging and lling,
greater than 100 meters with weak or no current ow.
                                point and nonpoint source discharges, oil spills, and non-
Longline gear has similarly been observed to shear marine
                                indigenous species introduction. On a localized or regional
plants and sessile organisms from the bottom. Pot gear
                                basis, however, areas of the nearshore coastal environ-
may damage demersal plants and animals as it settles,
                                ment may be in worse condition than our bays and estuar-
and longlined pots may drag through and damage bottom
                                ies with regard to specic contaminants or conditions.
fauna during gear retrieval. Boat anchors also can inict
                                Examples include DDT-laden sediments in the area of the
serious, though localized, damage in some areas.
                                Palos Verdes shelf and radioactive waste dumped near the
In addition to directly altering the bottom habitat, shing
                                Farallon Islands.
can result in lost gear that is left to “ghost sh,” thereby
                                Although California’s population continues to increase,
causing additional habitat alterations. Fishing activities
                                thereby putting added pressure on our limited resources
also affect the water column through discharge of offal
                                and habitats, there are a number of efforts and initiatives
from sh processed at sea. These discards in deeper
                                underway in the state to begin to curtail impacts and
water could redistribute prey food away from midwater
                                improve the quality and quantity of our marine and
and bottom-feeding organisms to surface-feeding organ-
                                estuarine habitats. These efforts include greater
isms; in low-current environments, these discharges can
                                regulation of point and nonpoint source discharges,
decompose and create anoxic bottom conditions. The
                                improved identication of toxic hot spots, increased
water column also can be impacted by fuel leaks from
                                emphasis on benecial reuse opportunities for dredged
shing boats.
                                materials, reduction of the frequency and extent of oil


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                            37
                                             spills, development and coordination of large-scale water   receive federal 319 funds for projects to control polluted
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             quality and habitat monitoring and assessment programs,    runoff. Signicant limitations of this program include low
                                             restrictions on the import of non-indigenous species in    levels of funding in comparison with the signicance of
                                             ballast water, and increased marine habitat restoration    the problem and the fact that the programs are voluntary.
                                             and enhancement projects.                   As a result, over a decade after establishment of the “319
                                                                            program,” polluted runoff continues to be the major - and
                                                                            growing - source of pollution into the nation’s waters.
                                             Regulatory Structure for Addressing
                                                                            Regulation of Discharges into Impaired Waters
                                             Water Quality and Habitat Issues
                                                                            S  ection 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires states
                                                                              to identify specic water bodies where water quality
                                             Federal                            standards are not expected to be met even after full
                                                                            implementation of required permit controls and other con-
                                             Clean Water Act                        ditions imposed on point source discharges. States must


                                             T
                                                                            then establish a priority ranking of those impaired waters
                                                he Environmental Protection Agency is the foremost
                                                                            and identify the pollutant stressors that are causing the
                                                federal agency with responsibility for protecting the
                                                                            water quality problems. In accordance with those rank-
                                             health of the nation’s waters. The Federal Water Pollution
                                                                            ings, the state must then establish limits on all pollution
                                             Control Act (“Clean Water Act”) addresses the major cat-
                                                                            discharges, both point and nonpoint, in order to ensure
                                             egories of discharges into coastal and marine waters with
                                                                            attainment of water quality standards within a “margin
                                             varying degrees of stringency. California’s State Water
                                                                            of safety.” These limits are referred to as the “total
                                             Resources Control Board (SWRCB) and Regional Water
                                                                            maximum daily loads” (TMDL) for the identied pollutants
                                             Quality Control Boards (RWQCB) currently hold the author-
                                                                            and waters. The state’s impaired water body list currently
                                             ity, delegated by U.S. EPA, to implement the Clean Water
                                                                            tops 500, with more likely to be listed. Because many of
                                             Act in state waters.
                                                                            these waters are vital to the health of the state’s coastal
                                                                            ecosystems and wildlife, full and prompt implementation
                                             Permit Program
                                                                            of these TMDLs is essential to a thriving marine ecosystem.
                                             S  ection 301(a) of the Clean Water Act prohibits the
                                               discharge of “any pollutant by any person” into waters
                                                                            Discharges under Federal Licenses or Permits
                                             of the United States, unless done in compliance with

                                                                            S  ection 401 of the Clean Water Act requires a certi-
                                             specied sections of the Act, including the permit require-
                                                                              cation from a state that federal agency actions and
                                             ments in Section 402. Under the National Pollutant Dis-
                                                                            permits comply with state water quality standards and
                                             charge Elimination System (NPDES) set up under Section
                                                                            other Clean Water Act requirements. Congress stated in
                                             402, U.S. EPA requires permits for most point source
                                                                            enacting this provision that the purpose of Section 401
                                             discharges of waste. These permits contain discharge con-
                                                                            is to “provide reasonable assurance that no license or
                                             ditions, including technology-based controls and water-
                                                                            permit will be issued by a federal agency for any activity
                                             quality-based efuent requirements, to ensure that the
                                                                            that through inadequate planning or otherwise could in
                                             discharges meet all applicable standards set to protect
                                                                            fact become a source of pollution.” When implemented
                                             uses of the water body, such as use by aquatic life and
                                                                            fully, this adds an important layer of protection over
                                             for shing.
                                                                            existing regulations protecting coastal water quality and
                                             NPDES permits for discharges into the territorial sea
                                                                            habitat health.
                                             also must comply with “ocean discharge criteria” spe-
                                             cically designed to prevent the degradation of those
                                                                            Dredge Disposal and Fill
                                             waters, pursuant to Clean Water Act Section 403. These

                                                                            S  ection 404 of the Clean Water Act grants the U.S. Army
                                             permit requirements may increase in stringency in the
                                                                              Corps of Engineers authority to regulate any project
                                             near future due to a recent presidential Executive Order
                                                                            involving ll, construction, or modication of the waters
                                             on this topic.
                                                                            of the United States. This would include, for example,
                                                                            dredging and lling of coastal harbors. Corps actions
                                             Nonpoint Pollution Program
                                                                            are subject to Clean Water Act Section 401 certication

                                             S ection 319 of the Clean Water Act sets up a voluntary
                                                                            that the proposed activities will not violate state water
                                               program to control polluted runoff. This program was
                                                                            quality standards.
                                             established through the 1987 Clean Water Act amend-
                                                                            U.S. EPA sets the standards for suitability of dredge mate-
                                             ments, and states soon thereafter submitted nonpoint
                                                                            rial destined for federally approved sites in the ocean
                                             source pollution management plans to EPA in order to


                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                       December 2001
    38
beyond three miles from shore. These standards are found     disposition of material.” The statute contains only a




                                                                The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
in the 1991 Ocean Disposal Testing Manual, or “Green       few, very specic exemptions from this term. The Act is
Book,” which species the physical, chemical, and biologi-    administered by U.S. EPA and is on top of any Clean Water
cal tests required to determine suitability. Disposal within   Act requirements.
state waters (i.e., inside three miles) is authorized by state
                                 The National Environmental Policy Act
and federal agencies which use standards from the “Inland


                                 T
Testing Manual.” State agencies involved in authorizing       he National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 is the
disposal within state waters through a permitting process      basic national directive for the protection of the envi-
include the Regional Water Quality Control Boards, State     ronment. NEPA requires that federal agencies prepare an
Lands Commission, California Coastal Commission, and the     Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for “major Federal
San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commis-      actions signicantly affecting the quality of the human
sion. Federal agencies involved in the permitting process    environment.” In doing so, the agencies must provide
for the disposal of dredged materials in state waters      a “full and fair discussion of signicant environmental
include U.S. EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.      impacts” of the proposed project.
Federal and state resource agencies such as the Depart-
                                 An EIS is intended to help public ofcials make decisions
ment of Fish and Game, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                 that are based on an understanding of the potential
and National Marine Fisheries Service act as consulting
                                 environmental consequences and decide whether to take
agencies on dredging projects.
                                 actions that avoid these consequences. The EIS also
                                 must “inform decision makers and the public of the
Antidegradation
                                 reasonable alternatives which would avoid or minimize

T  he Clean Water Act and accompanying regulations       adverse impacts” and must analyze such project alterna-
  state that both point and nonpoint source pollution     tives comprehensively. In addition, the EIS must discuss
control programs must specically address antidegrada-      “appropriate mitigation measures not already included in
tion, or preventing further pollution of the nation’s      the proposed action or alternatives.” Finally, the lead
waters. Water quality standards, which all waters must      agency must state at the time of its decision “whether
meet, consist of three elements: (1) the designated ben-     all practicable means to avoid or minimize environmental
ecial use or uses of a water body; (2) the water quality    harm from the alternative selected have been adopted,
criteria necessary to protect the uses of that water body;    and, if not, why not.”
and (3) an antidegradation policy. Both federal and state
antidegradation policies must ensure that water quality     Endangered Species Act
improvements are conserved, maintained and protected.

                                 T  he federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) is the
Despite the fact that antidegradation in general, and pro-      nation’s charter for protection of threatened and
tection of relatively clean waters in particular, is a spe-   endangered species, including coastal and marine life.
cic component of the water quality standards, it is given    The Endangered Species Act contains both consultation
relatively little attention in point source pollution control  requirements and a substantive requirement prohibiting
and permitting programs, and essentially no attention in     certain activities that threaten listed species. Under Sec-
nonpoint pollution control programs. A lack of attention to   tion 7 of ESA “[e]ach Federal agency shall, in consultation
maintaining the health of cleaner waters threatens those     with and with the assistance of the Secretary [of the
waters with impairment that will be far more expensive to    Interior and/or Commerce, as appropriate], insure that
address than prevention. Water quality programs should      any action authorized, funded, or carried out by such
contain specic descriptions of how new and continued      agency . . . is not likely to jeopardize the continued
discharges into all waters, both impaired and clean, will    existence of any endangered species or threatened spe-
be reduced.                           cies or result in the destruction or adverse modication
                                 of habitat of such species . . . .” In addition, federal
Ocean Dumping Act                        agencies must consult with the Secretary of the Interior

T  itle 1 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc-     and/or Commerce, as appropriate “on any agency action
  tuaries Act (Ocean Dumping Act), prohibits the unper-    which is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
mitted dumping of “any material transported from a loca-     any species proposed to be listed . . . or result in the
tion outside the United States” into the territorial sea     destruction or adverse modication of critical habitat pro-
of the United States, or into the zone contiguous to the     posed to be designated for such species.”
territorial sea, to the extent discharge into the contiguous   Section 7 is an important tool that can be used to protect
zone would affect the territorial sea or the territory of    and conserve the habitats of threatened and endangered
the United States. “Dumping” is dened broadly as “a       coastal and marine wildlife. ESA Section 7 is used, for



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                            39
                                             example, to require the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers     of, or injure any sanctuary resource managed under law
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             to consult with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the    or regulations for that sanctuary,” with specied actions
                                             National Marine Fisheries Service regarding how proposed   allowed under sanctuary permits or authorizations. Under
                                             Corps dredging projects will affect listed species.      the NMSA, management plans must be prepared for each
                                                                            sanctuary and reviewed every ve years. These plans
                                             In addition, Section 9 of ESA prohibits the transport or
                                                                            must take into account management of the diverse marine
                                             take of listed species, and Section 4 sets up a program to
                                                                            wildlife in California’s sanctuaries.
                                             acquire lands and habitat associated with listed species to
                                             enhance recovery efforts.                   Like the Ocean Dumping Act, the NMSA adds an extra layer
                                                                            of protection for marine resources in certain areas. For
                                             Marine Mammal Protection Act                 example, the San Francisco and Central Coast Regional


                                             T
                                                                            Water Quality Control Boards report to the Monterey Bay
                                               he federal Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) pro-
                                                                            NMS ofce on proposed new and revised permits for dis-
                                               tects the marine mammals that make their home in
                                                                            charges into sanctuary waters and allow for staff review
                                             the waters off California’s shores. One of the more sig-
                                                                            and comment. Sanctuary staff may in some instances
                                             nicant provisions of the MMPA prohibits the “take” of
                                                                            place conditions on these permits as needed to protect
                                             marine mammals. “Take” is dened broadly to include
                                                                            Sanctuary resources. Violations of these permits is an
                                             actions that kill or “harass” marine mammals, where
                                                                            infraction of both state water quality law and the NMSA,
                                             “harassment” refers to “any act of pursuit, torment,
                                                                            subjecting the violator to nes under both acts.
                                             or annoyance which (i) has the potential to injure a
                                             marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild;
                                                                            The Coastal Zone Management Act
                                             or (ii) has the potential to disturb a marine mammal or

                                                                            T
                                             marine mammal stock in the wild by causing disruption of     he Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1972
                                             behavioral patterns, including . . . feeding . . . .” As     established a federal-state partnership to manage
                                             dened, “take” is not limited to a direct physical taking   development and use of the coastal zone. CZMA, which
                                             of the animal, but also other actions that indirectly harm  is administered nationwide by NOAA, provides federal
                                             the animal.                          funding for the development and implementation of state
                                                                            Coastal Zone Management Programs. The state agency
                                             National Marine Sanctuaries Act                charged with developing and implementing a state coastal


                                             T
                                                                            plan in accordance with CZMA is the California Coastal
                                                itle 3 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc-
                                                                            Commission. Signicantly, CZMA grants the commission
                                                tuaries Act is the National Marine Sanctuaries Act
                                                                            the authority to review federal activities in the coastal
                                             (NMSA), which protects the nation’s most unique marine
                                                                            zone and ensure they comply with California’s Coastal
                                             habitats, waters and wildlife. California is fortunate to
                                                                            Zone Management Program.
                                             have four National Marine Sanctuaries: Channel Islands,
                                             which lies nine to 46 miles offshore and encompasses
                                                                            Coastal Zone Management Act Reauthorization
                                             1,658 square miles of marine waters and habitats; Mon-
                                                                            Amendments of 1990
                                             terey Bay, which lies adjacent to the central coast and

                                                                            T
                                             is 5,328 square miles; Gulf of the Farallones, which lies     he Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program, estab-
                                             adjacent to shore along Marin County and extends 12 miles     lished by the Coastal Zone Reauthorization Amend-
                                             out to the Farallon Islands, encompassing 1,255 square    ments of 1990 (CZARA), addresses the control of nonpoint
                                             miles; and Cordell Bank, the smallest at 526 square      source pollution, which is the number one cause of water
                                             miles, which lies near the continental shelf seven to 23   contamination in the state. The impacts of nonpoint
                                             miles offshore (adjoining the Gulf of the Farallones Sanc-  source pollution in coastal areas include beach closings
                                             tuary). The NMSA is designed to “maintain, restore,      and advisories, loss of habitat, closed or harvest-limited
                                             and enhance living resources by providing places for spe-   shellsh beds, declining sheries, red tides and other
                                             cies that depend on these marine resources to survive     harmful plankton blooms, reduction in tourism revenues
                                             and propagate.” NOAA’s Sanctuary ofces use the NMSA     and threats to the drinking water of coastal communities.
                                             to provide for “comprehensive and coordinated manage-     The State Water Resources Control Board and the Califor-
                                             ment” of these unique marine areas.              nia Coastal Commission have submitted to U.S. EPA and
                                             To meet these goals, the NMSA requires federal agencies    NOAA a Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Plan that
                                             to consult with sanctuary ofcials if federal actions are   is intended to control nonpoint source pollution in accor-
                                             likely to injure sanctuary resources. So, for example, U.S.  dance with CZARA Section 6217 requirements. The plan
                                             Army Corps of Engineers staff would need to consult with   lays out a general outline of nonpoint source pollution
                                             sanctuary staff on proposed dredging in sanctuary waters.   management measures that will be implemented over the
                                             The NMSA also makes it illegal to “destroy, cause the loss  next 15 years.



                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                       December 2001
    40
                               State
U.S. EPA and NOAA approved California’s plan in July




                                                              The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
2000. Additional requirements on the contents of the Plan
imposed under state law (particularly with respect to    California Environmental Quality Act
enforcement) should be completed by February 2001.

                               L ike NEPA, the California Environmental Quality Act
                                requires the state to take a hard look at the environ-
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
                               mental impacts of projects that require state or local gov-
Management Act
                               ernment approval. Unlike NEPA, CEQA also requires appro-

A  s amended and reauthorized in 1996, the Magnuson-
                               priate mitigation of projects that contain signicant envi-
  Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
                               ronmental impacts. Specically, CEQA states that agencies
includes substantial new provisions designed to protect
                               must adopt feasible mitigation measures in order to
habitats important to all federally managed species of
                               substantially lessen or avoid the otherwise signicant
anadromous and marine sh. The amended Act denes
                               environmental impacts of a proposed project. A “signi-
“essential sh habitat” (EFH) as “those waters and sub-
                               cant” impact is a “substantial, or potentially substantial,
strate necessary to sh for spawning, breeding, feeding,
                               adverse change in any of the physical conditions within
or growth to maturity.”
                               the area affected by the project including land, air, water,
The act requires the eight regional shery management    minerals, ora, [and] fauna…”
councils around the country and the Secretary of Com-
                               CEQA also mandates that the responsible agencies con-
merce to amend each regional shery management
                               sider a reasonable range of project alternatives that offer
plan to:
                               substantial environmental advantages over the project
•   Describe and identify EFH;               proposal. CEQA adds that the agency responsible for the
                               project’s approval must deny approval if there would be
•   Identify adverse impacts to EFH;
                               “signicant adverse effects” when feasible alternatives
•   Minimize, to the extent practicable, adverse impacts
                               or feasible mitigation measures could substantially lessen
   from shing to EFH; and
                               such effects.
•   Develop suggested measures to conserve and enhance
   EFH.                          Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act


                               U
Before a federal agency may proceed with an activity that     nder California’s Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
may adversely affect a designated EFH, the agency must      Act “any person discharging waste, or proposing to
consult with NOAA Fisheries with regard to measures that   discharge waste, within any region that could affect the
avoid or minimize adverse impacts on the EFH.        quality of the waters of the state” must le a report
                               of the discharge with the appropriate Regional Water
The Pacic Fishery Management Council has dened
                               Quality Control Board. Pursuant to the act, the regional
groundsh EFH as waters of the entire Pacic Coast, and
                               board may then prescribe “waste discharge requirements”
described the types of measures needed to protect the
                               (WDRs) that add conditions related to control of the dis-
habitat from shing and non-shing impacts. However,
                               charge. Porter-Cologne denes “waste” broadly, and the
the Council, like other councils nationwide, has required
                               term has been applied to a diverse array of materials,
almost no protection for EFH from shing itself, despite
                               including nonpoint source pollution.
growing evidence that shing often poses a signicant
threat to EFH.                        When regulating discharges that are included in the fed-
                               eral Clean Water Act, the state essentially treats WDRs
Oil Pollution Act of 1990                  and NPDES as a single permitting vehicle. Where Porter-


T
                               Cologne is more stringent than the Clean Water Act, such
   he Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990 streamlined and
                               as for discharges of nonpoint source pollution, WDRs alone
   strengthened EPA’s ability to prevent and respond to
                               must be applied to or waived for such discharges. This
catastrophic oil spills. A trust fund nanced by a tax
                               requirement, however, is not implemented as it should
on oil is available to clean up spills when the reponsible
                               be, and indeed is simply ignored in a number of cases,
party is incapable or unwilling to do so. The OPA requires
                               particularly with respect to nonpoint source pollution.
oil storage facilities and vessels to submit plans to the
                               A bill passed in 1999 now requires the state and
Federal government detailing how they will repond to
                               regional boards to review existing waivers of WDRs in
large discharges. EPA has published regulations for above
                               an effort to ensure that needed regulatory controls are
ground storage facilites; the Coast Guard has done so for
                               properly imposed.
oil tankers. The OPA also requires the development of
Area Contingency Plans to prepare and plan for oil spill
response on a regional scale.



  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME              California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                          A Status Report                            41
                                             California Endangered Species Act               maintain, and, where feasible, enhance and restore the
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                                                             overall quality of the coastal environment and its natural
                                             T  he California Endangered Species Act (CESA) generally
                                                                             and manmade resources.” The act also delegates planning
                                               parallels the main provisions of the Federal Endan-
                                                                             and permitting authority to local governments through the
                                             gered Species Act and is administered by the California
                                                                             Local Coastal Plan process.
                                             Department of Fish and Game. Under CESA, the term
                                             “endangered species” is dened as a species of plant, sh,
                                                                             Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1990
                                             or wildlife that is in serious danger of becoming extinct

                                                                             T  he state’s Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response
                                             throughout all, or a signicant portion of its range and is
                                                                               (OSPR) was created in the aftermath of the Exxon-
                                             limited to species or subspecies native to California. CESA
                                                                             Valdez oil spill and the American Trader oil spill at Hun-
                                             states that it is the “policy of the state” that state agen-
                                                                             tington Beach. The Lempert-Keene-Seastrand Oil Spill Pre-
                                             cies should not approve projects as proposed which would
                                                                             vention and Response Act of 1990 created OSPR within
                                             “jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered
                                                                             the Department of Fish and Game. The bill provided fund-
                                             species or threatened species or result in the destruction
                                                                             ing for OSPR’s work by levying a tax on oil brought into
                                             or adverse modication of habitat essential to the con-
                                                                             the state and another on oil transported across the state
                                             tinued existence of those species,” if there are “reason-
                                                                             by rail, truck, or pipeline. OSPR’s mandate is to work
                                             able and prudent alternatives available consistent with
                                                                             with other DFG units, interested public, other agencies,
                                             conserving the species or its habitat which would prevent
                                                                             clean-up companies, and oil companies to prevent oil
                                             jeopardy.” However, CESA goes on to add that, in the
                                                                             spills, to develop response plans, and to implement those
                                             event “specic economic, social, or other conditions make
                                                                             plans when spills occur.
                                             infeasible” such alternatives, individual projects may be
                                             approved if “appropriate” mitigation and enhancement      The U.S. Coast Guard is OSPR’s federal counterpart
                                             measures are provided.                     and response partner for these efforts. In addition,
                                                                             OSPR has responsibility for determining injuries to living
                                             McAteer-Petris Act                       natural resources and seeking compensation and restora-

                                             U                               tion through civil litigation. More recently, OSPR’s role
                                               nder the McAteer-Petris Act of 1965, the Bay Con-
                                                                             has expanded from a focus on oil spills to a broader
                                               servation and Development Commission (BCDC) has
                                                                             focus on spills of any material deleterious to living natural
                                             authority to plan and regulate activities and development
                                                                             resources, and has expanded from marine waters to spills
                                             in and around San Francisco Bay through policies devel-
                                                                             that may happen anywhere in California.
                                             oped in the San Francisco Bay Plan. This is essentially
                                             the San Francisco Bay counterpart to the California      In addition, the act makes the State Lands Commission
                                             Coastal Act.                          responsible for ensuring that all marine terminals and
                                                                             other oil and gas facilities within their jurisdiction use
                                             California Coastal Act                     the best achievable methods to prevent accidents and

                                             T  he California Coastal Act of 1976 granted state      resulting oil spills. The State Lands Commission has juris-
                                               authority to the California Coastal Commission, in con-  diction over all of California’s tidal and submerged lands.
                                             junction with local governments, to manage the con-      Management responsibilities extend to activities within
                                             servation and orderly development of coastal resources     submerged lands and those within three nautical miles
                                             through a comprehensive planning and regulatory program    of shore.
                                             for the coast (excluding areas covered by the McAteer-
                                             Petris Act). The state’s management program for the
                                                                             Regional
                                             1,100-mile Pacic Coast program was approved in 1977 by

                                                                             N  umerous regional and local initiatives have been
                                             NOAA as consistent with the requirements for planning
                                                                               launched to protect marine resources and wildlife.
                                             in the federal Coastal Zone Management Act. NOAA’s
                                                                             A few of the more signicant initiatives are highlighted
                                             approval was made pursuant to an agreement between
                                                                             below.
                                             the Coastal Commission and the Bay Conservation and
                                             Development Commission to develop mechanisms to
                                                                             CALFED
                                             integrate their two programs.

                                                                             T  he San Francisco Bay-Delta Estuary is a signicant
                                             The Coastal Act contains specic policies relating to man-
                                                                               habitat for numerous coastal and marine species and
                                             agement of coastal development activities that affect the
                                                                             directly impacts the viability of many of the state’s coastal
                                             marine environment and coastal land resources. These
                                                                             watersheds and resources. However, years of mismange-
                                             policies are the standards used in the commission’s plan-
                                                                             ment of this invaluable resouce has left its health seriously
                                             ning and regulatory programs to ensure that the commis-
                                                                             threatened. State-federal cooperation to restore the estu-
                                             sion meets the act’s mandate that the state “[p]rotect,



                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                        December 2001
    42
ary was formalized in June 1994 with the signing of a     agencies in 1992, committing the agencies to working




                                                               The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
framework agreement by the state and federal agencies     together to develop a Water Quality Protection Plan for
with management and regulatory responsibility in the Bay-   the sanctuary. Led by sanctuary staff, over two dozen
Delta Estuary. These “CALFED” agencies include the state   federal, state, local agencies and public and private
Resources Agency, the California Environmental Protection   groups have developed much of the planned comprehen-
Agency, the Department of the Interior, the Environmental   sive Water Quality Protection Program, addressing urban
Protection Agency, the Department of Commerce, the U.S.    runoff, marina and boating pollution, monitoring, and
Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of Agricul-    runoff from agricultural activities and rural lands, in order
ture. The framework agreement pledged that the state     to enhance and protect the sanctuary’s physical, chemical
and federal agencies would work together on implementa-    and biological conditions. Implementation has begun on
tion of water quality standards, coordination of State    many of the action items in the plans.
Water Project and Central Valley Project operations with
                               Local
regulatory requirements, and development of long-term
solutions to problems in the Bay-Delta Estuary.
                               Implementation of CEQA and NEPA
The long-term goal of CALFED is to develop a comprehen-


                               O
sive and balanced plan that addresses all of the resource     ne of the more common ways that coastal and marine
problems in the estuary. A group of more than 30 citizen-     resources are protected on a local level is through
advisors selected from California’s agriculture, environ-   implementation of environmental review requirements
mental, urban, business, shing, and other interests with   under CEQA and NEPA. Projects requiring local, state
a stake in nding long-term solutions for the problems    or federal approval are generally subject to the review
of the Bay-Delta Estuary has been chartered to advise     requirements in these statutes. Local and state projects
the CALFED program on its mission and objectives, the     also are subject to required mitigation under CEQA.
problems to be addressed and proposed actions.
                               Coordinated Resource Management Planning
The program is following a three-phase process to achieve


                               C
broad agreement on long-term solutions. First, a clear      oordinated Resource Management and Planning
denition of the problems to be addressed and a range       (CRMP) is a community-based program established by
of solution alternatives were developed. Second, environ-   the federal Natural Resource Conservation Service. It uses
mental impact reports are being prepared to identify     a watershed-based approach to manage upstream lands in
impacts associated with the various alternatives. The pro-  order to improve downstream water quality. CRMP empha-
gram’s nal EIS was released in June 2000, proposing     sizes direct participation by everyone concerned with nat-
more reliable water deliveries to the Estuary to protect   ural resource management in a given planning area. The
habitats, water quality and wildlife. Environmental impact  concept underlying CRMP is that coordinating resource
reports will be prepared for each element of the selected   management strategies will result in improved resource
solution. Implementation of the nal CALFED Bay-Delta     management and minimized conicts among land users,
Estuary solution is expected to take 30 years.        landowners, governmental agencies, and interest groups.
                               The goals of CRMP are to protect, improve and maintain
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Water         natural resources by addressing resource problems based
Quality Protection Program                  on resource boundaries and through those who live, work

T  he proximity of the Monterey Bay National Marine     and recreate on a given piece of land, and by avoiding
  Sanctuary to the coast and its sheer size make the    articial constraints by individual, agency or political
sanctuary vulnerable to numerous pollution problems in    boundaries.
the eleven watersheds that drain into it. The quality     CRMPs work with University of California Cooperative
of the water in the sanctuary is directly linked to the    Extension program and the Resource Conservation Dis-
quality of the rainwater runoff and irrigation water from   tricts, who are signatories to the CRMP Memorandum
mountains, valleys, rivers, streams, and wetlands on the   of Understanding and who support this process through
adjacent coastline. Key problems identied in the sanctu-   technical and other assistance to the local CRMP groups.
ary and its watersheds include sedimentation, toxic pollut-
ants in sediments, sh and shellsh, high fecal coliform   Marine Protected Areas
levels, sh population declines, low ows in rivers and

                               M  arine Protected Areas (MPAs) are special ocean areas
streams, wetlands alteration, and habitat degradation.
                                  that are protected in some way above other
Recognizing that water quality is a key to ensuring protec-  marine areas in order to minimize disturbance.
tion for all sanctuary resources, a memorandum of agree-   Depending on the level of use of such areas, benets
ment (MOA) was signed by eight federal, state, and local   include biodiversity conservation, ecosystem protection,


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                             43
                                             improved sheries, enhanced recreation, improved water    programs, which are designed to prevent cleaner waters
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment



                                             quality and expanded knowledge and understanding of      from sliding down towards contamination.
                                             marine systems.                        With respect to the storm-water permit program, the
                                             As a tool for enhancing ocean resources and wildlife, MPAs  state has allocated far fewer staff and other resources
                                             are becoming increasingly popular. In 1999, the legislature  than needed to ensure full compliance with federal
                                             passed the Marine Life Protection Act, which sets up a    requirements. For example, at the current rate of facility
                                             system for evaluating and coordinating MPAs in the state.   inspections, the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Con-
                                             In May 2000, President Clinton issued an executive order   trol Board will not be able to make even one full
                                             supporting MPAs and further dening their purpose.      round of inspections of regulated industries in its jurisdic-
                                                                            tion in 100 years. Moreover, the regional board has not
                                             Regulatory Gaps                        moved forward with more than a handful of enforcement


                                             C
                                                                            actions against non-ling facilities, even though there are
                                                alifornia has lagged in implementing federal and state
                                                                            between 12,000 and 17,000 facilities in the Los Angeles
                                                laws designed to protect the health of the state’s
                                                                            region that have not led permit applications as required
                                             waters. Years of budget cuts and bond act failures have
                                                                            by law. For this reason, several environmental groups
                                             left California’s water quality protection programs under-
                                                                            recently petitioned U.S. EPA to take away the state’s
                                             funded and poorly implemented. Until the recent passage
                                                                            authority to conduct the storm-water permit program in
                                             of Propositions 12 and 13, of the $2.9 billion in water
                                                                            that region.
                                             bonds approved by California voters since 1970, only $10
                                             million had been earmarked for nonpoint source pollution,   The state has identied over 500 water bodies as impaired
                                             the number one source of water pollution in the state. In   under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act. The
                                             addition, acquisition funding for protection of the state’s  limited monitoring information available indicates that the
                                             lands, which helps prevent increasing pollution from urban  number of impaired waters is likely to be much higher.
                                             and other runoff sources declined 80-90 percent over the   However, the state has completed only a scattering of
                                             last 10 years.                        plans for reducing pollution into these impaired waters,
                                                                            with the pace of production of new plans extremely slow
                                             As a result, use of the vast majority of the state’s sur-
                                                                            and implementation uncertain.
                                             veyed tidal wetlands, bays, harbors, and estuaries is
                                             impaired or threatened in some way by water pollution.    With respect to antidegradation, the state has paid virtu-
                                             Examples of uses that are being impaired or threatened by   ally no attention to protecting its cleaner waters, choosing
                                             pollution include drinking, sh consumption, aquatic life   instead to spend much of its limited time and funds on
                                             support, swimming, and aquaculture. The primary source    already impaired waters. Protecting the state’s waters
                                             of pollution in these waters is nonpoint source pollution.  from increased pollution is not only benecial to the
                                             The state’s lack of a detailed, comprehensive approach for  health of those waters and the people who depend on
                                             addressing nonpoint source pollution is a major stumbling   them, it is also more cost-effective than cleaning up con-
                                             block in our efforts to stem the continuing degradation of  taminated waters. Regulations implementing the federal
                                             these water bodies.                      Clean Water Act as well as State Water Board Resolution
                                                                            68-16, call on the state and regional water boards to
                                             These water-use impairment gures are even more alarm-
                                                                            consider and address the impacts of their decisions on the
                                             ing in light of the fact that many of the state’s waterways
                                                                            overall health of the waters affected. However, this man-
                                             are monitored only infrequently or not at all. California
                                                                            date has not been implemented fully, particularly with
                                             does not yet have a system to comprehensively monitor
                                                                            respect to nonpoint source discharges, leaving cleaner
                                             water quality in the inland watershed, enclosed waters,
                                                                            waters and associated habitats vulnerable to pollution.
                                             or nearshore ocean zones, and the vast majority of Califor-
                                             nia’s waterways and small estuarine systems are not moni-   Other state programs that are not being implemented
                                             tored by the state on a regular basis. Because of these    fully include the state water board’s Bay Protection and
                                             deciencies, it is difcult to comprehensively determine   Toxic Cleanup Program (BPTCP) and its program of issuing
                                             the health of these water bodies. In other words, the     waste discharge requirements for nonpoint source pollu-
                                             number of impaired water bodies that we know about      tion under the Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act,
                                             is the minimum number of polluted water bodies in       as well as the Department of Fish and Game’s program for
                                             the state.                          addressing pollution under Fish and Game Code Section
                                                                            5650.
                                             Federal water quality control programs that are not being
                                             implemented fully include the Clean Water Act’s storm-    The Bay Protection and Toxic Cleanup Program required
                                             water permitting program; the Clean Water Act’s Section    monitoring for toxic pollution, identication of cleanup
                                             303(d) program; and the state and federal antidegradation   priorities, and development of standards for toxics in sedi-



                                               California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                                     A Status Report                       December 2001
    44
ment, plans for cleaning up the toxics, and a funding




                                                   The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
mechanism to ensure that the dischargers that created the
problem will pay for the cleanup. Much of the BPTCP’s
goal of identifying “hot spots” of toxic coastal contami-
nation has been completed, leading to signicant new
knowledge about threats to marine wildlife. However,
the original goal of actually cleaning up these hot spots
remains unmet, and is unlikely to be met in the foresee-
able future.
With respect to Porter-Cologne, the state has the author-
ity to issue waste discharge requirements for both point
and nonpoint source discharges. However, the full extent
of this authority has never been used, particularly
with respect to nonpoint source discharges, where such
requirements are routinely waived. Increased permitting
would increase the number of conditions on discharges,
which would reduce this signicant source of pollution in
coastal and marine habitats.
Finally, implementation of Fish and Game Code Section
5650 has been weakened through recent statutory amend-
ments and a lack of allocated funding. This section stated
broadly that “it is unlawful to deposit in, permit to
pass into, or place where it can pass into the waters
of this state…[a]ny substance or material deleterious to
sh, plant life, or bird life.” This language gave the
department wide latitude to protect marine habitats from
problem discharges. However, the program was amended
recently to exempt dischargers who hold state or regional
water board discharge permits, on the assumption that
those discharges are already being controlled. But, as
noted above, the regional water boards are behind on
fullling state and federal permit mandates. As a result,
there is no assurance that permitted discharges will not be
“deleterious” to sh, plants and birds.


Linda Sheehan
The Ocean Conservancy
Robert Tasto
California Department of Fish and Game




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report                     45
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
46
Human Ecosystem
Dimension




                                                               Human Ecosystem Dimension
Human Benefits of the Marine Ecosystem

M  arine ecosystems provide opportunities for consump-
   tive and non-consumptive uses of marine resources.
Some activities, such as commercial, recreational and
subsistence shing, kelp harvesting and harvesting of
marine specimens for aquarium use, are consumptive in
the sense that they result in permanent removal of eco-
system resources. Other activities (tidepooling, marine
mammal and bird watching, kayaking and observational
diving) are more commonly characterized as non-con-
sumptive. However, the distinction between consumptive
                                that may result from interactions with shing operations.
and non-consumptive use is not always clear cut, as activi-
                                Regulations may be imposed for economic reasons. For
ties that are not necessarily intended to be consumptive
                                instance, seasons may be set to coincide with periods
may sometimes result in inadvertent injury to marine
                                when a sh stock is in prime marketable condition
animals or disruption of their habitat.
                                or when market demand is high. Regulations may be
Marine ecosystems also benet people who may never use
                                imposed for social reasons, such as providing equitable
or even see marine resources but nevertheless value their
                                harvest opportunities or reducing the potential for conict
existence. Non-use value may be motivated by the desire
                                among different sectors of a shery.
to have ecosystem resources available for future use or
                                Regulations can take a variety of forms, including license
by the satisfaction of knowing that such resources exist,
                                and permit programs, harvest quotas, season closures,
regardless of whether they are ever put to human use.
                                area closures, trip limits, bag limits (for recreational
The remainder of this report focuses on the two major
                                anglers), size limits and restrictions on quantity and type
consumptive uses of marine resources— commercial and
                                of gear. Reporting requirements such as landings receipts,
recreational shing. The intent is not to diminish the
                                logbooks or on-board observers may be imposed to ensure
importance of other sources of use and non-use value
                                that shery monitoring, management, enforcement and
but rather to address informational and reporting require-
                                research needs are met. A particular type of regulation
ments of the Marine Life Management Act.
                                may serve different objectives, depending on the context
                                in which the regulation is imposed. For instance, trip
                                limits may be used to discourage targeting on a particular
Factors Affecting Commercial and               species while allowing a limited amount of incidental
Recreational Fishery Activity                 take of that species. Trip limits may be used to
                                slow the harvest rate to enhance real-time monitoring

C  ommercial and recreational shery landings are
                                capability in sheries where quotas would otherwise
   affected by many factors. Landings tend to increase
                                be quickly exhausted. Trip limits may also serve eco-
with stock abundance, as sh are easier and less costly
                                nomic objectives, such as lengthening the duration of the
to locate and harvest when they are at higher levels of
abundance. The availability of some species on local sh-
ing grounds may vary across seasons or years, depending
on ocean temperature and other environmental factors.
Weather conditions and economic circumstances (market
demand and prices) may discourage or encourage shing
activity. Fishing behavior is also affected by regulatory
restrictions, which are imposed for a variety of reasons
and take a variety of forms.
Regulations may be imposed for biological reasons. For
instance, harvest restrictions may be imposed to protect a
particular sh stock or to reduce incidental take of other
stocks that are caught simultaneously with that stock.
Regulations may be imposed to protect habitat or to
reduce injury or mortality to marine mammals or seabirds


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  47
              shing season or ensuring that landings do not exceed
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              processing capacity.
              For shing vessels and sh dealers, net economic benet
              is properly measured as the difference between their
              gross revenues and economic costs. However, net eco-
              nomic benets cannot be estimated for either of these
              shery sectors, due to lack of complete economic data.
              Instead, landings by shing vessels and landings receipts
              by sh dealers are described in terms of their ex-vessel
              value. Ex-vessel value overstates the economic value of
              the shery to shing vessels, as it does not include any
              consideration of harvesting costs. For dealers, ex-vessel
              value represents the cost of obtaining sh. Information on
              revenues earned from processing/marketing these land-
                                             Commercial landings in California decreased from 791.4
              ings is not generally available. In addition, some dealers
                                             million pounds in 1981 to 472.1 million pounds in 1999.
              may also process/market sh imported from other states
                                             Ex-vessel revenues also fell during this period from $475.7
              or countries; the revenues and costs associated with these
                                             million to $144.4 million in 1999. All dollar values pre-
              imported products are also not known.
                                             sented here and throughout the remaining of this report
                                             have been corrected for ination to 1999 dollars. The
              Commercial Fisheries Landings and              precipitous decline experienced during the early-1980s
                                             was largely the result of a shift in tuna landings from Cali-
              Ex-vessel Value                       fornia ports to less costly cannery operations in American

              T
                                             Samoa and Puerto Rico. The decline in tuna landings and
                his section describes trends in the volume and ex-
                                             revenues has been compounded by declines in landings of
                vessel value of California commercial landings. The
                                             species such as groundsh, urchin, shark and swordsh,
              harvest information presented here is based on landings
                                             salmon, abalone. Other species (e.g., market squid, lob-
              receipts and therefore excludes discards and live bait
                                             ster, prawn, coastal pelagics) have been the target of
              catch. Fish may be discarded in commercial shery opera-
                                             expanding sheries, while still others (e.g., crab, Pacic
              tions for a variety of reasons. Discards may include sh
                                             herring, shrimp) exhibit no obvious pattern or trend in
              that are of sublegal size, exceed a vessel’s hold capacity
                                             landings and revenues.
              or trip limit, or are not of marketable size or species.
              Information on the level of discards and discard mortality  From 1995 through 1999, the species groups accounting
              is generally not known. Live bait used by recreational    for most of the ex-vessel value of California landings
              shermen is also not reported on landings receipts, since  were (in descending order of value) groundsh, market
              transactions between buyers and sellers of live bait typi-  squid, crab, albacore/other tunas, sea urchin, herring,
              cally take place at sea. Logbook data indicate that bait   shark/swordsh, salmon, coastal pelagics, lobster, prawn,
              haulers harvest a maximum of 12 million pounds of live    shrimp and abalone. The species composition of landings
              bait each year.                       and revenues varies signicantly by area. Over 90 percent
                                             of the ex-vessel value of landings in northern California
                                             consists of groundsh, crab, shrimp and sea urchin. In
                                             central California, 90 percent of total ex-vessel value is
                                             contributed by groundsh, herring, salmon, crab, prawn,
                                             shark/swordsh and coastal pelagics. In southern Califor-
                                             nia, 90 percent of total value is contributed by squid,
                                             albacore/other tuna, sea urchin, coastal pelagics, shark/
                                             swordsh, lobster and groundsh. Landings and revenues
                                             have historically been higher in southern California than
                                             in central or northern California. The major reason for
                                             this difference is the large contribution made by the high-
                                             volume squid and coastal pelagic sheries to southern
                                             California landings and revenues.
                                             The State of California requires that all commercial shing
                                             vessels, crew members, and sh businesses be licensed



                California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                       December 2001
 48
                               Categorizing vessels according to their “principal area”




                                                                        Human Ecosystem Dimension
                               (i.e., the area in which they made the plurality of their
                               revenues from California landings), the statewide pattern
                               of declining eet size is evident in all areas. From 1981
                               to 1999, the number of boats declined from 2,256 to 532
                               (76 percent) in northern California, from 2,848 to 1,191 (58
                               percent) in central California, and from 1,793 to 967 (46
                               percent) in southern California. The number of boats has
                               been consistently higher in central California than in the
                               other two areas.
                               Just as some vessels engage in interstate shing activity,
                               a small but signicant minority of vessels lands sh both
                               inside and outside of their principal shing area within
                               California. From 1981 through 1999, 82 percent of vessels
to operate in the state, and further requires that all    whose principal area was northern California made land-
businesses and shermen who accept seafood for com-      ings in northern California only, while the remaining 18
mercial purposes maintain landings receipts. The state    percent also made landings in other areas (mostly central
also imposes additional license and permit requirements    California). Of vessels whose principal area was central
that are specic to certain types of shing activities. In  California, 87 percent made landings in central California
addition, federal permits are required for vessels that    only, and 13 percent also made landings in northern
qualify to participate in the groundsh and coastal pelag-  and/or southern California. Of vessels whose principal
ics limited-entry sheries. Permits and licenses represent  area was southern California, 88 percent made landings
upper-bound estimates of shery participation, as not all   in southern California only, and the remaining 12 percent
permit/license holders actively engage in shery activity   also made landings in other areas (mostly central California).
each year. The next two sections of this report describe   The percent of boats earning less than $5,000 per year
the extent of actual participation in the harvesting and   declined from 53 percent during the period from 1981
processing sectors.                      through 1985 to 34 percent during the 1995 through 1999
                               period, while the percent of boats accounting for 90 per-
                               cent of the ex-vessel value of statewide landings increased
Harvesting Sector                       from 20 percent (1981-1985) to 35 percent (1995-1999).


T
                               The highly skewed revenue distribution characteristic of
  he number of commercial shing vessels that land sh
                               the early 1980s reects the sizeable contribution of tuna
  in California declined from 6,897 in 1981 to 2,690 in
                               shery participants to total statewide revenues during
1999. While the majority of these boats land sh solely at
                               those years. The tendency toward a less skewed distribu-
California ports, a signicant minority also makes landings
                               tion of revenue after the mid-1980s was apparent in north-
in Oregon or Washington. California boats may sh in
                               ern, central and southern California as well as statewide.
other states as well (e.g., Alaska); however, the extent of
                               Nevertheless, the commercial shery remains character-
such activity is not known.
                               ized by a large number of low-revenue vessels and a
                               small number of high-revenue vessels, with hook-and-line




                                          Street fish market, Fisherman’s Wharf, San Francisco, CA
                                                         Credit: UC Davis Sea Grant


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                           49
              salmon and groundsh vessels disproportionately repre-
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              sented in the low-revenue segment.
              From 1981 through 1999, ex-vessel revenue from California
              landings averaged $46,500 per boat and did not exhibit
              any consistent trend or pattern. However, the statewide
              average masks signicant regional differences in this
              regard. From the 1981-1985 period to the 1994-1999
              period, average revenue per boat increased signicantly
              in northern California from $24,500 to $60,800, increased
              less dramatically in central California from $20,800 to
              $30,100, and declined in southern California from $126,000
              to $74,900. The shing opportunities that developed in
              southern California after the mid-1980s were not sufcient
              to compensate for the decline in revenues from the highly
                                              enue per vessel among sheries is suggestive of vessels’
              lucrative tuna shery. Nevertheless, average revenue per
                                              economic dependence on their principal shery relative to
              boat is still higher in southern California than elsewhere
                                              other California sheries and to Oregon and Washington
              in the state.
                                              sheries. For instance, some vessels (e.g., shrimp trawl in
              For the years 1995 through 1999, commercial landings
                                              northern California) earn more revenue from their out-of-
              and revenues were categorized into 23 different com-
                                              state landings than their California landings. For these
              binations of species and gear that depict major types
                                              vessels in particular, adverse conditions in their out-of-
              of shery activity in the state. Table II-7 describes aver-
                                              state sheries can result in a signicant diversion of effort
              age annual landings and revenues in each major shery
                                              to the California sheries in which they also participate,
              in northern, central and southern California during the
                                              and vice versa. At the other end of the spectrum are ves-
              1995-1999 period, presented in declining order of revenue.
                                              sels that derive most if not all of their revenue from their
              For each shery, the table also includes the number
                                              principal shery (e.g., urchin diving in central California).
              of participating vessels (dened as vessels who earned
                                              Because of this lack of diversication, such vessels are
              at least ve percent of their California revenue from
                                              particularly vulnerable to changing conditions in the
              that shery) and the number of participating vessels for
                                              shery in which they do participate. It should be cau-
              whom the shery is their “principal shery” (that is,
                                              tioned that ex-vessel revenue comparisons are merely sug-
              the shery from which they derive the plurality of their
                                              gestive of differences in economic value, as such compari-
              California revenue).
                                              sons do not account for differences in operating costs
              Table II-8 characterizes the vessels in each principal sh-
                                              across sheries.
              ery category in terms of average landings and revenues
                                              According to Tables II-7 and II-8, the highest-revenue sh-
              per year from the vessel’s principal California shery, from
                                              eries do not necessarily support the largest numbers of
              other California sheries, and from Oregon and Washing-
                                              boats or generate large ex-vessel revenues per boat. For
              ton sheries. Average revenue per boat varies widely
                                              instance, the salmon hook-and-line shery is the third
              among sheries, and tends to be lowest in the groundsh
                                              largest contributor to ex-vessel revenue in central Cali-
              and salmon hook-and-line sheries and highest in the
                                              fornia ($6.5 million) and serves as the principal shery
              trawl and seine sheries. The distribution of average rev-
                                              for 579 vessels, yet generates only $9,000 in ex-vessel
                                              revenue per boat per year. The tuna seine shery is the
                                              third largest contributor to ex-vessel revenue in southern
                                              California ($9.6 million) and yields higher revenue per
                                              boat than any other shery statewide ($914,600 per boat
                                              per year); yet tuna seine is the principal shery for only
                                              10 boats.
                                              The Tables in II-3 describe the most common combinations
                                              of sheries in which vessels participated from 1995
                                              through 1999. The number in each rectangle represents
                                              the average annual number of vessels that participated
                                              solely in that shery during the 1995-1999 period, and the
                                              number on each line connecting the rectangles represents
                                              the average annual number of vessels that participated



                California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                        December 2001
 50
                               The increase in numbers of dealers has followed a distinc-




                                                                Human Ecosystem Dimension
                               tive pattern: a relatively stable number of dealers during
                               the 1981-1986 period, followed by a stepwise increase in
                               1987 and relatively stable (albeit higher) numbers there-
                               after. The ex-vessel value of average annual landings
                               receipts per dealer shows a parallel though opposite step-
                               wise pattern. From the 1981-1986 period to the 1987-1999
                               period, the average annual number of dealers increased
                               from 547 to 825, while the value of landings receipts
                               per dealer decreased from $531,500 to $209,500 over the
                               same period. The decline in average value per dealer
                               is largely due to the post-1986 increase in the number
                               of dealers for whom the value of landings was less than
                               $5,000. Many of these small dealers are commercial sh-
                               ing vessel operators who sell their landings directly to
in that particular two-shery combination. The asterisks
                               restaurants and markets rather than to a processor. The
denote the most common three-shery combinations. Only
                               decline in annual value per dealer has been particularly
sheries or shery combinations that represent an annual
                               severe in southern California (falling from $805,500 in
average of at least three vessels appear in the gure.
                               1981-1985 to $233,900 in 1986-1999), where the effect of
Since the abalone dive shery has been closed to com-
                               the post-1986 increase in the number of small dealers was
mercial shing since 1998, the 1995-1999 statistics on that
                               compounded by the drastic reduction in high-priced tuna
shery included in Tables II-7, II-8 and II-3 include the
                               landings experienced in that area through the early 1980s.
recent years of zero shing activity (1998-1999).
                               Since the decline of the tuna shery, northern California
Patterns of behavior vary signicantly by area. In north-
                               has generally replaced southern California as the area
ern California, crab pot is the predominant shery in
                               with the highest average value of landings per dealer.
terms of the number of vessels that participate solely
                               The distribution of landings receipts among dealers is
in that shery (153) and the frequency with which crab
                               highly skewed, with 16 percent of the dealers responsible
pot vessels also engage in other sheries. In central
                               for 90 percent of the value of landings from 1987 through
California, the largest numbers of vessels engage in the
                               1999. This pattern is repeated throughout the state, with
salmon hook-and-line (419), groundsh hook-and-line (332)
                               20 percent of dealers in northern California and 16 percent
and herring (121) sheries. The most common combina-
                               of dealers in central and southern California accounting
tions involve salmon and groundsh hook-and-line (92),
                               for 90 percent of ex-vessel value in their respective areas
and salmon hook-and-line and crab pot (88). In southern
                               of the state.
California, the largest numbers of vessels engage in the
sea urchin (156), groundsh hook-and-line (119) and lob-
ster pot (102) sheries. Groundsh hook-and-line vessels
                               The Trade Sector
are also notable in terms of the number of other sheries


                               G
in which they participate. While interactions exist among     enerally speaking, imports into the U.S. are catego-
the prawn, groundsh and cucumber trawl sheries, trawl      rized by their initial port of entry, which is not neces-
sheries in southern California are seldom pursued in     sarily their nal destination. Thus, some imports that
combination with other gear types.



The Processing Sector

B  etween 1981 and 1999, the number of sh dealers
  increased statewide from 519 to 888. Categorizing
dealers according to their “principal area” (e.g., the area
of California accounting for the plurality of the ex-vessel
value of their landings receipts), the number of dealers
increased from 86 to 143 (+66 percent) in northern Califor-
nia, from 213 to 366 (+42 percent) in central California,
and from 220 to 379 (+72 percent) in southern California.
The number of dealers has been consistently lower in
northern California than in other areas of the state.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                   51
              enter the U.S. at Nogales, Arizona and Honolulu, Hawaii
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              likely end up in California markets. For this reason, sea-
              food imports into California should be considered sug-
              gestive rather than denitive estimates of California con-
              sumer demand for imported seafood.
              Like imports, exports from the U.S. are categorized in
              terms of the port from which they left the U.S. Thus,
              not all exports from a state necessarily originate from
              sheries in that state. California exports may include
              sh landed in Mexico and subject to additional handling
              or processing in California before being sold to a third
              country. Exports also include sh that were imported
              and not sold, then re-exported in substantially the same
              condition as when imported.
                                             during the 1997-1999 period (in order of declining annual
              The dollar value attached to imports represents the Cus-
                                             import value) were Thailand ($999.6 million), Indonesia
              toms value, that is, the price actually paid for merchan-
                                             ($179.1 million), China ($162.5 million), Ecuador ($157.9
              dise when sold to the U.S., excluding U.S. import duties,
                                             million), India ($148.6 million) and Taiwan ($99.4 million).
              freight, insurance and other charges incurred in bringing
                                             Imports from all of these countries except China have
              the goods to the U.S. The dollar values attached to
                                             been on a generally increasing trend over the past decade.
              exports and re-exports is the “free alongside ship” value,
                                             From 1989 through 1999, the value of seafood products
              that is, the value at the port of export, dened as
                                             exported from California and from the U.S. as a whole
              the transaction price including charges and transportation
                                             averaged $246.2 million and $3,215.3 million respectively.
              costs incurred in bringing the merchandise to the port
                                             About eight percent of total U.S. seafood exports origi-
              of exportation.
                                             nated from customs districts in California. In recent years
              Between 1989 and 1999, the value of seafood products
                                             (1997-1999), squid has replaced sea urchin as California’s
              imported into California increased from $1.6 trillion to
                                             major export. The major species groups comprising Cali-
              $2.4 trillion, while imports into the U.S. as a whole
                                             fornia exports during the 1997-1999 period (in order of
              increased from $6.9 trillion to $9.0 trillion. About 30
                                             declining average annual value) were squid ($37.9 million),
              percent of the value of U.S. imports enters the country
                                             sea urchin ($28.5 million), shrimp ($18.3 million), lobster
              at California ports. Shrimp imports, which have increased
                                             ($17.4 million), salmon ($16.6 million) and groundsh
              dramatically over the past decade, have consistently com-
                                             ($14.7 million). Although exports to Japan have declined
              prised about 60 percent of the value of California seafood
                                             signicantly over the past decade, Japan remains the
              imports. The average annual value of shrimp imports
                                             major recipient of California exports. California’s major
              was $1.6 trillion during the 1997-1999 period. Signicant
                                             seafood export trading partners from 1997 through 1999
              though much smaller amounts of tuna ($187.6 million),
                                             (in order of declining annual export value) were Japan
              unspecied marine sh ($104.1 million), scallop ($65.1
                                             ($61.7 million), Taiwan ($30.6 million), China ($22.2 mil-
              million), lobster ($62.2 million) and squid ($47.0 million)
                                             lion), Australia ($15.7 million), Mexico ($11.9 million) and
              were also imported during that period. The countries
                                             Hong Kong ($10.8 million).
              from which California received most of its seafood imports


                                             Sport and Subsistence Fisheries

                                             S  ome shermen do not earn revenue from their catch
                                               but rather sh for pleasure and/or to provide food
                                             for personal consumption. The economic value of the
                                             sport/subsistence (hereafter loosely referred to as “recre-
                                             ational”) shery depends on which segment of the shery
                                             is being considered. For instance, the value of shing
                                             to anglers would be measured by consumer surplus, that
                                             is, the maximum amount that anglers would be willing
                                             to pay for the shing experience over and above what
                                             they actually pay. The value of shing to businesses that
                                             provide services to anglers, such as commercial passenger


                California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                       December 2001
 52
                                varies widely, ranging from a high of 85-90 percent for




                                                               Human Ecosystem Dimension
                                smelt, rocksh, jacks and herring to a low of 11 percent for
                                cartilaginous sh.
                                Harvests vary across shing modes and areas as well as
                                species. During 1998-1999, annual harvests (excluding sh
                                released alive) ranged from highs of 1,995,000 sh for
                                CPFV anglers and 2,171,000 sh for private boat anglers in
                                southern California, to lows of 344,000 sh for southern
                                California beach anglers and 600,000 sh for central/
                                northern California anglers shing from man-made struc-
                                tures. Sea basses, tuna/mackerel, Pacic barracuda, Cali-
                                fornia scorpionsh and jacks are much more commonly
                                caught in southern California, while striped bass and
                                salmon are more commonly caught in central/northern
shing vessels (CPFVs), would be measured by the differ-    California. Rockshes are an important component of
ence between their gross revenues and economic costs.     boat-based harvests in southern California and the domi-
The economic impact of shing on local economies would     nant component in northern California.
be measured by the multiplier effects on income and
employment that occur as money spent by anglers moves
                                Recreational Fishery Expenditures
through the economy. Collection and analysis of data
needed to estimate these various types of economic

                                B  ased on the average annual number of marine rec-
effects are underway. Until such studies are completed,
                                  reational shing trips made in U.S. waters during
all that is available at this time are approximate estimates
                                1998-1999, aggregate annual trip-related expenditures
of angler expenditures.
                                were estimated to be approximately $202.0 million for
                                southern California and $107.9 million for central/northern
Effort and Harvest                       California. These estimates, combined with license, sh-
                                ing gear and boat-related expenses of $128.4 million in

A  pproximately 4.7 million marine recreational angler    southern California and $68.6 million in central/northern
  trips were made annually in California during       California, bring total annual statewide angler expendi-
1998-1999 — 2.9 million trips (61 percent) in southern     tures to $506.9 million.
California (Santa Barbara County and southward) and 1.9
million trips (39 percent) in central/northern California
                                Additional Information on the Salmon
(San Luis Obispo County and northward). The proportion
of total effort in each area associated with man-made
                                and CPFV Sport Fisheries
structures (e.g., piers), beaches, CPFVs and private boats

                                D
was 22 percent, 10 percent, 22 percent and 46 percent       FG sponsors a number of data collection programs
respectively in southern California, and 24 percent, 18      that provide detailed information regarding certain
percent, nine percent and 49 percent in central/northern    segments of the marine sport shery. One such program is
California. Approximately 17.8 million sh were harvested   the Ocean Salmon Project (OSP), which provides informa-
annually during 1998-1999, of which 9.6 million were
landed in whole condition, 7.1 million were discarded
alive, and 1.2 million were used as bait, lleted, given
away or discarded dead.
Harvest levels vary signicantly across species groups.
During 1998-1999, the major components of harvest
included rocksh (3.4 million sh), sea basses and tuna/
mackerel (2.5 million sh each), and smelt, surfperch,
croakers and Pacic barracuda (1.1 million sh each).
Flatsh, silversides, jacks, sharks, rays, scorpionsh,
striped bass, herring greenlings, sculpins and sea chubs
made smaller though signicant contributions to total
harvest. The percentage of total catch retained by
anglers or discarded dead (e.g., not released alive)


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  53
              tion on harvest and effort in California’s ocean salmon   Mexican waters, and ve shed exclusively in Mexican
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              sheries (both recreational and commercial). It also spon-  waters.
              sors a CPFV logbook program. Not all CPFVs participate    The number of CPFV angler trips in northern California
              in the program and the participation rate varies somewhat  averaged 6,782 (1980-1984), increased to 13,271
              from year to year. Nevertheless, logbook-based estimates   (1985-1991), then declined to 6,087 (1992-1998). In central
              of effort and catch are generally considered to be useful  California, shing effort declined from an annual average
              indicators of trends in the CPFV shery.           of 206,121 angler trips (1980-1991) to 159,634 angler trips
              According to data collected in the OSP, recreational     (1992-1998). For CPFVs based in southern California, sh-
              salmon landings and effort in both central and northern   ing effort in U.S. waters experienced peaks in 1980-1982,
              California were lower and less variable in the years prior  1990 and 1997-1998, while effort in Mexican waters peaked
              to 1985 than they have been in subsequent years 1985     in 1984-1985 and 1997-1998. Fishing effort in southern
              through 2000. Record low levels of landings and effort    California (in both U.S. and Mexican waters) displays no
              were experienced by both CPFV and private boat anglers    obvious trend over time.
              in 1992 and record highs in 1995. While CPFV and private   Paralleling the changes in shing effort, CPFV landings
              boat landings have been markedly similar over time, sh-   in northern California also increased through the 1980s,
              ing effort has been consistently higher for private boats  peaked in the late 1980s and early 1990s, then declined
              than CPFVs. From 1985 through 2000, annual salmon land-   throughout the 1990s. This same trend was followed by
              ings averaged 91,600 sh for CPFVs and 93,600 for private  both major components of northern California landings
              boats, while annual effort averaged 86,200 CPFV trips and  – rocksh/lingcod and salmon. Landings of “other”
              128,300 private boat trips. Neither landings nor effort   species, which have historically been very modest, were
              exhibit any consistent long term trend.           augmented by crab harvests from 1995 through 1998,
              According to data collected in CPFV logbooks, the number   when CPFVs began employing crab pots on shing trips
              of CPFVs that participate annually in the marine recre-   to help supplement declining harvests of nshes. Cen-
              ational shery averaged 297 boats from 1980 through     tral California landings, which ranged from 1.5 to 1.8 mil-
              1998. Categorizing CPFVs according to their “principal    lion sh during the early 1980s, have declined to well
              area” (e.g., the area in which they made the plurality    under one million sh in recent years. This decline has
              of their shing trips), the number of northern California  been largely driven by the precipitous decline in rocksh/
              CPFVs increased from an annual average of 18 boats      lingcod landings. Salmon landings and landings of “other”
              during the 1980-1987 period to 30 boats during the      species (including species such as crab, striped bass, stur-
              1988-1991 period, then decreased to an average of 13     geon, atshes, mackerel, tuna, shark) followed no obvi-
              boats during the 1992-1998 period. The number of central   ous trend. Landings associated with southern California
              California CPFVs declined from an annual average of 137   trips in U.S. waters declined from well over four million
              boats during the 1980-1991 period to 105 boats during the  sh during the early 1980s to around two million sh
              1992-1998 period. The CPFV eet in southern California,   during the late 1990s. Increases in sea bass and barracuda
              many of which sh in Mexican as well as U.S. waters,     landings during 1980-1998 were overshadowed by much
              increased in size from an average of 145 boats (1980-1994)  larger declines in rocksh, mackerel and bonito landings.
              to 183 boats (1995-1998). Of these 183 boats, 119 shed   Tuna/jack landings do not follow any obvious long term
              exclusively in U.S. waters, 58 shed in both U.S. and    trend, although they have been unusually high in recent
                                             years. “Other” landings include a diversity of species,
                                             including California scorpionsh, ocean whitesh, sea
                                             chubs, wrasses, croakers and atshes among others.
                                             Since 1995, the CPFV logbook database has included infor-
                                             mation that allows shing trips to be distinguished from
                                             diving trips and also allows trips to be distinguished by
                                             target species. From 1995 through 1998, diving trips
                                             comprise a very modest proportion of total CPFV activity
                                             in both northern and central California. CPFV shing trips
                                             in northern California were targeted largely at salmon (39
                                             percent), rocksh/lingcod (48 percent) and salmon and
                                             rocksh/lingcod combined (10 percent). CPFV shing trips
                                             in central California were targeted at salmon (45 percent),
                                             rocksh/lingcod (35 percent), salmon and rocksh/lingcod
                                             (three percent), and striped bass/sturgeon, shark, tuna



                California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                       December 2001
 54
and other/unspecied species (17 percent). From 1995      From 1995 through 1998, 91 percent of southern California




                                                               Human Ecosystem Dimension
through 1998, the contribution of salmon to total CPFV     CPFV shing trips in U.S. waters were not targeted at any
landings in northern and central California (seven percent   particular species, reecting the prevalence of freelance
and 10 percent respectively) was much lower than the      trips on which anglers are provided with the opportunity
proportion of trips targeted at salmon. Conversely, the     to catch a diversity of species. Of the remaining nine per-
rocksh/lingcod contribution to total northern and central   cent of trips, two percent were specically targetine tuna
California landings (88 percent and 84 percent respec-     and seven percent rocksh/lingcod. About 55 percent
tively) was much higher than the proportion of trips tar-    of total rocksh/lingcod landings in southern California
geted at rocksh/lingcod. Such marked disproportion-      were made on trips specically targeting rocksh/lingcod
alities between landings and effort highlight the large     and the remaining 45 percent landed on freelance trips.
differences in catch-per-unit-effort that can exist among    This highlights one of the complexities associated with
species groups. The singular reliance of northern        management of the southern California CPFV shery,
and central California CPFVs on salmon, rocksh and ling-    that is, how to meet harvest goals for managed species
cod harvests and the unprecedented regulatory restric-     (like rocksh and lingcod) that are taken jointly with
tions on harvests of these species in recent years are     other species without unduly restricting harvests of these
signicant contributing factors to the decline in effort and  other species.
landings experienced in northern and central California in
recent years.
                                Cynthia J. Thomson
Southern California CPFVs participate in a range of shing   National Marine Fisheries Service
and diving activities. From 1995 through 1998, about
79 percent of angler trips made by southern California
                                References
boats involved shing in U.S. waters, 14 percent involved
shing in Mexican waters, seven percent involved diving
                                Thomson, Cynthia J. and Daniel D. Huppert. 1987. Results
in U.S. waters, and less than one percent involved dive
                                of the Bay Area Sportsh Economic Study (BASES), NOAA
trips in Mexican waters. Of the 183 CPFVs that operated in
                                Technical Memorandum NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-78, 70 pp.
southern California during 1995-1998, 63 shed in Mexican
waters. Mexican as well as California shing regulations    Thomson, Cynthia J. and Stephen J. Crooke. 1991. Results
are an important consideration for this signicant minority   of the southern California Sportsh Economic Survey.
of southern California CPFVs.                  NOAA Technical Memorandum NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-164,
                                264 pp.




Table II-1. Commercial landings (millions of pounds), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1
Year  Groundfish    Squid      Crab Alb/Other Tuna    Urchin    Herring  Shark/Sword   Salmon
1981     94.4     51.8      11.8     337.1    26.5      13.1      4.8     6.0
1982    116.7     36.9      8.2     251.6     19.5      23.4      5.7     8.0
1983     90.0      4.0      6.7     248.7     17.8      17.7      5.8     2.4
1984     90.1      1.2      7.0     182.4     15.1       8.5      7.6     2.9
1985     95.0     22.7      7.9      68.2    20.1      17.6      8.9     4.3
1986     92.5     46.9      9.8      69.0    34.1      16.9      6.7     7.3
1987     91.8     44.1      8.6      80.6    46.1      18.6      5.3     8.8
1988     88.5     82.1      12.7      75.7    52.0      19.1      4.3     14.2
1989     94.4     90.2      7.2      55.5    51.4      20.6      4.5     5.6
1990     86.7     62.7      12.3      37.4    45.3      16.5      3.5     4.3
1991     79.7     83.2      6.0      19.0    42.3      16.3      3.1     3.7
1992     77.3     28.9      9.9      20.6    33.2      14.2      3.3     1.6
1993     62.4     94.4      13.5      24.9    27.0       9.6      3.5     2.5
1994     54.8     122.0      14.6      26.0    23.9       6.7      3.4     3.1
1995     63.5     154.9      10.4      26.1    22.3      10.4      2.4     6.6
1996     62.4     177.6      13.6      42.4    20.1      12.2      2.5     4.1
1997     65.5     155.1      11.3      37.2    18.1      20.8      3.1     5.3
1998     50.6      6.6      12.1      38.1    10.4       4.5      2.8     1.8
1999     33.1     201.8      9.6      24.6    14.2       5.2      3.8     3.8




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                              A Status Report                55
              Table II-1. Commercial landings (millions of pounds), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1 (continued)
Human Ecosystem Dimension




              Year       CPS       Lobster        Prawn         Shrimp     Nearshore        Abalone       All Else   Total
              1981      232.6          0.5         0.6          5.3         2.6         1.1        3.2   791.4
              1982      215.7          0.5         0.4          5.4         2.3         1.2        3.2   697.8
              1983      122.9          0.5         0.3          2.1         1.5         0.8        1.7   522.8
              1984      123.7          0.4         0.6          3.0         2.3         0.8        1.5   447.3
              1985      102.0          0.4         1.0          4.6         3.0         0.8        1.3   357.6
              1986      120.8          0.5         0.8          7.0         2.1         0.6        1.1   416.1
              1987      124.7          0.4         0.3          8.2         2.1         0.8        1.5   442.1
              1988      129.2          0.6         0.3          11.5         2.3         0.6        1.7   494.8
              1989      136.1          0.7         0.4          14.6         2.1         0.7        3.6   487.5
              1990      106.2          0.7         0.4          10.3         2.0         0.5        6.0   394.9
              1991       99.9         0.6         0.4          11.8         2.9         0.4        1.7   371.2
              1992       85.7         0.6         0.3          19.6         1.8         0.5        1.3   298.9
              1993       67.9         0.6         0.4          8.6         2.1         0.5        1.8   319.8
              1994       57.6         0.5         0.6          12.1         3.1         0.3        1.7   330.4
              1995       115.7         0.6         0.8          6.8         3.2         0.3        1.4   425.4
              1996       107.5         0.7         1.1          10.6         3.4         0.2        3.3   461.6
              1997       151.2         0.9         1.1          15.7         2.7         0.1        4.2   492.3
              1998       147.2         0.7         1.3          3.0         1.4         0.0        3.3   283.9
              1999      163.4          0.5         2.0          5.8         1.4         0.0        2.9   472.1
               “Nearshore” includes non-rockfish species caught in nearshore areas (e.g., California sheephead, white croaker, white seabass).
              1




              Table II-2. Ex-vessel value ($millions, base year=1999), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1
              Year    Groundfish         Squid         Crab Alb/Other Tuna           Urchin       Herring   Shark/Sword   Salmon
              1981       38.3          8.5         17.2     317.6            8.4          7.9       9.6    25.3
              1982       46.5          5.6         13.6     198.7            5.6         15.8       12.5    31.5
              1983       36.5          1.1         14.0     163.1            5.8         18.9       13.7    7.0
              1984       35.8          0.4         14.3     118.2            5.3          2.8      20.7    11.4
              1985       39.9          5.3         14.7      36.6            6.8          8.7      23.1    15.3
              1986       42.8          6.2         17.9      38.3           13.4          7.6      20.8    20.2
              1987       44.5          5.3         15.2      48.3           17.9          7.9      18.2    32.6
              1988       40.1          10.2         21.0      55.1           25.2          7.4      15.2    52.5
              1989       40.7          8.7         11.3      32.8           28.4          5.9      16.6    16.5
              1990       37.2          5.7         21.8      18.4           29.7         10.5       10.7    14.1
              1991       34.4          7.2         10.0      9.4           39.5         11.1       9.3    10.5
              1992       34.9          2.8         14.1      11.5           33.9         10.5       9.6    5.1
              1993       28.0          11.3         16.4      15.2           29.4          2.8      10.9    6.3
              1994       28.2          15.6         21.4      16.5           27.7          3.5      11.5    7.0
              1995       38.7         23.7          16.9      11.4           24.1         10.3       7.8    12.4
              1996       37.8         22.8          19.5      23.5           19.6         15.8       7.1    6.3
              1997       35.8          21.2         20.8      20.1           15.7         15.6       7.3    7.5
              1998       25.0          1.7         21.8      19.0            8.0          0.6       6.7    3.1
              1999       22.4         33.3          18.2      16.3           13.4          2.2       9.1    7.4



              Year        CPS       Lobster        Prawn        Shrimp      Nearshore        Abalone      All Else   Total
              1981        23.7         2.7         1.6          5.3        2.8          3.5        4.0   475.7
              1982        21.1         3.0         1.7          5.4        1.2          3.6        4.0   369.6
              1983        15.5         3.0         0.8          2.1        0.9          2.6        1.2   286.3
              1984        14.7         2.6         0.8          3.0        1.1          3.2        1.2   238.4
              1985        11.5         2.7         1.3          4.6        1.8          3.4        1.0   174.4
              1986        12.7         3.1         1.5          7.0        1.3          2.6        0.9   194.7
              1987        11.0         2.9         1.0          8.2        1.3          3.3        1.2   218.7
              1988        12.7         4.2         1.3         11.5        1.4          2.6        1.3   256.7
              1989        12.3         5.0         1.3         14.6        1.2          3.9        2.0   193.4
              1990         7.9         4.8         1.9         10.3        1.2          3.0        3.6   176.5
              1991         8.3         4.4         2.1         11.8        1.5          2.1        1.5   158.8
              1992         7.1         4.4         1.7         19.6        1.0          3.2        1.4   149.3
              1993         4.2         4.0         2.6          8.6        0.6          3.5        2.6   141.2
              1994         4.1         3.8         3.2         12.1        2.0          2.9        2.0   157.0
              1995         5.6         5.1         3.3          6.8        2.1          2.7        1.0   170.5
              1996         5.6         5.3         4.4         10.6        2.0          2.3        1.4   180.5
              1997         8.4         7.0         5.8         15.7        1.8          1.1        1.2   176.5
              1998         6.8         4.8         6.4          3.0        1.6          0.0        1.3   109.0
              1999         7.4         3.7         5.8          5.8        1.3          0.0        1.1   144.4

                “Nearshore” includes non-rockfish species caught in nearshore areas (e.g., California sheephead, white croaker, white seabass).
              1




                  California’s Living Marine Resources:                           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                        A Status Report                                       December 2001
 56
Table II-3. Average annual landings and ex-vessel value during 1995-1999, by area and major species group.




                                                            Human Ecosystem Dimension
Northern California
Species Group     Pounds x 1000   Percent    (Base Year $=1999)      Percent
Groundfish         30,233.7    57%           13,564.4      38%
Crab             8,067.0   15%           13,257.6      37%
Shrimp            6,425.7    12%           3,531.2      10%
Urchin            3,321.6    6%           2,724.9       8%
Albacore/Other Tuna      1,105.3    2%            951.8       3%
All Else           3,402.0    7%           1,467.9       4%
Total            52,555.3   100%           35,497.8      100%


Central California
Species Group     Pounds x 1000   Percent    (Base Year $=1999)      Percent
Groundfish         22,771.8    27%           14,985.8      32%
Herring           10,431.2    12%           8,800.1      19%
Salmon            4,131.5    5%           6,939.9      15%
Crab             2,428.0    3%           5,135.0       11%
Prawn              335.6    0%           2,279.0       5%
Shark/Swordfish         758.9    1%           2,093.4       5%
Coastal Pelagics      32,000.3    38%           1,499.2       3%
Albacore/Other Tuna      1,618.6    2%           1,448.6       3%
Shrimp            1,912.5    2%           1,314.0       3%
Market Squid         7,709.4    9%            1,197.8       2%
All Else           1,192.4    1%           1,181.2       2%
Total            85,290.2   100%           46,874.0      100%



Southern California
Species Group     Pounds x 1000   Percent    (Base Year $=1999)      Percent
Market Squid        131,468.9    45%           19,344.8      26%
Albacore/Other Tuna     30,924.4    11%          15,662.8      21%
Urchin           13,057.8     5%          12,906.9      18%
Coastal Pelagics      104,979.2    36%           5,261.4       7%
Shark/Swordfish       2,059.3     1%           5,229.5       7%
Lobster            683.1     0%           5,174.6       7%
Groundfish          2,007.4     1%           3,382.5       5%
Prawn             915.9     0%           2,813.2       4%
Crab              891.2     0%           1,067.1       1%
All Else           2,237.8     1%           2,974.6       4%
Total           289,225.0   100%           73,817.4      100%



Total California
Species Group     Pounds x 1000   Percent    (Base Year $=1999)      Percent
Groundfish         55,012.9    13%           31,932.7      20%
Market Squid        139,187.8    33%           20,546.4      13%
Crab            11,386.1    3%           19,459.6      13%
Albacore/Other Tuna     33,648.2    8%           18,063.1      12%
Urchin           17,040.0    4%           16,151.1      10%
Herring           10,628.9    2%            8,910.9      6%
Shark/Swordfish        2,915.3    1%           7,609.2      5%
Salmon            4,348.7     1%           7,347.7      5%
Coastal Pelagics      137,003.8    32%            6,764.9      4%
Lobster             683.2    0%            5,175.5      3%
Prawn             1,261.4    0%            5,157.7      3%
Shrimp            8,373.9    2%            4,876.8      3%
Abalone             121.7    0%            1,205.1       1%
All Else           5,458.6     1%           2,988.4      2%
Total           427,070.5   100%          156,189.2      100%




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                               A Status Report           57
              Table II-4. Number of vessels that make commercial landings in California, categorized according to whether or not
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              they also make landings in Oregon or Washington, 1981-1999.

              Year    CA Only     CA & OR    CA & WA     CA, OR & WA      Total
              1981    5,832       787       135        143      6,897
              1982    5,762       555      106         130      6,553
              1983    5,257       396       83         94      5,830
              1984    4,779       261      103         31      5,174
              1985    4,451       235       87         37      4,810
              1986    4,305       365      106         69      4,845
              1987    4,162       352      104          76     4,694
              1988    4,204       354       135         92      4,785
              1989    4,376       309      125         64      4,874
              1990    4,155       273      122         48      4,598
              1991    4,032       214      102         40      4,388
              1992    3,536       170       118         46      3,870
              1993    3,271       196       93         58      3,618
              1994    3,102       161      107         52      3,422
              1995    3,074       184       83         35      3,376
              1996    2,994       205       74         30      3,303
              1997    2,857       190       96         20      3,163
              1998    2,505       119       51         24      2,699
              1999    2,495       128       45         22      2,690



              Table II-5. Number of vessels by principal area, categorized according to whether or not they also make landings
              outside their principal area, 1981-1999.
                   Principal Area=Northern CA    Principal Area=Central CA    Principal Area=Southern CA
                 No.CA    No.&   Other         Cen.CA    No.&   So.&    Other         So.CA  So.&  Other
              Year Only     Cen.   Comb.    Total    Only    Cen.   Cen.   Comb.    Total    Only  Cen.  Comb.  Total

              1981  1920     311    25   2256    2488     259    82       19  2848    1635  135   23  1793
              1982  1842     289    36   2167    2274     232   110       29  2645    1566  155   19  1740
              1983  1472     141    10   1623    2269     190   139       21  2619    1325  159   35  1519
              1984  1066     160    16   1242    2008     177   102       15  2302    1313  230   20  1563
              1985   891     198    23   1112    2033     147   105       13  2298    1160  152   24  1336
              1986  1127     198    20   1345    1935     164   108       16  2223    1112  121   26  1259
              1987   951     241    57   1249    1843     244    99       21  2207    1025  132   23  1180
              1988   940     211    49   1200    2035     250   101       16  2402     979   90   53  1122
              1989   858     240    60   1158    2069     296    69       20  2454    1056   89   64  1209
              1990   842     130    48   1020    2011     184    84       14  2293    1111   76   40  1227
              1991   767     127    40    934    1944     189    82       18  2233    1080  101   27  1208
              1992   597     71    83    751    1778     90    83       18  1969     998   90   47  1135
              1993   605     94    65    764    1562     132    63       20  1777     954   73   42  1069
              1994   521     101    33    655    1370     155   101       23  1649     958  107   42  1107
              1995   470     76    33    579    1539     97   116       14  1766     903   96   21  1020
              1996   507     112    24    643    1428     92    70       7  1597     929   95   25  1049
              1995   512     68    24    604    1406     88    84       9  1587     858   86   18  962
              1998   445     76    17    538    1105     64    76       11  1256     806   64   17  887
              1999   459     59    14    532    1057     56    74       4  1191     846   98   11  955




                  California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                            December 2001
 58
Table II-6. Average annual number of boats that make California landings, ex-vessel revenue per boat from




                                                                   Human Ecosystem Dimension
California landings, number and percent of boats earning less than $5,000 per year from California landings, and
number and percent of boats accounting for 90 percent of ex-vessel value of aggregate landings, by principal
area and time period.
                               1981-1985    1986-1994    1995-1999

Principal Area=Northern CA:
Number of Boats                          1,680      1,008       579
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat                    $24,500     $48,300     $60,800
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year                983(59%)     386(37%)     162(28%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
    of Northern California Landings             419(25%)     341(35%)     236(41%)

Principal Area=Central CA:
    Number of Boats                       2,542      2,134       1,479
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat                    $20,800     $25,100     $30,100
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year                1,420(56%)    967(46%)     627(43%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
    of Central California Landings              727(29%)     737(34%)     512(35%)

Principal Area=Southern CA:
    Number of Boats                       1,630       1,201       988
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat                   $126,000     $67,400     $74,900
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year                682(42%)     402(33%)     256(26%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
    of southern California Landings             290(18%)     401(34%)    382(39%)

Total California:
Number of Boats                           5,853      4,344      3,046
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat                    $50,600     $41,800     $50,700
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year                3,085(53%)    1,755(40%)   1,045(34%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
    of Total California Landings              1,119(20%)    1,375(32%)   1,072(35%)

Table II-7. Average annual 1995-1999 landings, ex-vessel value of landings, and vessel participation in major
commercial sheries, by area.
# Vessels
Major Northern CA                 Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries                    (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999)    Vessels Principal Fishery
Crab trap                      7,886.0     13,095.5     309       247
Groundfish trawl                  28,683.7     11,322.9      71        56
Shrimp trawl                    6,084.1     3,179.5      58        25
Urchin dive                     3,318.9     2,742.1      64        61
Groundfish H&L                   1,562.8     1,925.4     158       103
Tuna H&L                       966.4      837.6      43        17
Salmon H&L                      406.1      654.5      86        44
Groundfish/misc. trap                 363.9      459.4      35        16
Shark/swordfish gillnet                102.0      308.9      9        4
Herring                        121.1      104.4      5        4


# Vessels
Major Central CA                 Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries                    (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999)    Vessels Principal Fishery
Groundfish trawl                  17,406.2     9,097.8      73        61
Herring                      10,014.2     8,585.5      149       136
Salmon H&L                     3,847.1     6,512.4     704       579
Crab trap                      2,564.3     5,209.2      207       127
Groundfish H&L                   4,056.2     4,710.2     520       415
Prawn trawl                      317.9     2,039.2      18        13
Shark/swordfish gillnet                581.9     1,683.5      30        21
Squid seine/other net                8,817.7     1,282.9      13        5
Tuna H&L                      1,470.1     1,248.1     123        44
CPS seine                     20,333.9      961.6      13        7
Shrimp trawl                     985.7      956.9      19        10
Urchin dive                      686.7      546.9      17        10
Groundfish/misc. trap                 153.1      382.5      34        13
Abalone dive                      31.8      313.1      9        8
Prawn trap                       34.4      249.2      8        3
Shark/swordfish H&L                  101.2      240.9      9        3


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                      A Status Report           59
              Table II-7 (continued).
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              # Vessels
              Major Southern CA            Landings Value ($1000s,   # Participating Participating As
              Fisheries               (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999)      Vessels Principal Fishery
              Squid seine/other net          129,556.2     19,150.2       87        70
              Urchin dive                13,007.9    12,835.5       223        207
              Tuna seine                23,001.5     9,644.1       21        10
              Tuna H&L                  7,473.2     5,736.9       115        65
              CPS seine                115,869.4     5,671.8       46        23
              Lobster trap                 680.7     5,157.5       202        168
              Shark/swordfish gillnet          1,053.9     2,548.2       80        50
              Groundfish H&L               1,588.5     2,193.8       205        157
              Shark/swordfish H&L             795.6     1,875.9       42        27
              Prawn trawl                 745.3     1,679.9       27        19
              Groundfish/misc. net             810.8     1,232.3       58        31
              Crab trap                  900.4     1,097.2       76        35
              Prawn trap                  135.1     1,011.9       28        18
              Abalone dive                 87.6      877.0       33        13
              Groundfish/misc. trap            219.1      663.2       66        19
              Shark/swordfish dive             119.3      632.0       24        20
              Groundfish trawl               255.0      525.3       32        20
              Cucumber dive                398.6      244.3       22        21
              Salmon H&L                  89.8      171.1       18         7
              Cucumber trawl                236.4      167.1       12         5
              Shrimp other net               63.5       22.2        3         3



              Table II-8. Average annual 1995-1999 landings and ex-vessel revenue per boat from the principal shery, from other
              California sheries and from Oregon and Washington sheries, by vessels’ principal area and principal shery.


                                       Landings/Boat/Year (1000 Pounds)           Ex-Vessel Revenue/Boat/Year ($1000s)

              Northern California    Principal    Other                       Principal      Other
              Principal Fisheries    Fishery      CA      OR/WA        Total     Fishery       CA     OR/WA     Total
              Crab trap           26.0     17.1       9.8       52.9       43.8      12.7       8.8    65.2
              Groundfish trawl       473.1     61.1       385.7       919.8       185.1      37.2      44.8    267.2
              Shrimp trawl         110.2     38.9       249.4       398.5       58.6      30.1      134.5    223.2
              Urchin dive          54.2      0.7       2.7       57.6       43.9       1.5       2.5    47.9
              Groundfish H&L         10.6      3.1       1.6       15.3       12.7       4.3       2.3    19.4
              Tuna H&L            27.1      2.7       30.6       60.5       24.0       3.6      28.3    55.9
              Salmon H&L            1.8     0.8       0.2        2.8        3.2       1.1       0.3     4.6
              Groundfish/misc. trap     10.8      3.7       3.5       18.0       14.8       5.1       6.3    26.2
              Shark/swordfish gillnet    13.2     10.3       107.6       131.0       42.3      11.3      102.9    156.5
              Herring            25.9      1.2       0.0       27.1       19.4       1.2       0.0    20.5
              Groundfish trawl       275.3     18.8       333.9       628.0       145.4      11.1      52.9    209.4
              Herring            64.2     18.5        1.8       84.5       53.4       2.9       1.3    57.7
              Salmon H&L            5.3     1.4       1.9        8.6        9.0      1.8       2.3    13.1
              Crab trap           16.1      9.1       1.9       27.0       32.7       8.4       1.9    43.1
              Groundfish H&L          8.6     0.8       0.2        9.6       10.2       1.1       0.2    11.5
              Prawn trawl          23.3     44.7       87.4       155.4       153.8      34.0      46.3    234.1
              Squid seine/other net     573.8    479.3        0.0      1053.1       85.7      46.0       0.0    131.6
              Tuna H&L            17.1     2.7       17.9       37.6       14.4       4.0      16.7    35.2
              CPS seine          2030.9    334.9        0.0      2365.9       99.2      53.2       0.0    152.4
              Shrimp trawl          26.1      4.2       78.7       109.0       52.7       4.9      52.4    110.0
              Urchin dive          60.3      1.1       0.0       61.4       47.6       2.2       0.0    49.7
              Groundfish/misc. trap      8.1     2.2       0.0       10.3       20.8       4.3       0.0    25.1
              Abalone dive           2.3     2.0       0.1        4.4       22.5       2.1       0.1    24.7
              Prawn trap            8.1    16.2        0.9       25.2       59.8      12.6       0.5    72.8
              Shark/swordfish H&L       11.2     2.7       0.7       14.6       27.0       7.5      1.9    36.4




                 California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                            December 2001
 60
Table II-8 (cont.)




                                                                                  Human Ecosystem Dimension
                         Landings/Boat/Year (1000 Pounds)                 Ex-Vessel Revenue/Boat/Year ($1000s)

Southern California       Principal      Other                      Principal       Other
Principal Fisheries        Fishery        CA     OR/WA        Total     Fishery        CA     OR/WA     Total
Squid seine/other net        1516.9       674.7       5.2      2196.7       226.0       44.9       4.5    275.4
Urchin dive              60.2        3.0       5.1       68.2       58.8        4.2       0.9     63.8
Tuna seine             1882.1      1288.6       4.9      3175.6       806.4       104.0       4.1    914.6
Tuna H&L               105.0       15.1      36.2       156.3       70.5        9.4      31.3     111.3
CPS seine              2475.8       482.5       0.4      2958.8       132.0       89.5       0.1    221.6
Lobster trap              3.7       3.8       0.1        7.6       28.2        6.4       0.1     34.7
Shark/swordfish gillnet        16.4       23.5       8.3       48.2       42.9       19.7       7.1     69.7
Groundfish H&L             8.9       1.7       0.3       11.0       12.2        1.4       0.3     13.9
Shark/swordfish H&L          26.8        6.7       3.0       36.5       62.8       15.3       2.4     80.4
Prawn trawl              32.5        9.2      56.5       98.2       79.4       11.6      12.2    103.2
Groundfish/misc. other net       17.5       12.1       0.6       30.3       28.1       10.6       0.5     39.2
Crab trap               15.1        1.4       0.0       16.6       18.3        4.7       0.0     23.0
Prawn trap               6.1       2.6       0.5        9.1       47.4        9.1       0.4     56.9
Abalone dive              2.1       9.1       0.4       11.7       21.4        9.7       0.3     31.5
Groundfish/misc. trap          4.6       2.9       0.0        7.5       14.0        7.2      0.0     21.3
Shark/swordfish dive          5.2       1.2       0.0        6.3       27.3        1.8       0.0     29.1
Groundfish trawl            9.0       8.0       7.9       24.9       20.9        6.0       2.7     29.6
Cucumber dive              2.6       4.0       0.5       32.9       15.1        9.8       0.0     24.8



Table II-9. Number of sh dealers by principal area, categorized according to whether or not they also receive landings
outside their principal area, 1981-1999.


               Principal Area=Northern CA     Principal Area=Central CA     Principal Area=Southern CA

          No.CA    No.&   Other       Cen.CA  No.&  So.&  Other  So.CA   So.&  Other    CA
Year         Only    Cen.  Comb.   Total   Only  Cen.  Cen.  Comb.  Total   Only  Cen.   Comb.   Total Dealers
1981          81      3    7    86   182   15   12    4   213   201   17     2   220   519
1982          77      8    1    86   209    9   11    4   233    227   18     2   247   566
1983          67      6    0    73   221   14   12    4   251    217   27     4   248   572
1984          53     11    0    64   211    8   9    4   232    207   28     2   237   533
1985          59      9    0    68   200    9   19    2   230    187   35     1   223   521
1986          65      7    2    74   213    4   18    3   238    188   24     6    218  530
1987         103     12    4    119   420   22   17    4   463    275   29     5   309   891
1988         102      6    2    110   361   21   15    2   399    272   29    10    311  820
1989         108     10    5   123    329   15   12    5   361    294   37    11   342   826
1990          85     11    5    101   322   14   21    2   359    285   34    12   331   791
1991          85     12    3   100    312   21   19    6   358    290   26     9   325   783
1992          85     10    6    101   307   21   24    11   363    257   26    15   298   762
1993         104     14    4   122    318   21   21    5   365    237   31    17   285   772
1994          98     14    12    124   333   24   27    9   393    331   59    15   405   922
1995          54     14    12    80   284    9   27    6   326    292   37     8   337   743
1996          88     13    6   107    274   19   18    6   317   267   30    12   309   733
1997          89     24    4    117   301   17   18    8   344    297   30     7   334   795
1998          78     19    6   103    360   16   19    5   400    312   29    10   351   854
1999         120     16    7   143    339   11   13    3   366    328   43     8   379   888




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                             California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                        A Status Report                        61
              Table II-10. Average annual number of sh dealers, ex-vessel value of California landings receipts per dealer,
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              number and percent of dealers accounting for less than $5,000 per year in California landings receipts, and number
              and percent of dealers accounting for 90 percent of ex-vessel value of aggregate landings receipts, 1981-1986 and
              1987-1999, by dealers’ principal area.
                                               1981-1986   1987-1999
              Principal Area – Northern CA:
               Number of Dealers                           75      112
               Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer          $542,700    $380,300
               #(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts           18(23%)    52(46%)
               #(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
                of Northern California Landings                 25(33%)    22(20%)

              Principal Area – Central CA:
               Number of Dealers                           233      370
               Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer          $246,700    $138,800
               #(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts           76(33%)    186(50%)
               #(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
                of Central California Landings                 50(21%)    58(16%)

              Principal Area – Southern CA:
               Number of Dealers                           239      344
               Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer          $805,500    $233,900
               #(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts           69(29%)    131(38%)
               #(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
                of southern California Landings                 28(12%)    55(16%)

              All California:
               Number of Dealers                           547      825
               Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer          $531,500    $209,500
               #(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts          163(30%)    369(45%)
               #(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
                of Total California Landings                 103(19%)    134(16%)



              Table II-11. Volume and value of imports and exports of edible sh products at California customs districts and at
              all United States customs districts, by year, 1989-1999.
                                               Imports                          Exports

                                                $Millions                          $Millions
                                   Millions of Pounds (Base Year=1999)             Millions of Pounds(Base Year=1999)

              Year      Calif.        U.S.        Calif.      U.S.     Calif.   U.S.      Calif.       U.S.
              1989      569.8       3,243.0       1,636.7    6,863.7     106.6  1,406.0      255.2      2,940.8
              1990      627.4       2,884.6       1,808.6    6,289.9      99.2  1,947.3      231.7      3,463.1
              1991      687.0       3,014.8       1,895.1    6,595.2     131.6  2,058.6      260.1      3,669.5
              1992      710.3       2,894.0       2,015.5    6,491.3     105.2  2,087.6      223.6      3,942.7
              1993      708.9       2,917.2       1,948.3    6,477.0      86.7  1,986.0      216.6      3,407.3
              1994      777.1       3,034.8       2,325.8    7,207.3     135.9  1,978.5      284.8      3,390.6
              1995      729.8       3,066.5       2,230.8     7,217.5     183.8  2,047.2      293.8      3,466.8
              1996      759.6       3,169.8       2,222.9     7,017.3     218.7  2,112.1      281.8      3,161.9
              1997      832.0       3,338.8       2,533.5     7,961.2     248.3  2,018.9      269.7      2,785.5
              1998      911.1       3,647.0       2,513.8    8,289.2     142.6  1,663.9      158.9      2,291.8
              1999      979.0       3,887.9       2,471.5    9,013.9     285.4  1,961.1      232.3      2,848.5




                  California’s Living Marine Resources:                    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                                December 2001
 62
Table III-1. Average annual marine recreational shing effort and harvest during 1998-1999 in southern and
central/northern California, by shing mode (1000s of sh).

                1000s of         Landed       Released        Other




                                                                                   Human Ecosystem Dimension
Area/Fishing Mode       Angler Trips        Whole         Alive     Disposition          Total

Southern California
   Man-made             624          837          644          233         1,714
   Beach              281          327          247          17          590
   CPFV               641         1,733          973          262         2,968
   Private            1,324         1,960         4,075          211         6,246
   Total             2,869         4,857         5,939          723        11,518

Central/Northern California
    Man-made             440         533          192          67          792
    Beach              344        1,582          206          17         1,805
    CPFV               168        1,131          122         171         1,423
    Private             921        1,459          648         205         2,311
    Total             1,872        4,705         1,168         460         6,331

Total California
    Man-made           1,064         1,370          836          300        2,506
    Beach              625         1,909          453           34        2,395
    CPFV              808         2,864         1,095          433        4,391
    Private            2,245         3,419         4,723          416        8,557
    Total             4,741         9,562         7,107         1,183        17,849


Source: Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey.
Includes harvests in U.S. waters only. “Other Disposition” refers to fish used as bait, filleted, given away or discarded dead. All landings are in 1000s of fish.


Table III-2. Average annual marine recreational harvest (excluding sh released alive) during 1998-1999 in southern
and central/northern California, by shing mode and species category.
         Southern California        Central/Northern California
Species Category 1000s of Fish (%)         Species Category 1000s of Fish (%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Man-Made –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Tuna/mackerel      413 (39%)             Silversides   185 (31%)
Croaker         204 (19%)              Surfperch    164 (27%)
Silversides       150 (14%)               Croaker    78 (13%)
Herring         145 (14%)               Herring    61 (10%)
Surfperch         71 (7%)              Anchovy      47 (8%)
Other           87 (8%)               Other     65 (11%)
Total        1,070 (100%)                Total  600 (100%)

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Beach ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Surfperch     218 (63%)                  Smelt  1,145 (72%)
Croaker      59 (17%)                Surfperch   343 (21%)
Silversides     24 ( 7%)               Silversides    41 (3%)
Sea chub       16 (5%)                 Other    70 (4%)
Other        27 (8%)                  Total 1,599 (100%)
Total      344 (100%)

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– CPFV ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Rockfish       668 (33%)              Rockfish 1,204 (92%)
Sea basses      313 (16%)              Salmon   50 (4%)
Tuna/mackerel     281 (14%)             Greenling   21 (2%)
Pacific barracuda   269 (13%)               Other    27 (2%)
Calif scorpionfish   151 (8%)               Total 1,302 (100%)
Other         313 (16%)
Total       1,995 (100%)

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Private Boat –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Sea basses      502 (23%)                 Rockfish 1,034 (60%)
Tuna/mackerel     379 (17%)             Tuna/mackerel    89 (5%)
Rockfish       328 (15%)                 Croaker    85 (5%)
Pacific barracuda   192 (9%)                 Flatfish   80 (5%)
Jacks         168 (8%)               Striped bass    70 (4%)
Croaker        156 (7%)                Greenling    68 (4%)
Flatfish        125 (6%)                 Salmon    55 (3%)
Calif scorpionfish   86 (4%)                  Other  237 (14%)
Other         235 (11%)                   Total 1,718 (100%)
Total       2,171 (100%)

Source: Salmon harvest estimates obtained from DFG’s Ocean Salmon Project. All other harvest estimates obtained from Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey.


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                                A Status Report                  63
              Table III-3. Estimated average annual expenditures by marine anglers during 1998-1999 in southern and central/
Human Ecosystem Dimension



              northern California ($millions, base year=1999), by expenditure category.

              Expenditure Category     Southern CA     Northern CA       Total CA

              Trip-Related Expenses
                  Man-Made           $ 18.1        $ 13.2       $ 31.3
                  Beach              9.8         15.1        24.9
                  CPFV              81.4         17.0        98.4
                  Private            92.7         62.6        155.3
              Total                $202.0        $107.9       $309.9

                 Licenses/Fishing Gear      54.3         29.0        83.3
                 Boat-Related Expenses      74.1         39.6        113.7
              Grand Total             $330.4        $176.5       $506.9

              Source: Trip-related expenses based on average annual 1998-1999 effort estimates (Table III-1) and estimates of average expenditures per trip by fishing mode derived from Thomson
              and Crooke (1991) for southern California and from Thomson and Huppert (1987) for central/northern California and corrected for inflation to 1999 dollars. License/gear and
              boat-related expenses based on the observation from Thomson and Crooke (1991) that license/gear and boat-related expenses are 27 percent and 37 percent respectively of total trip
              expenditures in southern California, and extrapolating that result to central/northern California.



              Table III-4. Number of CPFVs participating in the marine recreational shery during 1980-1998,
              by vessels’ principal shing area.

              Year     NoCA        CenCA       U.S.Only SoCA:U.S. &Mex         MexOnly         Total     All Boats
              1980      14          142         83       57            6          147        303
              1981      15          125         85       52            14          151        291
              1982      20          136         92       50            9          151        307
              1983      21          145         96       52            6          154         320
              1984      19         140          80       65            17          162        321
              1985      17          142         78       58            19          155        314
              1986      18         140          82       53            7          142         300
              1987      22          134         76       45            10          131        287
              1988      27          132         102       47            8          157         316
              1989      41         146          83       55            14          152        339
              1990      32          135         87       45            11          143         310
              1991      21          125         87       23            15          125         271
              1992      16          120         91       39            3          133         269
              1993      16          107         90       32            6          128         251
              1994      13          107         98       34            7          139         259
              1995      13          99         117       47            6          170        282
              1996      10          105         121       47            6          174        289
              1997      11          105         125       66            4          195        311
              1998      13          95         114       73            5          192         300

              Source: CPFV logbooks. Southern California CPFVs distinguished according to whether they fish in U.S. and/or Mexican waters.




                  California’s Living Marine Resources:                          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                                      December 2001
 64
Table III-5. Number of CPFV angler trips, by year and area.




                                                                           Human Ecosystem Dimension
Year       NoCA        CenCA         SoCA Total U.S. Waters Mexican Waters          Grand Total
1980       5,665       204,146        492,290      702,101     59,739           761,840
1981       6,948       205,380        556,721      769,049     61,460           830,509
1982       6,694       213,206        503,280      723,180     52,756           775,936
1983       8,024       180,898        433,514      622,436     69,210           691,646
1984       6,577       188,275        415,036      609,888     91,666           701,554
1985      11,591       210,894        413,102      635,587     81,601            717,188
1986      11,064       189,780        407,614      608,458     51,755           660,213
1987      13,251       208,989        396,309      618,549     59,862           678,411
1988      12,496       217,284        427,610      657,390     53,967           711,357
1989      15,595       226,333        420,976      662,904     74,681           737,585
1990      14,724       222,149        474,761      711,634     57,433           769,067
1991      14,179       175,329        434,945      624,453     37,100           661,553
1992       7,586       164,792        407,831      580,209     55,258           635,467
1993       5,617       169,566        377,125      552,308     40,626           592,934
1994       4,949       161,637        364,774      531,360     51,765           583,125
1995       6,806       169,402        408,547      584,755     58,074           642,829
1996       6,021       137,312        435,940      579,273     74,846           654,119
1997       5,456       165,899        554,117      725,472     99,304           824,776
1998       6,175       133,133        483,420      622,728    106,504           729,232


Source: CPFV logbooks. “Mexican waters” pertains to trips departing from southern California ports to fish in Mexican waters.



Table III-6. Landings on CPFV shing trips (1000s of sh), by year and area.

Year      NoCA        CenCA         SoCA Total U.S. Waters Mexican Waters          Grand Total
1980       24.2       1,545.4       4,517.1      6,086.6     321.2            6,407.8
1981       51.9       1,747.0       4,267.0      6,065.9     248.6            6,314.5
1982       42.4       1,781.8       3,363.5      5,187.7     182.9            5,370.6
1983       60.9       1,654.9       2,547.0      4,262.7     362.2            4,624.9
1984       33.5       1,485.3       2,249.5      3,768.3     404.0            4,172.3
1985       53.5       1,364.3       2,471.2      3,889.0     290.1            4,179.1
1986       41.6       1,198.9       2,617.9      3,858.4     217.1            4,075.5
1987       50.4       1,314.3       2,485.0      3,849.7     256.2            4,105.9
1988       56.9       1,390.1       2,651.2      4,098.2     254.2            4,352.4
1989       82.4       1,574.1       2,618.9      4,275.4     321.6            4,597.0
1990       111.1       1,606.5       2,824.5      4,542.1     243.5            4,785.6
1991       73.0       1,345.9       2,694.5      4,113.4     175.9            4,289.2
1992       69.7       1,526.7       2,275.7      3,872.1     219.6            4,091.7
1993       31.4       1,312.3       2,112.2      3,455.9     166.7            3,622.6
1994       30.8       1,049.1       1,945.7      3,025.6     189.4            3,215.1
1995       43.9        923.2       1,980.0      2,947.1     222.8            3,169.8
1996       32.1        743.7       2,350.6      3,126.5     249.0            3,375.5
1997       43.4        957.3       2,356.1      3,536.8     384.2            3,921.0
1998       53.7        882.8       2,008.1      2,944.6     377.9            3,322.5


Source: CPFV logbooks. “Mexican waters” pertains to harvests on trips that depart from southern California ports to fish in Mexican waters.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                              A Status Report           65
              Table III-7. Annual number of CPFV boat and angler trips in 1995-1998, by area and trip type.
Human Ecosystem Dimension



                 Area/Trip Type      1995   1996   1997    1998     Avg.

              Northern California
              Total Fishing Trips:      6,806   6,021   5,456    6,175    6,115
                Salmon           2,948   3,264   1,808    1,554    2,394
                Rockfish/lingcod      3,222   2,161   2,839    3,410    2,908
                Salmon/rockfish/lingcod    321    519    553    1,034     607
                Other/unspecified       314    77    256     177     207
              Total Dive Trips         26    15     0     10      13
              NoCA Total           6,832   6,036   5,456    6,185    6,128

              Central California
              Total Fishing Trips:     169,402  137,312  165,899   133,133   151,437
               Salmon           86,899  56,567  78,202   48,645    67,578
               Rockfish/lingcod      58,008  52,865  52,233   51,795    53,725
               Salmon/rockfish/lingcod   5,098   3,408   5,135    3,777    4,354
               Strbass/sturgeon       2,522   3,720   5,572    5,349    4,291
               Shark            1,012    526    628     428     648
               Tuna              140   1,127   6,500    4,014    2,945
               Other/unspecified      15,723  19,099  17,629   19,125    17,894
              Total Dive Trips        1,126   1,249    716     38     782
              CenCA Total         170,528  138,561  166,615   133,171   152,219

              Southern California
              Total Fishing Trips-CA:   408,547  435,940  554,117  483,420    470,506
               Rockfish/lingcod      31,684  34,923  30,525   26,595    30,932
               Tuna            12,006   2,992  13,586   18,124    11,677
               Other/unspecified     364,857  398,025  510,006  438,701    427,897
              Total Fishing Trips-Mex:   58,074  74,846  99,304  106,504    84,682
               Tuna            35,691  34,692  56,029   62,164    47,144
               Other/unspecified      22,383  40,154  43,275   44,340    37,538
              Total Dive Trips-CA      37,089  43,128  44,938   33,014    39,542
              Total Dive Trips-Mex       446    790    394    659      572
              SoCA Total          504,156  554,704  698,753  623,597    595,303


              Source: CPFV logbooks.




                 California’s Living Marine Resources:         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                     December 2001
 66
Marine Law
Enforcement                          Resources




                                                               Marine Law Enforcement
Introduction                         Personnel
                                The Department of Fish and Game’s (DFG) Marine Region

T  he Fish and Game Code states that “(t)he protection
                                was established in December of 1997. This resulted in
   and conservation of the sh and wildlife resources of
                                the consolidation of marine resource enforcement efforts
this state are hereby declared to be of utmost public
                                which had been split between the three inland regions
interest. Fish and wildlife are the property of the people
                                bordering the coastline. Initial stafng included 21 posi-
and provide a major contribution to the economy of the
                                tions transferred from the department’s Ofce of Oil Spill
state, as well as providing a signicant part of the peo-
                                Prevention and Response (OSPER) (responsible for marine
ple’s food supply and therefore their conservation is a
                                oil pollution regulation enforcement only).
proper responsibility of the state.”
                                In March 1998, 38 positions were transferred from DFG’s
In keeping with this responsibility, the Marine Region
                                inland regions. The law enforcement function was staffed
enforcement staff is charged with enforcing the regula-
                                with these 59 positions until October 1998 when the
tory aspects of marine resource management. This formi-
                                Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) was enacted by the
dable challenge encompasses approximately 1100 miles of
                                State Legislature. This law provided 15 additional enforce-
California coastline out to sea for 200 miles — 220,000
                                ment positions bringing the count to 74. In April 2000, in
square miles. Marine Region law enforcement focuses its
                                keeping with statutory obligations, the positions funded
efforts on commercial sheries (including shing vessels,
                                by the OSPR were removed from the Marine Region to
shore facilities and all sheries-related infrastructures
                                ensure a dedicated spill prevention and response unit.
throughout the state), illegal commercialization of the
                                Law enforcement personnel stafng in the Marine Region
public shery resources, sport sheries, market inspec-
                                decreased to 53 positions. In July 2000, the state Legisla-
tions and landing taxes. Enforcement efforts include
                                ture provided 10 additional positions. Entering 2001, the
the inspection of licenses, permits, catch, gear types,
                                Marine Region’s law enforcement staff consisted of 63
vessels, shing activity records, sh businesses, account-
                                positions, still well below the stafng levels of the early
ing records, and importation. The enforcement staff also
                                1980s when DFG had a Marine Resources Region with its
ensures that sport and commercial shermen comply with
                                own enforcement function.
regulations concerning seasons, size limits, bag limits,
trip limits, shing gear restrictions and design, quotas,   Patrol Boats
closures, sales of sh, and prohibited species. Land-based
                                In 1998, the Marine Region had two 65-foot patrol boats,
and at-sea patrols are required to enforce all of the vari-
                                the Albacore (an aluminum mono-hull) and the Bluen (a
ous regulations.
                                berglass mono-hull), two 40-foot patrol boats (the Yel-
In addition to enforcing laws, the enforcement staff is    lowtail and the Tuna), and 18 smaller patrol skiffs ranging
very active in public outreach and education. The staff    in size from 13 to 28 feet.
takes a proactive approach in recognizing emerging sher-
                                Funds were provided later that year to increase the
ies that may need management measures to ensure a
                                region’s at-sea patrol capabilities. A 54-foot vessel was
viable commercial and recreational environment.
                                designed, contracted, built, and delivered in 1999. Named
In consideration of the natural history of individual     the Thresher this patrol boat is a state-of-the-art
                                      ,
species, management and enforcement policies are       aluminum foil-supported catamaran powered by twin 660
tailored to ensure the sustainability of sport and      turbo diesels. The funds also enabled the purchase of
commercial sheries. Each species has unique regulatory    three 24-foot, rigid-hull inatable (RHI) patrol boats.
needs, challenges, and issues, but the effective man-     These three boats joined two other similar boats to form
agement of all is dependent on accurate recording and     the north coast rapid deployment force. The boats can
reporting of landed weights by sh businesses. Patrol     be put on trailers and deployed quickly along the rugged
efforts to insure accurate documentation of landings for   north coast.
all species is crucial. Enforcement is faced with identify-
                                In July 1998, the MLMA provided for the purchase of the
ing these needs and structuring enforcement activities to
                                patrol boat Marlin, a sister vessel to the Thresher This
                                                         .
address such complex issues. Current enforcement effort
                                boat was delivered in July 2001. All six large patrol boats
is hampered by a lack of enforcement personnel and
                                are equipped with an 18-foot RHI boarding vessel. In July
disinterest in prosecution by some court systems.
                                1999, additional funding provided for three more patrol
                                boats, the Swordsh, Coho and Steelhead, identical to the




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                  67
             previous two. Delivery is expected in January and April    Management Council (PFMC) in its formulation of federal
Marine Law Enforcement



             of 2002.                           shery management regulations.
                                            In addition, the enforcement staff coordinates with 1)
             Teams
                                            the NMFS in regard to Lacey Act violations for sh trans-
             The Marine Region Law Enforcement function is organized    ported across state boundaries; 2) the US Coast Guard
             along a traditional chain-of-command structure; however,   on enforcement; 3) the PFMC on sheries management
             in addition, self-directed work teams were instituted at   plans and shing gear deployment; 4) the State Depart-
             the inception of the Marine Region. These teams include:   ment of Weights and Measures in assuring the proper
                                            procedures for the weighing of sh and the completion
             1.  A Policy and Procedure Team responsible for inter-
                                            of landing receipts; and 5) the State Department of Parks
                preting commercial and sport shing laws, rules and
                                            and Recreation, National Park Service, Harbor Patrol, local
                regulations in a consistent statewide basis and estab-
                                            police and local sheriffs departments in matters of mutual
                lishing standard operating procedures for marine law
                                            enforcement efforts.
                enforcement activities.
             2.  An Enforcement Legislative Team responsible for
                developing language for law, rule and regulation
                                            Fisheries-Specific Enforcement Efforts
                changes for legislative and commission consideration.
             3.  A Boat Team responsible for the deployment of
                                            Groundsh
                the patrol boats and the at-sea operations of the
                                            Because of concerns about continuing declines of many
                patrol eet.
                                            groundsh populations, recent additional restrictions have
             4.  A Law Enforcement Training Team which develops
                                            been proposed and adopted to protect these resources.
                instructional designs for training modules to address
                                            Enforcement of groundsh regulations is difcult due to
                the training requirements of enforcing complex
                                            the large number of species involved, their vast distribu-
                commercial and sport shing regulations.
                                            tions, the frequently changing and sometimes complex
             These teams were developed to encourage fair and consis-   regulations, and the various shing methods utilized in
             tent enforcement of the laws and regulations throughout    the commercial shing industry. Some species, such as
             the region, clarify and make the regulations more enforce-  lingcod, have been proposed as candidates for listing as
             able, deploy and operate the patrol boats where they will   threatened or endangered. The effectiveness of enforce-
             be the most benecial, and maintain a well trained and    ment effort is dependent upon the accurate recording of
             professional warden force to protect California’s diverse   landed weights.
             marine resources for all of the people in the state.
                                            Nearshore Fish
             Partnerships
                                            There are many species that can be considered as near-
             The law enforcement function works closely with other     shore sh, but the species that this section addresses
             government organizations concerned with the manage-      are those that are of primary concern to managers and
             ment of marine resources. The department has a Memo-     were among the rst to be addressed in the Nearshore
             randum of Understanding with the Monterey Bay National    Fisheries Management Plan. Included are black rocksh,
             Marine Sanctuary which allows wardens to be deputized to   black and yellow rocksh, blue rocksh, brown rocksh,
             conduct federal law enforcement patrols in the sanctuary.   calico rocksh, China rocksh, copper rocksh, gopher
             This partnership provides $125,000 in operating expenses,   rocksh, grass rocksh, kelp rocksh, olive rocksh, quill-
             over a three-year period, for the wardens working in the   back rocksh, treesh, California sheephead, greenlings,
             sanctuary. A similar partnership exists with the National   cabezon, California scorpionsh, and monkeyfaced “eels.”
             Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) which provides $300,000
                                            These species are targeted by sport and commercial sh-
             to pay wardens overtime for groundsh enforcement. We
                                            ermen. The primary commercial shery is for the live-sh
             can expect these partnerships to continue.
                                            market. The live-sh market commands a much higher
             Enforcement personnel are actively working on memoran-    price per pound than traditional markets. The high price
             dums of understandings with the Channel Islands National   and low volume of sh being handled has resulted in
             Marine Sanctuary and various units of the National Park    the proliferation of small sh businesses. Many such busi-
             Service in the Channel Islands and San Francisco Bay     nesses operate out of vehicles. The resulting highly-mobile
             areas. These partnerships will provide the department     shery makes enforcement difcult.
             with operating funds in exchange for law enforcement
             patrols in federal waters. The function also provides a
             law enforcement consultant to assist the Pacic Fisheries


             Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                        December 2001
 68
Salmon                            Striped Bass




                                                                            Marine Law Enforcement
Enforcement problems in the sport salmon shery include    Enforcement includes patrols directed toward such prob-
the use of barbed hooks and other illegal hooks, multiple   lems as night shing from boats and multiple rod viola-
poles, overlimits, group shing, retention of Coho salmon,  tions in San Francisco Bay, overlimits, gillnets, and market
sorting and discarding of less desirable sh, (i.e., “high  checks for illegal sh. There is also public concern over
grading”) violations of the salmon punch card in the Klam-  snagging of striped bass in ocean waters.
ath Management Zone, and sale of sport caught sh. There   There is an active black market involving sport-taken
has been a trend among some sport salmon anglers toward    striped bass entering the commercial market. Fish are
the use of commercial type gear in an illegal manner.     caught with rod and reel and illegal gillnets. Black market
Problems in the commercial shery include the failure     striped bass then become mixed with legally imported sh
to record sh landings, violations of quota-landing limits,  from sources outside of California, primarily aquaculture sh.
shing closed areas, retention of Coho salmon, use of ille-  Additional patrol time has been made available through
gal gear such as barbed hooks or more than six troll lines,  the Striped Bass Stamp Fund. In addition, funding is avail-
and shing without a commercial salmon permit. Some of    able through state and federal water projects to mitigate
the tribal allotments of salmon are being sold outside the  impacts of those projects on this and other sheries.
reservation, both in California and other states. This has  Recipients of the additional funding are the Marine Region
created an enforcement problem, as there are currently    and the Delta Bay Enhanced Enforcement Project.
conicts between tribal law and California regulations.
                               Pacic Herring
Mid-season regulation changes, for both the sport and
commercial sheries, result in confusion and adverse     Enforcement is focused on compliance with gillnet mesh
public relations. While these changes are based upon the   sizes, length of nets, number of nets used, limited entry
best biological information available, enforcement person-  permit requirements, quotas, and season dates. There
nel often receive complaints about the complexity of the   are special requirements for herring buyers to ensure
salmon regulations. Standardization and earlier publica-   accurate recordings of the landings for the purpose of
tion of regulations, to the extent possible, would be well  quota management. The roe-on-kelp shery is subject to
received by all shermen. A greater effort towards public   permit requirements, licensing of individuals working on
education regarding management of salmon and the basis    kelp rafts, special reporting requirements, quotas, and
for the regulations would also assist in this area.      raft size limits. The ocean harvest fresh sh permit may
                               not be used during the time the roe sheries are operat-
Besides the federal shery agencies, other entities
                               ing, and the herring taken in this shery may not be sold
involved in the management of salmon include the Hoopa
                               for roe recovery. During the relatively short season, there
and Yurok tribes. These tribes in the Klamath Management
                               is a strong enforcement effort, which requires the shifting
Zone are allocated fty percent of the available annual
                               of wardens from many other areas of the state.
harvest and have a tribal representative on the PFMC. The
department works closely with these groups to manage     Because of the numerous boats involved in the San Fran-
the sport and commercial salmon shery in ocean and      cisco Bay shery, the Coast Guard is heavily involved
inland waters of the state.

Halibut
There are minimum size limits for commercial and sport
caught Pacic and California halibut. Commercial enforce-
ment efforts center on the trawl and gillnet shery.
Efforts focus on net measurement, sh size restrictions,
and documented landings. There are several closures for
trawl and gillnets along the California coasts. Closures
are very specic to depths and distance from shore. Spe-
cic electronic equipment capable of accurately measur-
ing distances and depths is needed to monitor these sh-
eries for compliance. Personnel trained in the use of this
equipment are essential to ensure successful prosecution
through the legal system. Limited entry permits are also
required for the use of gillnets to take halibut.
                                  The department’s marine patrol officers enforce the law by issuing a citation for
                                                  taking horn sharks in a marine protected area.
                                        Credit: Chamois Andersen, California Department of Fish and Game


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                           A Status Report                                69
             in monitoring the setting of nets to avoid navigational    the extremely high value for abalone, a signicant black
Marine Law Enforcement



             hazards. The National Park Service is involved in some    market exists. Traditionally, this violation revolved around
             areas of the Golden Gate National Recreation area. The    small groups taking large numbers of abalone for sale.
             San Francisco Police Department becomes involved with     While this still may occur, more recent trends involve
             nets or boats that are tied to prohibited structures.     large numbers of individuals taking their daily limits and
                                            selling them. These individuals often make daily trips to
                                            the coast.
             Coastal Pelagic Species                    Every year signicant cases are made involving the sale
                                            of sport-caught abalone. Patrol techniques used include
             Sardine/Anchovy/Mackerel                   directed enforcement details, undercover operations, and
                                            checkpoints. There is also DFG’s Special Operations Unit
             Enforcement involves monitoring and sampling loads for
                                            (SOU) which is a specially funded group of wardens
             compliance with quotas and allowable levels of incidental
                                            who spend much of their time and effort detecting sale
             catches. Incidental catches are allowed because these
                                            of sport-taken abalone. Enhanced enforcement levels,
             species often school together and are caught in the same
                                            depend on continued stable funding from abalone stamp
             net. Round haul nets are the primary gear used for taking
                                            revenue or other sources.
             these species.
             Sampling techniques and monitoring of the unloading pro-
                                            Sea Urchin
             cess are labor intensive. Monitoring the landings ensures
                                            Regulations relating to the allowable size limits, log books
             accurate reporting of species and prevents under-report-
                                            and permits for sea urchins are the primary focus for
             ing and/or landing of prohibited species. When quotas are
                                            enforcement. Measuring the urchins is time-consuming
             close to being reached or are reached, a high incidence of
                                            and challenging because of the volume of urchins taken
             unreported landings typically occurs making enforcement
                                            and the physical make-up of the urchin. Commercial ves-
             activity even more important.
                                            sels are often small, and it is sometimes difcult to nd
                                            workspace for at-sea monitoring. The urchin industry also
             Squid
                                            has specic time and area closures. Observing the divers
             Enforcement for market squid includes education about
                                            while they are in the water is necessary to identify the
             and enforcement of new regulations such as the restricted
                                            divers that do not have a restricted access permit. Aba-
             use of lights, documentation of shing activity in log-
                                            lone share the same habitat as urchins and this creates
             books, weekend closures, light-boat shielding, and watt-
                                            additional enforcement efforts related to the illegal take
             age restrictions. Consistent statewide enforcement of new
                                            of abalone by commercial urchin divers.
             regulations is a priority. Accurate and consistent dissemi-
             nation of information of regulation and policy changes to
                                            Shrimp/Prawns
             the shermen and sh businesses is critical to gaining
                                            Shrimp and prawn sheries are generally divided into
             compliance throughout the shery.
                                            two gear categories. The rst category includes golden,
                                            spot, coonstripe, and ridgeback prawns, which are taken
             Abalone
                                            by trawling or traps. The second category includes pink
             The abalone shery is currently the number one statewide
                                            shrimp, which are taken only by trawl nets.
             enforcement priority and is expected to remain. Because
                                            Enforcement focuses on trawl mesh sizes, trap construc-
             of declining populations, all areas south of San Francisco
                                            tion including destruct devices, limited entry permits,
             have been closed to the sport and commercial take of
                                            incidental catch, and log books. With the shutdown of
             abalone. The coastline north of San Francisco is open
                                            other sheries, there were concerns that new shermen
             to sport shing only. The sport season is April through
                                            would enter this shery, so limited entry was established.
             November with the month of July closed. Restrictions
                                            Apprehension over incidental take of prohibited species
             added during the 2000 season were requirements for an
                                            has resulted in consideration of on-board observers and
             abalone stamp and abalone report card. Of major concern
                                            sh excluder devices. Changes in the design of traps are
             is the sale of sport-caught abalone. Mariculture and impor-
                                            also under consideration.
             tation are the only legal sources of abalone for the com-
             mercial markets. Enforcement problems arise when the
             source of abalone cannot be determined.
             Besides the usual over limit/under-size problems, enforce-
             ment is directed at the illegal sale and export of abalone.
             This is a major problem in California, and because of



             Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                        December 2001
 70
Lobster                             Because commercial take is permitted, unless restricted




                                                               Marine Law Enforcement
                                by law, new sheries continue to develop for invertebrate
Current enforcement efforts include inspection of catch,
                                species, which have not previously been taken for com-
compliance with season and area closures, gear restric-
                                mercial purposes.
tions, including trap construction and destruct devices,
                                Enforcement of the take of invertebrates in the tidal
permits, size limits, out-of-season take, illegal importa-
                                zone occurs primarily from the shore. Enforcement of
tion, and log books.
                                incidental take is commonly checked while monitoring
Patrol techniques vary on the enforcement of lobster
                                another shery. There are specic permits related to the
regulations. Techniques include routine uniformed patrols
                                scientic collection of invertebrates. These permits are
and undercover patrols, such as underwater surveillance,
                                very restrictive in specifying what can be taken, how
and use of marked lobster. DFG divers are also used to
                                many can be taken and who can do the collecting.
locate illegally-set lobster traps. Traps set in areas closed
to commercial lobster shing present a major problem for
enforcement.
                                Marine Aquaria
The majority of sport taken lobster are taken at night,

                                T  he marine aquaria shery involves the take of organ-
requiring constant monitoring by enforcement personnel.
                                  isms for the live pet, hobby or display trade. Finsh
The majority of violations committed by sport shermen
                                include garibaldi, gobies and juvenile sharks. Inverte-
include out-of-season-take and taking undersize lobster.
                                brates include coral, shrimp and octopus. The demand
Crab                              for the marine aquaria trade has led to species being
                                harvested for the rst time. The take of marine aquaria
Enforcement focuses primarily on commercial and sport
                                species occurs statewide primarily in nearshore waters
sheries for Dungeness or rock crab, with minor sheries
                                with no seasonal closures. Illegal importation of marine
for tanner and stone crab. The sport sheries are subject
                                aquaria species from Mexico has become prevalent.
to minimum size limits, season and gear restrictions for
all species of crabs.                      Marine aquarium organisms cannot be taken in any marine
                                life refuges, marine reserves, ecological reserves and
Commercial Dungeness crab regulations include a mini-
                                state reserves. One identied enforcement problem is the
mum size limit, male crab only requirement, and limited
                                killing of live-bearing adult sharks in order to remove
entry permits. Commercial shermen are allowed to bait
                                unborn young for the aquarium trade. Another is the
and pre-set their gear a certain number of hours prior
                                illegal shing by release of harmful chemicals into ocean
to the opening of the commercial Dungeness crab season.
                                waters. The chemicals force the otherwise inaccessible
Detection of violation of the pre-soak regulation requires
                                species from their hiding places resulting in the death of
the use of directed enforcement. Rock crab have mini-
                                many non-targeted as well as targeted species.
mum size limits as the primary restriction. All traps are
required to have escape rings and destruct devices built
into the design to prevent lost traps from continued sh-
                                Aquaculture
ing. In most years, eighty percent of Dungeness crab land-
ings are taken during the rst three weeks of the season.
                                E nforcement focuses on working closely with biologists
This requires concentrated enforcement efforts during this
                                  to monitor aquaculture facilities.
peak period of landings.
                                Monitoring the collection of brood stock by the mari-
                                culture industry is necessary to ensure compliance with
Other Invertebrates
                                permits and regulations. Inspection of sh businesses
The “other invertebrates” category generally includes the
                                purchasing mariculture products, is required to ensure
large number of species for which specic permits are not
                                that wild stocks are not used to illegally replace mari-
required. However, a tidal invertebrate permit is required
                                culture species in the commercial trade. Current regula-
to take the following species for commercial purposes
                                tions are not sufcient to properly monitor and enforce
between the high tide line and 1,000 feet seaward of the
                                mariculture activities.
low tide line: ghost shrimp, barnacles, chiones, clams,
cockles, limpets, mussels, octopus, oysters, sand dollars,
sea hares, starsh, and worms. These species, as well as
scallops, turban snails and moon snails, may also be taken
under a sport shing license, in certain areas, with daily
bag limit restrictions. There are few commercial restric-
tions on season, size, or bag limits for these species.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME              Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  71
             Commercial Fish Businesses
Marine Law Enforcement




             C  alifornia’s marine resources are a public trust. The
               conservation and protection of these resources have
             been entrusted to DFG. One means to monitor the lawful
             use of these resources is the inspection of businesses that
             commercialize the wild sh populations. Persons dealing
             in the sale of seafood are required to be licensed, to
             maintain adequate accounting records, and to comply with
             species restrictions. Wardens routinely conduct inspec-
             tions of businesses to ensure compliance with all state
             and federal laws. Business inspections are also routinely
             conducted to ensure compliance with landing require-
             ments and proper documentation.


             Frank Spear and Carmel Babich
             California Department of Fish and Game




             Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                       December 2001
 72
A Review of Restricted
Access Fisheries                         Stevens Act). This act began phasing out foreign shing




                                                                A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
                                 and encouraged “Americanization” of sheries, primarily
                                 for groundsh, within our 200-mile exclusive economic
Background                           zone. Federal loan and tax programs proved to be


R
                                 powerful incentives for private investment in shing
   estricted access programs in sheries limit the quan-
                                 eet expansion.
   tity of persons, vessels or shing gear that may be
engaged in the take of any given species of sh or shell-    By the late 1970s, it was clear to many in the shing
sh. Restricted access may also limit the catch allocated    industry, California Department of Fish and Game (DFG)
to each shery participant through harvest rights such as    and the Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC) that
individual or community quotas.                 there was a need to limit entry to sheries. In California,
                                 the rst limited entry program was established in 1977
Without some form of restricted access, sheries
                                 for the abalone shery. This was followed in 1979 with
resources are available to anyone who wants to pursue
                                 legislation requiring salmon limited entry permits in 1980.
them. Each individual sherman or company is motivated
                                 By 1983, this became a salmon vessel permit system.
to catch the sh before their competitors, which leads
                                 While these and other limited entry programs capped the
to overcapitalization of the eet with too many vessels
                                 number of shermen or vessels and created more orderly
and too much gear. Overcapitalizaton usually results in
                                 sheries, they generally had little effect on overall shing
reduced income to shermen. Open access to sheries
                                 capacity. Participants in these restricted sheries often
often leads to problems with both biological sustainability
                                 increased their shing power with larger vessels, more
and economic viability. Over the past 50 years, increased
                                 gear and increased time shing, or shifted to other fully
demand for sheries products, big advances in shing
                                 developed open access sheries.
technology, and development of global sh markets have
combined to intensify the “race for sh.”            Since the early 1980s, DFG has implemented restricted
                                 access programs at an accelerating rate. High value sher-
Restricting access has been used as a shery management
                                 ies such as herring, sea urchin and Dungeness crab are
tool for thousands of years to improve resource sustain-
                                 now under restricted access. When demand from industry
ability, allocate catches among participants, and improve
                                 for restricted access programs intensied in the mid-
economic and social returns from sheries. Restricting
                                 1990s, DFG decided it was time to address restricted
access to sheries can 1) promote sustainable sheries;
                                 access in a comprehensive manner. In late 1996, DFG
2) provide for a more orderly shery; 3) promote conser-
                                 formed a limited entry review committee to develop a
vation among participants; and 4) maintain the long-term
                                 standard restricted access policy for the Fish and Game
economic viability of sheries.
                                 Commission. A draft policy was completed in 1998 and
Great care must be taken in designing and implementing
                                 underwent major revision in 1999 with assistance from
restricted access programs. First, broadly recognized
                                 outside experts and consultation with constituents. After
goals for the shery must be dened by managers, sher-
                                 three public hearings and considerable public input,
men, and other constituents. Once these goals are identi-
                                 the commission approved the restricted access policy in
ed, key restricted access elements can be identied
                                 June 1999.
to attain them. A primary purpose of restricted access
programs is to balance the level of effort in a shery
with the health of the shery resource. In most situations,
                                 California’s Restricted Access Programs
except for harvest rights programs, this involves setting

                                 T
an appropriate shery capacity goal (a combination of        he legislature, commission, and DFG have differing,
factors that represent the shing power of the eet).        but related roles in implementation of restricted
                                 access programs. Historically, most of California’s pro-
                                 grams were created through legislation. Examples include
History                             abalone (1977), salmon (1979), and pink shrimp (1994).
                                 Others such as herring (1986), sea urchin (1989), and

U  ntil recent decades, California did not restrict shing
                                 the new pink shrimp program (2001) have been the
   effort. After World War II, eet expansion, improved
                                 responsibility of the commission. Since the passage of the
electronics and gear technology, new net materials, larger
                                 Marine Life Management Act of 1998 and the commission’s
and faster vessels, plus increased shing skills signicantly
                                 adoption of a comprehensive restricted access policy in
increased shing power. This trend of increased shing
                                 1999, more restricted access program responsibility has
capacity and adoption of new technology accelerated
                                 switched to the commission and department. The depart-
during the mid-1970s after passage of the Federal Fishery
                                 ment works closely with constituent advisory committees
Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (Magnuson-
                                 and task forces to carefully design and evaluate restricted


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                    73
                                                                California’s Commercial Fisheries
                     access plans for submission to the commission. The com-
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries



                     mission then conducts hearings for further public input.
                                                                Restricted Access Policy
                     The restricted access plan is then returned for any nec-
                     essary revision by the department and advisory groups

                                                                T  he commission adopted its policy in order to guide
                     before going before the commission for a nal decision.
                                                                  future restricted access programs. The commission
                     The legislature is kept informed and involved for sheries
                                                                believes that restricted access programs can offer at least
                     that require legislation to implement restricted access.
                                                                four benets:
                     Restricted access programs active through 2000 are sum-
                                                                •   Fostering sustainable sheries by offering a means to
                     marized in the table below. Some of these programs are
                                                                   match the level of shing with the capacity of a sh
                     revised versions of earlier programs. Restricted access
                                                                   population and by giving shermen a greater stake in
                     was discontinued in 1998 in the abalone shery after
                                                                   maintaining sustainability;
                     that shery was closed. Herring round haul permits were
                                                                •   Providing a way to fund total costs for administration
                     phased out by 1998.
                                                                   and enforcement of restricted access programs;


                     California Restricted Access Programs Through 2000

                     Permit               Type    Ldgs. Req. to     Year Begun  No. Permits  No. Permits  No. Permits  Current Mgmt.
                                                Renew             First Year    in 1992    in 2000    Authority

                     General Gill/Trammel Net      Person          no        1985     1052      376      223    Commission
                     Drift Gillnet           Person   every other year        1984     226      149      126    Legislature
                     Dungeness Crab (Resident)      Vessel         no        1995      614      N.A.     589    Legislature
                     Dungeness Crab (Non resident)    Vessel         no        1995      67      N.A.      69    Legislature
                     Finfish Trap            Person         yes        1996      316      N.A.     142    Legislature
                     Herring Gillnet (Resident)     Person          no        1986     339      323      335    Commission
                     Herring Gillnet (Non resident)   Person          no        1986      72      97      121    Commission
                     Lobster Operator          Person          no        1996     298      351      251    Commission
                     Market Squid Vessel         Vessel         no        1998      242      N.A.     198    Legislature
                     Market Squid Light Boat       Vessel         no        1998      53      N.A.      49    Legislature
                     Salmon Vessel            Vessel         no        1983     5964     2974     1704    Legislature
                     Sea Cucumber Diver         Person          no        1997      111      N.A.     101    Legislature
                     Sea Cucumber Trawl         Person          no        1997      36      N.A.      30    Legislature
                     Sea Urchin Diver          Person   every other year        1989      915      537      407    Commission
                     Nearshore Fishery         Person          no        1999     1130      N.A.     1026    Commission
                     Pink Shrimp (discontinued)     Person          no        1994     307      N.A.      90    Commission
                     Pink Shrimp
                     (new program in 2001)        Vessel         ----       1994       8      N.A.     101    Commission

                     Source: California Department of Fish and Game License Branch Statistics




                         California’s Living Marine Resources:                       CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                                   December 2001
  74
•   Providing long term social and economic benets to    Harvest Rights: In establishing restricted access pro-




                                                                     A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
   the state and shermen, and;               grams based on the allocation of harvest rights to individ-
                                ual shermen or vessels, the state should insure the fair
•   Broadening opportunities for the commercial shing
                                and equitable initial allocation of shares, resources assess-
   industry to contribute to management of the state’s
                                ments, cost recovery, limits on aggregation of shares, and
   commercial sheries.
                                consider recreational shing issues.
The key elements of the policy are summarized below.
                                Costs and Fees: Administrative costs are to be minimized.
A complete copy of the policy is contained in Guide to
                                Review or advisory boards may be established. Funds
California’s Marine Life Managememt Act by M. L. Weber
                                from restricted access programs may be deposited in
and B. Heneman. It is also available at the commission’s
                                a separate account of the Fish and Game Preservation
Web site at www.dfg.ca.gov/fg_comm/index.html
                                Fund. Restricted access programs should deter violations,
General: Restricted access is one of a number of tools
                                while minimising enforcement costs through the use of
for conserving and managing sheries as a public trust
                                new technologies or other means. Administrative and
resource, and may be adopted to achieve several pur-
                                enforcement costs are to be borne by each restricted
poses, including sustainable and orderly sheries, conser-
                                access program.
vation, and long-term economic viability.
                                The rst restricted access program adopted under the
Development: Fishermen and other citizens must be
                                commission’s new policy is for northern pink shrimp sh-
involved in the development of restricted access pro-
                                ery. This program, which replaced the pink shrimp pro-
grams. The specic needs of a shery must be balanced
                                gram initiated by the legislature in 1994, took effect in
with the goal of increasing uniformity among such programs.
                                2001. It includes transferable and non-transferable vessel
Review: Restricted access programs in individual sheries   and individual permits.
and the Commission’s policies on restricted access should
                                Currently, there are restricted access plans under devel-
be regularly reviewed.
                                opment and review for the nearshore nsh shery,
Capacity Goal: Any restricted access program that does     market squid, the spot prawn trap sheries. These plans
not assign harvest rights to individual shermen must     are created collaboratively by teams of constituents and
identify a “capacity goal” for the shery to try to match   DFG staff convened by the director.
shing power to the resource. This goal, which should be
developed collaboratively, may be expressed in such terms
as size or power of vessels or number of permits. Where a
eet is above its capacity goal, the program must include
a means of reducing the capacity in the shery. A new
restricted access program is not to allow shing effort to
increase beyond recent levels.
Participation: Eligibility for participating in a restricted
access shery may be based on the level of historical par-
ticipation or on other relevant factors. In issuing permits,
certain priorities should be followed. For instance, rst
priority should be given to licensed commercial shermen
or vessels with past participation in that shery. In addi-
tion, shermen licensed in California for at least 20 years
may be included in new restricted access programs with
qualifying criteria determined for each program by the
commission. New permits should be issued only if a shery
is below its capacity goal.
Permit Transferability: Where appropriate, permits may
be transferable between shermen or vessels, as long as
there is a capacity goal and a program for achieving that
goal in the shery. Under certain conditions, permits may
be transferred from retired to new vessels. Fees to offset
the costs of management may be imposed on the transfer
of permits.
                                               Commercial fishing vessels in Bodega Bay.
                                                          Credit: Chris Dewees


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME               California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                           A Status Report                          75
                     Federal Restricted Access Programs              California needs to understand the interaction of
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries



                                                    restricted access programs with other primary types of

                     T  he federally managed groundsh shery (includes 83    shery management systems such as marine reserves,
                       species) off Washington, Oregon and California is     spatial management and local co-management schemes.
                     managed, in part, under a limited entry program        Finally it is important to take into account how restricted
                     developed by the Pacic Fishery Management Council      access programs in one shery affect participation and
                     (PFMC) and implemented by the National Marine Fisheries    shing effort in other sheries.
                     Service (NMFS) in 1993. The federal program has issued
                     gear-specic permits to vessels using trawl, xed longline
                                                    Christopher M. Dewees
                     and shpot and allocates a proportion of the catch to
                                                    University of California, Davis
                     each gear type. Those sh not allocated to the limited
                                                    Michael L. Weber
                     entry eet continue to be allocated to open access
                                                    Advisor to California Fish and Game Commission
                     vessels (primarily hook-and-line and shpots) and those
                     who take groundsh incidentally in other sheries. NMFS
                     was authorized by Congress in December 2000 to develop
                                                    References
                     regulations for the limited entry xed gear sablesh
                     shery which allow for stacking of up to three permits
                                                    California Fish and Game Commission. 1999. Restricted
                     with cumulative landing limits. These management
                                                    Access Policy. Accessible at www.dfg.ca.gov/fg_comm/
                     regulations would have effects similar to those of harvest
                                                    index.html.
                     rights systems.
                                                    Gimbel, K. L. 1994. Limiting Access to Marine Fisheries:
                                                    Keeping the Focus on Conservation. Center for Marine
                     Future Actions                        Conservation and World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC,
                                                    316 pp.

                     T  he Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) requires eval-
                                                    Iudicello, S., M. L. Weber and R. Wieland. 1999. Fish,
                        uation every ve years of existing restricted access
                                                    Markets, and Fishermen: The Economics of Overshing.
                     programs and this will be an ongoing activity of the
                                                    Island Press, Washington, DC and Covelo, CA, 192 pp.
                     department and the commission. These evaluations and
                                                    National Research Council. 1999. Sharing the Fish: Toward
                     the increasing demand for restricted access programs
                                                    a National Policy on Individual Fishing Quotas. National
                     means that the department will need expanded capa-
                                                    Academy Press, Washington, DC, 422 pp.
                     bilities to collect and analyze economic and social data
                     related to sheries. These data, combined with biological   Weber, M. L. and B. Heneman. 2000. Guide to California’s
                     data about shery resources, will be critical in developing  Marine Life Management Act. Common Knowledge Press,
                     and evaluating restricted access policy options on a     Bolinas, CA, 133 pp.
                     shery-by-shery basis. Restricted access will likely be
                     an important component of shery management plans
                     required under the MLMA.
                     Experience with restricted access is growing statewide,
                     nationally and internationally. As our knowledge base
                     grows, new techniques for managing access to sheries
                     will become available. There is a growing trend toward
                     implementing harvest rights systems in the form of
                     individual and community-based quotas as currently used
                     in Alaska, Canada and overseas. Transferable gear certi-
                     cate programs are in place in trap sheries in Florida and
                     Georgia and this tool may have potential in California.
                     It will be important that DFG and the PFMC work closely to
                     ensure consistency of state and federal restricted access
                     programs affecting sheries managed jointly off the Cali-
                     fornia coast.




                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                             A Status Report                       December 2001
  76
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       77
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
78
California’s Nearshore
Ecosystem                            and the commission delegated the authority to set recre-




                                                               California’s Nearshore Ecosystem
                                ational angling regulations. Notable exceptions are the


C
                                white seabass and nearshore nsh sheries, which are
   alifornia’s nearshore ecosystem, dened as the area
                                subjects of shery management plans under development
   from the coastal high tide line offshore to a depth of
                                by the department for adoption by the commission late
120 feet, is one of the most productive ocean areas in
                                in 2001. These two sheries are being managed under
the world. This area, comprising only about 2,550 square
                                the provisions of the Marine Life Management Act of
miles, generates from the harvest of its resources, almost
                                1998. This act establishes the framework for the eventual
$40 million in ex-vessel revenue, a little less than one-
                                management of all the state’s marine sheries through
third of the value of all California’s sheries. The area
                                the creation of shery management plans and commission
is home to a wide variety of shes, giant kelp, marine
                                regulatory action. A key provision of this act is an over-
invertebrates (spiny lobster, abalone, sea urchin, crabs),
                                arching goal of sustainable use.
and marine mammals, as well as a large number of sea
and shore bird species.                    The next decade will be a critical one for the manage-
                                ment of the resources of the nearshore, as we attempt to
The nearshore area is composed of a variety of habitats
                                successfully address the major issues listed above.
ranging from high-relief rocky reef to broad expanses
of sand and mud. There are distinct differences in the
prevalent oceanographic conditions from north to south.
                                Robson A. Collins
Much of the state’s shoreline is heavily inuenced by the
                                California Department of Fish and Game
cold California Current, which sweeps south from the Gulf
of Alaska. As a consequence, the extreme northern por-
tion of the coast is inhabited by plant and animal species
also found off Oregon and Washington. The nearshore
area here is dominated by species commonly found off
Oregon such as black rocksh and cabezon, redtail perch,
and night and surf smelt. Along the central coast, south
of Cape Mendocino, where rocky-reef habitat dominates,
prevailing onshore northwest winds cause the upwelling
of nutrient-rich waters from the ocean bottom and high
biological productivity. Kelp beds, consisting of giant kelp
to the south and bull kelp to the north, are home to
a variety of nearshore rocksh, abalone and sea urchin.
Sea bird nesting areas and marine mammals such as sea
otters and sea lions are also important members of this
community. South of Point Conception, warm waters from
the south join with the cold California Current to provide
habitat for a wide variety of seasonal sub-tropical visitors
like yellowtail, white seabass, Pacic bonito, and Califor-
nia barracuda, all found in close association with the
abundant stands of giant kelp found around the offshore
islands and along the mainland. Major resident species
such as kelp bass, sheephead, halfmoon and olive rocksh
sustain a year-round nearshore shery.
Major issues are the impact of environmental events like
El Niño on animal and plant species, over-harvest of spe-
cies such as abalone and nearshore rocksh, interactions
between sheries and marine mammals, pollution from
human activities, and competition among user groups,
both consumptive and non-consumptive.
Management authority for most species found in the
nearshore continues to be split between the legislature
and the Fish and Game Commission, with the legislature
retaining the authority to manage commercial sheries




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  79
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
80
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       81
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
82
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       83
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
84
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       85
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
        A Status Report              December 2001
86
The Nearshore
Ecosystem                           ness crab catch and that the sport lobster catch, while




                                                               The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate Resources: Overview
                                signicant, is substantially less than the commercial catch.

Invertebrate                          While the size of the recreational lobster harvest is not
                                known, a NMFS-sponsored survey estimated over 115,000


Resources: Overview
                                individual trips targeting spiny lobster in 1989. Divers
                                catch most lobsters with their hands, although baited ring
                                nets are also used, usually from skiffs, piers or jetties. A


C
                                commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) industry cater-
   alifornia’s marine invertebrate sheries range among
                                ing to divers schedules special trips during lobster season.
   the crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms and to a lim-
                                CPFVs in the SF Bay area have in recent years been offer-
ited extent, the polychaetes. This section deals with
                                ing combo-trips for rocksh and Dungeness crabs, where
most of them, with the notable exception of squid, classi-
                                crab pots are set at the beginning of the shing trip
ed as a coastal pelagic in this publication. Invertebrate
                                and pulled on the way back to port. These trips could
resources usually associated with bays and estuaries are
                                signicantly increase the sport crab catch in this region.
considered in another section. Commercial and recre-
                                In addition to these major sheries, sand crabs and red
ational shermen spend thousands of hours annually in
                                rock shrimp are the target of small but high value-per-unit
pursuit of these species, which are among the most highly
                                bait sheries.
prized of our marine resources. Harvest methods include
trawls pulled by large ocean-going vessels (shrimp),     California’s nearshore echinoderm sheries developed in
traps shed from smaller boats (lobsters, crabs, and     the 1970s as a response to the growing demand for shery
prawns), ring nets, and bare hands (recreational lobsters   export products but were little utilized domestically. They
and crabs). In 1999, commercial invertebrates (excluding   have been dominated by the red sea urchin shery which
squid) accounted for only about six percent of the state’s  saw almost 15 million pounds landed in 1999, the second
total commercial catch by weight, but over 30 percent of   lowest total during the 1990s, down from a high of 45 mil-
its ex-vessel value at over $44 million. Commercial catch   lion pounds in 1990. Sea cucumber landings have averaged
records for invertebrate species, like most of California’s  about 500,000 pounds during the 1990s, with cucumbers
sheries, are more complete than for their recreational    taken by both commercial divers and trawlers, mostly in
counterparts. Spiny lobster is the only invertebrate shery  southern California. There has been very little interest in
with both a substantial sport and commercial component.    the sport take of echinoderms, other than small amounts
However the magnitude of the sport component of that     of sea urchins. Purple sea urchins, whose unregulated take
shery is poorly known. The Marine Life Management Act    can cause localized depletions, have been the target of
recognizes the importance of allocating marine resources   scientic collectors for years.
fairly between commercial and recreational users and     Other species not considered in this section, such as
so an improved understanding of the amount of sport      limpets, jackknife clams, mussels and rock scallops, are
take and effort will be a necessity in the future. Many    frequently harvested by sport shers and have been seri-
other species of invertebrates that are not the target    ously impacted by California’s expanding human popu-
of sheries inhabit California’s marine waters where they   lation. Water quality problems, both natural and man-
nevertheless form important functional components of     caused, may prevent commercial and sport harvest of
marine ecosystems.                      bivalve mollusks, primarily clams and mussels. Since most
In 1999, over half of the marine crustacean catch of 16.4   bivalves are lter feeders, they ingest microscopic plant
million pounds consisted of Dungeness crab. Dungeness     and animal matter from the water column. At certain
crab and Pacic ocean shrimp have comprised the major-    times during the year, particularly during the spring and
ity of the crustacean catch each year since the 1950s.    summer upwelling season, heavy plankton blooms occur
In recent years there have been over 330 boats taking     in nearshore waters, and lter feeders may ingest and
Dungeness crabs in the center of the catch range from     concentrate toxins, which are harmful to humans if con-
Crescent City to Fort Bragg. Boats average 200 crab pots   sumed. The levels of toxic plankton are monitored by the
each, but some carry as many as one thousand pots.      California Department of Public Health and warnings are
In contrast, the spiny lobster catch was almost 500,000    issued when appropriate.
pounds in 1999, and ranged from 600,000 to 800,000      Natural predation may signicantly reduce a population
pounds through most of the 1990s. Recreational harvests    if a prey species increases its density or range. A well-
of crustaceans also center around crabs and spiny lobster.  documented example is the return of the sea otter popu-
Dungeness and rock crabs are targets of scattered recre-   lation to its historic range and its impact on central
ational effort throughout California. It is estimated that  California’s Pismo clam and abalone resources. Disease
sport shermen take less than one percent of the Dunge-    has not often been implicated in reducing populations of



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                       87
                              California’s mollusks. However, the “withering syndrome”   can undergo rapid increases or declines in population size
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate Resources: Overview



                              in the black abalone population, coupled with shing pres-  (ocean shrimp and ridgeback prawn). Separate subpopula-
                              sure, has resulted in a drastic decline in the southern    tions of Dungeness crabs and ridgeback prawns may exist
                              California stock. Periodic oceanographic disturbances such  within California. The spiny lobster population is shared
                              as the warm-water event known as El Niño can have       with Mexico, and ocean shrimp and Dungeness crab popu-
                              severe impacts on nearshore invertebrates, especially     lations span the Oregon border. Management and shing
                              southern populations.                     practices in those political entities may affect California’s
                                                             portion of such shared resources.
                              California’s commercial abalone shery was the leading
                              molluscan shery for the decades up until its collapse and  Future management and research on California’s inverte-
                              closure in 1997. Indeed, the MLMA was drafted in part     brate resources should focus on more frequent and ef-
                              as a response to this tragedy. A robust recreational-only   cient resource assessment methods and a better under-
                              abalone shery remains in northern California where an    standing of the various factors, both natural and human-
                              estimated 1.2 million pounds was taken by 33,000 divers    induced, which determine population levels and patterns
                              annually during the past decade. A punch card reporting    of change. With such information at hand, resource man-
                              system was established in 1999, which should make track-   agers will be better able to match the growing demands
                              ing catch and effort in this shery much easier in      on California’s nearshore invertebrates with their pro-
                              the future.                          ductive capacity. Future management will undoubtedly
                                                             address the issue of marine protected areas as a
                              California’s nearshore ecosystem has been the target of
                                                             tool for ecosystem protection and enhancement of
                              an onslaught of exploitation, both extractive and non-
                                                             degraded areas.
                              consumptive, since the end of World War II. California’s
                              population has exploded during that time period and con-
                              centrated along the coastal zones of central and southern   Peter Kalvass
                              California. Intertidal areas here, particularly rocky tidal  California Department of Fish and Game
                              pools, have been trampled and stripped of their ora and
                              fauna despite the efforts of regulatory agencies to protect
                              them. Offshore mineral extraction, pipelines and tanker
                              trafc increase the likelihood of major fouling incidents
                              along our coastline. Fisheries management agencies have
                              been largely concerned with controlling the type and
                              amount of marine organisms available for harvest. How-
                              ever, the demands of ecosystem management will require
                              a greater vigilance over all the elements of nearshore
                              ecology, including the habitats of the organisms.
                              The collection of timely and accurate biological and sh-
                              ery information can be a costly and challenging endeavor.
                              As a consequence, management of nearshore invertebrate
                              resources in California has proceeded largely on an ad hoc
                              basis. Measures such as minimum sizes, closed seasons,
                              gear or equipment restrictions, bag limits and closed areas
                              have been used in an effort to protect stocks, sustain
                              harvests and allocate the resource. For some of our sher-
                              ies, management systems based on annual or seasonal
                              quotas and a xed harvest rate may be more desirable.
                              Following a worldwide trend, during the last decade most
                              of our commercial sheries for invertebrates have come
                              under limited access or entry regulations, and conse-
                              quently opportunities for entry into these sheries have
                              been reduced.
                              A variety of life-history patterns, which need to be con-
                              sidered when making management decisions, are found
                              among California’s invertebrate resources. Some resources
                              are long-lived and slow growing (spiny lobster, sheep crab,
                              abalone, sea urchins); others have short life spans and


                                California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                     A Status Report                       December 2001
   88
Abalone
History of the Fishery                    to 1970. Green abalones peaked in 1971 at 1,090,000




                                                                Abalone
                                pounds, declined rapidly to six percent of their 1968 to

A  rchaeological evidence indicates that California Indi-  1972 average catch of 488,000 pounds. White abalone was
   ans shed abalones extensively from coastal areas and   the shortest lived of the abalone shery, beginning about
the Channel Islands prior to European and Asian settle-    1968 peaking in 1972 with landings of 144,000 pounds,
ment of California. During the 1850s, Chinese Americans    and quickly declining thereafter. Black abalones peaked in
started a shery in California that targeted intertidal    1973 at 1,913,000 pounds, declining in 1990 to 13 percent
green (Haliotis fulgens) and black (H. cracherodii) abalo-  of their 1972 to 1984 average catch of 687,000 pounds.
nes, with peak landings of 4.1 million pounds of meat and   Because the shery was managed as a single entity, the
shell in 1879. The Chinese worked shallow waters with     total landings stabilized with the inclusion of the pink,
skiffs, gafng abalones dislodged by a long pole with a    green, white, and black landings, but each of these spe-
wedge on the end. This shery was eliminated in 1900 by    cies quickly collapsed. Red abalone again became the
closure of shallow waters to commercial harvest. Japanese   dominant species with most of the landings originating
divers followed the Chinese by exploiting virgin stocks    from the southern part of central California, and the
of subtidal abalones, rst as free divers from surface    Channel Islands.
oats and later, more successfully, as hard-hat divers.    Complicating the issues was the effect of sea otter pre-
California Department of Fish and Game statistics showed   empting the central California shing areas. Red abalone,
an increase in landings from 1916 to a peak in 1935 of    stocks were fully utilized around the historic center of
3,900,000 pounds followed by a decline to 164,000 pounds   the range, Monterey, and the shery expanded southward.
in 1942 as shermen of Japanese heritage were moved to    The expansion of the sea otter, also moving south, eventu-
relocation camps during World War II.             ally removed much of the central California coast as a
The red abalone (H. rufescens) was the only species      source of legal abalones.
reported in the commercial landing gures from 1916 to    Increased efciency and effectiveness of the shery, i.e.,
1943. They were recorded as unidentied abalone. By      faster boats and better diving technology, were factors
1960, the center of the shery had moved from Monterey    which caused a continual expansion of the shing grounds.
to the Morro Bay area, where the regions from Cape San    None of these factors was adequately addressed, and
Martin to Cayucos in the north and Point Buchon to Pecho   necessary reductions in the shing power in the shery to
Rock in the south were shed. Declining stocks of red     protect the abalone resource never occurred.
abalones, caused largely by the combined effects of sh-
ing and a growing population of sea otters, forced a shift
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
southward in the late 1960s. Landings increased in the San
Francisco area, supplying 34 percent of the 1988 red aba-

                                I n addition to the ve species which have been commer-
lone landings. Evidence, including successfully prosecuted
                                 cially shed, at (H. walallensis), threaded (H. assimilis)
court cases, indicates that many of these abalones were
                                and pinto (H. kamtschatkana) abalones are also found
poached from noncommercial areas in northern California.
                                in California; all have limited distributions and none is
By 1990, landings of red abalones declined to 17 percent
                                common. The threaded (H. assimilis) was once thought to
of the 1931 to 1967 average of 2,135,000 pounds.
                                be a separate species, but it has been included under the
Commercial harvest of abalones was prohibited in south-
                                pinto as a southern sub-species. Depth and geographical
ern California from 1913 through 1943, then reopened
                                distributions of all California haliotids are best described
to increase wartime food production. The shery has
                                by seawater temperature. Black abalones are found from
undergone successive development and decline as less
                                Oregon to southern Baja California and are largely inter-
desirable species were exploited. The abalone shery
                                tidal, extending to a depth of about 20 feet in southern
underwent spatial and interspecic serial depletion fol-
                                California. Red abalones, which also extend from Oregon
lowing World War II. The shery was managed as a single
                                into Baja California, are intertidal and shallow subtidal in
entity, and it was difcult to address the collapse of
                                northern and central California but are exclusively subtidal
individual species in the face of stable landings. The sh-
                                in southern California, where they are restricted to cooler
ery alternated from red to pink (H. corrugata) to green,
                                upwelling locations along the mainland and the north-
white (H. sorensensi), and nally to black abalones, but
                                western Channel Islands. Pink, green, white and threaded
the new target species could not provide the continuous
                                abalones are characteristic of the warmer waters south of
demand. The combined-species landings reached a record
                                Point Conception extending into Baja California and the
5,420,000 pounds in 1957. Pink abalone landings reached
                                southeastern Channel Islands. These species further sort
a maximum 3,388,000 pounds in 1952 and in 1990 were
                                out by temperature in their depth distributions: greens
one percent of the 2,178,000 pounds averaged from 1950



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                89
Abalone



                                    6




                      millions of pounds landed
                                    5

                                    4
                          All Abalone
                                    3
         Commercial Landings
       1916-1999, All Abalone
                                    2
        Prior to 1949, commercial
        abalone landings consisted
                                    1
      primarily of red abalone. Data
     Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
                                    0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
       commercial landing receipts.


       are centered at shallower depths than pinks, which                    the benthic existence appears to be hit or miss. To com-
       are shallower than white abalones. Flat and pinto abalo-                 pensate, abalones produce millions of eggs. Additionally,
       nes are generally found in the cooler waters north of                  broadcast spawners must be sufciently close together to
       Point Conception.                                    improve the chances of fertilization, which decrease with
                                                   distance between spawners because of dilution. Distances
       California abalones feed primarily on algae, mostly the
                                                   greater that three or four feet may not support sufcient
       large brown kelps that form stands along the coast and
                                                   fertilization. While abalones can move and aggregate for
       islands. They feed on bacterial and diatom lms when
                                                   spawning, often low numbers and physical barriers can
       small, later switching to grazing on living plants and cap-
                                                   prevent aggregation.
       turing algal drift, fragments of macrophytes moved by
       currents and surge. Most abalones feed preferentially on                 Recent research has shown that abalones may not success-
       kelps but minor variations in preference appear to reect                fully reproduce and recruit annually, likely because of
       the habitat where each is found. Specialization on drift                 all the reasons above. As abalones are removed during
       algae puts abalones in competition with three species of                 shing, their numbers often will decrease to the point
       urchins. Sea urchin grazing has been reported to limit kelp               that few adults are sufciently close for successful fertil-
       and abalone distributions in many regions of the state.                 ization. In one Australian abalone, it has been shown
                                                   that when stocks of abalone are reduced to about 40
       Seawater temperature also strongly inuences abalone
                                                   percent of the virgin biomass, reproduction failure occurs.
       growth, and reproduction. Elevated seawater tempera-
                                                   Most of the California abalones are well below that 40
       tures are low in nutrients and kelps, the food of abalone,
                                                   percent mark.
       do not tolerate these periods well. El Niño events bring
       warm seawater temperatures northward along the coast.                  Abalones, especially juveniles, are preyed upon by a wide
       This can have severe short and long-term effects on aba-                 variety of animals including crabs, lobsters, gastropods,
       lone populations through reduced food availability and                  octopuses, sea stars and shes; larger abalones achieve a
       the direct affects of warm water on the abalone. In red                 partial refuge in size from most of these. However, two
       abalone, El Niño conditions have been observed to slow                  predators, sea otters and humans, including the effects
       growth, and decrease settlement and recruitment. If suf-                 of human activity in and near the sea, are the keystone
       cient stocks survive through the warm water period,                   species that control the condition of the abalone resource.
       reproduction will resume with the return of normal con-
       ditions, but several year classes may be absent. This
                                                   Red abalone
       will eventually be reected in the future availability of
       shable stocks.

                                                   R  ed abalone is the largest abalone in the world with a
       Abalones are synchronous broadcast spawners, the males                    record maximum shell length of 12.3 inches. The shell
       and females releasing their sperm and eggs directly to                  color is brick red when red algae are part of the diet.
       the sea. The duration and period of spawning varies                   A prominent muscle scar is visible on the inside of the
       with species. The fertilized egg sinks to the bottom,                  shell. Typically three to four respiratory pores are open;
       hatches and spends several days to a week in the plank-                 these are slightly raised, tubular, and oval. The epipodium
       ton, depending upon temperature and species. Various                   is smooth and black.
       oceanographic mechanisms are thought to keep the larvae
       in the vicinity of the adults. Nevertheless, settlement to


          California’s Living Marine Resources:                       CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                                   December 2001
90
This abalone is associated with rocky kelp habitat ranging   north have increased following the shing down of their




                                                                    Abalone
from Oregon into Baja California. In northern and central   main competitor the red sea urchin.
California they are found from the intertidal to the shallow  Abalone are preyed upon by a broad range of predators
subtidal depths. In southern California they are exclusively  including sea stars, octopus, crabs and lobster, and shes,
subtidal, restricted to upwelling locations along the main-  particularly sheephead, cabezon, and bat rays, all of
land and the northwestern Channel Islands. Two canopy-     which may be found in red abalone habitat. Sea otters
forming kelps, bull kelp and giant kelp are primary compo-   are the major predator of red abalone in the current sea
nents of the red abalone habitat and diet. Several other    otter range from Año Nuevo (Santa Cruz) to south of Point
brown algae are reported as important food sources.      Conception. Inside this range a few adult abalone survive
There is a clear distinction between juvenile and adult red  in deep crevices.
abalone habitat, an indication that migration occurs as the  In central and southern California, where species were
abalone grow. There are two separate movement phases.     serially depleted, red abalone had declined the least of
The rst phase corresponds with settlement as postlarvae    all ve species by the time the shery was closed in 1997.
on coralline algae and is ascribed to light avoidance (nega-  Combined landings of red abalone declined during the
tive photoaxis) and/or downward attraction (positive geo-   period from 1969 to1982 stabilizing at 1/10 their historic
taxis) into small spaces between rocks and under boul-     average during the 14 year period before the 1997 clo-
ders. The second phase starts at 2.0 inches when they     sure. Detailed examination of catch by area and shery
switch to feeding on drift kelp, moving from under boul-    independent assessments reveal that the stability in land-
ders into crevices. Abalone in exposed crevices, under     ings masked serial depletion by area, as successive areas
ledges, or on top of reefs are described as “emergent”     declined by over two orders of magnitude. From 1952-1968
with most red abalone emergent by six inches. Red aba-     most red abalone were caught in central California, fol-
lone have been reported to move in response to environ-    lowed by southern mainland, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and
mental hazards such as sanding-in of reefs. They have     San Miguel Islands. Catches declined rst along the central
been shown to move considerable distances of up to       coast under the combined effects of expanding sea otters
0.4 miles. In northern California random movement in      and shing pressure. Outside the sea otter range catches
deeper, less intensely shed populations supports some     declined more slowly along the southern mainland than
of the replacement of the intertidal and shallow sub-     at Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and San Nicolas Islands. From
tidal shed stocks.                      1983-1996, catch decreased off these three islands to
Red abalone generally reach sexual maturity at a shell     three percent, for Santa Rosa, and less than one percent,
length of ve inches, but may become mature as small as    for Santa Cruz and San Nicolas, of their respective peak
1.6 inches for females and 3.3 inches for males in the wild.  catches by the 1997 closure. San Miguel Island and the
Fecundity ranges from a few thousand eggs at rst spawn-    north coast were the exceptions to this pattern. Catches
ing to up to six million eggs in large adults. Spawning    from San Miguel Island, the farthest and most northern
is seasonal in northern and year round in southern Cali-    of the Channel Islands, and the north coast comprised 71
fornia reecting northern seasonal availability of kelp. A   of the 87 tons landed in 1996 prior to the shery closure
single spawning season from April to July with a peak     in 1997.
in May was reported for northern California, based on     A successful red abalone sport only shery continues to
histological evidence.                     the north of San Francisco county, where SCUBA has
The optimal temperature for successful survival to settle-   always been prohibited and commercial take was only
ment for red abalone larvae is 55˚ to 68˚ F. At these     allowed for a three year period during WWII. Breath-hold
temperatures the average duration of the swimming larval
phase is four days. Post settlement larval survival varies
from year to year. Studies off southern and northern
California showed occasional strong year classes followed
by long periods of unsuccessful recruitment.
Growth is highly variable and depends on availability of
food. Mark and recapture studies demonstrated higher
yearly growth rates in southern California compared to
northern California where food is seasonally available. An
exception occurred during the 1982-1984 El Niño in south-
ern California when kelp abundance declined dramatically.
Recent evidence suggests abalone growth rates in the                         Red Abalone, Haliotis rufescens
                                                            Credit: DFG


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                    91
     diving effort has increased in relation to shore picking   Department research cruises to San Clemente, Santa Cata-
Abalone



     beginning in the 1960s. In 1960, an estimated 11,000 diver-  lina, and Santa Barbara Islands in 1996 and 1997, were
     days were expended to take 118,000 pounds of red and     used to investigate pink, and other, abalones. The number
     black abalone, compared with 29,000 diver-days to take    of abalones sighted per unit of time was used to quantify
     192,000 pounds in 1972. By 1985 to 1989, average diver-    stocks, and a factor was applied to estimate the number
     days and shore picker-days per year were focused on      of commercially legal pink abalone that could be collected
     red abalone in central and northern California. Estimated   per hour. Estimates ranged from about one to 1.5 abalone
     landings of red abalone in central and northern California  per hour. Similar cruises conducted in 1999, estimated
     for combined divers and shore pickers reached a high of    only 0.28 commercial legal pink abalone per hour. At
     3,472,000 pounds in 1986 and had decreased to 1,161,000    Catalina Island, no commercial sized pink abalone were
     pounds by 1989. In 1998 an abalone stamp was rst       found. These estimates indicate how low the remaining
     sold to generate revenues for assessments. In 1998 and    numbers of abalone there are at the islands. The situation
     1999 an average 33,000 stamps were sold showing effort    is no better on the front side of Santa Catalina Island,
     levels are comparable to those estimated for the 1985 to   where it was closed to commercial take, but open to
     1989 period.                         recreational shing.
                                    Fishery independent surveys conducted at the Channel
                                    Islands reveal a close association between the presence
     Pink abalone                         of small individuals and legal size sport and commercial


     P
                                    sizes. The best locations were where refuges were pres-
       ink abalones occur from Point Conception to the cen-
                                    ent, e.g., Anacapa Island. These areas supported higher
       tral Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Its depth range
                                    numbers of legal sized abalone and had continued pres-
     extends from the lower intertidal zone to almost 200 feet,
                                    ence of smaller sizes. There needs to be large adults
     but most are found from about 20 to 80 feet. It has the
                                    present to provide spawn for future generations, and the
     broadest distribution of the southern California abalones.
                                    presence of the smaller sizes forms the potential shable
     It may be identied by its nearly circular shell, black and
                                    resource. This situation may point out that to have sus-
     white epipodium and black tentacles, and highly arched
                                    tainable abalone resources the full size range must occur.
     shell with protruding respiratory pores, two to four of
     which may be open.                      Natural climatic events may affect pink abalone both posi-
                                    tively and negatively. Pink abalone is at the northern end
     In the early 1950s, pink abalone comprised the largest
                                    of its range in southern California, so it would not be
     segment of the abalone shery, about 75 percent, and
                                    unusual for this species to be enhanced by the inux of
     had a signicant effect on the total abalone landings
                                    warm water during an El Niño period, as was observed
     (Figure 1). Commercial landings originated at the eastern
                                    in 1982 to 1984. On the other hand, intrusion of nutrient-
     northern Channel Islands (Anacapa, Santa Cruz), and the
                                    poor warm, El Niño-driven seawater severely depresses
     southern Channel Islands (San Nicolas, Santa Catalina,
                                    kelp, growth and survival, which limits the food of aba-
     Santa Barbara, San Clemente). Because pink abalone are
                                    lone. This may depress abalone growth and reproduction.
     more fragile than others and grow more slowly, the level
                                    Since pink abalone spawn throughout much of the year,
     of take could not continue. The persistence of pink land-
                                    they are able to overcome the detrimental effects of
     ings was due to expansion into unshed areas, but that
                                    warm water and spawn successfully. Withering syndrome
     occurred so quickly that depleted areas did not have
                                    (WS), a lethal disease of abalones, is exacerbated by El
     time, or the ability, to recover. By the early 1980s the
                                    Niño related sea water warming, and may cause severe
     commercial pink abalone shery had expanded throughout
                                    local decline in numbers.
     the available range and the landings dwindled to
     virtually nothing.

                                    Green abalone
     Pink abalone was important in the recreational shery,
     being the second most taken species, after green abalone.

                                    G
     This is not surprising as both species are easily targeted     reen abalone is found on open coast shallow rocky
     by sport divers. Since pink abalone inhabits areas south      habitat from Point Conception, California to Bahia
     of Point Conception, until recently south of the range    Magdalena, Baja California, including parts of the Channel
     of the sea otter, its population condition has not been    Islands that are inuenced by warmer water regimes. The
     affected by that predator. The re-occupation of sea otter   species is associated with the warm-temperate California
     into southern California could have adverse consequences   region from Baja California to southern California. Green
     on the already depleted pink abalone.             abalone were commonly found in rock crevices, under
                                    rocks and other cryptic cavities from the low intertidal to
                                    subtidal zones. They are mostly found between 10 and 20


       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                       December 2001
92
foot depths, often associated with surf grass beds, but are




                                                                                  Abalone
                                              4.5
sometimes seen at 50 and 60 foot depths.                          4.0




                               millions of pounds landed
                                              3.5
The shell is brown with the surface marked by many low,




                                   Red Abalone
                                              3.0
at-topped ribs which run parallel to the pores. The shell                 2.5
has ve to seven pores with edges elevated from the                    2.0
surface and a groove that runs parallel on the outside                   1.5
                                              1.0
edge of the pores. The edge of the foot, the epipodium, is
                                              0.5
mottled cream and brown, with a frilly edge and scattered                 0.01916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990  1999
tubercles. The tentacles are olive green in color. Green
abalone attain a size of 10 inches but are usually smaller.                 4




                                millions of pounds landed
Sexual maturity occurs at about three and a half inch shell
                                              3
length (approx. 5 to 7 years). Individuals average about




                                   Pink Abalone
one half inch of shell growth per year for the rst ve                   2
to seven years. After maturity, shell growth slows down.
The spawning season for green abalone is between early                   1
summer and fall and spawning often occurs several times
during this period. Average fecundity for a population of                  0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990  1999

greens at Santa Catalina Island was estimated to be about
                                              1.2
2.5 million eggs per female per year.
                               millions of pounds landed  1.0
Green abalone are opportunistic drift algae feeders, and
                                  Green Abalone

                                              0.8
eat a wide variety of drift algae, but they prefer eshy
red algae. Predation of juveniles plays a major role in                  0.6
shaping adult population size. Abalone experience a high                  0.4
mortality early in life due mainly to predation. Some                   0.2
of the predators of juvenile abalone are crabs, lobsters,
                                              0.0
other gastropods, sea stars, octopuses, and shes. The                     1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990  1999


two spot octopus is the main predator of young green                    150
abalone at Santa Catalina Island. Larger individuals have a
                               thousands of pounds landed




                                              125
refuge in size from most of these predators. However, bat
                                  White Abalone




                                              100
rays and sea otters prey selectively on larger abalones.
                                              75
Since they prefer well sheltered, hidden niches, green
                                              50
abalone are able to exist in the high energy area of the
low intertidal shallow subtidal areas where most other                   25
abalone species cannot exist. They are often concentrated                  01916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990  1999
in shallow subtidal surf grass beds where wave action
                                              2.0
facilitates a steady ow of drift algae.
                               millions of pounds landed




Green abalone may occupy a particular site, called a                    1.5
                                  Black Abalone




homesite or scar. Abalone larger than one inch seldom
leave their home scar to forage, relying on algal drift.                  1.0
Smaller individuals actively forage but return to their
home scar in the day.                                   0.5


                                              0.0
                                               1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990  1999

Black abalone                                        Commercial Landings 1916-1999, Multiple Abalone


I
                               Data Source for all figures: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts. Graphs
 n black abalone the shell is smooth, black to slate gray
                                   stacked to depict movement of catch effort from one abalone species to the next
 in color, though some may have lost much of the outer
                                       over time. Prior to 1949, identification of abalone species landed was not
layer leaving it white. This abalone has the most distinc-
                                 required. However, commercial abalone landings between 1916 and 1949 consisted
tive shell of the California species. The shell is usually
                                      primarily of red abalone. The data presented here for red abalone includes
clean though some have barnacles growing on them. There
                                    landings recorded as unspecified abalone during this time period. There were
are ve to nine open pores, which are ush with the shell.
                                  no commercial landings reported for pink or green abalone prior to 1950; no com-
In more southern populations as many as 14 pores may be
                                  mercial landings are reported for white abalone prior to 1959; and no commercial
open. The epipodium has a smooth texture and is black.
                                                 landings are reported for black abalone prior to 1956.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                              California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                          A Status Report                    93
     The interior of the shell is silvery-white nacre (mother-of-   individuals appear to be well protected from most preda-
Abalone



     pearl) and has a muscle scar.                  tors, at least as long as they remain attached to the
                                      substrate. Sea otters are the main natural predator of
     Black abalone are reported from as far north as Oregon,
                                      this species. The absence of sea otters from southern
     but most are found south of San Francisco Bay to southern
                                      California is the primary reason for the dense concentra-
     Baja California including the offshore islands. By the mid-
                                      tions of abalone that developed in California and Mexico.
     1990s, only remnant populations existed at the Farallon and
     Channel Islands, and along the mainland southern California   The recent commercial shery in California began in
     shoreline they were totally absent. Small populations exist in  approximately 1968 at the Channel Islands with the devel-
     central and northern California.                 opment of an Asian market. Landings peaked in the 1970s,
                                      and began a slow decline thereafter.
     Essential habitats includes rocky intertidal areas, often
     within the high energy surf zone. Consequently, it is      In 1985, weak, shriveled, and dying black abalone were
     exposed to a broad range of conditions, including wave      observed by scientists in tide pools at the Channel Islands.
     wrack, exposure during low tides to hot, dry periods of     Black abalone were literally falling off the rocks in large
     direct sun, and to chilling cold winter conditions. Because   numbers at several of the islands. The disease is char-
     natural populations of black abalone form exposed, easily    acterized by weight loss, pedal atrophy, weakness, and
     accessible aggregations, protection from take is impor-     lethargy. Early experiments showed that once an abalone
     tant, particularly along the mainland coast. In light of the   exhibited signs of this syndrome, it quickly died.
     growing human population in California, it is possible that   Withering syndrome (WS), caused by a Rickettsia-like pro-
     coastal populations of black abalone will never return.     caryote is the causative agent of this catastrophic disease
     Remote totally protected intertidal areas on the mainland    of abalone. It has ravaged all the Channel Islands and the
     and the Channel Islands may be required for reestablish-     remaining mainland populations of black abalone as far
     ment of natural populations.                   north as Pacica, San Mateo county. Most locations experi-
     It is not known whether subpopulations of this abalone      enced almost total loss of black abalone populations.
     exist. Because of the extensive distribution of suitable     A few individuals survive WS. These resistant abalone
     habitat, limited migration, and the method of reproduc-     will be the basis of any natural recovery and are also
     tion, there may be genetic differences that have evolved     utilized in captive breeding programs to develop resistant
     among local populations, particularly at the extreme ends    strains. In 1998, the NMFS added black abalone to the
     of the range, and between coastal and insular popula-      candidate species list for possible listing under the federal
     tions. Black abalone appear to recruit locally, but further   Endangered Species Act.
     examination of the recruitment pattern in this species is
     needed for better resource management and restoration.
                                      White abalone
     Black abalone grow most quickly during the rst ve to


                                      W
     10 years. Growth varies between locations, and is likely        hite abalone inhabit deep, rocky substrata from 60
     affected by stress, including disease, food availability, and     to 200 feet deep, from Point Conception, in southern
     climatic variation. This abalone is a long-lived species,    California to Bahia Tortugas, in central Baja California,
     attaining an age of 25 years or more. Sexual maturity      including the offshore islands and banks. Because it is
     occurs at a relatively small size, with most individuals     found primarily in depths greater than about 75 feet, it
     being mature at less than two inches. Spawning occurs      wasn’t described as a species until 1941.
     in the spring and early summer, and a second period of
                                      The shell is high and oval in shape with a row of high pores
     spawning may occur in the fall.
                                      spiraling to the highest part of the shell, the spire. Gener-
     Black abalone larvae settle onto hard substrate, and are     ally, the surface of the shell is free of heavy encrustation,
     often found in the vicinity of larger individuals. The newly   but often the shell is covered with pink, coralline algae.
     settled larvae are cryptic, and remain so until they attain   There appears to be no harm to the abalone, and the
     a length of four inches or greater. Small juveniles are     algae often matches the shell to the surrounding habitat.
     found under rocks and deep in crevices, while larger black    The shell is considerably lighter in weight than the shells
     abalone in natural unharvested areas congregate on rocks     of other species. The interior of the shell is silvery-white
     and in tide pools, sometimes in great numbers. Newly       nacre and lacks a muscle scar. Three to ve of the largest
     settled and juvenile black abalone forage on bacterial      pores are open, the rest being lled in during growth.
     lms. As the abalone grows it shifts to larger drift algae
                                      Little is known about natural growth of white abalone.
     brought into the intertidal areas by waves and currents.
                                      Individuals settled in the laboratory grew at about 0.6 inch
     Small black abalone are preyed upon by sea stars, octo-     per year, less than that of other abalones. Estimates from
     pus, and several crabs found in the intertidal areas. Larger   a few individuals indicated that growth during the rst


       California’s Living Marine Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                         December 2001
94
ve years averages about an inch per year slowing down    for listing as endangered under the federal Endangered




                                                               Abalone
thereafter, which is a similar growth pattern to other    Species Act.
California abalones. The life span of white abalone was
estimated at about 35 to 40 years. There is no evidence
                               Status of the Populations
of a signicant recruitment event since the late 1960s
or early 1970s; thus the remaining individuals are likely

                               C  urrently, all ve major species of abalone in central
approaching the end of their life spans.
                                 and southern California are depleted, a result of
Reproduction in white abalone is probably similar to other  cumulative impacts from commercial harvest, increased
species. Successful reproduction depends upon population   market demand, sport shery expansion, an expanding
density, spawning period, and fecundity, and conditions    population of sea otters, pollution of mainland habitat,
conducive to successful settlement. White abalone spawn    disease, loss of kelp populations associated with El Niño
in the winter, with synchronous gamete release, but the    events, and inadequate wild stock management. The
cue is unknown. The release of sperm initiates egg release  political/legislative climate and limited funding has pre-
in some abalones. Abalone may reproduce annually, but     vented the department from establishing and managing to
evidence suggests that settlement of the larvae may be    sustain yields for each species and area. Fish and Game
only occasionally successful. Because of the short larval   Commission and California legislative action halted sport
life, and the discontinuous habitat there are likely to    and commercial shing for abalones in southern California
be genetic differences between remote locations, particu-   in 1997. Sport shing is allowed north of San Francisco
larly at the extremes of its range.              Bay. It seems paradoxical that all shing for abalone would
Abalone are herbivorous, feeding on bacterial and diatom   be closed in the southern two thirds of California, while
lms when small, and foraging on attached and drift kelp   a viable sport shery exists in the north. The difference
later. White abalone are associated with deep living kelps,  between the two areas is centered on the way abalones
and have been observed feeding on these. They have also    are taken. In the south, scuba and commercial dive equip-
been observed near the interface of sand and rock, a     ment made all abalone available to harvest, while in the
position that would facilitate the capture of drift algae.  north only skin diving and shore picking are allowed. In
                               the deeper areas beyond free diving depth, the popula-
Abalone predators include sea stars, octopus, crabs, lob-
                               tion is dense and individuals are large, conditions that
ster, and shes, particularly sheephead, cabezon, and bat
                               maximize reproduction and recruitment. It is these de
rays, all of which have been observed in white abalone
                               facto refuge areas that provide a sustainable resource that
habitat. Sea otters are likely not signicant predators of
                               can be shed year after year.
white abalone, and are not responsible for low white aba-
lone population numbers. Otters have been absent from     The northern California abalone shery provides insight
most of the areas where white abalone occur since well    into what is necessary to maintain a sustainable resource,
before the establishment of the white abalone shery.     upon which a shery can be allowed. In the northern
                               shery signicant areas of good abalone numbers are
As the nearshore abalone resources declined throughout
                               unavailable to the shery, including individuals larger than
California, divers went farther and deeper, eventually
                               minimum legal size. Such areas are maintained passively
encountering virgin stocks of white abalone. The commer-
                               because most skin divers cannot get to them in the often
cial shery for white abalone began about 1965, though
                               severe oceanic conditions found there. In contrast, all
whites were probably taken incidentally before then.
                               areas in southern California were available to commercial
The high quality of the meat and the knowledge of the
                               and sport divers, and eventually the larger individuals
resource spurred commercial landings to a peak in 1972 of
                               were taken, leaving little for stock rebuilding.
almost 144,000 pounds. Thereafter landings declined and
became insignicant in the mid-1980s. The recreational    The primary regulation of the abalone shery was the size
shery also took white abalone, but landings are unknown,   limit, which was set at a relatively large size, allowing
and probably far less than the commercial landings. Rela-   individuals as old as 15 years (in red abalone) to reproduce
tive to the whole shery, white abalone comprised a      before entering the shery. Implicit in size limits is the
small part of the landings, but its high quality and value  assumption of regular reproduction and more importantly,
bolstered the shery for a short time.            settlement. To have reproduction and settlement there
                               must be large numbers of adults close together. Such
In 1997, the NMFS added the white abalone to the candi-
                               areas are exactly what is sought in the shery. Man-
date species list to be considered for listing under the
                               agement efforts to protect stocks through size limits
federal Endangered Species Act. This action required a
                               and limits on the number of commercial abalone sh-
status review, which concluded that overexploitation was
                               ermen have been ineffective. Stock declines have led
the major cause of the decline. In May 2000, white aba-
                               to near extirpation of three species with red and pink
lone became the rst marine invertebrate to be proposed


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               95
     abalone reduced to remnant populations on islands in     if environmental temperatures increase WS could become
Abalone



     southern California.                     a problem.
     The poor survival rates observed in most abalone seeding   WS has the capacity to eliminate abalones throughout
     experiments suggest that seeding will not be an effective   large areas. A signicant increase of the incidence could
     method for restoration of depressed stocks. Adult translo-  eliminate the remaining, already low, populations of aba-
     cation to aggregate spawners may be the only hope to     lones. Research is forthcoming about breeding resistant
     replenish depleted stocks or prevent extinction for some   abalone and treating abalones held in captivity. Addition-
     species. Unfortunately for most species, few adults remain  ally, any management decisions about abalone must take
     to aggregate. Expensive articial breeding programs may    disease effects into consideration.
     be necessary to obtain sufcient numbers of large aba-    Climatic and periodic oceanographic disturbances, par-
     lones upon which to start rebuilding the resource. Addi-   ticularly those that bring warm water northward can have
     tionally, unless stocks are reestablished in well-protected  severe effects on abalones, especially those in southern
     refuge areas, illegal take will undermine these efforts.   California. The effect of increased sea water temperature
     In northern California, red abalone stocks continue to    can affect disease susceptibility; lower growth in kelps,
     provide abalone to an important recreational shery. The   thus reducing abalone food sources; alter distribution pat-
     continuation of this shery depends upon the protection    terns of marine animals; and bring storms which disrupt
     of the de facto deep water refuge, monitoring the annual   local habitats. Each of these could further place additional
     harvest to assure that the resource can accommodate      stress on abalone populations.
     sport harvest, continued effective resource protection,    The southward movement of the sea otter into its ancient
     education, and assessment. Recovery of the southern Cali-   range in southern California would undoubtedly further
     fornia abalone resource will likely require many years and  reduce remaining abalone, and other invertebrate popula-
     the establishment of marine protected areas to encourage   tions further. Along the central coast, sea otters have
     and protect dense populations of abalones.          removed the larger emergent abalone populations, and
     Three natural phenomena will have a decisive effect      restricted them to cryptic habitat.
     on California’s future abalone sheries — disease,      Paradoxically, each of these three developments, are nat-
     oceanographic events (El Niño), and sea otter expansion.   ural events with which abalone and all marine organisms,
     Each is already inuencing research and management      have endured to some extent in the past. The difference is
     decisions.                          that historically, populations were larger and more adapt-
     WS is a bacterial disease that has virtually eliminated    able, and better suited to evolve strategies to cope with
     black abalone from large areas of its habitat in southern   changing conditions. Today, populations are smaller, and
     California. The spread and effectiveness of the disease is  they cannot respond sufciently enough or quickly enough
     enhanced by higher than average sea water temperatures.    to adapt. In some cases, local, and perhaps total extinc-
     In black abalone, some individuals appear to be resistant   tion of species will result.
     to it, but because these individuals are healthy, they
     were often taken in the course of shing. It is precisely
                                    Management Considerations
     these healthy individuals that are necessary to obtain
     natural recovery. After the discovery of WS, rather
                                    See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
     than establishing a general moratorium on the take of
                                    further information.
     black abalone, each island was closed after populations
     had crashed. The continued shing removed most of the
     potentially resistant abalones.                Peter L. Haaker, Konstantin Karpov, Laura Rogers-
                                    Bennett, Ian Taniguchi, and Carolyn S. Friedman
     WS is known in each of the other California abalones, but
                                    California Department of Fish and Game
     little is known how it affects the other species, particu-
     larly along the mainland. Red abalone at San Miguel Island  Mia J. Tegner
     are infected, but incidence seems to be low. Green aba-    Scripps Institution of Oceanography
     lone, which overlaps with the distribution of black aba-
     lone, appears to have suffered from WS at some islands.
                                    References
     A few northern California red abalone have been collected
     with WS pathogens, but it has not caused any symptoms.
                                    Ault, J.S. and J.D. DeMartini. 1987. Movement and disper-
     The cooler seawater temperatures off northern California
                                    sion of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in northern Cali-
     are sufcient to prevent the occurrence of symptoms, but
                                    fornia. Calif. Fish Game, 73:196-213.




       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                       December 2001
96
Cox, K.W. 1962. California abalones, Family Haliotidae.     Tegner, M.J., P.A. Breen, and C.E. Lennert. 1989. Popula-




                                                               Abalone
Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 118:1-133.      tion biology of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in south-
                                ern California and management of the red and pink, H.
Davis, G. E., P. L. Haaker, and D. V. Richards. 1996. Status
                                corrugata, abalone sheries. Fish. Bull., U.S. 87:313-339.
and trends of white abalone at the California Channel
Islands. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society     Tutschulte, T.C. 1976. The comparative ecology of three
125: 42-48.                           sympatric abalone. Ph. D. Dissertation. Scripps Institution
                                of Oceanography, San Diego.
Geiger, D.L. 1999. Distribution and biogeography of the
recent Haliotidae (Gastropoda; vestigastropoda) world-
wide. Bollettino Malacacologico 35(5-12):57-120.
Haaker, P.L. 1974. Assessment of abalone resources at
the Channel Islands. Edited by Halvorson, W.L. and G.J.
Maender, in The Fourth California Islands Symposium:
Update on the status of resources. Santa Barbara Museum
of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
Haaker. D.O. Parker, K. C. Barsky, and C.S. Chun. 1998.
Growth of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens (Swainson) at
Johnsons Lee, Santa Rosa Island, Calif. J. Shell. Res. 17(3):
847-854.
Hobday, A. J. and M. J. Tegner. 2000. Status review of
white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) throughout its range
in California and Mexico. NOAA Technical Memorandum
NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWR-035. U. S. Department of Commerce.
Karpov, K.A., P.L. Haaker, I.K. Taniguchi, and L. Rog-
ers-Bennett. 2000. Serial depletion and the collapse of
the California abalone (Haliotis) shery. In Workshop on
rebuilding abalone stocks in British Columbia. Edited by
A. Campbell. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish Aquat. Sci. 130 pp.
In press.
Karpov, K.A. 1991. A combined telephone and creel survey
of the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens (Swainson), sport
shery in California from Monterey to the Oregon border,
April through November 1989. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Mar. Res. Div., Admin. Rep. 91-2. 72 p.
Karpov, K.A., J. Geibel, and P. Law. 1997. Relative abun-
dance and size composition of subtidal abalone (Haliotis
sp.), sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus sp.) and abundance
of sea stars off Fitzgerald Marine Reserve, California,
September 1993. Calif. Dept. Fish Game Mar. Res. Admin.
Rep.. No. 97-1, 16 pp.
Karpov, K.A., P.L. Haaker, D.Albin, I.K.Taniguchi, and
D.Kushner.1998. The red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in
California: importance of depth refuge to abalone man-
agement. J. Shellsh Res. 17:863-870.
Rogers-Bennett, L. and Pearse, J.S.. 1998. Experimental
seeding of hatchery-reared juvenile red abalone in north-
ern California. J. of Shellsh Res. (17)3: 877-880.
Tegner, M.J. 1989. The California abalone shery: produc-
tion, ecological interactions, and prospects for the future.
Pages 401- 420. In: J.F. Caddy (ed.) Marine invertebrate
sheries: their assessment and management. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report              97
   California
   Spiny Lobster                                  low of 152,000 pounds in the 1974-1975 season. Landings
                                           started back up the next season, but remained between
                                           400,000 and 500,000 pounds for nine consecutive seasons
   History of the Fishery                             from 1979-1980 to 1987-1988. The next nine years the
                                           landings ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 pounds with

   S  ince the late 1800s, there has been a commercial sh-           a peak of 950,000 in the 1997-1998 season. Landings
     ery for California spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus)          dropped back down after that. The peaks and valleys that
   in southern California. Commercial shermen use box-like            have characterized this shery are not unexpected in a
   traps constructed of heavy wire mesh to capture spiny             shery that is strongly inuenced by the weather, El Niño
   lobsters. Traps of other materials, such as plastic, are            and La Niña events, and the export market.
   allowed, but wire traps remain the most popular. About
                                           About 90 percent of the legal lobsters taken in the com-
   100 to 300 traps per sherman is common, but some sh
                                           mercial shery weigh between 1.25 and 2.0 pounds, which
   as many as 500 at the peak of the season. The traps are
                                           produces the size of tail desired for the restaurant trade.
   baited with whole or cut sh and weighted with bricks,
                                           Most of the harvest in recent years has been exported
   cement, or steel. They are shed on the bottom, and
                                           to Asian countries and France. However, depressed econo-
   each trap is marked with a buoy bearing the sherman’s
                                           mies overseas have resulted in an effort to re-establish
   license number followed by the letter P. High-speed boats
                                           domestic markets. The price paid to the sherman is in
   in the 20 to 40-foot size range are popular in this shery,
                                           the range of $6.75 to $8 a pound. The largest portion of
   but everything from 15-foot skiffs to 50-foot shing boats
                                           the commercial and sport harvest is always taken during
   are used. Most trap boats are equipped with a davit and
                                           the rst month of the season, October, which also is the
   hydraulics to assist in pulling the traps.
                                           highest month of trapping effort. The effort and catch
   Commercial lobster shing occurs in shallow, rocky areas            drop off sharply in January through the middle of March
   from Point Conception to the Mexican border and off the            (the season’s end). San Diego County, being the most
   islands and banks (such as Cortes and Tanner banks) of             central to the spiny lobster’s range, usually produces the
   southern California. Some marine life refuges and reserves           highest landings, followed by Los Angeles/Orange, and
   are closed to the take of lobster, as are areas in Santa            Santa Barbara/Ventura counties.
   Monica and Newport Bays and at Santa Catalina Island.
                                           Commercial and recreational lobster shermen are
   Sophisticated electronic equipment enables trappers to
                                           restricted to a minimum size limit of 3 1/4 inches carapace
   nd suitable lobster habitat and relocate their traps there.
                                           length (CL). Historically, the season for both has run from
   Traps are shed along depth contours in waters less than
                                           early October to mid-March. Since 1992, the sport season
   100 feet, or clustered around rocky outcrops on the
                                           has opened the weekend before the rst Wednesday in
   bottom. At the beginning of the season the traps are
                                           October, the ofcial commercial season opener. Com-
   usually very close to shore. By the end of the season they
                                           mercial sh traps, including lobster traps, must have a
   are in 100 to 300 feet of water.
                                           destruct-device of a type approved by the Department of
   Seasonal landings in the 200,000 to 400,000 pound range            Fish and Game. This is to ensure that lost or abandoned
   rose following World War II and peaked in the 1949-1950            traps do not continue to capture marine life indenitely.
   season, with a record 1.05 million pounds landed. A gen-            Since the 1976-1977 season, it has been required that
   eral decline followed for the next 25 years, reaching a            lobster traps be tted with rectangular escape ports (2
                                           3/8 by 11 1/2 inches) to minimize the retention of undersized
                                           lobsters. This requirement has been credited with reversing
                                           the long downward trend in landings previous to that.
                                           A formal commercial restricted access program was initi-
                                           ated in April of 1997. All lobster shermen are required
                                           to have an operator permit ($285). Deckhands that assist
                                           them must have a lobster crewmember permit ($125).
                                           Recreational harvesters need a valid sport shing license
                                           with an ocean enhancement stamp, and may use hoop
                                           nets or bare (gloved) hands when skin or scuba diving
                                           for lobster. No appliance, such as a sh spear or a short
                                           hooked pole, may be used to snag the animals from deep
                                           crevices or caves. The daily bag limit for sport shing is
                                           seven lobsters, reduced from 10 in 1971.
                  California Spiny Lobster, Panulirus interruptus
                                   Credit: DFG


     California’s Living Marine Resources:                    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                                December 2001
98
                                                                     California Spiny Lobster
            1.0
millions of pounds landed


            0.8
   Spiny Lobster




            0.6

            0.4
                                                        Commercial Landings
            0.2                                          1916-1999, Spiny Lobster
                                                        Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                        Bulletins and commercial
            0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980    1990   1999   landing receipts.




Status of Biological Knowledge                    shed its exoskeleton. This process of molting is preceded
                                   by the formation of a new, soft shell under the old one. An

T  he California spiny lobster ranges from Monterey Bay,       uptake of water expands the new shell before it hardens.
  California to Manzanillo, Mexico. There is also a small,     Lobsters are vulnerable to predation and physical damage
isolated population of this species at the northwestern        right after they molt, until their new shell hardens.
end of the Gulf of California. The majority of the pop-        Molt rates for the California spiny lobster are assumed
ulation is found between Point Conception, California         to be similar to those of the Japanese spiny lobster. A
and Magdalena Bay, Baja California. Adult lobsters usually      0.24-inch CL specimen goes through 20 molts to reach 1.18
inhabit rocky areas from the intertidal zone to depths of       inches CL at the end of its rst year. Four molts during
240 feet or more.                           the second year will result in a carapace length of two
Spiny lobsters mate from November through May. The          inches, and there are three molts in the third year. It
male attaches a putty-like packet of sperm, called a sper-      takes a lobster from seven to 11 years to reach a legal size
matophore, to the underside of the female’s carapace.         of 3.25 inches CL. Spiny lobsters molt annually, following
When the female releases her eggs, she uses the small         the reproductive period, once they reach 2.5 inches CL.
claws at the end of her last (fth) pair of walking legs to      Growth rates, or the period between molts, are highly
open the spermatophore and fertilize the eggs with the        variable. They have been correlated with food availability,
sperm inside the packet. Fertilized eggs are attached to       size, and sex. The larger an animal, the slower it grows.
the underside of the female’s tail primarily in May and        Injuries or disease will often result in a slowing or complete
June. “Berried” females are generally in water less than       cessation of growth until the injury has been repaired.
30 feet deep and carry their eggs for about 10 weeks. The       Juvenile lobsters usually spend their rst two years in
larger the size of the female, the more eggs she produces.      nearshore surf grass beds. Sub-adults have also been
Females sampled at San Clemente Island carried between        found in shallow rocky crevices and mussel beds. Adult
120,000 (2.6 inches CL) and 680,000 (3.6 inches CL) eggs.       lobsters are found in rocky habitat, although they also
Spiny lobster eggs hatch into tiny, transparent larvae        will search sandy areas for food. During the day, spiny
known as phyllosomas that go through 12 molts. They have       lobsters usually reside in a crevice or hole, dubbed a den.
attened bodies and spider like legs, and drift with the       More than one lobster is usually found in a den. At night,
prevailing currents feeding on other planktonic animals.       the animals leave their dens to search for a wide range
They may drift offshore out to 350 miles, and may be         of food. Adult lobsters are omnivorous and sometimes
found from the surface to a depth of over 400 feet. After       carnivorous. They consume algae and a wide variety of
ve to nine months, the phyllosoma transforms into the        marine invertebrates such as snails, mussels, sea urchins,
puerulus or juvenile stage. The puerulus is still transpar-      and clams as well as sh, and injured or newly molted
ent, but now looks like a miniature adult with extremely       lobsters. Lobsters are eaten by sheephead, cabezon, kelp
long antennae. The puerulus actively swims inshore where       bass, octopuses, California moray eels, horn sharks, leop-
it settles to the bottom in shallow water and starts to        ard sharks, rockshes and giant sea bass.
grow if the habitat is suitable.                   A large portion of the spiny lobster population makes
The spiny lobster’s outer shell serves as its skeleton, and      an annual offshore-onshore migration that is stimulated
is referred to as an exoskeleton. To grow, a lobster must       by changes in water temperature. During winter months,


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                              A Status Report                   99
                                             Management Considerations
              male and female lobsters are found offshore at depths
California Spiny Lobster



              of 50 feet and deeper, although individuals of both sexes
                                             See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
              have also been found in shallow water in winter. In late
                                             further information.
              March, April, and May, lobsters move into warmer onshore
              waters less than 30 feet. The higher temperatures on
              shore shorten the development time for lobster eggs.
                                             Kristine C. Barsky
              Nearshore waters also have a more plentiful supply of
                                             California Department of Fish and Game
              food. In late October and November, the onshore waters
              cool, and most lobsters move offshore. Winter storms that
              cause increased wave action in shallow water encourage
                                             References
              this movement. Lobsters generally move after dark and in
              small groups across the sand.                 Bodkin, J.L. and L. Brown. 1992. Molt frequency and
                                             size-class distribution in the California spiny lobster (Panu-
              California spiny lobsters of both sexes reach maturity at
                                             lirus interruptus) as indicated by beach-cast carapaces
              ve or six years and 2.5 inches CL. After maturity, male
                                             at San Nicolas Island, California. Calif. Fish and Game
              lobsters grow faster, live longer, and reach larger sizes
                                             78(4):136-144.
              than the females. Males can live up to 30 years, and
              females at least 20 years. There are records of male Cali-  Booth, J.D. and B.F. Phillips. 1994. Early life history of
              fornia spiny lobster weighing over 26 pounds and attaining  spiny lobster. Crustaceana 66(3):271-294.
              lengths up to three feet. Today, lobsters over ve pounds
                                             Dexter, D.M. 1972. Molting and growth in laboratory
              are considered trophy-size. Trophy-size animals are usually
                                             reared phyllosomes of the California spiny lobster, Panuli-
              taken by recreational divers.
                                             rus interruptus. Calif. Fish and Game 58:107-115.
                                             Duffy, J.M. 1973. The status of the California spiny lobster
              Status of the Population                   resource. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources
                                             Tech. Rep. No. 10. 15 p.

              P opulation size is unknown for the California spiny lob-
                                             Engle, J.M. 1979. Ecology and growth of juvenile California
               ster. Commercial landings have uctuated through the
                                             spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). Sea Grant
              years and are inuenced by some factors that are inde-
                                             Dissertation Series, USCSC-TD-03-79. 298 p.
              pendent of the health of the population.
                                             Lindberg, R.G. 1955. Growth, population dynamics, and
              The closed season protects egg-carrying and molting
                                             eld behavior in the spiny lobster Panulirus interruptus.
              female lobsters. The size limit ensures that there will be
                                             Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 59(6):157-248.
              several year classes of broodstock, even if all legal-size
                                             Mitchell, C.T., C.H. Turner, and A.R. Strachan. 1969. Obser-
              lobsters are caught each season. The escape port has
                                             vations on the biology and behavior of the California spiny
              been effective in reducing the capture and handling of
                                             lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). Calif. Fish and
              juvenile lobster. An illegal market has always existed for
                                             Game 55(2):121-131.
              “shorts” (undersized lobsters). Public education and ade-
              quate warden enforcement are key elements in reducing
              this problem.
              The Department of Fish and Game has had a commercial
              logbook system in place since 1973. Catch effort, the
              numbers of legal and short lobsters taken, number of
              traps shed, and depths where the traps are shed are
              required information on the logs. The presence of shorts is
              generally a good indicator of a healthy shery.




                California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                       December 2001
  100
Red Sea Urchin
History of the Fishery                     During the period 1973 through 1977, 80 to 90 percent




                                                                        Red Sea Urchin
                                 of the landings originated from these islands. In more

T  he commercial shery for red sea urchins (Strongylo-    recent years, however, there has been a decrease in
   centrotus franciscanus) has been one of California’s    the contribution from the northern Channel Islands as
most valuable sheries for more than a decade. This       shing effort has shifted south to San Clemente Island,
shery is relatively new, having developed over the last 30   San Nicolas Island, and the San Diego area. This spatial
years, and caters mainly to the Japanese export market.     shift occurred at the same time that catches decreased
Archaeological evidence however, shows that sea urchins     throughout the region. In 1990, the southern California sea
in California have been shed by coastal American Indians    urchin catch peaked at over 27 million pounds, and has
for centuries. The gonads of both male and female urchin    declined steadily to 10.9 million pounds in 1999. In the
are the object of the shery and are referred to as “roe”    1990s, the shery was impacted by two El Niños and a
or “uni,” in Japanese. Gonad quality depends on size,      weakening yen; both factors have contributed to reduce
color, texture, and rmness. Algal food supply and the     shing effort and catches.
stage of gonadal development affect quality and price. Ex-
vessel prices during the season typically range from less
                                 Northern California Fishery
than $0.20 to more than $2 per pound with the highest
prices garnered during the Japanese holidays around the

                                 T  he northern California commercial sea urchin shery
new year. Sea urchins are collected by divers operating
                                   began in 1972, and remained insignicant until 1977,
in nearshore waters. Divers check gonad quality and are
                                 when 386,000 pounds were landed in the Fort Bragg
size selective while shing to ensure marketability. In the
                                 region. The second major shery expansion began in
last few years the red urchin shery has become fully
                                 1985, fueled partly by decreasing landings in southern
exploited throughout its range in northern and southern
                                 California and favorable monetary exchange rates. The
California. Because of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) preda-
                                 large and unexploited sea urchin biomass in northern
tion, sea urchin stocks in central California occur at densi-
                                 California sparked a gold rush as hundreds of new sher-
ties too low to sustain a commercial shery. The purple
                                 men enter the unregulated shery. In northern California
sea urchin (S. purpuratus), which occurs over the same
                                 (Half Moon Bay to Crescent City) landings jumped from
geographical range, is harvested in California, but only on
                                 1.9 million pounds in 1985 to 30.4 million pounds in 1988,
a limited basis.
                                 far exceeding landings from southern California. Northern
                                 California sea urchin landings and catch-per-unit effort
Southern California Fishery                   (CPUE) began a steep decline in 1989, before leveling off
                                 in 1996 at about three to four million pounds annually and

T  he shery in southern California began in 1971 as      about 700 pounds per shing day per diver. Preliminary
   part of a National Marine Fisheries Service program     landings data for 1999 show a catch of 3.2 million pounds
to develop sheries for underutilized marine species. The    with an ex-vessel value of $2.4 million. In northern Califor-
shery was also seen as a way to curb sea urchins destruc-   nia, Fort Bragg has remained the center of the shery,
tive grazing on giant kelp. There have been two periods of   while the ports of Albion, Point Arena, and Bodega Bay
rapid shery expansion in California. The rst culminated    accounted for about two-thirds of the catch in 1999. Rocky
in 1981 when landings peaked at 25 million pounds in      reefs around Crescent City also support a small shery.
southern California. Contributing to this rapid escalation
of the shery was a pool of shermen and boats involved
in the declining commercial abalone dive shery. Sea
urchin landings then decreased following the El Niño of
1982-1983, when warm water weakened or killed kelp,
the primary food source for sea urchins. Catches did not
recover until 1985-1986, helped in part by the strengthen-
ing of the Japanese yen relative to the U.S. dollar, favor-
ing California shermen and exporters. Prices for urchin
from the south are typically higher than for urchins from
northern California due to the longer market presence and
consistently higher gonad quality of the former.
The majority of sea urchin landings in southern California
have come from the northern Channel Islands off of Santa
                                               Red Sea Urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus
Barbara, where large and accessible stocks once occurred.
                                                            Credit: Chris Dewees
                                                      CA Sea Grant Extension Program

 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                      101
         Status of Biological Knowledge                        between these species at sites in northern California con-
Red Sea Urchin



                                                cluded that there is an inverse relationship between red

         S ea urchins are locally abundant subtidal herbivores that          abalone and red sea urchin abundance at sites where
          play an important ecological role in the structure of           urchin density is high. Sea urchins may be more successful
         kelp forest communities. Sea urchins belong to the phylum           in competing for limited food because of their aggressive
         Echinodermata, which includes sea stars, brittle stars, sea          foraging and ability to survive starvation conditions.
         cucumbers, and sand dollars. They have a hard calcareous           Fishing abalone and sea urchins has no doubt altered
         shell called a test, with spines and small pinchers called          these relationships.
         pedicellariae. Tube feet are located between the spines            Several signicant predators of red sea urchins are known.
         which are used in respiration, locomotion, and for grasp-           Sea otters, spiny lobsters, sea stars, crabs, white sea
         ing food and the substrate. On the bottom, or oral side, is          urchins, and shes such as sheepshead eat red sea urchins.
         the mouth, consisting of ve calcareous plates making up           Within the sea otter’s present range, the red sea urchin
         a jaw structure called Aristotle’s lantern. The mouth leads          resource has been reduced to a level which precludes
         to the digestive system which voids through the anus on            shery utilization. Urchin diseases have decimated sea
         the top, or aboral, side.                           urchin populations in the Caribbean islands, however the
         Sea urchins are omnivorous, eating primarily foliose algae.          dynamics of sea urchin diseases in California remain poorly
         The perennial giant kelp is the preferred food in southern          understood. Sea urchins in southern California are suscep-
         California, whereas in northern California urchins feed on          tible to disease during warm water El Niño events.
         the annual bull kelp and perennial brown algae. The              There are no reliable methods of aging sea urchins since
         red sea urchin’s ability to survive during periods of food          rings on the test plates are not laid down annually. Sea
         shortages contributes to the its ability to persist in high          urchin growth rates vary depending on food availability.
         densities in areas devoid of algae, known as urchin bar-           Growth rates must be determined by tagging and recap-
         rens. The formation of barrens in southern California can           turing animals. Internal tags (PIT tags) or chemical (uo-
         follow oceanographic events such as El Niño during which           rescent) tags that bind to calcium have been used to
         kelp beds die-off resulting in shortages of standing and           successfully tag sea urchins. Tagging studies reveal that
         drift algae. These food shortages may trigger urchins to           red urchins are long-lived, are certainly older than 50
         aggregate and move in fronts denuding the remaining kelp           years and large individuals may be older than 100 years.
         forest. Based on examination of long-term aerial photos            Growth to a harvestable size of 3.5 inches (test diameter,
         and on kelp forest ecology studies in northern San Diego           exclusive of spines) averages six to eight years. There
         county, sea urchin grazing at its most severe probably            are no patterns in growth along a latitudinal gradient
         accounts for about 20 percent mortality in a given kelp            from Baja California to Alaska, however there is a clear
         bed. Conversely, the intense shery for red sea urchins in          trend in population mortality rates. Mortality estimates
         northern California appears to have had a positive effect           for southern populations were found to be greater than for
         on kelp availability. Aerial photographs of surface kelp           northern populations. Likely mechanisms include higher
         at one location during the period of concentrated urchin           rates of disease and temperature-related stresses as one
         shing, showed a 15-fold increase in the surface canopy            moves from north to south.
         from 1982 to 1989.
                                                Red sea urchins become sexually mature at about two
         Red sea urchins may compete with abalone for both space            inches. The sex ratio in urchins about one to one. Sea
         and food. A recent study on competitive interactions             urchin spawning is seasonal but can vary from year to year
                                                and from one locality to another. Food supply and ocean
                                                temperatures play a role in the timing and magnitude of
                                                spawning. In most southern California locations, spawning
                                                generally occurs in winter. In northern California, major
                                                spawning occurs in spring and summer, with some spawn-
                                                ing activity also in December.
                                                As for many marine invertebrates, fertilization is external
                                                and success is highly dependent on density. Subtidal stud-
                                                ies suggest that red urchins at densities of less than
                                                two per square meter can have poor fertilization success.
                                                Females spawn up to several million eggs at a time.
                                                Larval development is dependent on temperature and the
                                                abundance of phytoplankton (single-celled algae) and is
                                  Packing sea urchin gonads
                                                thought to extend for six to eight weeks. As the larvae
                       Credit: California Sea Grant Extension Program


           California’s Living Marine Resources:                   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                               December 2001
 102
mature they settle to the bottom and metamorphose into    tion may increase the chances for larvae to encounter




                                                               Red Sea Urchin
benthic juveniles. The long planktonic phase suggests that  habitat suitable for settlement. Continued recruitment
juvenile sea urchins may disperse long distances from the   at present levels, however, is not guaranteed; in fact,
adults that have spawned them.                intensive sea urchin harvesting in northern California and
                               Baja California could result in a decrease in sea urchin
Settlement patterns have been studied for red and purple
                               larvae in southern California in the future.
sea urchins on articial substrates at sites in northern
and southern California since 1990 and are similar for the  Catches in southern California have exhibited a pattern
two species. Peak settlement periods tend to be in spring   resembling the serial depletion that characterized the
and early summer although there is substantial year-to-    decline and collapse of the abalone sheries in the mid-
year variation both in timing and intensity. Settlement    1990s. The northern Channel Islands have supplied most of
tends to be less variable south of Point Conception and    the catch over the years, but beginning in 1992 catches
is depressed during El Niño events. However, El Niño     in the northern islands began to decline as effort and
events appear to favor settlement in northern California.   harvests started to increase in the southern islands of San
Recruitment patterns of red sea urchins in northern and    Nicolas and San Clemente, signaling a shift away from the
southern California generally mirror those of settlement.   northern islands. Recently, San Clemente Island catches
Recruitment in southern California appears to be rela-    have declined precipitously indicating that the shable
tively constant while in the north, recruitment rates are   stock there may be largely depleted. Whether the harvest-
lower and more sporadic. The more variable pattern of     able stocks can recover to their previous levels in these
settlement in the north is consistent with more energetic   heavily shed areas remains a concern, particularly if sh-
offshore advection of water during spring periods when    ing effort remains largely uncontrolled.
larvae are available, especially around headlands.      The northern California shery has been characterized by
Newly settled juvenile urchins are highly susceptible to   rapid growth to 30 million pounds in 1988 and decline to
mortality. Juveniles appear to suffer increased mortality   less than ve million pounds in the late 1990s. Fishery
in the kelp forest habitat, where micro-predators are     dependent modeling of the sea urchin shery during the
presumably more abundant than in similar rocky habitats    period of rapid decline estimated that the 50,800 tons of
just outside of the kelp beds. Adult sea urchins and     red urchins harvested from 1988 through 1994 represented
their spines are important structuring organisms in sub-   about 67 percent of the shable stock available at the
tidal communities. The canopy formed by the spines is     start of 1988. Effort declined during this period as the 126
a micro-habitat in which juvenile sea urchins, shrimps,    divers who had worked exclusively in northern California
crabs, brittle stars, sh, abalone and other invertebrates  during 1991 had dwindled to 69 by 1995. Annual catch per
can be found. The spine canopy is most likely an impor-    permittee declined by 57 percent from 1990 to 1995.
tant habitat for juvenile sea urchins especially in areas   Densities of shable stocks continue to be depressed at
where alternative cryptic habitats (e.g., crevices and    subtidal survey sites examined in the Fort Bragg area
undersides of boulders) are rare or absent.          since 1988. From 1988 to 1997, legal-sized red urchins
                               surveyed outside of reserves, declined from 47 percent
                               to 20 percent of the population, and from 0.8 per square
Status of the Population                   meter to 0.2 per square meter surveyed. In contrast,


I
                               during this period densities in two area reserves averaged
 n southern California, the red sea urchin resource now
                               over 3.0 red urchins per square meter. These patterns
 produces about 10 million pounds annually, with harvest-
                               were observed to continue during northern California sur-
able stocks (dened as exceeding the minimum legal size
                               veys in 1999 and 2000. Episodic and infrequent recruit-
and containing marketable gonads) in decline since 1990.
                               ment combined with intensive harvesting on the north
Between 1985 and 1995, the percentage of legal-sized
                               coast have had a serious impact upon catches, as the
red sea urchins at survey sites in the northern Channel
                               shery has evolved into a recruitment shery, with sher-
Islands declined from 15 percent to 7.2 percent. Although
                               men targeting harvest of newly recruited sea urchins. For
shing has signicantly reduced density in many areas
                               example, in 1999, 47 percent of the catch was less than
and catch-per-unit of effort has decreased, localized juve-
                               3.9 inches, just over the 3.5-inch minimum size limit. The
nile recruitment has, thus far, somewhat mitigated shing
                               size limit and seasonal closures may help prevent shery
pressure. Consistent recruitment has been noted on arti-
                               collapse but may not improve recruitment, particularly
cial settlement substrates and along subtidal transects
                               if its success is primarily a function of oceanographic
over the last decade at monitoring stations along the
                               factors, spine canopy micro-habitat and maintaining large
southern California mainland coast and the northern Chan-
                               spawners in the population.
nel Islands. This may be partly due to ocean current pat-
terns in the Southern California Bight, where water reten-


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report              103
Red Sea Urchin



                                        60




                          millions of pounds landed
                                        50

                             Red Sea Urchin
                                        40
                                        30
            Commercial Landings
         1916-1999, Red Sea Urchin
                                        20
              Commercial Landings
           1916-1999, Red Sea Urchin
                                        10
         Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins

                                        0 1916
             and commercial landing
                                             1920  1930  1940           1950            1960     1970      1980       1990     1999
                    receipts.

           Management Considerations                                in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. Ecol
                                                       73:248-254.
           See the Management Considerations Appendix A for                     Rogers-Bennett, L., H.C. Fastenau, and C.M. Dewees.
           further information.                                   1998. Recovery of red sea urchin beds following experi-
                                                       mental harvest. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Proceeds.
                                                       9th Intern. Echinoderm Conf. (Eds). R. Mooi and M. Tel-
           Peter Kalvass and Laura Rogers-Bennett
                                                       ford. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Neth. 805-809.
           California Department of Fish and Game
                                                       Rogers-Bennett, L., W.A. Bennett, H.C. Fastenau, and C.M.
                                                       Dewees. 1995. Spatial variation in red sea urchin repro-
           References                                        duction and morphology: implications for harvest refugia.
                                                       Ecol. Appl. 5(4):1171-1180.
           Botsford, L.W., S.R. Wing, and J.L. Largier. 1998. Popula-
                                                       Tegner, M.J. and P.K. Dayton. 1977. Sea urchin recruitment
           tion dynamic and management implications of larval dis-
                                                       patterns and implications of commercial shing. Science
           persal. S.Afr.J.Mar.Sci. 19:131-142.
                                                       196:324-326.
           Ebert, T.A., J.D. Dixon, S.C. Schroeter, P.E. Kalvass, N.T.
           Richmond, W.A. Bradbury, D.A. Woodby. 1999. Growth                                     60
                                                       California Red Sea Urchin Catch




           and mortality of red sea urchins Strongylocentrotus fran-                                 50
                                                           and Value in Millions




           ciscanus across a latitudinal gradient. Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser.
                                                            Red Sea Urchin




                                                                        40
           190:189-209.
                                                                        30
           Ebert, T.A. 1998. An analysis of the importance of Allee                                  20
           effects in management of the red sea urchin Strongylo-                                   10
           centrotus franciscanus. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Pro-                                  0  1971         1980          1990          1999
           ceeds. 9th Intern. Echinoderm Conf. (Eds). R. Mooi and M.                                                           Catch in Millions of Dollars
                                                                                                  Catch in Millions of Pounds
           Telford. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Neth p 619-627.
                                                                                    California red sea urchin catch (lbs) and ex-vessel value.
           Ebert, T.A., S.C. Schroeter, J.D. Dixon and P. Kalvass.
                                                                                             Data Source: market receipt database.
           1994. Settlement patterns of red and purple sea urchins
           (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in
           California, USA. Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser. 111:41-52.
           Kalvass, P.E. and J.M. Hendrix. 1997. The California
           red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, shery:
           catch, effort and management trends. Mar. Fish. Rev.
           59:1-17.
           Kato, S. and S.C. Schroeter. 1985. Biology of the red sea
           urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, and its shery in
           California. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(3):1-20.                                                            CPUE (catch per diver day)
                                                                                          Catch (millions of lbs.)
           Levitan, D.R., Sewell, M.A. and F.-S. Chia 1992. How dis-
                                                                                Northern California landings and catch per unit of effort (CPUE).
           tribution and abundance inuence fertilization success
                                                                                                  Data source: DFG logbooks.



              California’s Living Marine Resources:                          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                      December 2001
  104
Purple Sea Urchin
History of the Fishery                     before metamorphosis takes place and juveniles are ready




                                                               Purple Sea Urchin
                                to settle to the bottom. Peak settlement periods tend to

P  urple sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) have   be in spring and early summer and there is substantial
   been used by humans in California for thousands of     year-to-year variation both in timing and intensity. Set-
years as shown by remains in middens left by American     tlement tends to be less variable south of Point Con-
Indians along the coast. Prior to the early 1970s, few     ception and is depressed during El Niño events. El
people harvested purple sea urchins and, along with red    Niño events appear to favor settlement in northern Cali-
sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), they were    fornia, however. Energetic movements of water to the
considered to be pests because they grazed kelp.        offshore in northern California have been associated with
                                reduced recruitment.
The purple sea urchin has shery potential, its roe being
reported to be very similar in quality to some of the highly  Growth is highly variable and strongly linked with food
desirable domestic Japanese species as well as being a     availability. At one year of age, purple sea urchins can
desirable product in Mediterranean countries. However, it   be between about 0.4 and 1.2 inches. After ve years,
has been harvested only on a limited and experimental     size can range from 1.25 to 2.0 inches. Growth rates of
basis in California as an adjunct to the much larger and    very small individuals up to an age of one year are not
more lucrative red sea urchin shery. All the requirements   well known.
of the restricted access commercial sea urchin permit     Predators of purple sea urchins include those for red sea
shery apply to harvest of purple sea urchins except      urchins but, because purple sea urchins are common in the
there are no minimum sizes or closed periods. A minor     intertidal zone, predators also include sea gulls, oyster
recreational shery for purple urchins also takes place in   catchers, and raccoons. Sea otters are able to reduce
southern California with a daily bag limit of 35.       sea urchin populations to levels unsuitable for commercial
Since 1990, annual purple sea urchin landings have ranged   or recreational shing, but apparently not to levels that
from 14,000 to 388,000 pounds, averaging 139,000. Land-    would threaten the species’ continued existence.
ings were less than 50,000 pounds in ve of those years,    Purple sea urchins show increased mortality above 73˚F,
with the highest landings of 388,000 and 316,000 pounds    which appears in part to be physiological stress, but ele-
in 1991 and 1992 when several attempts were made to      vated temperatures also promote development of one or
develop a viable shery for this species for the Japanese   more pathogens that can cause mass mortalities. Mass
market. In recent years, purple sea urchins have also     mortalities have been observed more frequently in south-
been exported to markets in the Mediterranean region.     ern than in northern California especially in association
Harvesting has occurred in both southern and northern     with elevated water temperatures during El Niño events.
California with approximately 60 percent of the landings
coming from northern areas since 1990. Unfavorable
                                Status of the Population
harvesting and processing economics and limited
availability of harvestable quality purple sea urchins for

                                L  arval settlement rates monitored at a number of loca-
the Japanese market have been the main impediments to
                                  tions in southern and northern California over the past
growth of this shery.
                                10 years do not indicate a change in larval production and
                                recruitment patterns, which indicates that the status of
Status of Biological Knowledge                 this species appears to be stable.


G  eneral biology of the purple sea urchin is very similar
   to the closely related red sea urchin and will not
be repeated in detail here. In addition to external color
differences, maximum size is much smaller for purple sea
urchins and only rarely do they attain a test diameter over
four inches. Purple sea urchins live primarily in shallow
water and are the only abundant sea urchin in intertidal
areas along the California coast. The maximum reported
depth is 500 feet. The published range is from Cedros
Island, Baja California, to Alaska.
Feeding habits and reproduction are quite similar to the
red sea urchin. Age of rst reproduction probably is one
or two years. Larvae spend an uncertain length of time in
the plankton, and it is probably at least six to eight weeks


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                105
Purple Sea Urchin



                                           450




                            thousands of pounds landed
                                           400
                                           350

                              Purple Sea Urchin    300
                                           250
                                           200
              Commercial Landings
                                           150
          1916-1999, Purple Sea Urchin
                                           100
              Commercial Landings
            1916-1999, Purple Sea Urchin                 50
           Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                           0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950    1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
           and commercial landing receipts.




             Management Considerations                                  References
             See the Management Considerations Appendix A for                      Ebert, T. A. 1968. Growth rates of the sea urchin Stron-
             further information.                                    gylocentrotus purpuratus related to food availability and
                                                           spine abrasion. Ecology 49: 1075-1091.
                                                           Ebert, T. A., S. C. Schroeter, J. D. Dixon and P. Kalvass
             David O. Parker
                                                           1994. Settlement patterns of red and purple sea urchins
             California Department of Fish and Game
                                                           (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in Cal-
             Thomas Ebert
                                                           ifornia, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 111:41-52.
             San Diego State University (emeritus)
                                                           Gilles, K.W. and J.S. Pearse. 1986. Disease in sea urchins
                                                           Strongylocentrotus purpuratus: experimental infection
                                                           and bacterial virulence. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
                                                           1:105-114.
                                                           Kato, S. and S.C. Schroeter. 1985. Biology of the red sea
                                                           urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, and its shery in
                                                           California. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(3):1-20.
                                                           Kenner, M. C. 1992. Population dynamics of the sea urchin
                                                           Strongylocentrotus purpuratus in a central California kelp
                                                           forest: recruitment, mortality, growth, and diet. Marine
                                                           Biology 112: 107-118.
                                                           Pearse, J. S. and A. H. Hines. 1987. Long-term population
                                                           dynamics of sea urchins in a central California kelp forest:
                                                           rare recruitment and rapid decline. Marine Ecology Prog-
                                                           ress Series 39: 275-283.




                California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                                     December 2001
106
Dungeness Crab
History of the Fishery                    1982-1983, landings have uctuated much less dramatically




                                                                   Dungeness Crab
                                and have not been as clearly cyclic. Recent landings have

D  ungeness crabs (Cancer magister), also known as     ranged from 2.2 to 13.1 million pounds and have averaged
   market crabs or edible crabs, were rst taken com-    about 6.7 million pounds.
mercially off San Francisco in about 1848. The shery blos-  Dungeness shing grounds off northern California are over
somed early, and now the California harvest of this impor-  twice the size of those in central California. They extend
tant marine resource occurs from Avila to the Oregon     from Fort Bragg to the Oregon border with the prime
border. Before the 1944-1945 season, the shery was cen-   area between Eureka and Crescent City. The northern
tered in the San Francisco area, and average annual state-  California eet uctuated between 100 and 200 vessels in
wide production was only 2.6 million pounds. The shery    the 1950s and 1960s, dropped to a low of 61 in 1973-1974,
expanded into the Eureka-Crescent City area as World War   then peaked at 410 during 1976-1977. Since then, effort
II ended. In the early 1940s, crab traps replaced the hoop  has been high, averaging 330 vessels per season. Before
net, leading to signicantly increased landings with strong  the mid-1970s, most vessels were converted salmon troll-
contributions from northern California. Annual statewide   ers 30 to 60 feet in length; however, the complexion of
production since the 1945-1946 season has averaged about   the eet changed during the record production years of
10 million pounds and recent ex-vessel annual value has    the 1970s. Vessels ranging in size from 22-foot dories to
been about $15 to 20 million. Approximately 75 percent    trawlers in excess of 100 feet entered the shery.
of the catch is sold as whole crab (live, fresh-cooked or
                                The dividing line for management of the northern and
frozen) and the remainder is picked and vacuum packed.
                                central California areas is the Mendocino-Sonoma county
The commercial shery for Dungeness crabs occurs in two    line. Both sheries are managed on the basis of simple
areas: northern and central California. Central California  “3-S” principles — sex, season, and size. Only male crabs
shing areas include Avila-Morro Bay, Monterey, and San    may be retained in the commercial shery (thus protect-
Francisco-Bodega Bay. The Morro Bay and Monterey sher-    ing the reproductive potential of the populations), the
ies have been of minor importance and San Francisco      shery has open and closed seasons, and a minimum size
has always been the center of this shery. Central Cal-    limit is imposed on commercial landings of male crabs.
ifornia landings were relatively stable from 1945-1946    The central California season opens the second Tuesday
to 1955-1956, and peaked at 8.4 million pounds in the     of November and continues through June 30, whereas
1956-1957 season. The shery then steeply declined at a    the northern California season opens December 1 and
rate of more than one million pounds per season until     continues through July 15. The summer-fall closed periods
1961-1962, when only 710,000 pounds were landed. The     are intended to prevent shing on male crabs when they
central California shery remained seriously depressed    are soft-shelled. At this time, male crabs would be vulner-
from 1962-63 through 1984-85 when annual landings aver-    able to shery-related handling mortality and would have
aged less than one million pounds. More recent landings    market quality well below their potential. During open
have averaged closer to two million pounds.          seasons, male crabs should be in prime condition (greatest
The central California shery utilizes an area of over 400  meat content) for the market. The opening and closing
square miles, including the Gulf of the Farallones north to  are two to three weeks earlier in central California
the Russian River. The eet consisted of 200 to 230 boats   than in northern California, because crabs in central Cali-
during the 1950s. When the shery declined in the 1960s,   fornia molt earlier and achieve adequate market condition
a reduction in the number of boats followed and the eet   earlier than in the north. The director of the department
now consists of about 100 vessels. The central California
crab eet has evolved from, but still includes, some old
“Monterey” style vessels. Larger multiple purpose vessels
are now the norm.
The northern California shery increased substantially
after 1945. Landings reached an initial peak in the late
1950s but, unlike the central California shery, which
peaked and then experienced low production levels for
many years thereafter, the north coast shery then exhib-
ited three 10-11 year “cycles” of production. In these
repeating cycles, about six years of good or outstanding
landings (a record 25.6 million pounds in 1976-1977) were
followed by about four years of poor or extremely poor
                                                  Dungeness Crab, Cancer magister
landings (as low as 350,000 pounds in 1973-1974). Since
                                                            Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                   107
Dungeness Crab



                                        40
                                        35


                          millions of pounds landed
                                        30
                             Dungeness Crab     25
                                        20
                                        15
                                        10
            Commercial Landings
                                         5
         1916-1999, Dungeness Crab
         Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                         0 1916
         and commercial landing receipts.                     1920  1930  1940                 1950           1960    1970    1980        1990     1999




           may delay the northern California season opening to as                  Because California Dungeness crabs are caught almost
           late as January 15, if market condition of crabs is not                  exclusively within three miles of shore and because Cali-
           sufciently high on December 1. Depending on crab con-                  fornia, Oregon and Washington often undertake coordi-
           dition, marketable crabs typically yield from 20 to 28
           percent of their body weight as cooked meat.                                          30
           Commercial gear for Dungeness crab is essentially the
                                                        Central/Northern California




                                                                           25
                                                        millions of pounds landed




           same throughout California. It consists of a circular steel
                                                           Dungeness Crab




                                                                           20
           trap three to 3.5-feet in diameter weighing 60 to 120                                      15
           pounds. Each trap is required to have two 4.25-inch diam-                                    10
           eter circular openings to allow sublegal male and small
                                                                           5
           female crabs to escape. These escape ports are remark-
                                                                           0
           ably effective in reducing handling of undersize crabs as                                       1916 1920   1930  1940  1950  1960    1970  1980   1990   1999

                                                                                                          Northern California
           most male crabs that are retained are close to or exceed                                                                    Central California
           the minimum size limit for males of 6.25-inches across the
                                                                           Northern and Central California Landings Per Season
           back. Traps must possess a destruction device that causes
                                                                                         1916-1999, Dungeness Crab
           traps to open allowing crabs to escape should traps be
                                                               Seasonal landings for northern California, including Eureka, Cresecent City, and Fort
           lost. The heavily weighted traps rest on the bottom and
                                                                 Bragg Landing, and central California including Bodega Bay, San Francisco Area,
           each is buoyed independently to the surface. Traps are
                                                                                             Monterey, and Morro Bay.
           left overnight or longer depending on shing conditions.
                                                              Note: data are recorded as seasonal landings, which differ from the DFG Catch Bulletin
           Most traps are shed at depths ranging from about 60 to
                                                                   and commercial landing receipt data, which are reported on an annual basis.
           240 feet, but some traps are shed in shallower and in
                                                                  Data Source: Seasonal Landings determined from reported commercial landings
           deeper waters.
                                                                         recorded by DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
           Almost all of the California Dungeness crab catch is landed
                                                        millions of pounds landed per week




           in the commercial trap shery. Trawl vessels are allowed                                    3.5
                                                                           3.0
           an incidental take of 500 pounds per trip during the
                                                             Dungeness Crab




                                                                           2.5
           regular season, but only a few thousand pounds of trawl-
                                                                           2.0
           caught crabs are landed annually in California. (Com-
                                                                           1.5
           mercial trawling is prohibited within three miles of shore,
                                                                           1.0
           where the vast majority of Dungeness are captured.)
                                                                           0.5
           There is limited sport use of Dungeness crabs in central
                                                                           0.0
           and northern California. The sport size limit is 5.75 inches                                      1          10         20            30   33

                                                                                               Pounds Landed Per Week 1997-1998 Season
           across the back for either sex, and a limit of 10 crabs of                                                        Pounds Landed Per Week 1998-1999 Season
           either sex may be possessed. The annual sport harvest is                                  Commercial Landings by Week, Dungeness Crab
           believed to be less than one percent of the commercial                    1997-1998 and 1998-1999, Dungeness Crab Catch data indicate consistent high early
           take, but there have not been any recent estimates of                                             season landings of Dungeness crab.
           total sport catch.                                     Data Source: Seasonal landings determined from reported commercial landings recorded
                                                                        by DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.


              California’s Living Marine Resources:                              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                          December 2001
108
nated management activities under the auspices of the     Thereafter, they are carried beneath the abdominal ap




                                                               Dungeness Crab
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, the shery     of the female. The smallest females carry about 500,000
has remained under effective state jurisdiction despite    eggs and the largest from 1.5 to 2.0 million. Freshly
repeated federal concerns regarding harvests beyond      molted females carry larger numbers of eggs than do
three mile state jurisdictional authority. Although total   gravid females that have missed a molt. “Skip-molt”
landings are not restricted by quota, beginning in 1995    females that have extruded eggs but have not molted
California implemented a limited entry program that is    recently must rely on stored sperm for fertilization of
designed to achieve an eventual reduction in the number    their eggs. Females may store viable sperm for at least
of shery participants. As of March 2000, limited entry    2.5 years. The eggs range in diameter from 0.016 to 0.024
permits have been granted to 604 California residents and   inches and are bright orange after extrusion, becoming
70 non-residents.                       progressively darker as they develop. Hatching occurs
                               between November and February.
                               The newly hatched larvae pass through ve zoeal and
Status of Biological Knowledge                one megalops stage before metamorphosing into the adult


D
                               form. Larval development is inversely related to water
   ungeness crabs range from the eastern Aleutian
                               temperature, and in central California 105 to 125 days
   Islands, Alaska, to perhaps Santa Barbara; however,
                               are required to complete the larval stages. Zoeae are
the species is considered rare south of Point Conception.
                               hypothesized to have an offshore movement regulated by
Temperature apparently determines the distribution, and
                               factors such as depth, temperature, salinity and ocean
the 38° to 65° F surface isotherms are considered the
                               currents. They are found near the surface at night and as
limits of the range. The geographic range of the species
                               deep as 80 feet in daytime. Megalopae are transported
probably depends more on the restricted thermal toler-
                               to nearshore waters beginning in April. Metamorphosis
ance range of larvae than of adults. Optimal temperatures
                               occurs from April to June. Estuarine areas such as Hum-
for larval growth and development are 50° to 57° F.
                               boldt Bay and San Francisco Bay are important nursery
This species has a preference for sandy to sandy-mud
                               areas for young Dungeness crabs, but most rearing must
bottoms but may be found on almost any bottom type.
                               take place in nearshore coastal waters.
Dungeness crabs may range from the intertidal zone to a
                               Growth is accomplished in steps through a series of dis-
depth of at least 750 feet, but are not abundant beyond
                               crete molts. In northern California, Dungeness crabs of
300 feet.
                               both sexes molt an average of six times during their
The resource off California has been demonstrated by
                               rst year and attain an average width of one inch. Six
tagging experiments to consist of ve subpopulations:
                               more molts are required to reach sexual maturity at the
one each in the areas around Avila-Morro Bay, Monterey,
                               end of their second year, when they are approximately
San Francisco, Fort Bragg, and Eureka-Crescent City. As
                               four inches across. Once maturity is reached, growth of
noted above, only the latter three are of commercial
                               females then slows as compared to males. Females molt
importance. DFG surveys indicate the combined San Fran-
                               at most once per year after reaching maturity and rarely
cisco and Fort Bragg populations are not as large as
                               exceed the legal size of males. Maximum female size is
the population extending from Eureka into Oregon. Little
                               about seven inches. Male crabs usually molt twice during
or no intermixing occurs. Tagging studies have also dem-
                               their third year and once per year thereafter. The average
onstrated random movement by both sexes. At times, an
                               size of males three, four and ve years of age is about six,
inshore or offshore migration is observed, but most move-
                               seven and eight inches, respectively. Males may undergo
ment is restricted to less than 10 miles. Travel up to 100
                               a total of 16 molts during a lifetime, reaching a maximum
miles has been noted for individual males, but female move-
                               size of nine inches and age of six to eight years.
ments seem much more limited.
                               Dungeness crabs are opportunistic feeders not limited by
Female molting and mating occur from February through
                               abundance or scarcity of a particular prey. Clams, sh,
June in California. Male crabs are able to sense when
                               isopods and amphipods are preferred, and cannibalism
females are about to molt (presumably through detection
                               is prevalent among all age groups. Predators on the var-
of pheremones released by females) and carry such
                               ious life stages of Dungeness crabs, especially pelagic
females in a protective pre-mating embrace for several
                               larvae and small juveniles, include octopuses, larger crabs
days until they molt. Hard-shelled males then mate with
                               and as many as 28 species of sh, including coho and
the freshly molted, soft-shelled females. Sperm deposited
                               chinook salmon, atshes, lingcod, cabezon and various
by males are stored in a spermatheca inside the female.
                               rockshes.
Fertilization of eggs takes place when internally-develop-
ing eggs are extruded between October and December.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                109
         Status of the Population                    stable long-term mean for more than 30 years. One
Dungeness Crab



                                        might therefore consider this resource to have a healthy

         D  ungeness crab populations in California have been     status. Compared to other sheries of similar importance
           fully exploited for at least 40 years and intensity of  and economic value, however, the Dungeness crab has
         sheries is extreme. In most years, from 80 to 90 percent   received less attention than other species. Among other
         of all available legal-sized male crabs are captured in the  things, no formal shery management plans or stock
         sheries. Although such high exploitation rates on adult    assessments have been produced for any west coast pop-
         males might give rise to concerns that female mating suc-   ulations. Fishery management has rested on the very
         cess might be reduced as a consequence, recent studies     simple, though biologically sound, 3-S principles and typi-
         have shown that essentially all molting females receive    cally restrictive shery regulations such as landings quotas
         attention from males in northern California. Usually one    have never been imposed on this shery. A casual assess-
         or no more than two year-classes of male crabs dominate    ment of healthy status therefore rests on limited informa-
         annual landings. Thus, since about 1960, annual landings    tion.
         provide a reasonable notion of abundance of legal-sized    Although imposition of limited entry in California should
         males and also provide a strong signal of variation in year-  prevent any further increases in the total number of ves-
         class strength of recruited crabs. The dramatic decline in   sels that participate in the Dungeness crab shery, it does
         Dungeness crab catches in the central California shery    not prevent increases in shing effort – numbers of traps
         during the late 1950s focused considerable research atten-   shed and the intensity with which they are shed. With
         tion on this resource during the 1970s. No denitive cause   declines in abundance and allowable landings of salmon
         for the decline in the central California shery has been   and groundsh, many larger multipurpose vessels now
         established although researchers have assessed the pos-    devote greater attention to the Dungeness crab shery
         sible effects of changes in ocean climate on survival and   and sh upwards of 1,000 traps. In the early season,
         development of crabs eggs and larvae, the role of nemer-    these larger vessels sh continuously, day and night,
         tean worm predation on egg survival, the effects of pol-    even in heavy seas. Total annual landings are largely unaf-
         lution on survival of juvenile crabs in San Francisco Bay,   fected by such increases in trap-days of shing effort,
         and possibly unstable internal population dynamics. Of     but increased shing effort has produced substantial shifts
         these possible causes, a shift to warmer waters during     in the distribution of catch over time. Prior to about
         and following the decline during the late 1950s seems the   1980, crab landings were normally spread throughout the
         most plausible. If correct, the abundance of crabs in the   entire open season. In a typical recent season in northern
         central California shery may improve over the next two    California, more than 80 percent of total landings are
         decades if California coastal water temperatures remain    made during the month of December.
         cooler as a consequence of apparent ocean regime shifts.
                                        Uncontrolled increases in the numbers of traps shed by
         The dramatic and periodic landings cycles that were      individual vessels and the resulting front-loading of annual
         exhibited in the northern California shery from about     landings may have important consequences with respect
         1945 to 1982 have caused this shery to receive even      to allocation of shery income among limited entry permit
         greater attention from population dynamics modelers.      holders. Also, the shortened period of substantial crab
         Possible causes for the uctuations in this shery have    landings means that live Dungeness crab, the most valu-
         included the nemertean egg predator, various internal     able product, are available over a relatively short time
         density-dependent processes reecting uctuations in the    period, thus possibly diminishing total economic value of
         abundance of unharvested females or cannibalism by       the shery.
         adults on juveniles, and combinations of internal den-
                                        These shery economics issues are the subject of current
         sity-dependent controls and variable oceanographic fac-
                                        research efforts.
         tors. There seems little doubt that crab populations, with
         their extremely large fecundities and extremely vulner-
         able early larval stages, are prone to large natural uc-   David Hankin
         tuations in abundance and that variable oceanographic     Humboldt State University
         factors (temperature, wind, currents) have important
                                        Ronald W. Warner
         impacts on survival of year-classes.
                                        California Department of Fish and Game
         Although many crustacean sheries throughout the world
         have been overexploited and are now at low abundance
         levels compared to historic levels, Dungeness crab popula-
         tions off northern California, Oregon and Washington have
         produced landings that have uctuated around a fairly



           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
110
References




                                                   Dungeness Crab
Hankin, D.G., T.H. Butler, Wild, P.W., and Q-L. Xue.
1997. Does intense shing on males impair mating success
of female Dungeness crabs? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
54:655-669.
Higgins, K, A. Hastings, J. Sarvela, and L.W. Botsford.
1997. Stochastic dynamics and deterministic skeletons:
population behavior of Dungeness crab. Science, 276 p.
1431-1435.
Melteff, B.R. (coordinator). 1985. Proceedings of the sym-
posium on Dungeness crab biology and management. Uni-
versity of Alaska Sea Grant Report 85-3. 424 p.
Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission. 1978. Dungeness crab
project of the state-federal sheries management pro-
gram. 196 p.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME           California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report         111
   Rock Crabs
    History of the Fishery                         not been successfully marketed frozen or canned. During
                                        1999, ex-vessel prices for whole rock crabs and crab claws

    R  ock crabs are shed along the entire California coast.       averaged about $1.25 per pound
      The catch is made up of three species — the yellow
                                        Several trap designs and materials are used in the rock
    rock crab (Cancer anthonyi), the brown rock crab (C.
                                        crab shery. The most popular are single chamber, rectan-
    antennarius), and the red rock crab (C. productus). The
                                        gular traps of two by four-inch or two by two-inch welded
    commercial shery is most active in southern California
                                        wire mesh. Several types of molded plastic traps are used
    (from Morro Bay south), where 85 to 90 percent of the
                                        by some shermen because the traps are collapsible or
    landings occur, and of lesser importance in northern areas
                                        nest together on a boat deck. Traps are set and buoyed
    (Monterey, Halfmoon Bay, and Eureka yield 10-15 percent),
                                        singly or, perhaps, in pairs if loss to vessel trafc is a
    where a shery for the more desirable Dungeness crab
                                        concern. Most trapping occurs in depths of 90 to 240 feet
    takes place. A major recreational shery has not devel-
                                        on open sandy bottom or near rocky reef-type substrate.
    oped, but recreational crabbing is popular in many areas
                                        Two hundred or more traps may be shed by one boat,
    and is often conducted in conjunction with other shing
                                        with a portion pulled up and emptied each day. Traps
    activities.
                                        are usually “soaked” for 48 to 96 hours prior to pulling.
    In 1950, a separate reporting category for commercial          Commercial crab boats are usually small, ranging from
    rock crab landings was established. Since then, landings        skiffs to vessels of 40 feet or more.
    have risen from 20,000 pounds to over two million pounds
                                        Recreational gear ranges from a diver’s or shore picker’s
    in 1986. Landings increased by 10 percent per year from
                                        hand to baited hoop nets, collapsible star traps, or tradi-
    1957 to 1971, jumped nearly 50 percent in 1972, and
                                        tional traps (north of Point Arguello) shed from piers,
    continued a steady increase to two million pounds in 1986.
                                        jetties, and boats. Most of this effort takes place along
    Prior to 1987, a portion of the landings calculated whole-
                                        the shallow, nearshore open coast and in bays. Some
    crab weights based on landings of claws only. Since then,
                                        increased recreational take has occurred in central and
    whole crabs and claws have been reported separately,
                                        northern California in recent years as combination shing
    and whole crab landings have showed a commensurate
                                        and crab trips aboard commercial passenger shing ves-
    decline. Rock crab landings for 1999 were 790,000 pounds
                                        sels have developed. Traps, primarily targeting Dungeness
    and have averaged 1.2 million pounds per year since 1991,
                                        crabs, are set and pulled during these trips. However,
    including the landings of claws converted to whole weight.
                                        depending on location and season, rock crabs (brown and
    Commercial crabbing has expanded from nearshore areas          red) are often taken as well.
    around major ports such as San Diego, San Pedro, Santa
                                        Commercial regulations have been enacted to protect
    Barbara, and Morro Bay to more distant mainland areas
                                        crabs below reproductive size. Present regulations require
    and the Channel Islands. Most rock crabs are landed alive
                                        a minimum harvest size of 4.25-inch carapace width and
    for retail sale by fresh sh markets. Often the crabs are
                                        escape rings measuring 3.5 inches in diameter in each
    cooked and eaten on site and, depending on the tastes
                                        trap. Due to the multi-species nature of the shery, the
    of the consumer, muscle tissue, as well as other organs
                                        minimum size was chosen to accommodate the different
    (ovaries in particular) are consumed. Rock crab meat has
                                        characteristics of the three rock crab species. The recre-
                                        ational take is controlled by a four-inch minimum carapace
                                        width and a personal bag limit of 35 crabs per day.



                                        Status of Biological Knowledge

                                        Y  ellow rock crabs range from Humboldt Bay into south-
                                          ern Baja California, brown rock crabs from northern
                                        Washington to central Baja California, and red rock crabs
                                        from Kodiak Island to Central Baja California. All three
                                        species inhabit waters from the low intertidal zone down
                                        to depths of 300 feet or more. Although these species may
                                        occur together throughout much of their range, yellow
                                        rock crabs are most abundant in southern California,
                                        brown rock crabs in central California and red rock crabs
                                        in northern California. Yellow rock crabs prefer open sand
                      Yellow Rock Crab, Cancer anthonyi
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
112
                                                                           Rock Crabs
            2.5
millions of pounds landed



            2.0
    Rock Crabs




            1.5

            1.0

            0.5                                          Commercial Landings
                                                       1916-1999, Rock Crabs
                                                       Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
            0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960    1970   1980   1990   1999   commercial landing receipts.




or soft bottom habitat, while brown and red rock crabs        to feed on rock crabs. Important invertebrate predators
prefer rocky or reef-type substrate.                 include the octopus and certain sea stars. As rock crabs
                                   grow larger, they become less susceptible to predators
Rock crabs, like other crustaceans, grow in a step-wise
                                   except during the soft-shell post-molt period; however,
fashion with each molt of the external shell. Yellow and
                                   the sea otter is one animal that is an effective predator
brown rock crabs molt 10 to 12 times before reaching
                                   on large rock crabs.
sexual maturity at about three inches carapace width.
Crabs of this size may molt twice a year, while crabs as       Rock crabs do not appear to migrate or to undertake
large as six inches carapace width or more may molt once       large-scale movements. Tagged adults have moved several
a year or less. Growth-per-molt, as a percentage of size,      miles, but no pattern was apparent. Some local move-
decreases as the crab increases in size and age. Males of      ments also may occur in relation to mating or molting.
all three species attain sizes 10 to 15 percent larger than     Egg-bearing yellow rock crabs are known to congregate in
females. Yellow rock crabs grow to exceed seven inches        rock-sand interface habitats.
in carapace width, brown rock crabs 6.5 inches, and red
rock crabs eight inches. While the longevity of rock crabs
                                   Status of the Populations
is not well known, many crabs may reach ve or six years
of age.

                                   I nformation is not available on stock sizes, recruitment
Mating takes place after the females molt and are still        and mortality rates, the effects of different oceano-
in the soft-shell condition. In southern California, mating     graphic regimes, or potential yield of rock crab popula-
is most common in the spring, but occurs throughout the       tions. The commercial shery, however, has had a local-
year. About three months after mating, the eggs are laid,      ized effect on crab abundance and size. Fishing areas
then fertilized from a sperm packet left by the male         intensively exploited over an extended period show a
during mating. The developing eggs are carried in a mass       lower catch-per-trap and a reduced size-frequency dis-
under the abdomen of the female. Depending on size and        tribution compared to lightly exploited areas. In Santa
species, nearly four million eggs may be carried by a        Monica Bay, an area closed to commercial crab shing for
female rock crab. After six to eight weeks, the eggs hatch      decades, experimental catch rates were higher, crab sizes
into planktonic larvae, which undergo seven developmen-       larger and size-frequencies broader than in adjacent areas
tal molts before settling to the bottom as juveniles.        open to commercial trapping. Future research should be
Rock crabs are both predators and scavengers, feeding        aimed at a better understanding of shery-related rock
on a variety of other invertebrates. Strong crushing claws      crab population parameters.
allow them to prey on heavy-shelled animals such as
snails, clams, abalone, barnacles, and oysters. The olfac-
tory sense of crabs is well developed and allows them to
detect and locate food at a distance.
Rock crabs, especially juveniles, are preyed upon by a
variety of other marine organisms. Fishes such as cabezon,
barred sand bass and several species of rocksh are known



   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
          December 2001                              A Status Report                      113
      Management Considerations             References
Rock Crab



                                Carroll, J.S. 1982. Seasonal abundance, size composition,
      See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                and growth of rock crab, Cancer antennarius Stimpson, off
      further information.
                                central California. J. Crust. Biol. 2:529-561.
                                Carroll, J.C. and R.N. Winn. 1989. Species proles: life
      David O. Parker
                                histories and environmental requirements of coastal shes
      California Department of Fish and Game
                                and invertebrates (Pacic Southwest) -- brown rock crab,
                                red rock crab, and yellow crab. U.S. Fish Wild. Serv. Biol.
                                Rep 82 (11.117). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4.
                                16 p.
                                Reilly, P.N. 1987. Population studies of rock crab, Cancer
                                antennarius, yellow crab Cancer anthonyi, and Kellet’s
                                whelk, Kelletia kelletii, in the vicinity of Little Cojo Bay,
                                Santa Barbara County, California. Calif. Fish and Game.
                                73:88-98.
                                Winn, R.N. 1985. Comparative ecology of three cancrid
                                crab species (Cancer anthonyi, C. antennarius and C. pro-
                                ductus) in marine subtidal habitats in southern California.
                                Ph.D. dissertation. University of southern California, Los
                                Angeles. 235 p.




        California’s Living Marine Resources:      CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                  December 2001
114
Sheep Crab
History of the Fishery                    water and the subsequent decline in claw landings, the




                                                                   Sheep Crab
                               retail value has substantially decreased. In 1999, the

U  ntil 1984, the sheep crab (Loxorhynchus grandis) was  retail value was approximately $310,000, with whole crabs
   of little commercial or recreational value. Before   being sold for up to $4 per pound live and claws up to
that, they were occasionally landed as by-catch and were   $3 per pound.
also taken by some recreational divers. Santa Barbara sh-  An increase in claw landings seems unlikely given the
ermen and processors began to experiment with market-    nature in which the shery was developed (i.e., to provide
ing them and by 1984, 30,000 to 40,000 pounds of whole    some value to a by-catch species). In fact, prior to 1991,
crabs were landed. The shery for this underutilized spe-  rock crab and spider crab claw landings were combined
cies expanded rapidly, stimulated by development of a    in the landings data, with spider crab claws comprising
market for claws. The shery peaked in 1988 with land-    75 percent of the landings. In 1991, a size limit went
ings of 107,609 pounds of live crabs and 385,886 pounds   into effect for rock crabs, and shermen were prohibited
of claws (combination of sheep and rock crab claws; 75    from taking any “part” of those crabs. However, the
percent and 25 percent respectively). The sheep crab was   loss of supply of rock crab claws has not been compen-
the only shery in the United States with sizable landings  sated for by an increase in landings of spider crab claws.
of claws and whole crabs. However, a 1990 California State  This is most likely because implementation of the rock
Initiative banned the use of gillnets in shallow water.   crab regulations coincided with the banning of gillnets in
Subsequently, landings of sheep crab claws plummeted to   shallow water.
an average of only 5,000 pounds annually once gillnets
                               Fishing effort for, and landings of whole crabs remain
were completely phased out in 1994. During this same
                               relatively low since shermen generally have to establish
period, landings of live, whole crabs remained fairly con-
                               their own live markets and be able to hold the crabs alive
stant and relatively low, averaging approximately 75,000
                               for up to a week or more. In addition, because of the
pounds annually.
                               heavily calcied carapace of the crab, processing the body
The California sheep crab shery is centered in the Santa  meat is presently uneconomical. Thus, current landing
Barbara Channel and off the northern Channel Islands.    patterns may increase if new marketing efforts expand
The bulk of the landings are in Santa Barbara and Ventura
counties although most of the crabs are marketed in
the San Pedro and greater Los Angeles area. The shery
primarily operates over sandy bottom, where gear is set
in shallow waters (30-70 feet) in spring and summer and
then moved to deeper waters (120-240 feet) in fall and
winter months. Both male and female adult crabs are
taken for the live, whole body shery. The claw shery is
supported solely by large adult male crabs, as the claws
of adult female crabs and small adult males do not reach
market size.
Crab and lobster trap shermen supply the bulk of live
crabs. Modied rock crab or lobster traps with an enlarged
funnel are used, permitting entry of large adult male
and female crabs. Set gill-netters supply the claw market,
usually killing the crab in the claw removal process.
Sheep crabs are a nuisance to gillnet shermen because
they become tangled in the gear and their removal from
the nets is time consuming, usually resulting in damage
to the animals. However, with the development of the
claw shery the crabs became a valuable resource for
gill-netters.
At the peak of the shery, the retail value of the com-
bined catch was about $1.9 million per year, with claws
being sold for $5.75 per pound and whole crabs going
for $3 per pound live and $4.25 per pound cooked. Claw    the live markets or if processing of whole crabs becomes
landings and value far exceeded those of the whole body
                                                 Sheep Crab, Loxorhynchus grandis
shery. However, with the banning of gillnets in shallow                          Credit: Diane Pleshner
                                                        CA Seafood Council


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                    115
Sheep Crab



                                    120




                       thousands of pounds landed
                                    100

                                      80
                           Sheep Crab
                                      60
         Commercial Landings
        1916-1999, Sheep Crab
                                      40
         Sheep crab landings are
        recorded by DFG as spider
                                      20
       crab. Data Source: DFG Catch
         Bulletins and commercial
                                      0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
             landing receipts.




       economically feasible. Such expansion seems likely given                   can reach a length of 6.8 inches; thus, size alone is
       the continued interest in the California shery and the                   insufcient to determine maturity. The presence of a gap
       recent development of an experimental sheep crab shery                   in the serrated gape of the claw of adult male crabs
       off Baja California.                                     distinguishes them from juvenile males. It is uncertain
                                                     how morphometric maturity relates to physiological and
                                                     behavioral maturity.
       Status of Biological Knowledge                                The abundance of berried females peaks in late spring and


       S
                                                     remains high throughout the summer, although they can
         heep crab is the common name of one species within a
                                                     be found throughout the year. Adult females are able to
         family of crabs (Majidae), which collectively are often
                                                     mate when soft or hard shelled. Sperm storage allows
       called spider crabs. Consequently, the sheep crab is often
                                                     for multiple broods to be oviposited even in the absence
       called a spider crab and is the largest member of the Cali-
                                                     of males. Egg numbers probably increase with size of
       fornia majid crabs. They range from Cordell Bank (Marin
                                                     brooding female crabs. Small broods contain 125,000 eggs,
       County) south to Cape Thurloe, Baja California, in depths
                                                     whereas large broods can have as many as 500,000 eggs.
       of 20 to 410 feet. It is not known whether the entire
                                                     Laboratory observations suggest that sheep crabs feed on
       resource consists of just one or of a number of different
                                                     a variety of prey. They readily eat dead sh, crushed
       populations. Sheep crabs are apparently most abundant
                                                     mussels, and kelp. Cannibalism of newly molted animals
       off southern California.
                                                     occurs in the laboratory when crabs are not well fed. No
       Longevity is currently unknown, but many adults appear
                                                     observations are available on foraging behavior in nature,
       to be at least four years old. In contrast to most other
                                                     nor have gut contents been analyzed.
       commercially important crustaceans, most majid crabs are
                                                     Predatory interactions have not been observed in the
       believed to cease molting upon reaching maturity. Studies
                                                     eld either, but it is likely that small crabs are preyed
       of molt staging, limb regeneration, and molting frequency
                                                     upon by cabezon, sheephead, octopus, sharks and rays.
       support the existence of a terminal molt in sheep crab.
                                                     Small sheep crabs disguise themselves by decorating their
       After this molt, crabs do not increase in size nor do
                                                     carapace with algae, sponges, or other encrusting materi-
       they regenerate limbs. This phenomenon is an important
                                                     als. Large crabs probably have few predators.
       biological characteristic that may require development
       of a management scheme different from those of other                     Two parasitic infections could potentially impact recruit-
       California crab sheries.                                  ment — an undescribed species of nemertean or ribbon
                                                     worm and a rhizocephalan barnacle. The former consumes
       Maturation is dened only in morphometric terms. At
                                                     the developing embryo in the egg. The latter eliminates
       maturity the relative width of the abdomen of females
                                                     reproductive output and also inhibits growth of the crab.
       and the length of the claw of males increase markedly
                                                     Preliminary observations indicate that certain areas con-
       when compared to a standard measure of body size such
                                                     tain a high prevalence of individuals parasitized by the
       as carapace length. Females become morphometrically
                                                     rhizocephalan and that crabs are infected as juveniles.
       mature between 4.2 and 6.8 inches carapace length (from
       margin of orbit). Adult males range in size from 4.2 to 9.6                 Male crabs winter in deep water. Both sexes migrate
       inches. However, morphometrically juvenile male crabs                    onshore in early spring, and piles of adult females have



          California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                                     December 2001
116
been observed in spring and summer. Large adult males




                                                   Sheep Crab
have been seen on the perimeter of these aggregations.
The biological signicance of the piles is apparently
related to mating, as the majority of females are gravid,
the males often exhibit competitive behavior for mates
and there are many obstetrical pairs (a mating behavior
where a male and female crab are hooked together
back-to-back by the males back limbs). Similar aggregate
mating phenomena have been reported for other
spider crabs.



Status of the Population

T  he abundance of sheep crabs is unknown. Abundant
   populations have been reported off Los Angeles and
San Diego. Furthermore, although this spider crab has
been a by-catch for many years, there is no evidence of
declining populations in the Santa Barbara Channel where
most shing takes place. However, some have reported a
decrease in overall crab size. Such a phenomenon could
be due to the immense shing pressure on large males
both for claws and whole body. Because this species
undergoes a terminal molt, removal of large crabs may
leave only small animals to contribute to the gene pool.
If the terminal molt is genetically regulated, this could
result in a population of smaller crabs.



Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.


Carolynn S. Culver and Armand M. Kuris
University of California, Santa Barbara



References
Anonymous. 1983. Guide to underutilized species of Cali-
fornia. National Marine Fisheries Service Admin. Rept.
T-83-01. 29 p.
Culver, Carolynn S. 1991. Growth of the spider crab, Loxo-
rhynchus grandis. M.A. Thesis, Univ. of Calif. Santa Bar-
bara, California. 101 p.
Pleschner, D.B. 1985. Fish of the Month: Spider Crab.
Pacic Fishing Magazine. 8(6): 33-39 p.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME           California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report       117
   Ocean Shrimp
    History of the Fishery                          shermen were limited to the use of beam trawls with a
                                        minimum mesh size of 1.5 inches between the knots. In

    T  he commercial shery for ocean shrimp (Pandalus jor-         1963, shrimpers were permitted to use otter trawls with
      dani), also called pink shrimp, started in 1952 after        the same size mesh. The mesh size was reduced from 1.5
    commercial quantities were found by DFG research vessels         inches to 1 3/8 inches in Areas A, B-1, and B-2 in 1975.
    in 1950 and 1951. The California Fish and Game Commis-          Prior to 1974, all shrimp boats in California pulled a single
    sion established regulations for the new shery in 1952,         rig of one net and two doors, but starting with the 1974
    including net type with mesh restrictions and a season.         season, vessels towing a double rig from outriggers, one
    The rst catches were made later that same year. Three          on each side of the boat, entered the shery. The double-
    regulation areas were also designated and catch quotas          rigged vessels are approximately 1.6 times more effective
    established for each. The three regulatory areas were          than single-rigged vessels.
    Area A, Oregon border to False Cape; Area B, False Cape
                                        During the rst year of the shery, only six boats partici-
    to Pigeon Point; and Area C, Pigeon Point to the Mexican
                                        pated. The number of boats increased to 27 by 1960, then
    border. In 1956, Area B was divided into two areas; B-1
                                        averaged 24 boats per season over the next 16 years.
    extended from False Cape to Point Arena and B-2 from
                                        The record catch in 1977 started a rapid inux of boats
    Point Arena to Pigeon Point.
                                        into the shrimp shery and reached a high of 104 vessels
    Catch quotas governed the shrimp take from 1952 to 1976.         during 1980, but the number declined to 33 during 1983
    Quotas were based on recommendations by DFG and were           when the catch fell to a low of 1,176,000 pounds. As
    set each year by the Fish and Game Commission. In 1976,         the catch recovered from that El Niño-induced low, many
    all quotas were dropped in favor of four criteria believed        boats reentered the shery. The number of vessels per
    to protect the resource. The criteria were: 1) a season         season averaged 88 from 1983 through 1999. A record-high
    from April 15 through October 31, designed to protect egg-        155 boats shrimped during the 1994 shery, the rst year
    bearing females; 2) a net mesh size of 1 3/8 inches, to         of a moratorium on new shrimp permits —ß probably the
    allow escapement of small zero- and one-year-old shrimp;         cause of the large increase in the number of vessels.
    3) a count per pound of 170 or less, intended to protect
                                        California landings have averaged 4,843,000 pounds annu-
    one-year-old shrimp; and 4) a minimum catch rate of 350
                                        ally from 1952 through the 1999 season, ranging from a
    pounds per hour to protect shrimp when the population
                                        low of 206,000 pounds in 1952 to a high of 18,683,000
    is at a low level. If these requirements were not met,
                                        pounds in 1992. Average landings have increased each
    the DFG had the option to close the shery. In 1981,
                                        decade since the start of the shery in the 1950s: 969,000
    the regulations were changed again to bring them into
                                        pounds in the 1950s, 1,810,000 pounds in the 1960s,
    accord with an agreement with Oregon Department of Fish
                                        5,679,000 pounds in the 1970s, 5,871,000 pounds in the
    and Wildlife and Washington Department of Fisheries to
                                        1980s and 9,127,000 pounds in the 1990s. Area A has been
    have coast-wide uniform regulations. The new regulations
                                        the most consistent producer and, since 1954, has had the
    included a season from April 1 through October 31, a
                                        highest annual landings. The only exception was the El
    maximum count per pound of 160, and a minimum mesh
                                        Niño year of 1983, when Area C had the highest landings.
    size of 1 3/8 inches measured inside the knots. These
                                        Since the inception of the shery, 86.8 percent of the
    regulations are still in effect. From 1952 to 1963, shrimp
                                        shrimp have been landed in Area A ports, 5.4 percent
                                        in Area B-1, 2.9 percent in Area B-2, and 4.9 percent in
                                        Area C.
                                        The price paid to the shermen (ex-vessel price) has
                                        ranged from a low of $0.07 per pound in 1955 to a high
                                        of $0.87 per pound in 1987. The ex-vessel price remained
                                        fairly constant at $0.10 per pound during the 1950s and
                                        1960s, increased in price from $0.12 per pound to around
                                        $0.30 per pound in the 1970s, and since has uctuated
                                        around $0.50 per pound.
                                        The largest portion of ocean shrimp landed in California
                                        is picked and individually quick-frozen. Small amounts are
                                        sold fresh whole, as cooked picked meat or packed in
                                        vacuum cans. Most of California’s shrimp catch was hand
                                        picked until 1969, when machines were introduced in the
                                        Eureka area. Shrimp machines have enabled the shrimp
                   Catch of Ocean Shrimp, Pandalus jordani
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
118
industry to pick much smaller shrimp than was possible     begin extruding eggs in October. The female carries the




                                                               Ocean Shrimp
with hand picking.                       eggs between the posterior swimming appendages until
                                the larvae hatch. The peak of hatching occurs during late
                                March and early April. Ocean shrimp go through a larval
Status of Biological Knowledge                 period that lasts 2.5 to three months. The developing
                                juvenile shrimp occupy successively deeper depths as they

O  cean shrimp are found from Unalaska in the Aleutian
                                develop, and often begin to show in commercial catches
   Islands to off San Diego, California, at depths from 150
                                by late summer. Shrimp grow in steps by molting or shed-
to 1200 feet. In California, this species is generally found
                                ding their shells. Growth rates for ocean shrimp vary
from depths of 240 to 750 feet. Spawning probably occurs
                                according to region and also by sex and year class. There
throughout the range, but commercial harvest is limited
                                is a clear pattern of seasonal growth despite the varia-
to the area between Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
                                tions mentioned, with very rapid growth during spring
and Point Arguello, California.
                                and summer and slower growth over the winter. The
Concentrations of shrimp generally remain in well-dened    growth rate decreases as the shrimp age. Shrimp growth
areas or beds from year to year. These areas are associ-    rates increased markedly in Oregon after 1979, suggesting
ated with green mud and muddy-sand bottoms. Although      a density dependent growth response to shing. Ocean
there is some evidence of minor onshore-offshore and      shrimp may reach 5.5 inches in total length, but the
coast-wide movement within the connes of a bed         average catch size is about four inches. In California, few
throughout the year, no convincing evidence of migratory    shrimp survive beyond their fourth year.
behavior has been produced. Horizontal movements prob-
                                Studies on natural mortality estimate that the survival
ably are governed by feeding activities and prevailing
                                between shing seasons (over winter) is 46 percent, 76
currents. Ocean shrimp also exhibit vertical migrations.
                                percent, and 43 percent for ocean shrimp during their
These movements toward the surface during periods of
                                rst, second, and third winters of life, respectively.
darkness appear to be associated with feeding on plank-
ton. Adults from the different beds probably intermix
                                Status of the Population
rarely, but the planktonic larvae undoubtedly intermingle,
as there are no indications of genetically distinct subpopu-

                                P
lations. Genetic stock identication work on ocean shrimp      opulation estimates of the various shrimp beds were
has failed to isolate any genetic differences between        obtained by department sea surveys from 1959 to
ocean shrimp from off the coasts of California, Oregon,     1964; catch quotas were set at one quarter of the esti-
Washington and British Columbia.                mated population. Area A sea survey continued until 1969.
                                The highest Area A population estimate from sea surveys
Ocean shrimp feed mostly at night on planktonic animals.
                                was 10,700,000 pounds in the fall of 1967. Because the
The stomach contents of shrimp taken at night indicated
                                cost of sea surveys was quite high, another method of
that the most common food items were euphausiids and
                                estimating population was needed. A mathematical popu-
copepods, while the stomachs of shrimp collected during
                                lation model, designed by department statisticians, was
daytime contained little food. Identiable food items
                                used to estimate the population size and set the quota
included polychaete worms, sponges, diatoms, amphipods,
                                from 1969 until 1976, when the model was dropped and no
and isopods.
                                further attempts to estimate the population were made.
Many species of sh prey on ocean shrimp. Major sh
                                It was established that the ocean shrimp population abun-
predators include Pacic hake, arrowtooth ounder, sable-
                                dance off California is determined by environmental con-
sh, petrale sole and several species of rocksh.
                                ditions, which causes natural uctuations in recruitment
Ocean shrimp are protandric hermaphrodites; that is,
                                that are apparently unrelated or minimally related to
during their rst year and a half of life most will function
                                commercial shing effort. Since the abandonment of
as males, then pass through a transitional phase to
                                quotas, the shrimp population, as evidenced by the com-
become females. During some years, large percentages
                                mercial catch, has gone through two extreme highs (1977
(up to 60 percent) of the one-year-old shrimp become
                                - 15,600,000 pounds; 1992 - 18,683,000 pounds) and two
females and never mate as males. Female shrimp usually
                                lows (1983 - 1,200,000 pounds - primarily in Area C; 1998
carry between 1,000 and 3,000 eggs. Small individuals in
                                - 1,836,000 pounds). The population appears to be headed
their second year have been found carrying as few as 900
                                up again since the 1998 low.
eggs, whereas larger shrimp in their third or fourth year of
                                Investigations of the population dynamics of shrimp off
life have been found with up to 3,900 eggs. Mating takes
                                Oregon suggest shrimp are inherently resistant to oversh-
place during September and October, and the external
                                ing. Annual recruitment success has been shown to be
fertilization of the eggs takes place when the females



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report              119
Ocean Shrimp



                                       20




                         millions of pounds landed
                                       15
                            Ocean Shrimp
                                       10
           Commercial Landings
         1916-1999, Ocean Shrimp
            Data Source: DFG Catch
                                       5
           Bulletins and commercial
        landing receipts. No commercial
                                       0 1916
        landing are reported for ocean
                                            1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
             shrimp prior to 1952.




          linked to the strength and timing of the spring transition                with Pacic hake (Merluccius productus). Can. J. Fish
          in coastal currents immediately following larval release.                Aquat. Sci. 52:1018-1029.
          An early, strong transition produces large year classes.                 Hannah, R. W., S.A. Jones and M. R. Long. 1995. Fecundity
          Shrimp are short-lived and exhibit exible rates of sex                 of the ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
          change that act to maintain a roughly balanced sex com-                 Sci. 52:2098-2107.
          position, despite highly variable mortality rates. Other
                                                      Hannah, R.W. 1993. The inuence of environmental varia-
          evidence also suggests that shrimp exhibit density-depen-
                                                      tion and spawning stock levels on recruitment of ocean
          dent growth. In combination, these biological traits
                                                      shrimp (Pandalus jordani). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
          increase the shing pressure a stock can withstand with-
                                                      50(3):612-622.
          out suffering decline. Nonetheless, some evidence has
                                                      Hannah, R.W. and S.A. Jones. 1991. Fishery induced
          been presented recently suggesting shrimp are periodically
                                                      changes in the population structure of pink shrimp (Pan-
          “recruitment-overshed” in a manner that delays the stock’s
                                                      dalus jordani). Fishery Bulletin. U.S. 89:41-51.
          rebound from El Niño-related recruitment failures. However,
          overshing in such a short-lived resource has relatively minor              Hannah, R.W. and S.A. Jones. 1973. Status of the Califor-
          impacts on yield and changes in management await addi-                  nia ocean shrimp resource and its management. Calif.
          tional research on how shing is altering yield.                     Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech. Rep. 14. 17 p.
                                                      Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1980. Draft of the
                                                      shery management plan and environmental impact state-
          Patrick C. Collier
                                                      ment for the pink shrimp shery off Washington, Oregon
          California Department of Fish and Game
                                                      and California. Pac. Fish. Mgmt. Council, 526 S.W. Mill St.,
          Robert W. Hannah
                                                      Portland, OR. 191 p.
          Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
                                                      Pearcy, W.G. 1970. Vertical migration of the ocean shrimp,
                                                      Pandalus jordani: a feeding and dispersal mechanism.
          References                                        Calif. Fish and Game, 56:125-129.
                                                      Rothlisberg, P. C. 1975. Larval ecology of Pandalus jordani
          Dahlstrom, W.A. 1970. Synopsis of biological data on the
                                                      Rathbun. Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University, Cor-
          ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani Rathbun, 1902. FAO Fish.
                                                      vallis, Oregon. 117 p.
          Rep. 57(4):1377-1416.
          Hannah, R. W. 1999. A new method for indexing spawning
          stock and recruitment in ocean shrimp, Pandalus jordani,
          and preliminary evidence for a stock-recruitment relation-
          ship. Fish. Bull. 97:482-494.
          Hannah, R. W. 1995. Variation in geographic stock area,
          catchability and natural mortality of ocean shrimp (Panda-
          lus jordani): some new evidence for a trophic interaction




             California’s Living Marine Resources:                       CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                                   December 2001
 120
Spot Prawn
History of the Fishery                    trawl, northern California trap, southern California trawl




                                                                   Spot Prawn
                                and southern California trap. From 1994 until 1998, state-

T  he shery for spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) origi-  wide landings nearly doubled from 444,000 pounds to a
   nated nearly 68 years ago in Monterey when prawns    historic high of 780,000 pounds. All of the shery compo-
were caught incidentally in octopus traps. It was a minor   nents showed some growth with the northern trawl shery
shery with landings averaging around 2,000 pounds annu-   experiencing a 14-fold increase in landings while southern
ally until the early 1970s. In 1974, trawl shermen shing  trawl and northern trap showing a four-fold increase and
out of Santa Barbara caught over 182,000 pounds. Trawl    southern trap almost doubling its landings. There were
landings steadily grew as more shermen entered this new   several reasons for this rise including increased market
shery and new areas were explored reaching a peak of     demand, which raised the average price for live prawns
more than 375,500 pounds in 1981. Landings fell drasti-    from $6 per pound to $8; increased effort by California
cally in the next few years causing concern by shermen    and Washington shermen displaced from other sheries;
and DFG biologists. An area and season closure was insti-   changes in gear design, specically the use of large
tuted between Point Conception and Point Mugu during     rollers (rock hopper gear) on the groundline of the trawl
the peak egg-bearing months of November, December and     nets; and increased availability due to strong spot prawn
January in 1984. Following the implementation of an area   recruitment in 1996 and 1997.
closure, trawl landings remained low until 1993 averaging   The advent of rock hopper gear allowed shermen to sh
about 54,000 pounds annually. The low catch rates for the   areas once off limits because of the rocky nature of the
trawl eet were due in part to the development of other    bottom. These areas had previously acted as de facto
sheries such as ridgeback prawn, sea cucumber and the    reserves, providing new recruits for adjacent areas tradi-
increased demand for fresh sh, which caused growth in    tionally worked by trawl vessels. The rise in the number
the groundsh trawl shery.                  of participants and a 21 percent decline in statewide
In 1985, a trap shery for spot prawn developed in the    1999 landings, prompted shermen once again to ask for
Southern California Bight. The trap shery was concen-    further regulation and a limited access plan. An ad-hoc
trated around all of the Channel Islands and along coastal  committee of trap and trawl shermen and department
submarine canyons in water depths between 600 and       biologists developed several management recommenda-
1,080 fathoms. Fishing was now occurring in areas of     tions, which included a limit on the size of roller gear to
southern California that the trawl eet did not have access  14-inches. In 2000, the Commission adopted some but not
to because trawling was not allowed within three miles    all of the proposed regulations with slight modication.
of the shore. The advent of the trap shery also meant    Instead of a simultaneous closure for trap and trawl sher-
the start of a live prawn shery for the Asiatic community  ies north of Point Conception, a May to August closure for
locally and overseas. With traps, prawns could be kept    the trap shery was selected by the Commission. While
alive using holding tanks set at optimum water tempera-    northern California trappers can catch prawns during the
tures. Annual landings in the trap shery grew from 8,800   peak egg-bearing season, they are limited to 300 traps
pounds in 1985 to over 247,000 in 1991. During this period,  within state waters. Other regulations adopted by the
trapping accounted for 75 percent of statewide landings;   Commission for this shery included a requirement for
trawling accounted for the remaining 25 percent.       bycatch reduction devices on trawl nets, and an observer
Two years of declining landings in the trap shery and
the continued low landing levels by the trawl eet lead
shermen and biologists once again to address manage-
ment of California’s spot prawn resource. The Fish and
Game Commission, with the support of the trap and trawl
shermen, expanded the trawl area and season closure to
include the entire Southern California Bight in 1994. They
also instituted the rst regulations for the trap shery by
requiring a one inch by one inch trap mesh size, limiting
traps per vessel to 500, and initiating an area and season
closure for the same area and time period as the trawl
shery.
Following these management measures, the spot prawn
shery underwent signicant changes in composition and
statewide growth. The spot prawn shery was now com-
                                                  Spot Prawn, Pandalus platyceros
prised of four shery components: northern California
                                                            Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  121
Spot Prawn



                                     900




                      thousands of pounds landed
                                     800
                                     700
                                     600
                          Spot Prawn
                                     500
                                     400
                                     300
        Commercial Landings
                                     200
       1916-1999, Spot Prawn
                                     100
        Data Source: DFG Catch
        Bulletins and commercial
                                     0  1916 1920  1930  1940    1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
            landing receipts.




       program for all components of the spot prawn shery. A                   boats are about 30 to 60 feet in length and usually sh
       control date for limited entry was established, but the rest                for salmon during the summer. Currently, there are about
       of the plan was put on hold.                                six boats shing the Monterey Bay area, and they sh 10
                                                     months a year. The southern California trap eet ranges
       The 1999 price for live prawns ranged from $6 to $10
                                                     between 30 and 40 boats depending on prawn availability.
       per pound, whereas dead (heads-on) prawns bring only
                                                     These boats range in size from 20 to 75 feet with an aver-
       $4.50 to $5.50 per pound. Live prawns are now taken
                                                     age of 34 feet. Trap designs are limited either to plastic
       by trap and trawl vessels and account for 95 percent of
                                                     oval-shaped traps or to the more popular rectangular wire
       landings. The change from a trap-only live shery follows
                                                     traps. The dimension of the single chamber plastic traps is
       experimentation by trawl shermen on net design and tow
                                                     approximately 2.5 feet by 1.5 feet while the typical size of
       duration, which maximizes prawn catch while reducing or
                                                     the wire traps is 3.0 feet by 1.5 feet by 1.0 foot with two
       eliminating incidental take of non-target species.
                                                     chambers. Normally, a sherman will set 25 to 50 traps
       The trawler eet consists of approximately 54 vessels
                                                     attached to a single groundline (string) with anchors and
       operating coast-wide from Bodega Bay to the United
                                                     buoys at both ends. In both shing areas, traps are set at
       States-Mexico border. Most vessels operate out of Mon-
                                                     depths of 600 to 1,000 feet along submarine canyons or
       terey, Morro Bay, Santa Barbara, and Ventura, although
                                                     along shelf breaks.
       a number of Washington-based vessels participate in this
       shery during the fall and winter. The vessel length of
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge
       the trawl eet ranges from 28 to 85 feet with an average
       vessel length of 47 feet. Standard gear is a single-rig

                                                     S
       shrimp trawl of a semi-balloon, or Gulf Shrimp Act, design.                   pot prawns range from Alaska to San Diego, California,
       Occasionally, double-rig or paired shrimp trawls are used.                   in depths from 150 to 1,600 feet. Areas of higher
       The body of the trawl net is typically composed of a single                 abundance in California waters occur off of the Farallon
       layer of 2.5- to three-inch meshes with a 36-square inch                  Islands, Monterey, the Channel Islands and most offshore
       bycatch reduction device, and a minimum codend mesh                     banks. This species is a protandric hermaphrodite, begin-
       size of 1.5 inches. Many shermen prefer to use a double                  ning life as a male. Sexual maturity is reached during
       codend composed of two- to three-inch mesh. A variety                    the third year averaging 1.5 inches carapace length (CL).
       of roller gear is added to the groundline of the trawl                   By the fourth year, many males begin to change sex to
       net, which keeps the ground off the bottom and prevents                   the transitional stage. By the end of the fourth year, the
       a variety of benthic invertebrates such as sea stars, sea                  transitionals become females averaging 1.75 inches CL.
       fans, and anemones as well as rocks from being scooped                   Maximum observed age is estimated at over six years but
       into the net. Standard roller gear, which spins freely                   there are considerable differences in age and growth of
       around the groundline, varies in size from eight-inch disks                 spot prawns between areas. Animals from Canada live no
       to 28-inch tires.                                      longer than four years, whereas the prawns from southern
                                                     California can reach six years. Studies indicate that prawns
       The spot prawn trap eet operates from Monterey Bay to
                                                     grow faster in a temperate environment than in a cold
       southern California. The northern trap shery continues to
                                                     environment.
       produces prawns, although it has never reached the large
       volume of the southern California shery. Monterey-area


          California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                                     December 2001
122
                                References
Spawning occurs once a year, and each individual mates




                                                               Spot Prawn
once as a male and once or twice as a female. Females
                                Butler, T.H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution
spawn at a carapace length of 1.75 inches. Spawning takes
                                of pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
place at depths of 500 to 700 feet. September appears
                                Canada. 21:1403-1452.
to be the start of the spawning season, when the eggs
are extruded onto the female’s swimmerets. She carries     Butler, T.H. 1986. Growth and reproduction of spot prawns
the eggs for a period of four to ve months before they     in the Santa Barbara Channel. Calif. Fish and Game.
hatch. By April, only 15 percent of females still carry eggs.  72:83-93.
Fecundity varies with size, ranging from 1,400 to 5,000
                                California Department of Fish and Game. 1980 to 1999.
eggs for the rst spawning down to 1,000 eggs for the
                                Final Bulletin Tables for California Commercial Landings -
second spawning. Eggs hatch over a 10-day period and the
                                Table 15. The Resources Agency, State of California.
larvae are planktonic. As they develop into the juvenile
                                California Department of Fish and Game. 1995. Final Envi-
stage, they begin to settle out at depths as shallow as 175
                                ronmental Document - Spot Prawn Commercial Fishing
feet, but move deeper as they reach adulthood.
                                Regulations (Section 120 and 180, Title 14, California Code
Spot prawns feed on other shrimp, plankton, small mol-
                                of Regulations). State of California. Resources Agency. 131
lusks, worms, sponges, and sh carcasses. They usually
                                pps + appendices.
forage on the bottom throughout the day and night.
                                Sunada, J.S. 1984. Spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) and
                                ridgeback prawn (Sicyonia ingentis) sheries in the Santa
Status of the Population                    Barbara Channel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep.
                                25:100-104.

E  xploratory surveys conducted by the DFG during the
  1960s revealed the presence of prawns along the
coast, but no estimates of population size were made.
During the 1980s, additional surveys were conducted in
southern California to further dene distribution and
range. The development of the southern California trap
shery in the mid-1980s detected sizable aggregations of
this species, which were previously unknown. The intro-
duction of roller gear on trawl nets in the 1990s led to the
exploration of even more areas and location of additional
habitat suitable for spot prawns. Thus, it appears that this
species is more numerous and widespread than previously
believed as attested by the geographic expansion and rise
in total landings.



Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.


Mary L. Larson
California Department of Fish and Game




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report              123
   Ridgeback Prawn
    History of the Fishery                         regulations include a prohibition of trawling within state
                                       waters (three-miles from the mainland shore and islands),

    I ntermittent catches of small numbers of ridgeback          a minimum shing depth of 25 fathoms, a minimum mesh
     prawns (Sicyonia ingentis) in Santa Barbara-area sh         size of 1.5 inches for single-walled codends or three inches
    trawls led to the development of regulations to allow the       for double-walled codends and a logbook requirement.
    take of prawns with small mesh trawl nets. Enactment of        Demand for this resource continues to be high, as its
    these regulations in 1965 resulted in the landing of 30,200      sweet avor and low price make it a favorite among fresh
    pounds of prawns the following year; however, landings         sh buyers. As this species does not freeze well, it is
    quickly slumped when prawns proved difcult to market.         primarily sold as fresh whole prawns; however, prawns
    Annual landings were below 5,000 pounds from 1974 to          are often landed live to supply a secondary live prawn
    1977, except in 1975 when they were 28,000 pounds. The         market, and also to prevent discoloration from a black
    catch increased to 356,000 pounds in 1979, but declined to       pigment that forms after death, which lowers consumer
    129,000 pounds three years later. In 1985, landings peaked       appeal. In 1999, live prawns accounted for 28 percent of
    at nearly 900,000 pounds, but they subsequently declined        the landings, but have been as high as 68 percent in 1997.
    to 142,000 pounds in 1988 following several year-class         The median ex-vessel price in 1999 for all ridgeback prawn
    failures. Landings reached a low of 64,000 pounds in 1992,       was $1.30 per pound. Live prawns sold for a median price
    but increased to 607,000 pounds in 1996. After a dip to        of $2 per pound, with a range of $1 to $5 per pound, while
    387,000 pounds in 1997, ridgeback prawn landings reached        fresh dead prawns sold for a median of $1 with a range of
    a new high of about 1,391,000 pounds in 1999.             $0.20 to $3.35 per pound.
    The shery is centered in the Santa Barbara Channel and
    off Santa Monica Bay. In 1999, 32 boats participated in the
                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
    shery. Traditionally, a number of boats sh year round
    for both ridgeback and spot prawns, targeting ridgeback

                                       R  idgeback prawns occur from Monterey, California to
    prawns during the closed season for spot prawns and
                                          Cedros Island, Baja California, at depths ranging from
    shing for spot prawn during the ridgeback closure. Most
                                       less than 145 feet to 525 feet. Major concentrations occur
    boats typically use single rig trawl gear (only one boat was
                                       in the Ventura-Santa Barbara Channel area, Santa Monica
    noted to be using double rig gear in 1999). The average
                                       Bay, and off Oceanside. One study found ridgeback prawns
    trawler length is 45 feet with a range of 28 to 76 feet. Six
                                       to be one of the most common invertebrates to appear
    of these boats are over 50 feet in length.
                                       in its trawls, occurring in 59 percent of tows along the
    Following the 1981 decline in landings, a summer closure        mainland shelf within the Southern California Bight. Other
    (June 1 through September 30) was adopted by the Cali-         pockets of abundance are found off Baja California. This
    fornia Fish and Game Commission to protect spawning          species occurs on substrates of sand, shell and green
    female and juvenile ridgeback prawns. An incidental take        mud. As these animals are relatively sessile, little or
    of 50 pounds of prawns or 15 percent by weight is           no intermixing occurs. Their maximum life span is ve
    allowed during the closed period. During the season, a         years and sexes are separate. Females reach a maximum
    maximum of 1,000 pounds of other sh may be landed           length of 1.8 inches carapace length (CL), and males 1.5
    with ridgeback prawns. Any amount of sea cucumbers may         inches CL.
    be landed with ridgeback prawns as long as the vessel
                                       These shrimp are free spawners, as opposed to other
    owner/operator possesses a sea cucumber permit. Other
                                       shrimps, which carry eggs. Both sexes spawn as early as
                                       the rst year, but most spawn during the second
                                       year at a size of 1.2 inches CL. The spawning period
                                       is more seasonal than with other penaeid shrimp.
                                       Studies suggest that this species undergoes multiple
                                       spawning from June through October. Following spawning,
                                       both sexes undergo molting and continue molting
                                       throughout winter and spring. The number of eggs pro-
                                       duced averages 86,000.
                                       The food habits of the ridgeback prawn are unknown, but
                                       it may be a detritus feeder like closely related species.
                                       In Baja California, ridgeback prawns are preyed on by
                                       several species of sea robins. In southern California, it is
                                       presumed other groundsh such as rocksh and lingcod
                     Ridgeback Prawn, Sicyonia ingentis
                           Credit: David Ono, DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
124
                                                                          Ridgeback Prawn
            1.6
            1.4
millions of pounds landed



            1.2
  Ridgeback Prawn




            1.0
            0.8
            0.6
            0.4
                                                        Commercial Landings
            0.2                                           1916-1999, Ridgeback Prawn
            0.0 1916                                        Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
                                                        and commercial landing receipts.




                                   Management Considerations
prey on them as well. Other likely predators include octo-
pus, sharks, halibut, and bat rays.
                                   See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                   further information.
Status of the Population

Y                                   John S. Sunada
  early sea surveys between 1982 and 1991 documented
                                   California Department of Fish and Game
  relative abundance and year-class strengths of juvenile
ridgeback prawns. Relative abundance in terms of num-         John B. Richards
bers of animals per 15-minute tow began increasing from        University of California, Santa Barbara
66 animals per tow in 1982 to 1,200 animals per tow by
                                   Revised by Leeanne M. Laughlin
1984, but began to decline in 1985 when the catch fell to
                                   California Department of Fish and Game
132 per tow. These trends mirrored the rise and fall of
yearly commercial catches. The population of ridgeback
prawns in the Ventura area increased dramatically during
                                   References
1983 to 1985, but then began declining.
                                   Allen, M.J., and S.L. Moore. 1997. Recurrent groups of
Ridgeback prawn trawl logs, required since 1986, show
                                   megabenthic invertebrates on the mainland shelf of south-
an average of 147 pounds of ridgeback prawn caught per
                                   ern California in 1994. pp. 129-135 in: S.B. Weisberg,
tow/hour, dropping to a low of 32 pounds per tow/hour in
                                   C. Francisco, and D. Hallock (eds.), southern California
1992, and steadily increasing to 213 pounds per tow/hour
                                   Coastal Water Research Project Annual Report 1996.
in 1999. This increase is in addition to an increase in
                                   southern California Coastal Water Research Project. West-
the number of vessels (from 17 in 1992, a high of 43
                                   minster, CA.
vessels in 1995, to 32 in 1999), and more effort directed at
ridgeback prawns during the spot prawn closed season.         Anderson, S.L., L.W. Botsford, and W.H. Clark, Jr. 1985.
                                   Size distributions and sex ratios of ridgeback prawns (Sicy-
Potential causes for this increase are the effects of El
                                   onia ingentis) in the Santa Barbara Channel (1979-1981).
Niño, which may have provided optimum conditions for
                                   Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 26:169-174.
growth and recruitment; reduced predator populations;
and regulatory restrictions on the shery. No population       Anderson, S.L., W.H. Clark, and E.S. Chang. 1985. Multiple
estimates were available for any of the major shing         spawning and molt synchrony in a free-spawning shrimp
grounds, although the majority of catches consisted of        (Sicyonia ingentis: Sicyoniidae). Biol. Bull. 168:377-394.
two- and three-year-old animals.
                                   Herkelrath, J.M. 1977. Some aspects of the growth
                                   and temperature tolerance of ridgeback prawn, Sicyonia
                                   ingentis (Burkenroad), in southern California waters. M.S.
                                   thesis. Department of Biology, Whittier College.
                                   Pérez Farfante, I. 1985. The rock shrimp genus Sicyonia
                                   (Crustacea: Decopoda: Penaeoidea) in the eastern Pacic.
                                   Fish. Bull., U.S. 83:1-79.


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                              A Status Report                     125
         Price, R.J., Tom, P.D., and Richards, J.B. 1996. Recom-
Ridgeback Prawn



         mendations for handling ridgeback shrimp. UCSGEP 96-1,
         Sea Grant Extension Program, University of California,
         Davis, CA.
         Schmitter-Sotol, J.J., and Castro-Aguirre, J.L. 1996. Tro-
         phic comparison among Triglidae (Pisces: Scorpaeni-
         formes) off Baja California Sur, Mexico. International Jour-
         nal of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 44(2).
         Sunada, J.S. 1984. Spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) and
         ridgeback prawn (Sicyonia ingentis) sheries in the Santa
         Barbara Channel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep.
         25:100-104.




           California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                       December 2001
 126
Red Rock Shrimp
History of the Fishery                     pounds per trap. Bycatch in the traps consists primarily




                                                               Red Rock Shrimp
                                of octopus, rock snails, sea cucumber, and an occasional

T                               clingsh. Purple sea urchins and Kellet’s whelks are often
   he red rock shrimp (Lysmata californica) shery has
                                found clinging to the underside of the traps.
   been sporadic and of small magnitude since the late
1950s. It has persisted, however, due to the relatively high  The shery is seasonal, from October to April, for several
market value of this species for recreational shing bait.   reasons, including: 1) market competition from more plen-
Fishermen typically receive up to $25 a pound (about 100    tiful summertime baits, such as sand crabs; 2) higher rates
shrimp per pound) when sold to retail bait stores. Bait    of trap vandalism due to increased shoreline recreational
stores will then sell the shrimp either by the dozen or the  shing activity during summer months; 3) participation
ounce at approximately twice the wholesale price. Red     in other commercial sheries during the summer such as
rock shrimp are highly regarded by anglers as the bait of   barracuda, white seabass and tunas; and 4) decreased
choice for opaleye, black croaker, rubberlip surfperch, pile  shrimp availability in traditional trapping areas beginning
perch and other sh found along breakwaters, jetties and    in the spring.
sea walls. In order to bring a premium price, the shrimp
                                The red rock shrimp shery is regulated by the Fish and
must be delivered to the bait stores alive. This requires
                                Game Commission. Prior to 1986, a tidal invertebrate
special handling on the part of the sherman as well as by
                                permit and a general trap permit were required. Regula-
the bait store. The shrimp are kept in aerated bait tanks
                                tions include marking traps with buoys, servicing traps
or in oating "receivers" by the sherman until delivery to
                                once every 96 hours, and trap destruct-devices to prevent
the store. The bait stores are able to keep the shrimp alive
                                ghost shing of lost gear. Legislation enacted in 1986
for 24 to 48 hours by covering them with rags soaked in
                                generally restricted the use of trap gear for shrimp and
seawater. Dead shrimp can be salted or sugar cured but
                                prawns to water 50 fathoms or greater. This included
are then usually sold at a lower price. A secondary market
                                the harvest of red rock shrimp. As a result, shermen
for the shrimp is the aquarium trade. Pet and aquarium
                                have had to apply to the Fish and Game Commission for
stores that sell marine sh will often buy red rock shrimp
                                an experimental gear permit to harvest red rock shrimp.
to sell to their customers. Wholesale prices may range up
                                Under this permit, a sherman has ve years to establish
to ten dollars per shrimp. The shrimp must be in excellent
                                a viable shery, with annual requests for renewal. In
condition, which requires special care in handling.
                                recent years the commission has required shermen to
The red rock shrimp shery is concentrated in shallow     take onboard observers supplied by the Department of
waters along breakwaters and sea walls where the shrimp    Fish and Game, report their shing activity through sub-
congregate in rock crevices. This makes the shery ideally   mission of shing activity logs, including any bycatch,
suited to small shing boats, usually around 20 feet long. A  and immediately returning all incidental species to the
small boat is easier and safer to maneuver in the shallow,   sea. In addition to the experimental gear permit, sh-
rocky waters. However, sherman can only carry about 20    ermen must also follow the general trap and tidal
traps on a boat of that size. The traps are typically made   invertebrate regulations.
of 1 1/4-inch wood lath, spaced about 1/8-inch apart.
Traps measure about 18 inches on a side. A funnel-shaped
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
opening enters the trap from the bottom. About 20 pounds
of concrete, either poured or in the form of blocks,

                                R  ed rock shrimp occur from Santa Barbara, California,
is added to each trap to keep it rmly on the rocky
                                  south to Bahia Viscaino, Baja California. They are
bottom. Fishermen have also experimented with pegboard
                                often found in low intertidal pools and crevices and
and berglass frames, which add strength while weighing
                                extend subtidally to a depth of more than 180 feet.
less than waterlogged wood. Additionally, modied metal
                                They tend to occur in groups of several hundred, dispers-
minnow traps have also been tried but catch rates rarely
                                ing somewhat at night but regrouping in sheltered areas
equal those of the lath traps. Because the traps are set in
                                during the day. It should be noted that since about 1990
shallow water and are often visible from shore, vandalism
                                a population of red rock shrimp has appeared annually
is a problem for the sherman. Up to 25 percent of traps
                                in the open ocean lter housing of the Monterey Bay
are vandalized per week of shing.
                                Aquarium (MBA). The MBA staff has conducted surveys
The traps are baited with whatever sh or sh trimmings
                                of the local intertidal and subtidal areas, but has not
may be available to the shermen. Occasionally unbaited
                                discovered any other populations of red rock shrimp. The
traps will also have good catches since shrimp will enter
                                exact mechanism for this occurrence north of the normal
the traps for cover. Traps are usually left to soak for 24
                                range has not been determined but suggests that oceano-
to 48 hours. Catch rates average one pound per trap,
                                graphic events can signicantly affect the distribution of
but occasionally a very good catch will be four to ve
                                this species.


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report              127
Red Rock Shrimp



                                         3.0




                          thousands of pounds landed
                                         2.5

                             Red Rock Shrimp
                                         2.0

                                         1.5
            Commercial Landings
                  1916-1999,
                                         1.0
               Red Rock Shrimp
             Data Source: DFG Catch
                                         0.5
            Bulletins and commercial
         landing receipts. Landing data
                                         0.0
           not available prior to 1993.                   1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999




                                                         Management Considerations
            These shrimp grow to a length of about three inches. They
            are conspicuously colored with longitudinal broken stripes
                                                         See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
            of red on a transparent body. Red rock shrimp may be
                                                         further information.
            simultaneous hermaphrodites like several other species of
            Lysmata. Captive berried females will continue to produce
            viable clutches following removal of the larvae. Eggs on
                                                         Kevin Herbinson
            ovigerous females are red following initial deposition on
                                                         Southern California Edison Co.
            the pleopods and turn pea green just before hatching.
                                                         Mary Larson
            Eggs have been noted as early as April but are more
                                                         California Department of Fish and Game
            common in May, June, and July. Preliminary examination
            of berried females has shown that each female carries
            about 4,000 eggs. California’s red rock shrimp is one of
                                                         References
            the larger, but less specialized, of the “cleaning” shrimp.
            They are often seen sharing crevices with, and cleaning,
                                                         Bauer, R. T. and G.J. Holt. 1998. Simultaneous hermaph-
            California morays. They are also known to perform clean-
                                                         roditism in the marine shrimp Lysmata wurdemanni (Cari-
            ing activities on divers’ hands when placed in their vicin-
                                                         dea: Hippolytidae): an undescribed sexual system in the
            ity, paying particular attention to areas around ngernails
                                                         decapod Crustacea. Marine Biology 117: 129-143.
            or scratches on the skin.
                                                         Chace, Jr., Fenner A. and D. P. Abbott, 1980. Caridea:
            The “cleaning” activity does not seem to be highly evolved
                                                         The Shrimps. In Intertidal Invertebrates of California (ed.
            and probably only supplements the diet. Most of the diet
                                                         R.H. Morris, D.P. Abbott and E. C. Haderlie), pp. 567-576.
            seems to come from scavenging scraps of decaying tissue
                                                         Stanford: Stanford University Press.
            on rocky surfaces or, when the opportunity arises, feeding
                                                         Feder,H.M., C.H. Turner, and C. Limbaugh. 1974. Observa-
            on carcasses of dead sh and invertebrates.
                                                         tions on shes associated with kelp beds in southern Cali-
                                                         fornia. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 160:1-138.
            Status of the Population                                 MacGinitie, G. E., and N. MacGinitie. 1968. Natural history
                                                         of marine animals. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 523
            There are very few data available regarding population
                                                         pp.
            size and distribution of red rock shrimp. At the present
                                                         Ricketts, E.F., and J. Calvin. 1968. Between Pacic
            time, the bait shery for red rock shrimp appears to have
                                                         Tides. 4th ed. Revised by J. W. Hedgepeth. Stanford,
            little effect on the population. Diver observations suggest
                                                         Calif.:Stanford University Press. 614 pp.
            that they are widespread throughout southern California.
            Fishing effort, however, is very limited and concentrated
            at only a few locations such as breakwaters and sea walls.
            Since these shrimp are relatively short lived, there are
            probably large uctuations in annual abundance.




               California’s Living Marine Resources:                        CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                                    December 2001
 128
Coonstripe Shrimp
History of the Fishery                     Status of Biological Knowledge




                                                                Coonstripe Shrimp
T                               C
   he commercial shery for coonstripe shrimp (Pandalus      oonstripe shrimp, called dock shrimp in Oregon,
   danae) occurs off Crescent City, California primarily      Alaska and Canada, are red-brown shrimp and derive
in depths ranging from 23 to 28 fathoms. This species,     the name “coonstripe” from the irregular, black-edged
also known as dock shrimp, is often caught incidentally in   brown or red striping found on the abdominal area. The
ocean shrimp trawl nets and Dungeness crab traps along     surface of the species is nely pitted and has 10 to 12
the northern California coast. Early efforts to develop a   median dorsal spines. The rostrum is a little longer than
targeted commercial trap shery were unsuccessful prior    the carapace. They range from Sitka, Alaska to San Luis
to 1995. The rst signicant commercial landings of 2,488   Obispo Bay, California in 10 to 100 fathoms, and prefer
pounds were made in 1995. The developing live market      sand or gravel substrate in areas of strong tidal current.
and high price led to effort yielding 79,269 pounds in     Exploratory trap surveys conducted in northern California
1997. Landings dipped to 64,718 pounds in 1998 and then    yielded catches off Tolo Bank, False Cape, Patrick’s Point
climbed to 75,540 pounds in 1999. Two vessels pioneered    and the Saint George Reef. Coonstripes have also been
this shery in 1995, while effort through 1999 ranged from   found in trawl surveys ranging in depth from 11 to 100
eight to 20 vessels per year. The initial ex-vessel value in  fathoms off the Eel River, Table Bluff, Humboldt Bay, Mad
1995 was $1.50 per pound. However, since this species was   River, Trinidad Head, Big Lagoon, Patrick’s Point, Redding
destined for the live market, coonstripe shrimp quickly    Rock, Klamath River and Point Saint George. This species
rose in value, averaging over $4 per pound in 1998. Coon-   is a protandrous hermaphodite - initially maturing as male
stripe shrimp ranked eighth in single species value for the  and then undergoing transition to female. Egg bearing
Crescent City port during 1997 and 1998. The ex-vessel     females may be found throughout the year, but gravid
value rose again in 1999 to an average of $4.22 per pound   females primarily occur from November to April. Average
with some businesses paying as much as $7.50 per pound.    fecundity is 1,140 eggs, and a progression of ve larval
                                stages occurs near the place of hatching. Research off
The coonstripe shrimp trap shery uses various trap con-
                                British Columbia, showed that metamorphosis takes place
gurations. The most common design is a rectangular
                                by late June. Growth is rapid until October, when most
trap covered in 1 3/8-inch mesh shrimp trawl webbing,
                                shrimp mature as males at an average size of 0.50-inch
with two circular openings. The traps are set in areas of
                                carapace length (CL). Primary females, those maturing
high currents, such as along Saint George Reef from May
                                directly as females, also may be found. Some shrimp
through October. The traps are set in strings composed
                                remain as males for another year and average 0.68 inch
of between 20 and 30 traps per string. Fishermen report
                                CL. Shrimp that transition to females over the rst winter
using 300 to 400 traps during the shing season. Many
                                average 0.71 inch CL. Second year females average 0.85
types of bait are used including small pelagic sh such as
                                inch CL. All shrimp are females by the third year and prob-
herring, sardine, and mackerel.
                                ably do not survive into the fourth year. Off Crescent City,
To participate in the commercial shery, a sherman
                                count per pound for trap-caught females taken during the
must be a registered commercial sherman, have a com-
                                1997 spring period ranges from 25 to 30 and males from 40
mercial vessel registration and a general trap permit. In
                                to 65. Large shrimp attain a length of ve inches.
addition, a commercial coonstripe shrimp trapper must
                                Data are lacking on the specic food habits of coonstripe
comply with all trap regulations regarding size of traps,
                                shrimp, but most likely their diet is similar to that of
destruct devices, marking the trap, and trap servicing.
                                other shrimp, feeding on planktonic and small benthic
Currently, there are no other management restrictions on
                                organisms. It is assumed that various species of sh
this shery.
                                such as lingcod, rocksh, ounder, hagsh, sole, or whit-
The developing commercial shery led to an interest in a
                                ing, which prey on other shrimp species, are major preda-
sport shery for this resource since the shrimp are close
                                tors. Like spot prawns, coonstripe shrimp undergo an
to shore and are caught in small, lightweight traps. The
                                onshore-offshore spawning migration pattern; however,
sport shing daily bag and possession limit was increased
                                along-shore movement within their range is unknown.
from 35 shrimp to 20 pounds per day in 1997. Data are
not available on sport harvest, but take is thought to
be minimal.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                129
Coonstripe Shrimp



                                          90




                           thousands of pounds landed
                                          75

                             Coonstripe Shrimp
                                          60
              Commercial Landings
                                          45
                   1916-1999,
               Coonstripe Shrimp
                                          30
              Commercial landing for
            Coonstripe Shrimp were not
                                          15
            reported prior to 1996. Data
          Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
                                          0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
            commercial landing receipts.




           Status of the Population                                  References

           D  ue to the recent development of this shery, there is                 Berkeley, A. A. 1930. The post-embryonic development of
              too little shery dependent data to determine what                   the common pandalids of British Columbia. Contributions
           effect the commercial shery has had on the coonstripe                   Canadian Biology., N.S., 6(6): 79-163.
           shrimp population or on the size composition of the popu-                  Butler, T. H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution
           lation. To date there has been no shery-independent                    of Pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. Journal of the
           estimates of population or structure.                            Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 21(6): 1403-1452.
                                                         Butler, T. H. 1980. Shrimps of the Pacic coast of Canada.
           Management Considerations                                  Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. No.
                                                         202.
           See the Management Considerations Appendix A for                      Nelson, N. E. 1971. Cruise Report 71-S-2. Prawns. Califor-
           further information.                                    nia Department of Fish and Game.
                                                         Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1994. Develop-
           Ronald W. Warner and Mary Larson                              mental Fisheries Program. Staff Report: 40-42.
           California Department of Fish and Game




               California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                     December 2001
130
Sea Cucumbers
History of the Fishery                    enhancing properties, including lowering high blood pres-




                                                                       Sea Cucumbers
                                sure, aiding proper digestive function, and curing impo-

T  wo species of sea cucumbers are shed in California   tency. Studies of the biomedical properties of various sea
   – the California sea cucumber (Parastichopus califor-  cucumber chemical extracts, such as saponins, and chon-
nicus) also known as the giant red sea cucumber, and     droiton sulfates, are being conducted by western medical
the warty sea cucumber (P. parvimensis). The warty sea    researchers investigating the efcacy of these substances
cucumber is shed almost exclusively by divers. The Cali-   for pharmaceutical products.
fornia sea cucumber is caught principally by trawling in   There is no signicant sport shery for sea cucumbers in
southern California, but is targeted by divers in northern  California. Few sport shermen have shown an interest in
California. Sea cucumber sheries have expanded world-    sea cucumber as a food item, and sport shing regulations
wide, and on this coast there is a dive shery for warty   forbid their take in nearshore areas in depths less than
sea cucumbers in Baja California, Mexico, and dive sher-   20 feet.
ies for California sea cucumbers in Washington, Oregon,
                                A special permit to sh for sea cucumbers commercially
Alaska, and the coast of British Columbia, Canada.
                                was required beginning with the 1992-1993 shing season.
The rst recorded commercial landings of sea cucumbers    Qualications for the permit were based upon meeting a
in California were made in 1978 at Los Angeles area ports.  minimum 50 pound landing requirement during a four-year
Divers shing sea cucumbers at Santa Catalina Island     “window” period. In 1997, legislation was enacted that
were the rst to make landings, but they were soon      imposed a new regulatory regime on the sea cucumber
joined by trawl vessels. Annual landings remained under    shery. The major regulatory changes included creating
100,000 pounds until 1982 when the principal shing area   separate permits for each gear type, and limiting the
shifted to the Santa Barbara Channel. In that year, 140,000  number of permittees in the sea cucumber shery. The
pounds were landed with an ex-vessel value of about      maximum number of permits allocated was based on the
$25,000. Recorded landings uctuated between 52,350 to    number of permits issued during the 1997-1998 permit
160,000 pounds over the next eight years, and in 1991     year, and the meeting of a minimum landing requirement.
reached more than 577,390 pounds. Through the rst 18     There are currently 113 sea cucumber dive permittees
years of the shery, trawl landings composed an average    and 36 sea cucumber trawl permittees. A permit transfer
of 75 percent of the annual sea cucumber harvest. In     procedure and transfer fee of $200 was also initiated
1996, combined trawl and dive sea cucumber landings      by the 1997 legislation. Sea cucumber dive permits can
reached an all time high of 839,400 pounds with an ex-    be transferred only to other dive shermen, while sea
vessel value of $582,370. Between 1997 and 1999, sea     cucumber trawl permits can be transferred to either trawl
cucumbers landed by divers accounted for more than 80     or dive shermen.
percent of the combined dive and trawl landings. During
that time period, trawl effort declined substantially, due
primarily to court cases pursued by the department which
ruled that 16 trawl shermen had fraudulently obtained
their sea cucumber permits. Those shermen were subse-
quently excluded from the shery. Diver effort and land-
ings, in contrast, increased markedly during those three
years, driven by both a 1997 moratorium of the abalone
shery, a sea urchin shery depressed by El Niño condi-
tions, and a poor Japanese export market. Beginning in
1997, many commercial sea urchin or abalone divers, who
also held sea cucumber permits, targeted sea cucumbers
more heavily than before.
Most of the California and warty sea cucumber product is
shipped overseas to Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, and Korea.
Chinese markets within the United States also purchase a
portion of California’s sea cucumber catch. The majority
are boiled, dried, and salted before export, while lesser
quantities are marketed as a frozen, pickled, or live prod-
uct. The processed sea cucumbers can sell wholesale for
up to $20 per pound. In Asia, sea cucumbers are claimed
                                            California Sea Cucumber, Parastichopus californicus
to have a variety of benecial medicinal or health                                      Credit: DFG



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                        131
Sea Cucumbers



                                         900




                          thousands of pounds landed
                                         750


                             Sea Cucumbers
                                         600
            Commercial Landings
                                         450
         1916-1999, Sea Cucumbers
           1916-1999, Sea Cucumber
                                         300
          No commercial landings are
           reported for sea cucumber
                                         150
                  prior to 1978.
        Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                         0
                                            1916 1920  1930  1940   1950    1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
        and commercial landing receipts



           Status of Biological Knowledge                               Sea cucumbers can reach moderately high densities and
                                                         are thought to be important agents of bioturbation. During

           S ea cucumbers are long, soft-bodied, marine inverte-                   feeding and reworking of surface sediments, sea cucum-
            brates in the class Holothuroidea. They are related to                  bers can alter the structure of soft-bottom benthic com-
           other organisms in the phylum Echinodermata such as sea                   munities. The California sea cucumber crawls an average
           urchins and sea stars. Their skeleton has been reduced to                  of 12 feet per day with no directional bias, presumably
           small calcarious pieces (ossicles) in the body wall, which                 due to the even distribution of detrital food. Tagging
           have distinct species-specic shapes.                            studies are difcult since external tags are frequently
                                                         lost and internal tags can be shed through the body
           The California sea cucumber reaches a maximum length
                                                         wall. Sea cucumbers are also known to have a predator
           of 24 inches and is red, brown or yellow in color with
                                                         escape response involving a rapid creeping or swimming
           red-tipped papillae. The warty sea cucumber is 12 to 16
                                                         behavior propelling the sea cucumber away. Water can
           inches in length and chestnut brown with black-tipped
                                                         also be taken up in the respiratory tree and then force-
           papillae on the ventral surface. Size however, is difcult
                                                         fully discharged. Predators include sea stars, various shes
           to determine, as sea cucumbers can contract, making
                                                         such as kelp greenlings, sea otters and crabs. Compara-
           length measurements unreliable, and they can take up
                                                         tively few studies have been done with sea cucumbers,
           water, rendering body weights unreliable.
                                                         and as recently as 1986, a new species, P. leukothele,
           The California sea cucumber is distributed from Baja
                                                         was described that is distributed from Pt. Conception,
           California to Alaska. The warty sea cucumber is distrib-
                                                         California to British Columbia, Canada.
           uted from Baja California to Monterey Bay, although it
                                                         Sea cucumbers are broadcast spawners with fertilization
           is uncommon north of Pt. Conception. The California sea
                                                         in the water column. Sea cucumbers have a distinctive
           cucumber is found from the low intertidal to 300 feet and
                                                         spawning posture, detaching from the substrate and form-
           the warty sea cucumber from the low intertidal to 90 feet,
                                                         ing an “S” shape to release their gametes up and away
           generally in areas with little water movement.
                                                         from the benthic boundary layer. There are separate
           Sea cucumbers are epibenthic detritivores that feed on
                                                         sexes and the sex ratio is one to one. Individuals do not
           organic detritus and small organisms within sediments
                                                         form spawning aggregations. Spawning is partially synchro-
           and muds. Buccal tentacles trap food particles using an
                                                         nous with a portion of the population spawning simulta-
           adhesive mucus. Sea cucumbers are non-selective with
                                                         neously. Triggers for spawning are largely unknown, how-
           respect to grain size and ingest only the top few mil-
                                                         ever spawning is thought to coincide with phytoplankton
           limeters of sediment. One study of warty sea cucumbers
                                                         blooms during sunny days in late spring and summer.
           around Santa Catalina Island found that those living on
                                                         Oocytes are light orange in color and surrounded by a
           rock rubble were 27 percent smaller and seven times more
                                                         jelly coat. After fertilization, the embryo hatches into
           numerous than those residing on sandy substrates. The
                                                         the gastrula (64 hours) and starts to swim. A feeding
           detritus on rock rubble was found to have three times
                                                         auricularia larva develops 13 days after fertilization and
           more organic material per gram compared to the detritus
                                                         begins ingesting phytoplankton. Auricularia develop into
           from the sand substrate, and sea cucumbers on the sand
                                                         doliolaria larvae (37 days post-fertilization) losing up to
           ingested eight times more sediment.
                                                         90 percent of its body volume and rearranging its ciliary
                                                         bands. The nal doliolaria larval stage metamorphoses



              California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                     December 2001
132
(51 to 91 days post-fertilization) into newly settled pen-   an established reserve in northern California (Cabrillo




                                                                            Sea Cucumbers
tactula. Pentactula have ve primary buccal tentacles,     Reserve) at depths of 150 to 180 feet revealed densities
and attach to the substrate using a single pedicle. In the   averaging around 1,000 per acre. By comparison, densities
eld, juveniles recruit to a variety of substrates including  at a newly established reserve (Punta Gorda Ecological
rock crevices, polychaete worm tubes, and lamentous      Reserve) were much lower, ranging from 120 to 350 per
red algae. Growth is slow in sea cucumbers. Juveniles     acre. Only the large size classes were observed in these
become reproductively mature at four to eight years.      surveys, suggesting low levels of recruitment.
Both species of sea cucumber undergo visceral atrophy
each year. During atrophy the gonad, circulatory system,
                                Management Considerations
and respiratory tree are resorbed and reduced in size, and
the gut degenerates. Feeding and locomotion stop prior     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
to visceral atrophy, which occurs in the fall. Following    further information.
the resorption of the visceral tissue, the animal loses 25
percent of its body weight. The weight of the body wall
                                Laura Rogers-Bennett and David S. Ono
cycles during the year, being the lowest early in the
                                California Department of Fish and Game
year and the highest in early fall, prior to the start of
visceral atrophy. Within two to four weeks regeneration
begins, starting with the gut tube, then the respiratory
tree and circulatory system, and nally the gonad regrows
branched tubules. Juveniles also undergo yearly visceral
atrophy; however, they do not have gonads at this stage.
In the fall, animals may spontaneously eviscerate internal
tissues if handled roughly, although this is not a common
occurrence.



Status of the Population

T  here is presently very little known about populations
  of California and warty sea cucumbers in California.
The distribution of these species on rocky or sandy sub-
strates is characterized as patchy, without any apparent
seasonal aggregating, spawning, or feeding behavior. Sea
cucumbers undergo sporadic recruitment, have a rela-
tively high natural mortality, and are slow growing. Spe-
cies with these life history traits tend to have a low
maximum yield per recruit and are particularly vulnerable
to overshing.
The Channel Islands National Park Service has been moni-
toring warty sea cucumbers at 16 sites in the northern
Channel Islands and Santa Barbara Island since 1982.
These shery-independent data show that populations
of warty sea cucumber are variable but have been declin-
ing at shed sites since 1990. Meanwhile, sea cucumber
catches from the dive shery have increased at some of
these sites. Recent analytical work comparing population
trends at shed sites to those of two small reserves where
shing is prohibited indicate that the population at shed
sites range from 50 to more than 80 percent lower than
at protected sites.
                                        Density of Warty Sea Cucumber, 1982 to 1999
Fishery-independent sea cucumber density estimates have         Density of warty sea cucumber from 16 Channel Islands National Park sites
also been made using underwater video technology. Pre-        at five of the northern Channel Islands, San Miguel Island, Santa Rosa Island,
                                  Santa Cruz Island, Ancapa Island, and Santa Barbara Island from 1982 to 1999.
liminary observations of California sea cucumbers in
                                                Data Source: California Department of Fish and Game


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                            133
Sea Cucumbers




                   Representative of spawning and development through settlement and metamorphasis of P. californicus. Development does not deviate significantly from
                                                       that expected for an aspidochirote holothurian with planktotrophic larvae.
                                                                                  Drawing not to scale.



        References                                     Mottet. M.G. 1976. The shery biology and market prepa-
                                                  ration of sea cucumbers. Wash. Dept. Fish. Shellsh Pro-
        Anonymous. 1983.Guide to the underutilized species of               gram, Tech. Rep. 22. 57 p.
        California. Natl Mar. Fish. Serv. Admin. Rept. No. T-83-01.            Muse, B. 1998. Management of the British Columbia sea
        P.24.                                       cucumber shery. Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Com-
        Cameron, J.L. and P.V. Fankboner. 1986. Reproductive                mission, Alaska. 19 p.
        biology of the commercial sea cucumber Parastichopus                Phillips, A.C. and J.A. Boutillier. 1998. Stock assessment
        californicus (Stimpson) (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea).              and quota options for the sea cucumber shery. In (eds).
        2. Observations on the ecology of development, recruit-              Waddell, B.J. Gillespie, G.E. and Walthers, L.C. Inver-
        ment, and the juvenile life stage. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.            tebrate Working Papers reviewed by the Pacic Stock
        127: 43-67.                                    Assessment Review Comm. (PSARC) Can. Tech. Rep. Fish.
        Lambert, P. 1997. Sea cucumbers of British Columbia,                Aquat. Sci./ Rapp. Tech. Can. Sci. 2215: 147-165.
        southeast Alaska and Puget Sound. University of British              Schroeter, S.C., D. Reed, D. Kushner., J. Estes, and
        Columbia Press. 166 p.                               D.S. Ono. 2000. The use of marine reserves for shery
                                                  independent monitoring: a case study for the warty sea
                                                  cucumber, Parastichopus parvimensis. mss in prep.




          California’s Living Marine Resources:                      CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                                  December 2001
 134
Pismo Clam
History of the Fishery                      Recreational clamming is regulated by bag limit (10), a




                                                                     Pismo Clam
                                 minimum size (5.0 inches north of and 4.5 inches south of

H  umans and other predators have utilized the Pismo      the San Luis Obispo/Monterey county line), the immediate
   clam (Tivela stultorum) resource for thousands of      measuring and reburial of sub-legal clams, and closed
years. The Pismo clam has been found in 25,000-year-old     seasons and areas. The objectives of these regulations
Pleistocene (ice age) deposits and in American Indian      are to prevent the depletion of the clam population and to
kitchen middens 200 to 2,000 years old. Indians used       maintain a population of sexually mature clams that have
the clam for food and the shells for digging, scraping and    a chance to spawn several times before being harvested.
ornaments. The name Pismo is derived from the Indian
word pismu meaning tar. Natural deposits of tar are found
                                 Status of the Biological Knowledge
in the Pismo Beach area.
Records of the commercial harvest of Pismo clams began
                                 T  he Pismo clam shell is thick, heavy, and strong, and
in 1916, and were kept through 1947 when the commercial       the outside is smooth with ne concentric growth
shery in California was prohibited. During that period,     lines. The inside of the shell is white and the outside
approximately 3,137 tons were commercially harvested.      has a varnish-like periostracum, usually yellowish, tan or
The majority was harvested from the Pismo Beach and       greenish. Shells of individual clams vary considerably in
Morro Bay areas, with a small percentage from Monterey      both color and pattern, ranging from pale beige to brown,
Bay. Annual landings ranged from a high of 332.8 tons      occasionally with brown radiating marks running from the
in 1918 to a low of 13 tons in 1945. The average annual     umbo to the margin on a light background.
harvest was approximately 98,600 clams (average two
                                 The historic range of the Pismo clam is Half Moon Bay,
pounds each) with a high of 334,700. The clams were
                                 California to Socorro Island, Baja California Sur, Mexico,
purchased by restaurants, were sold whole and canned in
                                 including two of the Channel Islands (Santa Cruz and
markets, and were used as bait and animal food.
                                 Santa Rosa Islands). However, it has not been found at
The importation of Pismo clams from Baja California       Half Moon Bay for decades and its present range extends
occurred as early as 1919 and most likely continues to      northward only to Monterey Bay. It is found in the inter-
this day. After 1962, clam imports from Mexico into the     tidal zone and offshore to 80 feet on relatively at,
United States have not been identied by species. From      sandy beaches of the open coast. Occasionally, it is also
1919 through 1962, 232 tons of Pismo clam, mostly canned,    found in entrance channels to bays, sloughs and estuaries.
were imported into the United States. In Baja California     Because of its short siphons, the Pismo clam generally
Norte, from 1990 through 1999 Pismo clam landings ranged     lives close to the surface of the sand and seldom burrows
from a low of 411 tons in 1994 to high of 1,025 tons in     deeper than six inches, but it has been found eight to
1992, with a 10-year average of 434 tons. In Baja California   12 inches deep in southern California. The clam charac-
Sur, from 1978 through 1995 landings ranged from a low      teristically orients vertically with the hinge and excurrent
of 1,213 tons in 1984 to high of 6,505 tons in 1981, with a   siphon toward the ocean, the mantle edge and incurrent
18-year average of 3,234 tons.
The usual method of collection by recreational clammers
is by using a four- to six-tined garden fork. During a low
tide the clammer selects a section of beach with exposed
wet sand or water of wading depth and probes in the sand
until encountering a clam. Another method is to shufe
one’s bare feet along the bottom until a siphon or shell
is felt. Pismo clams can also be found by looking for
the half-inch-long tufts of the commensal hydroid (Clytia
bakeri) which attaches to the shell and is exposed above
the sandy surface. Divers search for the clams by probing
with a knife or looking for exposed shells, siphons, or tufts
of hydroids.
Pismo clams have a distinctive and excellent avor; they
are prepared as chowder, seafood cocktail, fried or eaten
raw. Pismo clams have been implicated in several human
fatalities involving Paralytic Shellsh Poisoning (PSP). It is
                                                     Pismo Clam, Tivela stultorum
advised that only the white meat be consumed and that
                                                              Credit: DFG
all dark meat and digestive organs be discarded.


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                    135
       siphon toward the beach, and the ligament at the center    byssal threads degenerate. In laboratory culturing experi-
Pismo Clam



       of the hinge oriented up. Burrowing is accomplished by     ments, fertilized eggs hatched into larvae in approxi-
       moving the foot rapidly to loosen the surrounding sand.    mately 48 hours. Larvae 60 to 72 hours old displayed
       Then jets of water eject the loosened sand up along the    the behavior of settling to the bottom and remaining
       shell sides, and the weight of the clam and pull of the foot  benthic or near-benthic throughout larval development. If
       together drag the clam down through the sand.         larval Pismo clams in nature also exhibit a benthic phase,
                                      larval transport by nearshore currents may be limited.
       The age of Pismo clams has been determined by observa-
                                      Larvae larger than 0.009 inch and 22 to 50 days old have
       tion of marked individuals and by growth rings on the
                                      completed metamorphosis, developed a foot, and buried
       shell. In California, a growth ring is generally formed
                                      themselves in the sand. At day 120, post-larval clams
       during the winter months when water temperatures are
                                      (0.048 inch) have the triangular appearance of an adult.
       cool and food abundance is relatively low. In Baja Califor-
                                      No byssal threads were observed on laboratory-cultured
       nia, most clams form a growth ring during the August-
                                      post-larval Pismo clams.
       October period, although some may form a ring at any
       time of the year.                       Little is known of post-larval conditions in nature; how-
                                      ever, in laboratory cultures post-larval growth was rela-
       The Pismo clam is about 0.009 inch at metamorphosis and
                                      tively slow, and survival generally poor. Although spawn-
       may grow to more than 7.3 inches in length. Growth is
                                      ing probably occurs every year, it is not always measurably
       continuous throughout the clam’s life, with the average
                                      successful. In some years, virtually no young-of-the-year
       length increasing by approximately 0.84 inch per year for
                                      clams settle on beaches. Recruitment success appears
       the rst three years. Increases in shell length are greatest
                                      to be inuenced by oceanographic conditions (water tem-
       in spring, summer and early fall. Growth of older clams is
                                      perature, currents), which in turn inuence phytoplankton
       slower. At age 10, the increase in shell length is usually
                                      availability. Unfortunately, the necessary conditions for
       not more than 0.2 inch per year. A 4.5-inch clam may be
                                      optimum spawning success are not known.
       from ve to nine years old. At Pismo Beach, clams reach
       4.5 inches between ages seven and eight.            The Pismo clam is a lter feeder. Water taken in through
                                      the incurrent siphon passes over the gills, where food par-
       In California, the largest Pismo clam reported was 7.32
                                      ticles are removed. Food includes organic and inorganic
       inches long and estimated to be 23 years old. The oldest
                                      particles such as phytoplankton, bacteria, zooplankton,
       Pismo clam was estimated to be 53 years old. In Baja Cali-
                                      eggs, sperm, and detritus from the disintegration of plants
       fornia, the largest Pismo clam reported was 7.36 inches
                                      and animals. The inhalant siphon has a very ne net of
       long and estimated to be 26 years old. Several Pismo clams
                                      delicately branched papillae across the opening, forming
       from Baja have been aged to be 43 years old. The smallest
                                      a screen that excludes the entrance of large particles but
       Pismo clam reported from the wild was 0.24 inch long.
                                      permits the intake of water and food particles. Despite
       In the majority of Pismo clams, the sexes are separate
                                      this elaborate system, half of the stomach contents is
       with equal numbers of males and females. Fertilization
                                      sand. An actively feeding three-inch clam lters as much
       occurs externally when the male releases sperm and the
                                      as 15 gallons of water per day.
       female releases eggs into the surrounding water. Pismo
                                      Pismo clams have many predators, including moon snails,
       clams are mature at one year in southern California and
                                      rock crabs, sharks, rays, some surf shes such as the Cali-
       two years in central and northern California. The smallest
                                      fornia corbina in southern California, gulls, sea otters, and
       known mature clam in southern California was 0.7 inch
                                      humans. Otters were estimated to have eaten 520,000
       and in northern California was 0.5 inch.
                                      to 700,000 Pismo clams in one year at Monterey Bay.
       Spawning can occur anytime, but the majority spawn from
                                      A single sea otter was observed to eat 24 clams in 2.5
       June to September. The number of eggs per female
                                      hours. The extension of the sea otter’s range to Monterey
       increases with increased shell size and ranges from 10
                                      Bay in 1972, Morro Bay in 1973 and Pismo Beach in 1979
       to 20 million eggs per female, with an average of 15
                                      has precluded the recreational shery for Pismo clams in
       million per ve-inch female. In laboratory-held clams,
                                      those areas.
       egg numbers were roughly proportional to clam size. The
                                      Parasites of the Pismo clam include a polychaete worm
       number of eggs ranged from as many as 4.7 million in a
                                      that bores into the clamshell, and larval cestodes, which
       2.9-inch female to 0.4 million in a 1.2-inch female. Eggs
                                      have been found inside the clam as 0.15-inch diameter
       range in diameter from 0.00296 to 0.00324 inch.
                                      yellowish-white cysts. The cestodes can impair the clam’s
       The larvae metamorphose, settle to the sandy bottom,
                                      sexual development but are not harmful to man if eaten.
       and attach themselves to the sand grains by means of
                                      Trematodes have been reported in some clam popula-
       byssal threads. After several months, when the clam is
                                      tions. A commensal hydroid is often found attached to the
       more able to maintain a position on the sandy bottom, the
                                      external shell of the clam, and commensal pea crabs are


         California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                        December 2001
136
                                Management Considerations
occasionally found in the mantle cavity and feed on food




                                                               Pismo Clam
particles collected by the clam’s gills.
                                See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                further information.
Status of the Population

P                                Christine A. Pattison
  ismo clam populations have been highly variable over
                                California Department of Fish and Game
  the years and from beach to beach. Settlement and
recruitment have also been highly variable from year to
year. The Department of Fish and Game rst examined
                                References
Pismo clam recruitment in 1919, and annual surveys have
been conducted from 1923 to 2000 to obtain information
                                Coe, W.R. 1947. Nutrition, growth and sexuality of the
on age, recruitment, year class strength, and exploitation
                                Pismo clam, Tivela stultorum. J. Exp. Zool. 104(1):1-24.
trends. Through 1948, only Pismo Beach was surveyed.
                                Coe, W.R. and J.E. Fitch. 1950. Population studies, local
Since 1948, beaches in Morro Bay, Cayucos, Monterey
                                growth rates and reproduction of the Pismo clam (Tivela
County, and from Santa Barbara County to San Diego
                                stultorum). J. Mar. Res. 9(3):188-210.
County were subsequently included.
                                Herrington, W.C. 1930. The Pismo clam: further studies of
During the storms of 1982-1983, Pismo clam populations
                                the life history and depletion. Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
along southern California beaches were severely depleted,
                                Fish Bull. 18. 69 p.
resulting in limited recreational sheries after 1983. The
Pismo Beach clam populations had three successive strong    Searcy-Bernal, R. 1989. Periodicity of internal growth
year classes (1986, 1987, and 1988), resulting in the largest  ring deposition in the Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum)
number of sublegal clams ever recorded from surveys on     from Playa San Ramon, B.C., Mexico. Ciencias Marinas
Pismo Beach. Because of the exceptional recruitment in     15(3):45-56.
the Pismo Beach area and low abundance in southern
                                McLachlan, A., J. E. Dugan, O. Defeo, A. D. Ansell, D.
California, 10,000 clams were transplanted from the Pismo
                                M. Hubbard, E. Jarmill, and P. E. Penchaszadeh. 1996.
Beach area to Huntington State Beach in 1989. The rst
                                Beach Clam Fisheries. Oceanography and Marine Biology:
follow-up survey found only 142 clams, the second only 14
                                an Annual Review 34, 163-232.
clams and three partial shells. Biologists are uncertain as
                                Weymouth, F.W. 1923. The life-history and growth of the
to the fate of the clams. At the same time, approximately
                                Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum Mawe). Calif. Fish and Game
1,000 clams were transplanted within the Channel Island
                                Commission, Fish Bull. 7. 120 p.
National Park.
In 1990, abundance of young Pismo clams appeared to
be a widespread phenomenon along southern and central
California from San Diego to Pismo Beach. Densities were
documented at Ventura County and Pismo Beach of ve
clams per square foot (one- to three-year olds) and 26
clams per square foot (one- to six-year olds), respectively.
From 1990 to the present, recreational shing for Pismo
clams continues on a few southern California beaches.
From 1990 to 1993 a recreational shery occurred in the
Pismo Beach area for the rst time since 1982. During this
period, sea otters were foraging off shore and in other
areas. In 1992, sea otters were again observed foraging in
the Pismo Beach area and in 1993 the last take of a legal
size Pismo clam was reported there. Pismo clam surveys
in the Pismo Beach and Morro Bay areas from 1992 through
2000 indicated low levels of recruitment.
No population estimates have been made for the total
Pismo clam resource in California. Whether successful
recruitment will result in ongoing recreational sheries in
light of continuing human growth and the expansion of the
sea otter’s ranges is unclear.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               137
   Sand Crab
    History of the Fishery                        Based on recent catch records, there appears to be poten-
                                      tial for expanding the current market for sand crabs

    T  he rst complete commercial catch records for sand        as bait.
      crabs (Emerita analoga) were collected in 1963, when
    4,673 pounds were landed. By 1967, reported landings
                                      Status of Biological Knowledge
    totaled over 8,300 pounds of sand crabs worth $17,152
    to shermen. Since 1977, catch records indicate a greatly

                                      T he sand crab occurs from British Columbia to Magda-
    reduced utilization of sand crabs for bait; the annual
                                        lena Bay, Baja California. Although found on nearly all
    catch has ranged from zero to 96 pounds averaging only
                                      open-coast sandy beaches, there are gaps in this range
    22 pounds per year. This reduced catch should not be
                                      where no sand crabs can be found.
    interpreted as a reduction in the size of the sand crab
                                      When feeding, sand crabs burrow tail-rst into the sand
    population. Sand crab populations are still robust, though
                                      leaving only the tip of their heads and their large, feath-
    they uctuate annually depending on oceanic and climatic
                                      ery antennae protruding. The antennae are extended into
    conditions. Instead, the reduced catch is probably due
                                      the backwash of a receding wave and strain food particles
    to reduced harvest effort and replacement of sand crabs
                                      from the water. Food particles are transferred to the
    with other bait such as ghost shrimp, clams and mussels.
                                      mouth by wiping the antennae through the mouthparts.
    Sand crabs are collected in 30 to 36-inch wire mesh nets
                                      The extended antennae produce characteristic V-shaped
    by sport and commercial shermen. Mesh size varies from
                                      ripple marks on the beach that indicates the presence of
    0.25 to 0.50 inch. The shermen wade into the surf
                                      sand crabs.
    and place the net on the bottom as a wave begins to
                                      Mating occurs mostly in spring and summer, but some
    recede. The backwash carries the sand crabs into the net,
                                      mating and egg-bearing females are seen year-round.
    from which they are removed and placed in a container
                                      Females are larger than males, reaching 1.5 to two inches
    held on a belt around the sherman’s waist. Usually only
                                      in length; males seldom exceed 0.75 inch. A two-inch
    “soft shelled” crabs (those that have molted recently) are
                                      female may produce as many as 30,000 eggs. The number
    saved. Commercial shermen usually sell sand crabs by
                                      of eggs varies with the size of the animal as well as with
    the dozen. The size of sand crabs varies widely depending
                                      temperature and food availability. The eggs are carried on
    on season and location where they are taken. Because of
                                      the female’s abdomen (pleopods) until hatched. It takes
    this, the price per dozen may go up or down based on the
                                      the young two to four months to pass through nine to
    size of the crabs available. Demand for sand crabs is often
                                      ten larval stages before they resemble adults. During their
    higher through the winter months because of weather-
                                      various larval stages the young Emerita drift at the mercy
    related shifts in shing effort from offshore species to
                                      of the currents and may be carried for long distances.
    nearshore species. The demand is also increased when
                                      Shifting currents, which carry the larvae “off course,” may
    bait stores sponsor perch shing contests. In winter, when
                                      account for population uctuations on a given beach. In
    soft-shelled sand crabs are difcult to nd, hard-shelled
                                      southern California, the megalops larvae arrive on the
    crabs are also sold. These are often sold by the gallon
                                      beach in the greatest numbers from April to July. Sand
    (further complicating commercial catch landing records).
                                      crabs reproduce during their rst year of life in southern
                                      California, and may not live more than two or three years.
                                      Sand crabs that settle in sub-optimal habitat may not
                                      survive their rst winter. Sand crabs in colder waters
                                      might not reproduce in their rst year.
                                      Shore birds, sea gulls, surf scoters, otters and other
                                      marine mammals include sand crabs in their diet. In
                                      addition, many sh eat sand crabs, including surf sh such
                                      as corbina, yellown croaker, spotn croaker and barred
                                      surfperch. For this reason, they make excellent bait for
                                      sport sh, especially for shing from sandy beaches. They
                                      also make good bait for shing from rocky shores or
                                      breakwaters for opaleye.




                        Sand Crab, Emerita analoga
                               Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                           December 2001
138
                                                                           Sand Crab
               1.2
thousands of pounds landed


               1.0

               0.8
    Sand Crab




               0.6
                                                          Commercial Landings
               0.4
                                                          1916-1999, Sand Crab
                                                          Data Source: DFG Catch
               0.2
                                                          Bulletins and commercial
                                                          landing receipts. Landings data
               0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   not available prior to 1992.




Status of the Population                          Management Considerations

T  he reported harvest in 1967 was 8,303 pounds or about         See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
  two million sand crabs. Most of the catch came from          further information.
about 20 miles of beach in the southern part of the
state. Southern California has more than 200 miles of
                                      Kevin Herbinson
sandy beaches, and the total population of sand crabs,
                                      Southern California Edison Company
while undetermined, is extensive. Since only the recently
                                      Mary Larson
molted, soft-shelled sand crabs are usually taken and the
                                      California Department of Fish and Game
hard-shelled crabs are returned, there is little danger
of overshing. A high market demand for hard-shelled
crabs, however, perhaps for purposes other than bait,
                                      References
could result in a shery that would be detrimental to
the population. Though extensive in range, sand crabs are
                                      Cubit, J. 1969. Behavior and physical factors causing
vulnerable to capture because of their habit of forming
                                      migration and aggregation of the sand crab Emerita
dense aggregations near piers and jetties, especially at
                                      analoga (Stimpson). Ecology 50:118-23.
night. Although population sizes are not well known, and
                                      Dillery, D. G., and L. V. Knapp. 1977. Longshore move-
the number of sand crabs on any given beach may uctu-
                                      ments of the sand crab, Emerita analoga (Decapoda, Hip-
ate from year to year, the resource appears to be in good
                                      pidae). Crustaceana 18:233-40.
condition. Although sand crab commercial landings have
been low in recent years, casual observations indicate           Dugan, J. E. and D.M. Hubbard. 1996. Local variation in
that the population is as strong as it was in the 1960s.          populations of the sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson)
There does not appear to be any reason why annual             on sandy beaches in southern California. Revista Chilena
harvests could not equal the 8,000 pounds that were            de Historia Natural. 69:579-588.
harvested in 1967 when no apparent detriment to the
                                      Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard and A. M. Wenner. 1994.
population was detected.
                                      Geographic variation in life history in populations of the
                                      sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson), on the California
                                      coast: relationships to environmental variables. J. Exp.
                                      Mar. Biol. Ecol. 181: 255-278.
                                      Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard and A. M. Wenner. 1991.
                                      Geographic variation in the reproductive biology of the
                                      sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson), on the California
                                      coast. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 150: 63-81.
                                      Fusaro, C. 1978. Growth rate of sand crabs, Emerita
                                      analoga (Hippidae), in two different environments. Fish.
                                      Bull. 76:369-75.



   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                     139
   Wavy Turban Snail
    History of the Fishery                         ing license to harvest these snails. The only regulations
                                        that restrict harvesting are the commercial tidal inverte-

    T  he California commercial shery for wavy turban snails       brate regulations that prohibit the harvest of any snail
      (Megastrea undosa) is a small emerging shery that         species within 1,000 feet of the low tide mark on shore.
    began in the early 1990s. Today, turban snails are of com-       This regulation has prevented expansion of the shery
    mercial value in southern California and Baja California,        from the San Diego area to the Channel Islands where most
    Mexico. Although still in its infant stages with a small        of the snail habitat occurs within this restricted zone.
    number of participants and a limited market, this shery
    has the potential for rapid growth in light of the snail’s
                                        Status of Biological Knowledge
    increased market value and the closure and decline of
    other dive sheries. Archaeological evidence suggests that

                                        L  ittle is known about the biology of the wavy turban
    native peoples shed wavy turban snails prior to European
                                          snail. Its classication is problematic, as there have not
    and Asian settlement of California.
                                        been analyses of related genera worldwide. This results
    Wavy turban snails are harvested by divers, and the shing       in a question of whether Megastraea is proposed as a
    gear is identical to gear used in the commercial shery         full genus, as we have done here, or is recognized as
    for red sea urchins. Participants in the shery are also        a subgenus of Astraea. A closely related species is M.
    commercial sea urchin harvesters. Recorded landings of         turbanica, which was rst discovered on the outer coast of
    this species began in 1992 with overseas markets for          Baja California, Mexico.
    the meat (foot) and the shell (made into buttons). Land-
                                        This species of snail is one of the largest turbinid gastro-
    ings peaked in 1993 and crashed the following year with
                                        pods living in California waters. Shells reach six inches in
    the loss of market demand. Landings uctuated between
                                        diameter and have heavy, sculptured, undulating ridges.
    1995 and 1997 with the development of new markets and
                                        The base of the shell is at and the operculum is hard,
    peaked again at a higher level in 1998. The snail shery
                                        thick, oval, and uncurved, with well-dened rough ridges.
    is centered in the area off San Diego with most of the
                                        The shell is covered with a brous periostracum that gives
    landings coming from Point Loma.
                                        the shell a light brown or tan color. The periostracum is
    Current market demand for the species is for the foot,         often covered with coralline algae and other epiphytes.
    which is processed and sold to restaurants as an aba-          Wavy turban snails are commonly found on rock substrate
    lone-like product called wavalone. Other potential mar-         from Point Conception, California to Isla Asuncion, Baja
    kets occur in Mexico, where a shery for this species          California. They range in depths from the intertidal zone
    “caracol panocha” has existed for years. In Mexico, the         down to over 250 feet.
    wavy turban snail shery produces a canned meat prod-
                                        The wavy turban snail is a herbivorous generalist and
    uct. Future expansion of the California shery may rely on
                                        individuals have been observed feeding on kelp and cor-
    export of snails to Mexico for the canned product market.
                                        alline algae. Predators of this snail are likely the sea
    In California, the wavy turban snail shery has virtually no      stars and the Kellet’s whelks based on demonstrated
    regulations governing the harvest of the species. Fishery        escape responses in laboratory experiments. Other preda-
    participants need only a valid California commercial sh-        tors include octopuses, lobsters, and shes.
                                        Wavy turban snails exhibit differential distribution in size
                                        and density by depth, which may be correlated with physi-
                                        cal (water motion) and biological (intraspecic competi-
                                        tion, predation) processes. Smaller snails are found in
                                        shallow areas with a high density of individuals, and larger
                                        snails are found in deeper depths at lower densities. In
                                        extreme shallow (less than 10 feet) and deep portions
                                        of the depth range, snail densities are also very low. To
                                        escape predation within kelp forests wavy turban snails
                                        crawl or migrate up into the canopy of the giant kelp
                                        plants each night. Large snails can be found in deep water.
                                        For example, a six-inch diameter snail weighing 2.7 pounds
                                        was recently collected from Farnsworth Bank, near Santa
                                        Catalina Island, in 120 feet of water.
                                        A growth study on a population of wavy turban snails
                     Wavy Turban Snail, Megastrea undosa  at Santa Catalina Island indicates that these snails are
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
140
                                                          Commercial Landings




                                                                              Wavy Turban Snail
               70                                           1916-1999,
thousands of pounds landed

                                                          Wavy Turban Snail
               60
                                                          Prior to 1996, there was no specific
  Wavy Turban Snail




               50                                           species code for wavy turban snail
                                                          landings on the DFG Commercial
               40                                           Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy
                                                          turban snail data for 1992-1996
               30
                                                          were derived from commercial land-
               20                                           ing receipts that were recorded under
                                                          the miscellaneous sea snail and com-
               10                                           mercial dive gear codes. Data Source:
                                                          DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970    1980   1990   1999    landing receipts.

                                     Management Considerations
slow growing. Growth rates in this study varied both by
snail size and density. As is typical for many marine
                                     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
invertebrates, growth rates are higher for smaller sized
                                     further information.
snails and progressively slower as size increases. Aside
from a slow growth rate, this study also reports sexual and
seasonal variations in growth. Two different growing peri-
                                     Ian Taniguchi and Laura Rogers-Bennett
ods during the year were identied, a low growth period
                                     California Department of Fish and Game
in the spring and summer months and a high growth period
in fall and winter. Sexual differences in growth rate were
observed with females growing more slowly than males.
                                     References
Studies on reproduction conducted in Baja California sug-
                                     Alfaro, A.C. and R.C. Carpenter. 1999. Physical and biologi-
gest that reproductive activity is year-round with major
                                     cal processes inuencing zonation patterns of a subtidal
peaks in the spring and fall. Immature gonads were
                                     population of the marine snail, Astraea (Lithopoma) undosa
observed in juveniles less than 2.2 inches in shell diam-
                                     Wood 1828. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 240(2): 259-283.
eter. Fully mature gonads were observed in females with
shell diameter greater than 3.5 inches and males greater         Bea, A.G. and W.F. Ponder 1979. A revision of the species of
than 3.1 inches. Histological examination of gonad samples        Bolma Risso, 1826 (Gastropod: Turbinidae). Records of the
showed that the snails might spawn either completely,           Australian Museum 32: 1-68.
partially, incompletely, or not at all. In shallow water,
                                     Belmar Perez, J., S.A. Guzman del Proo, and I. Martinez
partial spawners were more abundant than in deeper
                                     Morales. 1991. Gonadic maturity and reproductive cycle of
water (60 feet). Complete spawners were dominant. Three
                                     wavy turban snail (Astrea undosa Wood, 1828: Gastropoda:
reproductive phases occur during the year. Gonad growth
                                     Turbinidae) in Bahia Tortugas, Baja California Sur. Anales
and maturity take place during the spring and early
                                     del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia, Universidad
summer, followed by spawning in late summer. Somatic
                                     Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. 18: 169-187.
growth occurs during the fall and winter. Recruitment of
                                     German, F. and G. Torres. 1996. Age and growth of Astraea
new juveniles has been observed from January to April.
                                     undosa Wood. in Baja California, Mexico. Bull. Mar. Sci.
                                     59(3): 490-497
Status of the Population                         Halliday, E.B.B. 1991. The natural history and ecology of
                                     Astraea undosa in a southern California kelp forest. M.S.

A  lmost nothing is known about the population densities
                                     Thesis, University of California , Santa Cruz.
  of wavy turban snails in California. Estimates of popu-
                                     McLean, J.H. 1970. New Eastern Pacic Subgenera of Turbo
lation abundance of wavy turban snails are made periodi-
                                     Linnaeus, 1758 and Astraea Röding, 1798. The Veliger
cally by the Channel Islands National Park Kelp Forest
                                     13:71-72.
Monitoring Program each year. These shery-independent
surveys from the northern Channel Islands and Santa Bar-         Morris, R.H., D.P., Abbott, and E.C., Haderlie. 1980. Inter-
bara Island have been conducted since 1982. Density sur-         tidal Invertebrates of California. Stanford University Press,
veys indicate interesting temporal patterns in abundance         Stanford California.
with abundance in 1998 and 1999 the greatest in the
time series.


   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                          141
   Rock Scallop
    History of the Fishery                     shellsh measures ve to six inches in shell diameter, but
                                   occasionally individuals exceeding eight inches are found.

    P  urple-hinge rock scallops (Crassadoma gigantea,
                                   Sexes are separate although cases of hermaphroditism
      referred to in earlier literature as Hinnites multirugo-
                                   have been reported. An increase in number of females
    sus) are very popular among sport divers and shore col-
                                   relative to males among larger adults has suggested pro-
    lectors in California, Mexico, and the Pacic Northwest.
                                   tandry (functioning early as males, but later becoming
    The shellsh is prized for its avorful, almost sweet, meat
                                   females). Other possible explanations for this nding
    (adductor muscle). No commercial taking of rock scallops
                                   include differential growth rates and/or survival. southern
    has been allowed in California. The California Department
                                   California rock scallops exhibit a bimodal annual repro-
    of Fish and Game (DFG) determined several decades ago
                                   ductive cycle with spawning periods in late spring-early
    that these mollusks were patchy in distribution and com-
                                   summer and again in mid-fall.
    mercial exploitation would endanger their survival. Thus,
                                   Rock scallops are lter feeders deriving the bulk of their
    rock scallops have remained in the domain of the non-
                                   nutrition from phytoplankton. Dinoagellates appear to
    commercial collector. Large numbers of rock scallops are
                                   dominate the diet. Detritus may also be utilized as food.
    taken by collectors at low tides and by divers near shore
                                   Predation may limit numbers of rock scallops chiey due
    or aboard sport diving vessels in southern California.
                                   to losses of early free-living and newly cemented juveniles
    It is difcult to estimate landings of rock scallops since
                                   to sea stars and crabs, but adults enjoy a high degree of
    many are taken incidentally. However, records of the DFG
                                   immunity to such activity by virtue of their ability to close
    1978-1987 indicate an average of 928 were taken per year
                                   sharp margined valves quickly. However, sea otters may
    by divers from commercial passenger sport diving boats
                                   succeed in breaking the shells of adult rock scallops using
    operating largely at the Channel Islands.
                                   their favored tools, cobble stones.
    The scallops are usually pried from their attachment sur-
                                   An intensive study of the biology and aquaculture poten-
    faces with an “abalone iron.” The large adductor muscle is
                                   tial of the rock scallop was undertaken in the mid-1970s
    easily shucked from the opened shells and separated from
                                   by researchers at San Diego State University, supported
    mantle and viscera. Divers often eat the scallops fresh
                                   by the UC Sea Grant Program. Basic biological information
    from the shell, either underwater or above! As part of
                                   was gained concerning reproduction, culture, foods, and
    a research program at San Diego State University, rock
                                   environmental requirements. Under the most favorable
    scallop adductor muscle samples were analyzed by a pro-
                                   conditions, growth rate of juveniles and young adults held
    fessional taste panel, compared to common brands of
                                   in the sea in suspended culture exceeded two inches per
    commercial scallops. By almost all criteria, rock scallops
                                   year. It was established that the rock scallop could be
    ranked superior to others.
                                   reared from the microscopic egg to marketable size (four
                                   to ve inches) in about two and a half years.

    Status of Biological Knowledge                 Rock scallops proved intolerant of salinity reduction
                                   greater than 30 percent. Thus, the species is not found

    T  he purple-hinge rock scallop is distinctive, typically  in estuaries and bays where freshwater dilutes the saline
      having an irregular oval outline, a rather rugose upper  water to levels below 25 parts per thousand. In areas with
    free shell (left valve) and a tentacle-bearing mantle, usu-  well-circulated oceanic water, adults proved amazingly
    ally orange or gray. The interior aspect of the hinge line   hardy; survival from juvenile to adult stages was usually
    on both valves bears a zone of purple pigment. Adults     close to 100 percent.
    typically are rmly attached to the substratum, in contrast
                                   For many years, oyster farmers at Point Reyes have reared
    to most other scallops that live free on sand or mud
                                   rock scallops in pens for sale at a local retail market.
    bottom. After passing a free-living juvenile life, attach-
                                   Juveniles set naturally among the oysters under cultiva-
    ment is achieved by temporary byssal threads. Permanent
                                   tion in Drakes Estero are recovered and placed in sub-
    attachment occurs once the young scallop reaches a size
                                   merged mesh cages for rearing to a size of about ve
    of about one-inch through deposition of shell material by
                                   inches (about two years). These scallops are sold for about
    the right valve in conformity to the microrelief of the
                                   $1 each. The adductor muscle in scallops of that size
    substratum.
                                   weighs about a tenth of a pound. Rock scallop meats,
    Throughout its range from Sitka, Alaska, to Magdalena     therefore, were valued (1982) at $10 per pound.
    Bay, Baja California, Mexico, the rock scallop is generally
                                   While rock scallops in southern California show two spawn-
    found from the lower intertidal to depths as great as 100
                                   ing peaks during the year, some northern populations
    feet. Offshore reefs are typically populated, but concrete
                                   spawn only once a year. Year-round spawning can be
    pier pilings and jetty rock at entrances to bays in southern
                                   achieved in the hatchery. Larvae are reared through their
    California have become favored habitats. Commonly this


      California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                        December 2001
142
                                Status of the Population
planktonic stages (about ve weeks) and fed unicellular




                                                               Rock Scallop
algae until settlement and the onset of metamorphosis.

                                T  his shellsh is locally common, especially on offshore
Early juvenile stages at 1/16- to 1/8-inch cling to the
                                   reefs, but in no case is it numerous. Heaviest take of
substrate by byssal threads. These anchoring laments
                                rock scallops occurs at spots frequented by sport diving
may be detached by the young scallop, allowing swimming
                                vessels. Larger adults are becoming rare in these locations
for brief periods and relocation if necessary. When the
                                and individuals as small as two inches are being taken
juvenile scallop reaches one-half to one inch (about six
                                in large numbers. The present bag limit is 10, but rock
months), attachment becomes permanent through cemen-
                                scallops may benet from some size, bag, and seasonal
tation. Usually rm substrates such as rock and shell are
                                limitation.
preferred in nature. Specially formed plastic surfaces are
provided for cementation in aquaculture.
Through experiments conducted at San Diego State Uni-
                                Management Considerations
versity, it was found that metamorphosing young rock
scallops may be collected from the plankton using “spat     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
collectors” developed in Japan for the Japanese sea scal-    further information.
lop. The spat collectors, onion bags packed with monola-
ment gillnetting, are now known to be attractive to larvae
                                David L. Leighton
of many species of scallops, regardless of adult habitat.
                                Marine Bioculture and Carlsbad Aquafarm
As an alternative to production of young in a hatchery
system, the simple placement of spat collectors at inter-
mediate depths in the ocean for several months’ time
                                References
is an economic advantage. Several aquaculture groups in
California, Washington state, and British Columbia, have
                                Leighton,D.L. 1991. Culture of Hinnites and related scal-
tested the concept of rock scallop spat collection. The
                                lops on the Pacic American coast. Chapter 7 in: Estuarine
principal difculties encountered so far are coincident col-
                                and Marine Bivalve Mollusk Culture. W. Menzel, Ed. CRC
lection of pink and spiny scallops and in northern waters,
                                Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
and kelp scallops in southern waters, making separations
                                Leighton, D.L. and C.F. Phleger. 1981. The Suitability of
tedious. Typically, a single spat collection bag, approxi-
                                the Purple-hinge Rock Scallop for Marine Aquaculture.
mately one cubic foot, immersed at a depth of 20 feet for
                                Univ. Calif. Sea Grant Program, Technical Series. San Diego
two months, will yield between 100 and 500 juvenile scal-
                                State University, Center for Marine Studies, Contribution
lops, perhaps 25 percent being rock scallops. Until com-
                                No. 50.
mercial hatcheries are developed to produce substantial
numbers of juvenile stock available to growers at a few     MacDonald, B.A., and N.F. Bourne. 1989. Growth of the
cents each, the use of spat collectors seems a preferred    purple-hinge rock scallop, Crassadoma gigantea Gray, 1825
practice. In addition, commercial hatcheries in Washing-    under natural conditions and those associated with sus-
ton state and Alaska have produced commercial quantities    pended culture. Jour. Shellsh Res. 8(1): 179-186.
of seed for their own use. The seed is available to other
shellsh growers for purchase at reasonable prices.
Generally, rock scallops have not been subject to prob-
lems associated with pollutants. The adductor muscle is
usually all that is consumed. That tissue is not a storage
organ for metabolites or toxins. A single case of paralytic
shellsh poisoning was reported in 1980 during a red tide
off northern California. In this instance, which was fatal, a
diver consumed viscera in addition to the adductor muscle
from several scallops. This unique case is thought to have
been exacerbated by alcohol consumed by the victim at
the same time.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               143
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Nearshore Invertebrates
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates




                             Black   Green     Pink     Red   White  Unidentified     All  Purple Sea   Red Sea
                                                                 Abalone1
                            Abalone  Abalone   Abalone   Abalone  Abalone    Abalone           Urchin    Urchin
                        Year   Pounds   Pounds    Pounds    Pounds  Pounds    Pounds   Pounds    Pounds    Pounds

                        1916   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----   762,001    762,001    ----      ----
                        1917   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----    637,780    637,780    ----      ----
                        1918   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----    602,919    602,919    ----      ----
                        1919   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----   759,203    759,203    ----      ----
                        1920   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----   806,716    806,716    ----      ----
                        1921   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----   1,481,170   1,481,170    ----      ----
                        1922   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  1,523,394   1,523,394     ----      ----
                        1923   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  1,555,134   1,555,134     ----      ----
                        1924   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,241,812   2,241,812     ----      ----
                        1925   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,352,861   2,352,861     ----      ----
                        1926   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,060,770   2,060,770     ----      ----
                        1927   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,816,530   2,816,530     ----      ----
                        1928   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,066,243   2,066,243     ----      ----
                        1929   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,438,858   3,438,858     ----      ----
                        1930   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----   3,176,513   3,176,513    ----      ----
                        1931   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,262,166   3,262,166     ----      ----
                        1932   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,817,345   2,817,345     ----      ----
                        1933   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,756,188   2,756,188     ----      ----
                        1934   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,223,492   3,223,492     ----      ----
                        1935   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,870,921   3,870,921     ----      ----
                        1936   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,302,195   3,302,195     ----      ----
                        1937   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,863,175   2,863,175     ----      ----
                        1938   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,121,468   2,121,468     ----      ----
                        1939   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  1,804,440   1,804,440     ----      ----
                        1940   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  1,724,084   1,724,084     ----      ----
                        1941   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  1,002,330   1,002,330     ----      ----
                        1942   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----    164,462    164,462    ----      ----
                        1943   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----   680,274    680,274    ----      ----
                        1944   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  1,630,402   1,630,402     ----      ----
                        1945   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,429,312   2,429,312     ----      ----
                        1946   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,095,762   2,095,762     ----      ----
                        1947   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  2,669,285   2,669,285     ----      ----
                        1948   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,195,852   3,195,852     ----      ----
                        1949   ----     ----     ----    ----   ----  3,599,998   3,599,998     ----      ----
                        1950   ----    9,958  2,019,710  1,431,071   ----     ----  3,460,739     ----      ----
                        1951   ----    8,367  2,719,381  1,352,317   ----     ----  4,080,065     ----      ----
                        1952   ----    4,186  3,587,636  1,182,022   ----     ----  4,773,844     ----      ----
                        1953   ----    5,852  3,439,657  1,412,948   ----     ----  4,858,457     ----      ----
                        1954   ----    1,223  2,703,219  1,394,595   ----      108  4,099,145     ----      ----
                        1955   ----    1,225  2,189,039  1,996,511   ----     ----  4,186,775     ----      ----
                        1956    660    14,002  1,845,006  2,428,393   ----     ----  4,288,061     ----      ----
                        1957   1,950    47,880  2,804,111  2,566,813   ----     ----  5,420,754     ----      ----
                        1958   ----     905  2,545,709  1,677,404   ----     ----  4,224,018     ----      ----
                        1959   ----     560  2,375,531  2,180,658   5,075     ----  4,561,824     ----      ----
                        1960   ----     455  1,572,096  2,693,857   ----     ----  4,266,408     ----      ----
                        1961   ----     526  1,678,275  2,873,628   1,337     ----  4,553,766     ----      ----
                        1962   ----    3,710  1,717,271  2,462,200   ----     ----   4,183,181    ----      ----
                        1963   ----    33,319  1,502,639  2,807,920   ----     ----  4,343,878     ----      ----
                        1964   ----    97,273  1,612,376  2,369,564   ----     ----  4,079,213     ----      ----
                        1965   ----    12,129  2,071,242  2,490,875    438     ----  4,574,684     ----      ----
                        1966   ----   145,420  2,162,941  2,656,408   ----     ----  4,964,769     ----      ----
                        1967    200   106,545  1,619,746  2,697,610   4,100     ----  4,428,201     ----      ----
                        1968    700   427,135  2,270,108  1,776,054    845     ----  4,474,842     ----      ----
                        1969   4,991   157,263  1,900,206  1,564,205  28,009     ----  3,654,698     ----      ----
                        1970  15,327   270,200  1,408,921  1,194,788  11,212     ----  2,900,448     ----      ----
                        1971 46,650    1,089,706   347,983  1,193,948  36,741     ----  2,715,189     ----       200
                        1972 1,014,892   424,808   403,709  1,104,462  143,819     ----  3,093,558     ----     76,457
                        1973 1,912,519   156,804   371,352   663,919  83,112     ----  3,192,730     ----   3,594,695
                        1974 1,145,396   121,563   455,324   751,060  113,765     ----  2,594,993     ----    7,101,815
                        1975 684,793    170,927   458,235   742,769  71,821     ----  2,135,839     ----    7,567,154
                        1976 356,951    120,489   431,143   739,621  81,907     ----  1,733,147     ----   11,106,426
                        1977 463,301     97,457   318,494   537,450  17,603     ----   1,435,172    ----  16,536,295
                        1978 420,045     92,987   287,052   488,800   3,633     ----  1,293,058     ----  14,427,547
                        1979 331,489     61,166   156,491   439,476    502     ----    989,389    ----  20,558,950



                            California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                           December 2001
 144
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d




                                                                                               Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
      Black      Green       Pink       Red      White   Unidentified        All   Purple Sea     Red Sea
                                                        Abalone1
     Abalone     Abalone     Abalone     Abalone     Abalone     Abalone               Urchin      Urchin
Year   Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds     Pounds      Pounds

1980 518,619        63,234     139,267     516,304       1,071       ----    1,238,566       ----    22,167,108
1981 521,007        64,003      94,257     429,922        162       112    1,109,494       ----   26,433,986
1982 633,400        88,696      86,282     430,902        907       256    1,240,455       ----    19,441,151
1983 484,366        56,910      67,239     230,973        482        55     840,074       ----    17,756,472
1984 436,620        31,945      57,495     300,173        498      1,156     827,966       2,575   14,978,869
1985 359,898        24,152      68,914     368,689       1,655      1,015     824,329       2,260    19,998,191
1986 273,927        25,943      51,872     267,709       1,228      6,048     626,787       1,430   34,134,025
1987 311,666        28,985      31,631     396,705         2      1,550     770,546       ----   46,061,653
1988 203,443        23,521      19,025     324,461         2        75     570,526       ----   51,987,994
1989 228,955        20,150      22,554     475,264        22       775     747,719      1,500   51,188,502
1990 94,193        27,333      23,268     378,915        17       217     523,942      89,633   45,269,659
1991 27,220        8,162      12,883     330,975         3      2,812     382,057     388,000    41,938,120
1992 37,714        10,304      18,229     448,841       ----       ----     515,088     316,134    32,366,557
1993  2,031        10,858      19,933     428,591       ----       ----     461,414     165,032    26,852,646
1994  ----         992      15,575     285,990        47        15     302,664      137,613   23,770,707
1995  ----        1,073      16,398     245,524        37       ----     263,079      79,802   22,260,967
1996  ----          56        4     233,816       ----       138     234,020      55,701   20,066,110
1997  ----         ----       ----     124,808       ----       ----     124,808     122,004    18,020,774
1998  ----         ----       ----       ----       ----       ----      ----      14,068   10,554,835
1999  ----         ----       ----       ----       ----       ----      ----      29,797   14,173,288

- - - - Landings data not available.
1
  Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented here indicates
  that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was closed after 1997.
2
  Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
3
  Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for 1992-1996 was
  derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.

Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                              A Status Report                                  145
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates




                             Sea  Dungeness     Rock   Sand  Spider   Spiny  Coonstripe    Ocean  Red Rock
                                                   Crab 2
                           Cucumber     Crab     Crab   Crab       Lobster   Shrimp    Shrimp   Shrimp
                        Year  Pounds    Pounds    Pounds  Pounds  Pounds   Pounds    Pounds    Pounds   Pounds

                        1916   ----   1,296,912     ----   ----   ----  250,632     ----      ----   ----
                        1917   ----  2,580,840     ----   ----   ----  355,259     ----      ----   ----
                        1918   ----   1,619,280     ----   ----   ----  195,750     ----      ----   ----
                        1919   ----   1,304,904     ----   ----   ----  256,894     ----      ----   ----
                        1920   ----  1,220,568     ----   ----   ----   247,156    ----      ----   ----
                        1921   ----    800,952     ----   ----   ----  334,271     ----      ----   ----
                        1922   ----    860,328     ----   ----   ----  376,310     ----      ----   ----
                        1923   ----   1,075,800     ----   ----   ----  384,381     ----      ----   ----
                        1924   ----   1,506,816     ----   ----   ----  294,356     ----      ----   ----
                        1925   ----   3,234,312     ----   ----   ----  432,059     ----      ----   ----
                        1926   ----  3,296,280     ----   ----   ----  442,198     ----      ----   ----
                        1927   ----   2,960,712     ----   ----   ----  508,123     ----      ----   ----
                        1928   ----   3,574,464     270   ----   ----  355,800     ----      ----   ----
                        1929   ----   1,792,776         ----   ----  396,764     ----      ----   ----
                        1930   ----   1,992,384      12  ----   ----  374,450     ----      ----   ----
                        1931   ----   2,231,384      56  ----   ----  383,697     ----      ----   ----
                        1932   ----   2,433,987      145  ----   ----  319,307     ----      ----   ----
                        1933   ----   3,208,494    14,818  ----   ----  380,014     ----      ----   ----
                        1934   ----   3,768,081    24,570  ----   ----  366,651     ----      ----   ----
                        1935   ----   3,680,188    12,817  ----   ----  371,661     ----      ----   ----
                        1936   ----   2,311,802    16,202  ----   ----  414,183     ----      ----   ----
                        1937   ----   1,627,753     1,710  ----   ----  393,242     ----      ----   ----
                        1938   ----  3,873,600     3,847  ----   ----  308,378     ----      ----   ----
                        1939   ----   5,953,361     3,984  ----   ----  376,928     ----      ----   ----
                        1940   ----   5,151,014    3,460  ----   ----  281,102     ----      ----   ----
                        1941   ----  4,260,340     2,645  ----   ----  357,334     ----      ----   ----
                        1942   ----   2,414,110      80  ----   ----  168,641     ----      ----   ----
                        1943   ----   2,315,338     ----  ----   ----  298,377     ----      ----   ----
                        1944   ----   2,934,776      540  ----   ----  512,490     ----      ----   ----
                        1945   ----  4,334,383     12,188  ----   ----  478,619     ----      ----   ----
                        1946   ----   9,624,368    11,600  ----   ----  690,272     ----      ----   ----
                        1947   ----  10,733,398     15,244  ----   ----  593,401     ----      ----   ----
                        1948   ----  11,892,891     20,938  ----   ----  563,520     ----      ----   ----
                        1949   ----  11,115,476    18,636  ----   ----  834,658     ----      ----   ----
                        1950   ----  11,704,648     20,007  ----   ----  933,449     ----      ----   ----
                        1951   ----  11,568,353    22,592   ----   ----  824,611     ----      ----   ----
                        1952   ----  12,997,451     16,977  ----   ----  807,070     ----    205,485   ----
                        1953   ----   8,278,519    49,300  ----   ----  749,245     ----    287,410   ----
                        1954   ----   7,829,651    39,058  ----   ----  901,293     ----    296,797    ----
                        1955   ----   6,119,320    54,051  ----   ----  855,416     ----    838,656    ----
                        1956   ----  14,320,549     59,171  ----   ----  735,869     ----   1,168,519   ----
                        1957   ----  19,118,484    151,131  ----   ----  647,281     ----   1,376,641    ----
                        1958   ----  17,282,766    166,962   ----   ----  632,618     ----   1,728,680    ----
                        1959   ----  17,262,261    129,534   ----   ----  505,947     ----   1,785,228    ----
                        1960   ----  14,876,148    120,903   ----   ----  351,032     ----   2,026,787    ----
                        1961   ----  11,711,327    151,782   ----   ----  412,453     ----   2,002,709    ----
                        1962   ----  3,222,580   200,304   ----   ----  515,816     ----   1,782,955    ----
                        1963   ----   1,951,461   240,611   ----   ----  584,192     ----   2,093,063    ----
                        1964   ----   1,815,363   263,885   ----   ----  446,655     ----   1,100,147   ----
                        1965   ----  4,803,906    328,686   ----   ----  480,325     ----   1,422,364    ----
                        1966   ----  12,376,390    330,843   ----   ----  489,088     ----   1,190,197   ----
                        1967   ----  11,716,488    324,386   ----   ----  449,874     ----   1,412,513   ----
                        1968   ----  16,015,581    351,657   ----   ----  312,483     ----   2,274,770    ----
                        1969   ----   7,938,996   504,076   ----   ----  309,472     ----   2,947,563    ----
                        1970   ----  15,413,589    539,579   ----   1,032  225,399     ----   4,047,589    ----
                        1971   ----   9,662,265   542,732   ----   ----  224,486     ----   3,080,583    ----
                        1972   ----  1,563,006    843,530   ----   ----  398,217     ----   2,489,970    ----
                        1973   ----   1,022,873   955,788   ----   ----  233,179     ----   1,239,976    ----
                        1974   ----    685,000   864,033   ----    52  190,950     ----   2,387,366    ----
                        1975   ----  3,934,663   1,201,867   ----   ----  201,412     ----   4,998,369    ----
                        1976   ----  15,726,774   1,227,766   ----   ----  292,534     ----   3,500,788    ----
                        1977   ----  33,647,863   1,083,015   ----   ----  251,568     ----  15,871,332    ----


                            California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                        December 2001
 146
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d




                                                                                               Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
     Sea      Dungeness       Rock       Sand      Spider      Spiny    Coonstripe      Ocean     Red Rock
                                        Crab 2
   Cucumber        Crab       Crab       Crab              Lobster     Shrimp      Shrimp      Shrimp
Year  Pounds       Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds      Pounds

1978   8,780     9,362,197     956,874       ----      1,919     560,986       ----   13,887,379       ----
1979   69,438    12,978,505     953,590       ----     14,402     419,529       ----    5,182,703       ----
1980   23,060    15,934,778    1,083,957       ----      9,869     416,249       ----    3,868,214       ----
1981    ----    10,435,441    1,375,227       ----     10,914     478,863       ----    4,164,495       ----
1982  139,487     6,973,679    1,277,872       ----     16,495     524,710       ----    4,543,806       ----
1983  163,495     5,301,828    1,397,109       ----     47,108     525,087       ----    1,132,742       ----
1984   52,354     5,340,088    1,676,298       ----     56,338     444,998       ----    1,628,992       ----
1985    ----     6,210,272    1,739,835       ----     41,777     447,848       ----    3,381,117       ----
1986   77,967     7,758,277    2,097,408       ----     34,678     488,804       ----    6,757,818       ----
1987  107,678     6,857,118    1,567,138       ----     99,556     449,778       ----    8,023,390       ----
1988  159,106    11,297,300    1,237,934       ----     107,609     610,859       ----   11,236,298       ----
1989  160,011     5,717,145    1,302,687       ----     70,066     742,571       ----   13,351,218       ----
1990  147,284    10,367,719    1,784,135       ----     93,451     705,341       ----    8,700,916       ----
1991  581,974     4,246,029    1,594,010       ----     99,269     589,240       ----   10,364,782       ----
1992  549,191     8,327,150    1,468,309        57     89,871     585,556       ----   18,682,775       ----
1993  646,210    11,958,039    1,287,378       1,072     71,173     554,438       ----    7,126,933      2,564
1994  646,926    13,491,363    1,002,397        127     67,290     470,144       ----   11,225,390        27
1995  589,888     9,236,191     935,535        51     59,427     616,382       ----    5,784,944        186
1996  839,382    12,331,365    1,040,812         4     58,852     668,453      10,142    9,351,086        94
1997  452,640     9,908,520     1,181,159       216     95,801     915,272      79,173   13,983,357        12
1998  770,679    10,692,760    1,234,160         3     99,797     735,703      64,718    1,843,246        63
1999  600,875     8,713,702     790,437        65     68,621     493,201      75,540    4,241,744        308

- - - - Landings data not available.
1
  Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented here indicates
  that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was closed after 1997.
2
  Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
3
  Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for 1992-1996 was
  derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.

Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                              A Status Report                                  147
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates




                                                  Ridgeback        Spot      Wavy
                           Ridgeback   Spot     Wavy
                                                                   Turban Snail 3
                                                    Prawn       Prawn
                                      Turban Snail 3
                             Prawn  Prawn
                                                Year  Pounds       Pounds      Pounds
                        Year  Pounds  Pounds     Pounds

                                                1980 281,661       213,826       ----
                        1916   ----   ----     ----
                                                1981 192,637       370,536       ----
                        1917   ----   ----     ----
                                                1982 129,402       302,268       ----
                        1918   ----   ----     ----
                                                1983 153,779       109,096       ----
                        1919   ----   ----     ----
                                                1984 589,998        50,464       ----
                        1920   ----   ----     ----
                                                1985 896,816        63,941       ----
                        1921   ----   1,006     ----
                                                1986 670,573       102,486       ----
                        1922   ----   ----     ----
                                                1987 241,872        88,535       ----
                        1923   ----   ----     ----
                                                1988 142,694       166,670       ----
                        1924   ----   ----     ----
                                                1989 165,527       189,878       ----
                        1925   ----   ----     ----
                                                1990 90,842        317,655       ----
                        1926   ----   ----     ----
                                                1991 128,732       311,431       ----
                        1927   ----   ----     ----
                                                1992  75,757      225,441       324
                        1928   ----   ----     ----
                                                1993 80,532        347,792      17,777
                        1929   ----   ----     ----
                                                1994 162,761       444,354        1
                        1930   ----   8,736     ----
                                                1995 414,660       394,986      4,640
                        1931   ----   4,114     ----
                                                1996 574,724       527,581      1,571
                        1932   ----    982     ----
                                                1997 387,549       761,605      2,414
                        1933   ----    798     ----
                                                1998 435,837       787,857      65,605
                        1934   ----    910     ----
                                                1999 1,392,370      613,129      24,276
                        1935   ----   2,351     ----
                        1936   ----   1,861     ----
                                                - - - - Landings data not available.
                        1937   ----   3041     ----
                        1938   ----   3,285     ----
                                                1
                                                  Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since
                        1939   ----   4,271     ----
                                                  identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented
                        1940   ----   2,361     ----
                                                  here indicates that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was
                        1941   ----   5,357     ----
                                                  closed after 1997.
                        1942   ----   ----     ----
                                                2
                                                  Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
                        1943   ----    43     ----
                                                3
                                                  Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings
                        1944   ----   ----     ----
                                                  on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for
                        1945   ----   1,452     ----
                                                  1992-1996 was derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under
                        1946   ----   5,175     ----
                                                  the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
                        1947   ----   1,687     ----
                        1948   ----   2,771     ----
                                                Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
                        1949   ----   3,952     ----
                        1950   ----   5,790     ----
                        1951   ----   2,694     ----
                        1952   ----   3,016     ----
                        1953   ----   2,723     ----
                        1954   ----   2,695     ----
                        1955   ----   1,182     ----
                        1956   ----   1,233     ----
                        1957   ----    767     ----
                        1958   ----    911     ----
                        1959   ----   ----     ----
                        1960   ----    147     ----
                        1961   ----   ----     ----
                        1962   ----    694     ----
                        1963   ----   8,445     ----
                        1964   ----   5,775     ----
                        1965   ----    697     ----
                        1966   ----   3,575     ----
                        1967   ----   2,590     ----
                        1968   ----   7,239     ----
                        1969   ----   5,073     ----
                        1970   ----  22,259     ----
                        1971   ----  11,773     ----
                        1972   ----  20,970
                        1973   ----  24,384     ----
                        1974   4,015  218,167     ----
                        1975  28,522  173,498     ----
                        1976   3,130  112,069     ----
                        1977   2,972  53,838     ----
                        1978  45,716  67,547     ----
                        1979  356,715  83,778     ----



                            California’s Living Marine Resources:    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                December 2001
 148
Nearshore Ecosystem
Fish Resources:                         Fishery Management Plan. The status of most nearshore




                                                                    Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
                                shes is still uncertain, and it is expected to take time

Overview                            to determine the effects of current management of
                                individual stocks.


A
                                Non-rocksh species have differing afnities (generally
   bout 450 species of nsh occupy California’s near-
                                dened by their adult behavior) to the nearshore eco-
   shore ecosystem within the limits of the continental
                                system habitats. They include the open-water, coastal-
shelf. The 60 plus species addressed in this chapter exhibit
                                migratory species (e.g., yellowtail, California barracuda,
a wide range of distribution, habitat preferences, move-
                                white seabass, and Pacic bonito); the nearshore sandy-
ment patterns, reproductive characteristics, age, and
                                bottom dwellers (e.g., California halibut, sanddabs, starry
growth. Their contributions to the sheries of California
                                ounder, Pacic angel shark, skates and rays); kelp and/or
are varied as well. As a group these sh inhabit all avail-
                                rocky reef inhabitants (e.g., kelp bass, giant sea bass,
able nearshore habitats (e.g., kelp forests, rocky inter-
                                lingcod, opaleye and halfmoon); and those that spend
tidal, sandy bottom, open water) in the nearshore ecosys-
                                most of their lives in or near the surf-zone (e.g., California
tem at some stage in their life-cycle.
                                corbina, surfperches, grunion, and the croakers). Most of
The kinds and distributions of sh occupying the nearshore
                                these species are commercially harvested, but a few have
ecosystem off California are inuenced by several envi-
                                been designated for sport sh use only (e.g., kelp bass,
ronmental factors, water temperature being perhaps the
                                barred sand bass, spotted sand bass, California corbina,
most important. California’s lengthy coastline spans nearly
                                and spot and yellown croakers). Giant sea bass has been
10 degrees of latitude resulting in waters varying from
                                managed under a moratorium on both commercial and
cool-temperate in the north to warm-temperate in the
                                recreation take since 1982. While very little has been
south. Warmer waters off southern California and Baja
                                done to assess the population size of most of these spe-
California, Mexico, support several game sh and other
                                cies, catch and landing trends can often be used to
locally important sh that are found infrequently if at all,
                                gauge the health of the resource. For example, California
north of Point Arguello, the northern reach of the South-
                                halibut catches have been remarkably stable over the last
ern California Bight. By contrast, species common north
                                two decades, and, while both lingcod and Pacic bonito
of Point Arguello may nd preferred water temperatures
                                catches show precipitous declines in landings, California
to the south by moving deeper in the water column. In
                                barracuda sport sh catches have increased to the levels
addition, seasonal, annual, and decadal changes in water
                                of the 1950s. However, the status of most is uncertain.
temperature (e.g., El Niño) result in northerly movements
                                This uncertainty stems from a lack of historic and current
of sh that might otherwise be found mostly off Baja Cali-
                                sheries data useful in stock assessments, absence of
fornia, or southern California. Besides water temperature,
                                life history and recruitment data, as well as insufcient
habitat preferences and general ecological requirements
                                understanding of habitat relationships and requirements,
control distributions.
                                and the probable effects of habitat alterations (including
Nineteen species, mostly rocksh, have been included      pollution) on stocks.
in the Nearshore Fisheries Management Plan required by
                                Commercial sheries for these species utilize a variety of
the Marine Life Management Act of 1998. These species
                                gear, which has been made more efcient over the past
occur coast-wide, but some are rarely seen in southern
                                century through the introduction of modern net, line, and
California (e.g., quillback, China and black rockshes, kelp
greenling and monkeyface prickleback), while others are
rare north of Point Conception (e.g., California sheephead,
California scorpionsh, calico rocksh and treesh). Col-
lectively, these species are relatively long-lived, slow-
growing sh that take several years to reach maturity
and spawn. Most of the species were seldom harvested
commercially until the development of the live-sh shery
during the early 1990s. No estimates of abundance exist
on a coast-wide basis for any of the species. Managers,
shermen, and scientists are all concerned about the sus-
tainability of the shery. These concerns have resulted in
the imposition of several recent management measures to
balance harvests with available resources, reduce sport-
commercial conicts, and stabilize the nearshore shery
                                                                Surf
pending completion of a more comprehensive Nearshore
                                                        Credit: Darrel Deuel


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                       149
                        trap materials, modied shing techniques and strategies,   and peaked during the 1980s (1,122 General Gill and Tram-
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview



                        improved deck machinery and hydraulics, and advances in    mel Net Permits issued during 1985). However, these nets
                        sh nding electronics. Some gear determined to be too     have since been largely restricted to deeper waters from
                        effective or not sufciently selective has been prohibited.  one to ten miles offshore, and prohibited in the inshore
                        Historically and currently used commercial gear includes    rocksh shery. They are also prohibited north of Point
                        ve general types as follows: 1) traps; 2) hook-and-line;   Reyes, Marin County. Restrictions on the use of this gear
                        3) gill and trammel nets; 4) trawl nets; and 5) round     were enacted to address problems with accidental entan-
                        haul nets.                           glement and drowning of seabirds and marine mammals
                                                       and to address sport-commercial shery allocation con-
                        Traps: The nsh trap is a relative newcomer to nearshore
                                                       icts. Gill and trammel net use in the nearshore ecosys-
                        commercial sheries. During the late 1980s, nsh traps
                                                       tem has declined since the mid-1980s (presently about 220
                        were introduced into nearshore waters off southern Cali-
                                                       permits issued annually), but the gear is still used to vary-
                        fornia for taking several shallow-water species (including
                                                       ing degrees to take lingcod, white seabass, California bar-
                        California sheephead, cabezon, kelp and rock greenling,
                                                       racuda, California halibut, and rocksh in waters seaward
                        California scorpionsh, several species of rocksh, and
                                                       of areas closed to its use. California halibut and rocksh
                        moray eel). The nsh trap shery has since expanded in
                                                       taken in gill and trammel nets have increasingly appeared
                        number of participants and number of species harvested,
                                                       in the live/premium sh shery, while nets (trawl and gill
                        and has progressed northward to nearshore waters off
                                                       and trammel nets) accounted for about 23 percent of 1999
                        central and northern California. Traps accounted for about
                                                       landings of live/premium sh. Restrictions on the use of
                        seven percent of the statewide live/premium sh landings
                                                       gill and trammel nets include minimum mesh sizes for
                        during 1999. The nsh trap shery off southern California
                                                       several species, limits on the length of net that may be
                        has operated under a nsh trap permit as a limited entry
                                                       shed for various species, and several depth closures.
                        shery since 1996. North of Point Arguello a nsh trap
                        permit is not required, but a recent moratorium on issuing   Trawl nets: Early commercial trawls such as paranzella
                        general trap permits restricts entry pending evaluation of   and beam trawls have been largely replaced by otter
                        comprehensive limited access measures.             trawls used to take bottom and midwater shes including
                                                       rocksh, lingcod, California halibut, and other atshes.
                        Hook-and-Line: A variety of commercial hook-and-line
                                                       Trawl nets are presently authorized for use to take
                        gear (vertical and horizontal setlines, troll lines, rod and
                                                       nsh three or more nautical miles offshore, and to
                        reel, and “stick gear”) is employed to take a variety of
                                                       take California halibut in the halibut trawl grounds off
                        nsh in the nearshore ecosystem. Of most immediate
                                                       southern California. Restrictions on trawl nets include
                        interest (and concern) is the live sh hook-and-line shery
                                                       minimum cod-end mesh sizes to enable the release of
                        that employs primarily rod-and-reel and “stick” or “pipe”
                                                       sub-adult shes.
                        gear. In general, this gear is used to harvest the same spe-
                        cies of live/premium sh as nsh traps and is conducted    Round Haul Nets: Round haul gear (purse seine and lam-
                        under the same nearshore shery permit. Seventy percent    para) used during the 1920s to harvest millions of pounds
                        of the statewide live/premium sh landings were caught     of white seabass, barracuda, and yellowtail is now prohib-
                        on hook-and-line gear. The number of nearshore hook-and-    ited for these species. Presently, smaller scale round haul
                        line shery participants increased during the past decade,   gear in the form of lampara and drum seines (bait nets)
                        with about 1,130 permits issued during 1999. This number    is used to take white croaker, perch, and bait species that
                        is expected to remain stable with recent adoption of the    include smelt, white croaker, and queensh, but this take
                        moratorium on new permits. Commercial vessels using      is relatively small.
                        shing lines within one mile of the mainland shore are     Early recreational shing during the late–1800s off Califor-
                        limited to a maximum of 150 hooks per vessel and 15      nia targeted giant sea bass, tuna, white seabass, and
                        hooks per line. These restrictions were enacted in 1995    yellowtail using handlines and early rod-and-reel shing
                        to address initial concerns for the rapidly expanding com-   gear from private or chartered craft. During the 1920s and
                        mercial hook-and-line shery that included some vessels    1930s, early commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFV)
                        employing thousands of hooks. Other hook-and-line gear     began to carry anglers to nearby popular shing grounds,
                        include troll lines used to harvest California halibut in   enabling catches of game shes that were not as readily
                        the San Francisco Bay area and rod-and-reel used to take    available to those shing from shing barges, piers, jet-
                        redtail surfperch in northern California.           ties, and beaches. Following World War II, the number
                        Gill and Trammel Nets: The use of gill and trammel nets to   of CPFV increased dramatically to serve a public eager
                        harvest rocksh, California halibut, white seabass, Califor-  to go shing. In southern California, the CPFV shery
                        nia barracuda, soupn shark, angel shark, white croaker,    expanded during the 1960s into winter shing for rocksh
                        and other nearshore species, increased during the 1960s    and lingcod to make year-round what had been a spring-



                          California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report                        December 2001
150
through-fall shery. Also, improved rod-and-reel shing




                                                   Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
equipment, the introduction of skin and SCUBA diving
equipment, and accelerated private boat ownership begin-
ning in the 1950s helped to increase the recreational
take of sh during the latter half of the 1900s. By the
1950s, ocean sport shing was becoming a recognized
factor in the potential over-harvest of some species, and
regulations affecting the take of popular nearshore shes
were promulgated along with commercial restrictions to
maintain stocks of shes in the nearshore ecosystem.
Other hook-and-line gear types include handlines that still
are seen occasionally on piers, and the “poke pole” used
in intertidal areas along the north coast to capture cabe-
zon, greenling, and an occasional shallow water rocksh
or prickleback. Most commercial forms of nets and traps
are prohibited for sport use. However, baited hoop nets
are permitted for taking certain species, and beach nets
may be used to take surf smelt north of Point Conception.
Spears, harpoons, and bow-and-arrow shing tackle may
be used to take all varieties of skates, rays, and sharks
(except white shark) and grunion may be taken only by
hand. Recreational divers operating from shore or from
vessels use spearshing equipment with or without aid
of SCUBA gear. Anglers seeking game sh generally use
live bait when available (anchovy, sardine, squid, and
small croakers), but are often equally effective with the
extensive arsenal of articial lures available ranging from
shrimp ies to one-pound or greater hexagon steel bars
tipped with a single or treble hook (often used for ling-
cod). A variety of sand worms, sand crabs, mussels and
squid are favored bait for shore shing while squid is the
standard for most rockshes.
The outlook for sustaining healthy nearshore sh stocks
and sheries has generally improved in the eyes of manag-
ers with enactment of California’s recent landmark legisla-
tion, the Marine Life Management Act of 1998. Fishery
management plans for nearshore sh and white seabass
should be close to adoption by the California Fish and
Game Commission as this report nears publication date.
The draft master plan, which is also a required by MLMA,
calls for additional FMPs to be developed for California
halibut, skates and rays, surfperches, kelp bass and barred
sand bass.


Don Schultze
California Department of Fish and Game




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report            151
   California’s Marine Living Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
154
California Sheephead
History of the Fishery                     family Labridae. All have protruding canine-like jaw teeth




                                                                       California Sheephead
                                and large cycloid scales. The sheephead is easily dis-

A  lthough the commercial catch of California sheephead    tinguished from the others by its color pattern, greater
   (Semicossyphus pulcher) dates back to the late 1800s,   body depth, and large size. Males have a black head and
a renewed interest in this shery has developed only      tail separated by a reddish middle section. The chin is
recently. Today, it is exploited by sport divers, anglers,   white in both sexes but females are uniformly pinkish.
and especially by a growing live sh commercial industry.   Young-of-the-year are bright reddish orange with a lateral
                                longitudinal white stripe and large black spots at the
In the late 1800s, Chinese shermen took large quantities
                                rear of the dorsal n and upper caudal. Although the
of sheephead for drying and salting. Since that time,
                                sheephead ranges from Monterey Bay, California to the
except for brief periods, sheephead was not a targeted
                                Gulf of California, it is not common north of Point Concep-
species until the 1980s. In the recently developed live sh
                                tion. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, beginning life
shery, the sh are trapped and taken live to supply Asian
                                as a female with older, larger females developing into
seafood restaurants. Because small sh, usually females,
                                secondary males. Female sexual maturity may occur in
are easier to keep alive in small aquaria, prereproductive
                                three to six years and shes may remain female for up
individuals have often been taken. A recent minimal size
                                to fteen years. Timing of the transformation to males
limit of 12 inches should reduce this possibility.
                                involves population sex ratio as well as size of available
The largest commercial catches of California sheephead
                                males and sometimes does not occur at all.
were from 1927 to 1931, peaking in 1928 at more than
                                Males have been aged at around 50 years, and can achieve
370,000 pounds. During and shortly after World War II
                                a length of three feet and a weight exceeding 36 pounds.
(1943-1947), the sheephead catch increased from 50,000
                                As growth rates are higher and mortality lower at the
to 267,00 pounds, probably because of easy availability
                                northern end of the range, the sexual transformation
close to port. Since the 1940s and until the late 1980s, the
                                occurs later there and the males are larger. Batch spawn-
average annual landing has been about 10,000 pounds and
                                ing occurs between July and September, and estimates
the price of this catch was under $0.10 per pound. During
                                of yolky oocytes present in the ovary vary from 36,000
the 1980s, the price and catch increased slightly until the
                                to 296,000 for sh from eight to 15 inches. Larval drift
live sh market began in the late 1980s. The price of live
                                ranges from 34 to 78 days with two settlement patterns.
sh has reached as high as $9 per pound. Between 1989
                                Most larvae settle at about 37 days, but some slow their
and 1990, the catch quadrupled and reached a peak in
                                growth at this time and may continue as pelagic larvae
1997 of 366,000 pounds and a market value of $840,176.
                                for another month. Settlement size remains between 0.5
During 1994 to 1999, the live catch varied between 87.8
                                and 0.6 inches. The sheephead has a broad diet with
percent and 73.7 percent of the total sheephead landings.
                                crabs, barnacles, mollusks, urchins, polychaetes and even
The catch has decreased from 1997 to 1999, but the
                                bryozoa occasionally dominant. There appears to be no
market value has remained high.
                                evidence of its preference for abalone and lobster as cited
The estimated recreational catch of sheephead between
                                in earlier literature. Because of its large size of adult
1983 and 1986 averaged 312,400 pounds with a maximum
                                males, there are few known predators. The sheephead is a
estimate of 448,800 pounds for 1986. Commercial pas-
                                rocky reef, kelp bed species found to depths of 280 feet.
senger shing vessel data from 1947 to 1998 indicate an
                                Adults are usually solitary, but sometimes are seen in large
average take of 28,030 sh per year with a maximum in
                                schools, perhaps associated with spawning aggregations.
1983 of about 69,000 sh. Using an average weight of two
pounds per sh (a low estimate) the sport catch, except in
the cited maximal periods, often exceeds the commercial
catch. During the 1930s, sheephead were considered “junk
sh” by most recreational anglers and were not kept
because of their soft esh. However, the large size, ne
avor, and use as a lobster substitute in salads and other
recipes has more recently made them a preferred and
even targeted species by anglers and divers.



Status of Biological Knowledge

T  he California sheephead and two other common South-
                                            California Sheephead (male), Semicossyphus pulcher
   ern California species, the rock wrasse and the seno-
                                                                 L.Sinclair
rita are members of the mostly tropical, worldwide wrasse                                  Miller & Lea


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                        155
California Sheephead



                                                   400




                                    thousands of pounds landed
                                                   350


                                      California Sheephead
                                                   300
                                                   250
                                                   200
                                                   150
                  Commercial Landings
                        1916-1999,
                                                   100
                  California Sheephead
                                                   50
                  Data Source: DFG Catch
                  Bulletins and commercial
                                                    0  1916 1920  1930     1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
                      landing receipts.



                                                                       Management Considerations
            They are considered resident species and no systematic
            movements have been described.
                                                                       See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                                                       further information.
            Status of the Population

            T                                                           John Stephens
              here has been no ongoing analysis of the status of
                                                                       Occidental College-retired
              the California sheephead. Long-term studies at two
            localities in southern California, Palos Verdes Point and
            the King Harbor breakwater, have shown that the species
                                                                       References
            was not abundant in the cool period of the early 1970s.
            The population increased at both sites with the onset
                                                                       Cowen, R.K. 1991. Variation in planktonic larval stage
            of the little El Niño of 1977-1978. At King Harbor, the
                                                                       duration of Semicossyphus pulcher Mar. Ecol. Prog. Series
                                                                                        .
            population peaked in 1978, decreased through the end of
                                                                       69, 1-2:9-15.
            the great El Niño of 1982-1983, and remained low until
                                                                       Cowen, R.K. 1990. Sex change and life history patterns of
            the early 1990s when it again reached a large size (1994
                                                                       the labrid Semicossyphus pulcher across an environmental
            and 1998). With the exception of 1982-1983 El Niño, the
                                                                       gradient. Copeia 1990(3):781-795.
            population seems to increase during El Niño conditions
            and this is reected in increased recruitment. At Palos                                Cowen, R.K. 1985. Large scale patterns of recruitment
            Verdes, the population peaked in 1981, then declined until                               by the labrid Semicossyphus pulcher; causes and implica-
            1983, but has remained relatively stable since. At maxi-                                tions. J. Mar. Res. 43(3)1985:719-742.
            mum, the density of sheephead at the Palos Verdes kelp
                                                                       Victor, B.C. 1987. Growth, dispersal, and identication of
            bed was three times that of the King Harbor breakwater.
                                                                       planktonic labrid and pomocentrid reef sh larvae in the
            There is no evidence from these very limited data that the
                                                                       Eastern Pacic ocean. Mar. Biol. 95(1):145-152.
            population is threatened by existing shery practices. The
                                                                       Warner, R.R. 1975. The reproductive biology of the
            projected decrease in landings during 1999 may reect
                                                                       protogynous hermaphrodite, Pimelometopon pulchrum
            the imposition of a minimum size limit.
                                                                       (Pisces:Labridae) Fish. Bull. U.S. 73:262-283.
                         80
            thousands of fish landed
             California Sheephead




                         60


                         40


                         20


                          0
                            1947  1950  1960              1970    1980  1990  1999


                        Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Sheephead
            CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
                           by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.


                         California’s Marine Living Resources:                            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report                                        December 2001
156
Cabezon
History of the Fishery                    Concerns over the increased harvesting of nearshore spe-




                                                                    Cabezon
                                cies and potential impacts on shed populations led to

E vidence exists for subsistence use of cabezon (Scorpae-  passage of legislation known as the Marine Life Manage-
  nichthys marmoratus) by prehistoric native Americans    ment Act of 1998 (MLMA) which was enacted in January of
along the central California coast. Cabezon represented    1999. Within the MLMA, minimum commercial size limits
ve percent of the sh remains taken from exposed rocky    were implemented for several nearshore species including
coastal archaeological sites.                 a 14-inch size limit for cabezon. Implementation of the
                                size limit may have been responsible for the decline in
As game sh, cabezon are prized by sport divers for
                                landings between 1998 and 1999.
edibility, size, and ease of capture. The recreational take
aboard commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs) does
not comprise a large proportion of the catch, but those
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
that are taken are usually of a good size, averaging
around 3.5 pounds. In central California, cabezon gener-
                                T  he cabezon is the largest member of the cottid family.
ally account for less than one percent of observed annual     In Spanish, cabezon means bigheaded or stubborn and,
CPFV catches. Recreational landings data are available    proportionally, the massive head is denitely the largest
from 1980 to 1999 for CPFV and private boat anglers as    feature of this sh. The specic name marmoratus refers
well as shore and pier anglers from the National Marine    to the marbled or mottled appearance of the body, which
Fisheries Service Recreational Fisheries Information Net-   can be reddish, greenish, or bronze. Generally the belly
work (RecFIN). RecFIN data from 1982 to 1999, for all four  is a pale turquoise or white, and there are no scales on
modes of recreational shing showed a 40 percent decline   the body.
in average annual landings between the 1982 through 1989
                                Populations range along the eastern Pacic coast from
and 1993 through 1999 periods, from 122 to 74 tons. Data
                                Point Abreojos, Baja California to Sitka, Alaska. They are
from RecFIN also suggest that cabezon are more common
                                found on hard bottoms in shallow water from intertidal
in catches north of Point Conception and more frequently
                                pools to depths of 250 feet. Fish frequent subtidal habitats
caught by anglers shing on private boats and from shore
                                in or around rocky reef areas and in kelp beds.
than on CPFVs.
                                Cabezon may reach an age in excess of 20 years. The
Cabezon were taken incidentally in commercial catches
                                largest recorded size is 39 inches in length and over 25
by boats shing for rocksh using hook-and-line or gillnets
                                pounds. Limited information available on age at sexual
until 1992. From 1916 to 1992, commercial landings only
                                maturity in published literature suggests that in central
exceeded 30,000 pounds in 1951 and again from 1979
                                California males begin to mature in their third year and
to 1982, when reported landings reached 62,614 pounds.
                                all are mature by their fourth year. Average size of males
Development of the live/premium shery in the late 1980s
                                in their fourth year is 17 inches. Some females begin to
resulted in increasing commercial catches of many species
                                mature in their fourth year between 16 and 20 inches in
occupying the nearshore environment in and around kelp
                                length, and all females are sexually mature by the sixth
beds. The commercial catch of cabezon started increasing
                                year when they are 19 to 23 inches in length. These
in 1992 with the expansion of marketing live sh to mar-
                                data collected from 1950-1951 suggest a size of female 50
kets and restaurants in California’s Asian communities.
                                percent maturity greater than 16 inches. Unpublished DFG
Most of the initial increase in landings was from the Morro
                                data collected in the Morro Bay area from 1996 to 1999
Bay area, but by 1995, landings in most central and north-
                                indicates that half of females are mature at 14 inches.
ern California ports had increased dramatically. Sampled
catches from the Morro Bay area from 1995 to 1998 sug-
gested a large proportion of landings were immature sh.
Commercial landings continued to increase through 1998
with over 373,000 pounds reported, then declined slightly
in 1999 but remained over 300,000 pounds. Live sh are
taken primarily by trap and hook-and-line gear. About 90
percent of the catch is landed live. Markets demanded top
quality live sh, and shermen received premium prices
for their catches evidenced by the increase in average
price per pound from $0.85 in 1990 to $3.30 in 1998.
The estimated value of reported landings in 1998 was
$1,231,700.
                                                Cabezon, Scorpaenichthys marmoratus
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                   157
Cabezon


     In California, spawning commences in late October, peaks   Cabezon normally occur nearshore, except as larvae. Usu-
     in January and continues until March, whereas in Washing-   ally solitary, juveniles and adults are common on rocky
     ton, the spawning season begins in November and extends    bottom areas with dense algal growth. They are often in
     to September with a peak in March and April. There is     the vicinity of kelp beds, jetties, isolated rocky reefs or
     some evidence that females may spawn more than once      pinnacles, and in shallow tide pools.
     in a season. Females spawn their eggs on subtidal, algae-   Most of their time is spent lying in holes, on reefs, in
     free rocky surfaces, which can be horizontal or vertical in  pools, or on kelp blades beneath the canopy. As sh get
     orientation. Up to 152,000 eggs can be expected from a    older and larger they tend to migrate to deeper water. In
     large female (30 inches, 23 pounds). Masses of the pale    shallower water, they migrate in and out with the tide to
     green or reddish eggs are up to 18 inches in diameter and   feed. Their habit of lying motionless makes them an easy
     up to two to four inches thick. As the eggs develop they   target for sport divers.
     change to an olive green color.
     There have been several reports on the toxicity of cabe-
                                    Status of the Population
     zon roe. In the 1950s, the well-known ichthyologist Carl
     Hubbs published a personal account of eating cabezon roe.

                                    L  imited information is available on population biology
     As part of an ongoing search for another caviar, Hubbs
                                      or changes in biomass over time. Recent increases in
     and his wife consumed the roe and esh of a cabezon
                                    commercial shing pressure on cabezon have intensied
     for dinner. Four hours later they “... awoke in misery ...
                                    efforts to learn more about their life history charac-
     and were violently ill throughout the rest of the night.”
                                    teristics, population biology, and to assess stock size.
     Laboratory evidence indicates that the roe is lethal to
                                    Recreational landings have declined concurrent with the
     mice, rats, and guinea pigs. Anecdotal information on egg
                                    increase in commercial shing efforts and reported com-
     masses exposed at low tide suggests they are not preyed
                                    mercial landings. As shing effort increases, it is likely
     upon by natural predators such as raccoons, mink, or
                                    that populations living in heavily utilized areas will decline
     birds. Observations of captive cabezon have documented
                                    further.
     a female eating her own eggs with no resulting ill effects.
     Males fertilize the eggs after spawning by the female, and
                                    Management Considerations
     the male guards the nest. Apparently the same nest sites
     are used from year to year. Fish are very protective of
                                    See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
     the nests for the two to three weeks it takes the eggs to
                                    further information.
     develop and hatch.
     Pelagic juveniles are silvery when small, spending their
     rst three to four months in the open ocean feeding on    Deborah Wilson-Vandenberg and Robert Hardy
     tiny crustaceans and other zooplankton. At a size of about  California Department of Fish and Game
     1.5 inches, juveniles leave the open water and assume a
     demersal existence. They appear in kelp canopies, tide
                                    References
     pools, and other shallow rocky habitats such as breakwa-
     ters from April to June in California.
                                    Fuhrman, F.A., G.J. Fuhrman, D.L. Dull, and H.S. Moser.
     Cabezon can be aptly described as “lie-in-wait” predators.
                                    1969. Toxins from eggs of shes and amphibians. J. Agric.
     Their mottled coloration lets them blend in with the sur-
                                    Food and Chem. 17:417-424.
     roundings, as they lie motionless to wait for their next
                                    Gobalet, K.W. and T. L. Jones, 1995. Prehistoric Native
     meal. With large, robust pectoral ns set low on the body
                                    American sheries of the central California coast. Trans.
     and a powerful tail, they quickly lunge after unwary prey,
                                    Amer. Fish Soc. 124:813-823.
     engulng it in their large mouth.
                                    Lauth, R.R. 1989. Seasonal spawning cycle, spawning fre-
     Their diet consists mainly of crustaceans, although large
                                    quency, and batch fecundity of the cabezon, Scorpaenich-
     and small cabezon have different diets. Adult sh eat
                                    thys marmoratus, in Puget Sound, Washington. Fish. Bull.,
     crabs, small lobsters, mollusks (abalone, squid, octopus),
                                    U.S. 87:145-154.
     small sh (including rockshes), and sh eggs. Small juve-
     niles depend mainly on amphipods, shrimp, crabs, and     O’Connell, C.P. 1953. The life history of the cabezon
     other small crustaceans.                   Scorpaenichthys marmoratus (Ayres). Calif. Dept. Fish and
                                    Game, Fish Bull. 93. 76 p.
     Juveniles are eaten by rockshes and larger cabezon, as
     well as by lingcod and other sculpins. Large cabezon may
     be preyed upon by harbor seals or sea lions.



       California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                       December 2001
158
                                                                           Cabezon
                 400
thousands of pounds landed

                 350

                 300
     Cabezon




                 250

                 200

                 150
                                                              Commercial Landings
                 100
                                                              1916-1999, Cabezon
                  50                                           Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                              Bulletins and commercial
                    0
                      1916 1920   1930  1940  1950   1960  1970   1980  1990  1999   landing receipts.




              30
thousands of fish landed




              25

              20
    Cabezon




              15

              10

              5

              0
                1947  1950    1960  1970  1980  1990  1999


Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Cabezon
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.




    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                          California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                      A Status Report              159
   California Scorpionfish
    History of the Fishery                           sh mature at six inches (one year), over 50 percent are
                                          mature by seven inches (two years) and all reproduce by

    T  he California scorpionsh (Scorpaena guttata) is a           nine inches (four years). Spawning occurs from April to
      valuable commercial sh in southern California. For           August, peaking in June and July. Scorpionsh are ovipa-
    many years, the shery experienced a long decline, with           rous, have external fertilization, and females produce
    peak catches of 223,000 pounds in 1925 and uctuating            eggs imbedded in the gelatinous walls of hollow, pear-
    catches thereafter. However, the rise of the live sh            shaped “egg-balloons.” These paired structures, each ve
    shery in the 1990s led to the shery’s resurgence, as this         to 10 inches long, are joined at their small ends. The walls
    species’ bright red color and hardiness after capture has          of these “balloons” are about 0.1 inch thick, transparent
    made it a favorite target. Today, about 85 percent of the          or greenish in color, and contain a single layer of eggs.
    commercial California scorpionsh catch goes to the live          Each egg is about .05 inch in diameter. The egg masses
    sh shery. Catches in 1998 totaled about 75,000 pounds           oat near the surface and the eggs hatch within ve
    valued at $175,000. Most sh are taken in traps or by            days. Very young sh live in shallow water, hidden away
    hook-and-line.                               in habitats with dense algae and bottom-encrusting organ-
                                          isms. Small crabs are probably the most important food
    California scorpionsh are a moderately important part
                                          of California scorpionsh, although other items, such as
    of the sport shery in southern California. They are
                                          small shes, octopuses, shrimps and even pebbles are
    taken primarily from party boats and private vessels, and
                                          sometimes eaten. These animals are primarily nocturnal
    occasionally from piers and jetties, mostly from Point
                                          and feed at night. Octopuses prey on small individuals.
    Mugu southward.
                                          California scorpionsh make extensive spawning migra-
                                          tions in late spring and early summer, when most adults
    Status of Biological Knowledge                       move to 12 to 360 foot depths, forming large spawning
                                          aggregations on or near the bottom. During spawning,

    C  alifornia scorpionsh are easily distinguished from           these aggregations rise up off the bottom, sometimes
      most other California shes. They are a relatively           approaching the surface. Spawning occurs in the same
    heavy-bodied species, with strong head and n spines,            areas year after year, and it is likely that the same
    ranging in color from red to brown, often with purple            sh return repeatedly to the same spawning ground.
    blotches and always covered with dark spots. They reach           When spawning ends, the aggregations disperse and many
    a length of 17 inches.                           (though not all) of the sh move into shallower waters.
    California scorpionsh live from tide-pool depths to about         The sharp spines on the dorsal, anal and pelvic ns are
    600 feet (usually in about 20-450 feet) from Santa Cruz to         poisonous. The toxin is produced in glands that lie at
    southern Baja California, and in the northern part of the          the base of each spine and run up to the tip through a
    Gulf of California. Preferring warmer water, the species          groove. A wound, although painful, is seldom fatal, and
    is common as far north as Santa Barbara. While they are           bathing the wound in hot water can reduce the pain. The
    most abundant on hard bottom (such as rocky reefs, sewer          heat alters the toxin’s structure making it harmless. One
    pipes and wrecks), they are also found on sand.               should be careful not to make the water so hot as to
                                          damage tissue.
    California scorpionsh grow to 17 inches and some live
    at least 21 years. After four years of age, females grow
    faster than males and reach a larger size. Although a few
                                          Status of the Population

                                          N  o population estimates exist for California scorpi-
                                            onsh. However, data from trawl studies conducted
                                          by the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Southern
                                          California Coastal Water Research Project and the Orange
                                          County Sanitation District from 1974-1993 show that there
                                          are substantial short-term uctuations in California scorpi-
                                          onsh abundance within the Southern California Bight.




                   California Scorpionfish, Scorpaena guttata
                                   Credit: DFG

      California’s Marine Living Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
160
                                                                                            California Scorpionfish
               250
thousands of pounds landed
 California Scorpionfish



               200

               150

               100                                                              Commercial Landings
                                                                              1916-1999,
               50                                                               California Scorpionfish
                                                                              Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                                              Bulletins and commercial
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960        1970              1980     1990   1999     landing receipts.




Management Considerations                                       250




                                      thousands of fish landed
                                      California Scorpionfish
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for                           200

further information.                                         150


                                                   100

Milton Love                                              50

University of California, Santa Barbara
                                                    0
                                                      1947  1950   1960     1970   1980      1990    1999


                                      Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Scorpionfish
References                                 CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (Party Boat); Recreational catch as reported
                                      by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
Love, M. S., B. Axell, P. Morris, R. Collins and A. Brooks.
1987. Life history and shery of the California scorpi-
onsh, Scorpaena guttata, within the southern California
Bight. Fish. Bull. US 85(1):99-116.
Stull, J. K. and C.-L. Tang. 1996. Demersal sh trawls off
Palos Verdes, southern California, 1973-1993. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Res. Rep. 37:211-240.




   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                    California’s Marine Living Resources:
         December 2001                                                A Status Report                      161
   Black Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                          vessel (CPFV) catches from Fort Bragg south to the San
                                        Francisco/Princeton area. Black rocksh also are impor-

    B  lack rocksh (Sebastes melanops), also known as black        tant to divers. In a 1972 survey in northern and central
      snapper and black bass, are a minor to moderate           California, black rocksh comprised approximately eight
    component of nearshore commercial and recreational sh-         percent of all sh taken by divers, and were primarily
    eries, with increasing importance from the San Francisco         taken in northern California.
    area northward. The Eureka area accounts for 80 percent         A six- to seven-fold increase in estimated annual landings
    to 90 percent of all commercial landings in the “black          of black rocksh in the recreational shery occurred
    rocksh” market category (which may contain other spe-          between 1957 through 1961 and 1979 through 1986, which
    cies, most commonly blue rocksh). Annual statewide           reects a substantial increase in shing effort between
    landings in the 1990s ranged from 189,000 to 277,000           the two periods. Since then, estimated total recreational
    pounds, except in 1993 when only 86,000 pounds were           catch has been variable and has not continued to increase
    landed. Landings from port areas south of San Francisco         steadily. During the 1990s, the annual estimated take of
    have never comprised more than 10 percent of total land-         black rocksh in the recreational shery was fairly similar
    ings in the market category. In the San Francisco port          to that of the commercial shery.
    area, “black rocksh” landings increased fteen-fold from
                                        In 1992, DFG initiated a voluntary catch-and-release pro-
    1989 to 1992. The majority of black rocksh in commercial
                                        gram in recreational and commercial sheries for black
    sheries are landed dead but a small portion are now
                                        rocksh less than 14 inches in total length in response
    landed live in the recently expanded live sh shery,
                                        to concerns over the lack of larger sh in sampled rec-
    primarily from Morro Bay north to Fort Bragg. They are
                                        reational catches, particularly in the San Francisco/Half
    also taken incidentally in the commercial salmon troll sh-
                                        Moon Bay area. The program was unsuccessful in the
    ery. Black rocksh also comprise minor to signicant pro-
                                        primary target area (Bodega Bay to Santa Cruz) and was
    portions of other market categories, in particular “blue
                                        not continued due to two factors: 1) increased recruit-
    rocksh,” “small rocksh,” and “unspecied rocksh.”
                                        ment of sub-adult sh to the shery (i.e., recreational
    Black rocksh are an important recreational species, par-        anglers were unwilling to return a substantial portion of
    ticularly in northern California. Long-term monitoring of        their catch to the water); and 2) perceived competition
    the recreational skiff shery in the Eureka/Crescent City        for the same resource from non-cooperative shermen.
    area showed them as the most frequently taken species
    every year in the 1990s; in 1997, for example, black
                                        Status of Biological Knowledge
    rocksh comprised 58 percent of the observed catch.
    During the period from 1981 through 1986, the Marine

                                        B  lack rocksh range from Amchitka Island, Alaska to
    Recreational Fisheries Statistical Survey (MRFSS) showed
                                          Santa Monica Bay in southern California, but are
    that in Humboldt and Del Norte Counties (northern Cali-
                                        uncommon south of Santa Cruz. They frequently occur in
    fornia), black rocksh comprised from 15 to 31 percent
                                        loose schools ten to twenty feet above shallow (to 120
    annually of the estimated total marine recreational catch
                                        feet) rocky reefs, but may also be observed as individuals
    for all shing modes combined. South of the Eureka
                                        resting on rocky bottom, or schooling in midwater over
    area, black rocksh gradually decrease in importance
                                        deeper (to 240 feet) reefs. They may attain a maximum
    in the recreational catch and are infrequently observed
                                        length of 25.5 inches in California, although individuals
    south of Santa Cruz. They are often among the top 10
                                        over 20 inches are rarely observed today. Average size
    species observed annually in commercial passenger shing
                                        observed in commercial and recreational sheries now is
                                        14 to 15 inches in northern California and 11 to 13 inches
                                        in central California.
                                        Black rocksh have a relatively fast growth rate. First
                                        year growth is usually 3.5 to 4.0 inches. Most individuals
                                        become available to the shery by the time they have
                                        reached three to four years of age and are approximately
                                        10 to 11.5 inches. They are larger at equal age then blue
                                        rocksh; four-to-seven-year old black rocksh may average
                                        from 11.5 to 13.8 inches, while blue rocksh range from 10
                                        to 12 inches within that age range. By age ve, growth
                                        rate of female black rocksh surpasses that of males, and
                      Black Rockfish, Sebastes melanops
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
162
by age 15, female black rocksh may average 2.4 inches




                                                                            Black Rockfish
                                             600
longer than males.




                                thousands of fish landed
                                             500

At six years, or about 14 inches, half of all males are




                                  Black Rockfish
                                             400
sexually mature. At seven to eight years, or about 16                   300
inches, half of all females are sexually mature.
                                             200

As with all members of the genus Sebastes, fertilization                 100
and development of embryos takes place within the                     0
                                                1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999
female’s body. Black rocksh mating generally occurs
                                Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Black Rockfish
between September and November. Females store the
                                Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
sperm until their eggs mature in December or January, at
which time the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm.
                                shes) showed an afnity to the same habitat and depth
The larvae develop within thirty days, at which time
                                range as black rocksh. It is commonly known among
black eyespots become visible to the naked eye. The eyed
                                shermen that black rocksh in central California are char-
larvae are released into the water from late January to
                                acterized by localized areas of relatively high abundance
May, peaking in February off of California.
                                in the nearshore area.
Larvae may remain in the ocean’s surface waters for
                                The DFG has conducted limited tagging studies on juvenile
three to six months where they are dispersed by currents,
                                and adult black rockshes. Between 1978 and 1985, 89
advection, and upwelling. They begin to reappear as
                                black rocksh were tagged in central California. Four tags
young-of-the-year (YOY) in shallow, nearshore waters by
                                were returned from sh which had been at liberty from
May, but the major recruitment event usually occurs from
                                18 to 552 days; all sh were recaptured in the same areas
July to August. YOY black rocksh generally recruit to the
                                where they were released.
shallower portions of kelp beds (15- to 40-foot depth) as
well as semi-protected sandy areas of the coast. As newly
settled YOY (approximately 1.5 inches) they most closely
                                Status of the Population
resemble yellowtail rocksh YOY. As they grow, YOY black
rocksh more closely resemble YOY blue rocksh in pig-

                                A  lthough no shery-independent population estimates
mentation but lack the mottling on the sides, which are
                                  have ever been made of black rocksh stocks in Cali-
a uniform tan to light brown. As juveniles and adults,
                                fornia, substantial information exists on relative abun-
black rocksh are frequently mistaken for blue rocksh.
                                dance and length frequency from shery-dependent sur-
The best characteristics that separate black from blue
                                veys. Data from the 1981-1986 MRFSS survey showed
rocksh are a wide, unmottled, light blue-gray area along
                                a 23 percent decline in the average weight of black
the lateral line, a relatively large mouth, the shape of the
                                rocksh taken compared with sh harvested from 1958
anal n, and black speckling in the dorsal n.
                                through 1961.
Although black rocksh may occur with blue rocksh, par-
                                Onboard observations from CPFVs in the San Francisco
ticularly in central and northern California, they are not
                                area documented a signicant change in the length fre-
considered to be competitors because their diets share
                                quency of the sampled catch from 1989 to 1990. During
little in common. Juvenile and adult black rocksh primar-
                                that period, the occurrence of larger adult black rocksh
ily consume crab megalopae, amphipods, isopods, and
                                (greater than 15 inches) declined precipitously. This
other shes, including YOY rockshes,.
                                occurred during a time when nearshore commercial hook-
Major predation occurs on all rockshes from the moment    and-line shing effort and landings were expanding, as
of larval release throughout the rst year by a variety of   mentioned previously. Mean length in the sampled catch
shes and invertebrates, as well as marine birds. Larger    from the San Francisco area declined from 14.3 inches
black rocksh are preyed upon by lingcod and marine      in 1988-1989 to 12.1 inches in 1990-1991, and has ranged
mammals such as sea lions.                   from 11.4 to 12.6 inches annually from 1993 to 1998. This
                                is well below the average length at 50 percent sexual
Black rocksh are commonly associated with other near-
                                maturity. Since 1993, all other CPFV port areas from
shore sh species, particularly other rockshes. A statis-
                                Fort Bragg south to Morro Bay have yielded similar low
tical technique, cluster analysis, was used to partition
                                mean lengths.
CPFV catch data from 1987 to 1992 in the Monterey area
based on the frequency of occurrence of species in the     Results from commercial shery sampling are consistent
sampled catch. Interestingly, no other schooling rocksh    with the above. For example, 296 black rocksh sampled
was closely associated statistically with black rocksh,    from the Morro Bay area commercial nearshore shery
but three benthic species (gopher, China, and brown rock-   from 1993 to 1997 averaged 12.2 inches. Coincident with


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                                            A Status Report            163
         these observed declines in mean length were increased      Sullivan, M.S. 1995. Grouping of shing locations using sim-
Black Rockfish



         harvest rates (catch per angler hour) observed in the      ilarities in species composition for the Monterey Bay area
         CPFV shery in central California, particularly from 1994    Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel shery, 1987-1992.
         to 1997. Thus, the observed decline in mean length is      Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech. Rep. No.
         partially related to stronger recruitment, and, in spite    59. 37 p.
         of increased shing effort on black rocksh in recent      VenTresca, D.A., J.L. Houk, M.J. Paddack, M.L. Gingras,
         decades, localized populations of adults still must be pres-  N.L. Crane, and S.D. Short. 1996. Early life-history studies
         ent in California to provide this recruitment.         of nearshore rockshes and lingcod off central California,
                                         1987-92. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div.
                                         Admin. Rep. 96-4. 77 pages.
         Paul Reilly
         California Department of Fish and Game             Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
                                         rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish
                                         Bull., U.S. 85:229-250.
         References
         Hallacher, L.E. and D.A. Roberts. 1985. Differential utiliza-
         tion of space and food by the inshore rockshes (Scorpae-
         nidae: Sebastes) of Carmel Bay, California. Environ. Biol.
         Fishes. 12(2):91-110.
         Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, and W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
         The marine recreational shery in northern and central
         California: a historical comparison (1958-86), status of
         stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
         current. Calif. Dept. sh and Game, Fish Bull. 176. 192 p.
         Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
         Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
         Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
         related sport shes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.
         177. 109 p.
         Miller, D.J. and J.J. Geibel. 1973. Summary of blue rock-
         sh and lingcod life histories; a reef ecology study; and
         giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, experiments in Monterey
         Bay, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 168.
         137 p.
         Miller, D.J., J.J. Geibel, and J.L. Houk. 1974. Results of
         the 1972 skindiving assessment survey. Pismo Beach to
         Oregon. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
         Rep. 23. 61 p.
         Miller, D.J, and D. Gotshall. 1965. Ocean sportsh catch
         and effort from Oregon to Point Arguello, California, July
         1, 1957-June 30, 1961. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
         Bull. 130. 135 p.
         Miller, D.J. and R.N. Lea. 1972. Guide to the coastal
         marine shes of California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
         Fish Bull. 157. 235 p. [reprinted in 1976 with Addendum,
         249 p.]
         Reilly, P.N., D.Wilson-Vandenberg, D.L. Watters, J.E. Hard-
         wick, and D. Short. 1993. On board sampling of the
         rocksh and lingcod Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel
         Industry in northern and central California, May 1987 to
         December 1991. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour.
         Div. Admin. Rep. 93-4. 242 p.


           California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
 164
Blue Rockfish
History of the Fishery                    averaged 335,000 sh. This species truly has been the




                                                                    Blue Rockfish
                               bread and butter of the nearshore recreational angler in

T  he blue rocksh (Sebastes mystinus), also known as    northern and central California.
   bluesh, blue perch, blue bass, priestsh, and reef   In a survey of divers conducted in 1972 in northern and
bass, is most commonly caught from the northern Channel   central California, blue rocksh ranked second in impor-
Islands (in the Southern California Bight) to the Oregon   tance to lingcod with 10.5 percent of all sh landed and
border. Although only a small portion of blue rocksh    was the most common rocksh taken, comprising 29.6
landings is from the commercial shery, those landings    percent of all rockshes. Preliminary data from a 1999
have increased in the past decade. During the 1987-1989   survey of Monterey Bay area divers revealed that blue
period, landings in the “blue rocksh” market category    rocksh was the fourth most abundant species harvested,
(which may include other morphologically similar rock-    after California halibut, kelp rocksh, and lingcod.
shes) averaged 25,670 pounds; in 1998 landings were
                               For more than 25 years, the recreational harvest of rock-
approximately 92,000 pounds. Based on market sampling
                               sh was limited to 15 sh per day, with 15 blue rocksh
in the Morro Bay area, total landings of the species blue
                               allowed within that limit. Effective January 1, 2000, the
rocksh are signicantly greater than those of the market
                               bag limit was reduced to 10 rocksh overall, with 10 blue
category “blue rocksh.” For example, in 1998 in this
                               rocksh allowed within that limit. The National Marine
port area, estimated total landings for the species were
                               Fisheries Service considers the blue rocksh a “nearshore
19,300 pounds, yet total reported landings for the market
                               species.” Effective January 1, 2000, very restrictive limits
category were only 2,100 pounds. The former estimate
                               on the commercial harvest of nearshore rockshes have
is based on the percentage of blue rocksh in various
                               been imposed by the National Marine Fisheries Service
sampled market categories and the total landed weight
                               upon recommendation of the Pacic Fishery Management
of all market categories. Blue rocksh are often landed
                               Council. In addition, the DFG now requires a special
as “unspecied rocksh” or “group small rocksh,” both
                               permit for the commercial harvest of nearshore shes,
frequently used market categories.
                               and it is likely that a restricted access program will be
Blue rocksh have become a minor component of the      developed for the nearshore commercial nsh shery
live sh shery, which developed during the 1990s in     in California.
California. For example, in the Morro Bay area during the
1996-1998 period, less than one percent of the live sh
                               Status of Biological Knowledge
landings were blue rocksh, and about four times as many
blue rocksh were landed dead than alive. In 1998, the

                               B  lue rocksh range from the Bering Sea to Punta Baja,
ex-vessel value of all sh landed statewide in the “blue
                                 Baja California, and from surface waters to a maximum
rocksh” market category was $57,700.
                               depth of 300 feet. They are less common south of the
The blue rocksh is one of the most important recre-
                               northern Channel Islands and north of Eureka, California.
ational species in California. It is usually the most fre-
                               They are a medium-sized species among all rockshes; the
quently caught rocksh north of Point Conception for
                               largest known specimen was 21 inches, although individu-
anglers shing from skiffs and Commercial Passenger Fish-
                               als exceeding 15 inches are uncommon in central and
ing Vessels (CPFVs). It is also an important species for
                               southern California. Average size in California recreational
skin and scuba divers using spears, and is occasionally
                               sheries today is 11 to 13 inches. In central and southern
caught by shore anglers shing in rocky subtidal areas.
                               California, larger blue rocksh are now common only in
In a 1981-1986 survey of sport sh taken between the
                               areas distant from shing ports or in larger kelp beds
southern boundary of San Luis Obispo County and Oregon,
                               which are practical to sh only from the edges.
an estimated 800,000 blue rocksh were harvested annu-
ally - more than any other species. This represents a
doubling of the estimated annual harvest from a similar
survey conducted in 1957-1961.
In every complete year sampled by the department, from
1988 through 1998, blue rocksh has been among the
three most frequently observed species caught on CPFVs
in every major port area from Morro Bay to Fort Bragg.
Based on the Department of Fish and Game’s (DFG)
onboard observations and log book summaries, estimated
annual take of blue rocksh by CPFV anglers ranged from
                                                  Blue Rockfish, Sebastes mystinus
199,000 to 546,000 sh for the period 1988 to 1995 and
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                     165
        Rockshes in general are considered to be slow-growing
Blue Rockfish


                                                    2.00
        shes. However, blue rocksh are among the faster grow-                1.75




                                         millions of fish landed
        ing rockshes. First year growth may vary from 3.0 to 4.5               1.50




                                           Blue Rockfish
        inches (central California average about 4.25 inches), and               1.25
                                                    1.00
        after two years blues may reach six inches. An occasional
                                                    0.75
        two- or three-year old blue rocksh may be caught by                  0.50
        anglers, but most do not recruit to the sport and com-                 0.25

        mercial sheries until four to seven years of age when                 0.00
                                                       1947  1950  1960  1970  1980    1990    1999

        they range from eight to 10 inches. Females grow at a
                                         Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Blue Rockfish
        slightly faster rate than males. Maximum age is about
                                         Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
        24 years.
                                         During their rst few months on nearshore reefs, larval
        Age at rst spawning is protracted for both sexes. Only
                                         and YOY blue rocksh are preyed upon by most large
        about 10 percent spawn for the rst time at three years
                                         piscivorous shes. As adults, their predators include ling-
        of age. At ve years, or about 10 to 10.5 inches, half of
                                         cod, harbor seals, sea lions, and, occasionally, larger rock-
        all males are sexually mature. At six years, or about 11
                                         shes, especially bocaccio.
        inches, half of all females have spawned.
                                         Adult blue rocksh are common in kelp beds, where food
        In males, the gonads increase in size from May to July, but
                                         is plentiful and the kelp provides protection from preda-
        in females the eggs begin maturing from July to October.
                                         tors, but they also occur on deeper rocky reefs between
        Males transfer sperm to the females in October, but the
                                         100 and 300 feet deep. In kelp beds they form loose to
        embryos do not begin to develop until December when
                                         compact aggregations. Under dense kelp canopies, they
        the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm. Embryos
                                         will sometimes form columns at least 30 wide and 80 feet
        develop within the female and hatch immediately upon
                                         deep and may be extremely compact. In deeper waters,
        being released into the water; larval release usually peaks
                                         they form aggregations that may extend from the surface
        in mid-January. Larvae live in the surface waters for four
                                         to the bottom, but they are usually at or below mid-depth.
        to ve months, where they may be carried many miles
        by ocean currents. Young-of-the-year (YOY) blue rocksh     Blue rocksh are commonly associated with other near-
        begin to appear in the kelp canopy and shallow rocky       shore sh species, particularly other rockshes. A statisti-
        areas by late April or early May when they are about 1.2     cal technique, cluster analysis, was used to partition CPFV
        to 1.4 inches in length. However, they are not considered    catch data from 1987 to 1992 in the Monterey area based
        fully recruited each year until July due to the variability in  on the frequency of occurrence of species in the sampled
        the planktonic period. As YOY, they are mottled reddish-     catch. In a broad area along the entire Monterey Peninsula
        blue in color upon settlement and may appear in massive     extending out to 240 feet deep, blue rocksh were the
        swarms in certain years in inshore areas, especially in     predominant species and were in close association with
        kelp beds.                            olive, yellowtail, starry, and rosy rockshes. This statisti-
                                         cal relationship has been supported with observations
        After more than two decades of estimating relative abun-
                                         using scuba and submersibles.
        dance of blue rocksh in central California, DFG biologists
        have shown a positive statistical correlation with blue     The DFG has conducted marking studies on all size ranges
        rocksh recruitment and annual upwelling index. Continu-     of blue rocksh from 1.8 to 18 inches. A population study
        ing research is directed towards the mechanisms by which     using freeze branding as a marking technique resulted
        YOY rocksh recruit to nearshore areas, and the relation-    in more than 80,000 recently-settled blue rocksh being
        ship between spawning areas and recruitment areas, as      marked in a ve-week period. These sh showed very
        inuenced by current patterns and oceanographic events.     little movement from an isolated reef 100 x 150 feet and,
                                         in fact, showed very little movement from one part of the
        Feeding habits vary considerably depending upon life his-
                                         reef to another.
        tory stage, depth, and locality. Larval and YOY blue rock-
        sh consume primarily planktonic crustacea. Adult shes     Tagging studies of adult blue rocksh indicate they do
        in deeper water feed almost entirely on macroplankton      not migrate laterally along the coast. Between 1978 and
        consisting of tunicates (salps), scyphozoids (gonadal mate-   1985, over 1500 blue rocksh were tagged and released in
        rial of jellysh), and crustaceans. In shallow areas and     central California waters by DFG biologists. Eighteen tags
        kelp beds, blue rocksh feed on the same types of macro-     were subsequently returned, with the sh being at liberty
        plankton as those in deeper water, but they also feed on     from 11 to 502 days; all were recaptured in the same
        algae, small shes, hydroids, and crustaceans, including     locations where they were tagged. The longest recorded
        amphipods and crab larvae.                    movement of a blue rocksh from any tagging study was
                                         15 miles. While these studies show adult blue rocksh


          California’s Marine Living Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                            December 2001
166
                               References
populations are more or less discrete at each shing port,




                                                       Blue Rockfish
it is not known how much larval drift occurs between
                               See black rocksh reference list.
shing areas.



Status of the Population

A  lthough no shery-independent population estimates
   have ever been made of blue rocksh stocks, it
appears that they have withstood considerable shing
pressure over the last four decades and continue to be
healthy, at least north of Point Conception. There is
evidence of a decline in blue rocksh stocks off southern
California since the 1970s. There is a well-documented
difference in the population structure between northern
and central California stocks. Northern stocks are gener-
ally characterized by a wider size range of adults, a
higher proportion of adults greater than 15 inches and
a correspondingly greater mean length, less variability
in annual recruitment, and most likely a higher growth
rate. These attributes are likely a result of a combination
of greater shing pressure and a greater inuence of
anomalous oceanic conditions such as El Niño events in
central California. Greater variability in annual recruit-
ment results in occasional strong year classes which cause
strong length-frequency modes in the sampled catch;
this occurred four times in recreational shery samples
obtained from 1959 to 1983 in central California. It is
believed that the last exceptionally strong year class of
blue rocksh in central California occurred in 1988, which
is cause for concern. However, a relatively strong year
class also was observed in 1999. In 1993, when the
majority of the 1988 year class had become available to
recreational anglers, mean lengths in the sampled catch
declined substantially in central California. For example,
mean length of blue rocksh sampled from Monterey area
CPFVs declined from 11.9 inches in 1992 to 11.0 inches
in 1993. In heavily shed and well-sampled populations of
rockshes, changes in annual mean length from one year
to the next are commonly less than 0.5 inches.
The total number of blue rocksh caught in recreational
sheries increased substantially from the late 1950s to
the mid-1980s, concurrent with increased effort. However
in the past 15 years recreational shing effort has been
variable but has not shown a consistent increase; the
recreational catch of blue rocksh has shown the same
pattern. However, increased commercial shing in the
nearshore area during the same period has put additional
stress on blue rocksh populations. Fishery managers have
increased monitoring efforts for this keystone species of
nearshore ecosystems.


Paul Reilly
California Department of Fish and Game


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                           A Status Report         167
   Olive Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                          From April to September, young-of-the-year olive rocksh,
                                         around 1.2 to 1.6 inches long, settle out of the plankton
    Olive rocksh (Sebastes serranoides) form a minor part          to kelp beds, oil platforms, surfgrass and other structures
    of the commercial shery in central and southern Califor-         at depths as shallow as 10 feet. During the day, young
    nia, where they are primarily taken by hook-and-line. A          sh aggregate in the water column, occasionally with blue
    relatively small number nd their way into the live sh          and black rocksh. They spend the night near or on the
    shery. Historically, olive rocksh have been common in          bottom, sheltering under algae or among rocks. Young
    the recreational shery as far north as Fort Bragg and          olives also are found under drifting kelp mats. Olives
    were particularly important from central California to the        about 2.5 inches long become more active at night, but
    northern Channel Islands. As late as the 1980s, olives          it is not clear whether adult olives are nocturnal. They
    were a very important recreational species throughout           do feed commonly on octopuses, which are more available
    much of southern California. However, a combination of          at night. Sub-adult and adult olives live over high relief
    overshing and poor juvenile survival brought about by          reefs, as well as around the midwaters of oil platforms.
    changes in oceanographic conditions led to a steep decline        In shallow waters, they are found throughout the water
    (83 percent) in southern California party vessel catches         column and occasionally rest on the bottom. They form
    between 1980 and 1996. In addition, while they were            small to moderate-sized schools and a few often are mixed
    still commonly taken in the central California recreational        with blue rocksh schools. From tagging studies, most
    catch, olive rocksh also declined there in the late 1990s.        olive rocksh move relatively little; a maximum movement
                                         of 20 miles has been reported.
                                         Olive rocksh live at least 25 years. Females grow larger,
    Status of Biological Knowledge                      and, beginning at maturation, tend to be longer at a given
                                         age. Males reach maximum length earlier. Throughout
    Olive rocksh are streamlined sh with almost no head
                                         California, males mature at a somewhat smaller size and
    spines. Their body color is dark brown or dark green-
                                         a slightly greater age than females, however the differ-
    brown on the back and light browns or green- brown
                                         ence is not large. Off central California, a few sh were
    on sides. There are a series of light blotches on the
                                         mature at 10.6 to 11.2 inches (three years), 50 percent
    back. The ns range from olive to bright yellow, and
                                         were mature at 12.9 to 13.7 inches (ve years), and
    olives are often mistaken for yellowtail rocksh. Olive
                                         all were mature by 15.2 inches (eight years). Females
    rocksh are somewhat drabber in appearance, and yel-
                                         release larvae once a year from December through March,
    lowtail rocksh have red-brown ecking on the scales.
                                         peaking in January. Females produce between 30,000 to
    They reach a maximum length of two feet.
                                         490,000 eggs per season. Small juveniles are planktivo-
    Olive rocksh occur from southern Oregon to Islas San
                                         rous, feeding on copepods, gammarid amphipods, cladoc-
    Benitos (central Baja California) from barely subtidal
                                         erans, euphausiids, other crustaceans and sh larvae. As
    waters to 570 feet (the latter based on a trawl
                                         they grow, their diet shifts to shes, such as juvenile
    specimen collected by the Southern California Coastal
                                         rockshes, squids, octopuses, isopods, polychaete worms
    Water Research Project). They are common from about
                                         and krill.
    Cape Mendocino to Santa Barbara and around the North-
    ern Channel Islands from surface waters to about 396 feet.

                                         Status of the Population
    Olives appear to be uncommon off much of both southern
    California and Baja California.

                                         T here has been no stock assessment of this species.
                                          However, there is clear evidence that olive rocksh
                                         have declined in abundance south of Pt. Conception.


                                         Milton Love
                                         University of California, Santa Barbara




                     Olive Rockfish, Sebastes serranoides
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
168
                                                                Olive Rockfish
              350
thousands of fish landed



              300
  Olive Rockfish




              250

              200

              150

              100

              50

              0
                 1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999


Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Olive Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992


References
Lea, R. N., R. D. McAllister and D. A. Ventresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California. Calif. Dep. Fish Game,
Fish Bull. 177.
Love, M. S. 1980. Isolation of olive rocksh, Sebastes
serranoides, populations off southern California. Fish. Bull.
U.S. 77:975-983.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines
in nearshore rocksh recruitment and populations in the
southern California Bight as measured by impingement
rates in coastal electrical generating stations. Fish. Bull.
96:492-501.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and W. V. Buskirk. 1998. A
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. Fish. Bull. 39:180-195.
Love, M. S. and W. V. Westphal. 1981. Growth, reproduc-
tion, and food habits of olive rocksh, Sebastes serranoi-
des, off central California. Fish. Bull. U.S. 79:533-545.
Pearson, D. E. 2000. Data availability, landings, and
length trends of California’s rocksh. NMFS Adm. Rep.
SC-00-01.




    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                      California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                 A Status Report         169
   Brown Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                          rocksh has been the most common rocksh species sold
                                         live in San Francisco markets and comprised nearly 50

    B  rown rocksh (Sebastes auriculatus), commonly             percent of the live rocksh catch in 1999.
      referred to as bolina by shermen and markets, have          The number of vessels landing brown rocksh peaked
    long been an important component of the marine recre-           in the early 1990s, when over 250 hook-and-line vessels
    ational shery and a relatively minor but important com-         made an average of over 1,300 landings per year state-
    ponent of the nearshore commercial shery in California,         wide, usually ranging from 60 to just over 100 pounds
    especially north of Point Conception. In the commercial          per landing. Total landings of brown rocksh peaked in
    shery freshly caught whole brown rocksh are sold either         1991, decreased through the mid-1990s, and increased
    dead or alive in the fresh sh markets. Brown rocksh           again during the late 1990s coincident with an increasingly
    have not been reported separately from other rockshes          active nearshore premium and live sh shery. Though
    in catch statistics, but comprise the majority of the           landings have uctuated over the last two decades, the
    market grouping called bolina, which also includes other         value of the catch has continued to increase, particularly
    similar-looking rocksh species, such as copper or quill-         during the last decade, as rocksh quotas have been
    back rocksh, that are sold at the same price. In samples         reduced and demand has continued to remain high. Mar-
    obtained from 1999 landings, brown rocksh comprised 70          kets in areas such as San Francisco (especially those in
    percent by weight of the bolina category. Brown rocksh          Chinatown) sell their brown rocksh whole and preferably
    are also mixed into other market categories, such as the         live. Dead-landed sh obtain an ex-vessel price of $1 to
    red rocksh group (19 percent by weight in 1999 landings).        $2 per pound, whereas live brown rocksh have demanded
    Commercial catches were made in the past with hook-and-          an ex-vessel price from $2 to $4 per pound. With the
    line gear and, to a lesser extent, gillnets until gillnets        recent management-related reductions in supply, prices
    were excluded from state waters in 1991. Today, brown           have increased to over $6 to $8 per pound at times in
    rocksh are primarily taken with hook-and-line gear,           1999 and 2000.
    which includes mainly rod-and-reel and horizontal longline        Sport anglers regularly catch brown rocksh with rod-and-
    gear, along with some vertical longline (stick) and troll         reel either from the shore, commercial passenger shing
    longline gear. In most port areas of the state, the majority       vessels (CPFVs), or private/rental boats (PRBs), especially
    of bolina group catch is made by rod-and-reel, although,         in nearshore reef habitats (depths of less than 175 feet).
    in the San Francisco area, the longline eet accounts for         Brown rocksh are most common in sport catches near
    over 70 percent of bolina taken. The species is targeted         San Francisco. In a sport sh survey conducted from 1980
    directly in both nearshore and offshore ocean environ-          through 1986, brown rocksh were among the top ve
    ments. In the San Francisco area, the brown rocksh was          species of rocksh caught and composed up to 6.6 percent
    estimated to be the third most common rocksh species           of the estimated sport catch. Inside San Francisco Bay,
    landed by weight in the hook-and-line commercial shery          they are the most common sport-caught rocksh species.
    through the 1990s. The 1999 and 2000 catch estimates           Although catches south of Point Conception are lower,
    suggest that they are now equal to line-caught landings          brown rocksh have comprised up to one percent of rock-
    of chilipepper and the two are the most common species          sh take and have remained among the top 15 species of
    in nearshore catches. Since the early 1990s, the brown          rocksh caught during the last 20 years. These represent
                                         a seven-fold increase by number in statewide take relative
                                         to a 1958 to 1961 survey of recreational shing. Substantial
                                         increases in take have occurred in all modes of shing,
                                         especially by shore shing, pier shing, and PRBs.



                                         Status of Biological Knowledge

                                         B  rown rocksh are found along the Pacic Coast of
                                           North America from the northern Gulf of Alaska to
                                         central Baja California. They live in shallow subtidal
                                         waters and bays, and have been found at depths of just
                                         over 400 feet, although they most commonly reside above
                                         175 feet. Brown rocksh are typically found associated
                                         with sand-rock interfaces and rocky bottoms of articial
                                         and natural reefs. In shallow waters, they may be found
                     Brown Rockfish, Sebastes auriculatus
                                         in small aggregations associated with rocky areas and kelp
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
170
                                                                                       Brown Rockfish
                 250                                                 Commercial Landings
 Group Bolina (Brown Rockfish)


                                                                   1916-1999,
  millions of pounds landed


                                                                   Brown Rockfish
                 200
                                                                   Group Bolina (Brown) rockfish
                                                                   landings were aggregated as rockfish
                 150
                                                                   prior to 1979. DFG market sampling
                                                                   indicates that 75 percent of the
                 100                                                 Group Bolina rockfish market
                                                                   category is made up of brown
                  50                                                rockfish, the remaining 25 percent
                                                                   consists primarily of widow rockfish.
                                                                   Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
                    0  1916 1920   1930   1940  1950   1960  1970    1980   1990   1999    commercial landing receipts.




                                              plankton layer for approximately a month before meta-
              400

                                              morphosing into pelagic juveniles as part of the plankton
              350
thousands of fish landed




                                              and micronekton, and subsequently settling out into
              300
  Brown Rockfish




              250
                                              shallow nearshore waters. Although brown rocksh repro-
              200
                                              duce on the open coast, young-of-the-year sh commonly
              150
                                              migrate into bays and estuaries for use as nursery habitat,
              100

                                              which is an uncommon practice for rocksh species. They
              50

                                              may remain in the bay around rubble, piers and other
              0
                 1947  1950    1960   1970  1980  1990  1999

                                              structures in areas of higher salinity for one to two years
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Brown Rockfish
                                              before returning to the open coast.
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
                                              Brown rocksh feed on increasingly larger prey as they
                                              grow. They shift from small crustaceans, amphipods, and
beds, whereas they stay near the rocky bottom when
                                              copepods as juveniles, to an adult diet of crabs and sh.
in deeper waters. The sub-adults migrate into both high
                                              Little is known about predation on brown rocksh, but it
and low relief reefs and are strongly residential to their
                                              is thought to be similar to that of other nearshore rocksh
home sites.
                                              species: Most predation on the brown rocksh presumably
Distinguishing characteristics of brown rocksh include
                                              occurs during the larval and juvenile stages, with less
orange-brown or dark brown mottling, especially on the
                                              predation occurring on the adults.
back, and a prominent dark brown blotch on the gill cover.
Little sexual dimorphism is evident between male and
female brown rocksh in relation to growth or maturity
                                              Status of the Population
rates. Recent studies found maturity as early as three


                                              W
years, and 100 percent maturity at six years, or roughly                     hile there have been studies of local abundance
12.2 inches total length (TL). Half of the population was                     in certain coastal areas and within bays, the popula-
mature at 3.9 and 4.2 years of age, measuring 9.8                      tion size and structure of this species has not been com-
and 10.4 inches TL in males and females, respectively.                   prehensively assessed. Evidence of stress on brown rock-
Brown rocksh grow to a maximum size of 22 inches,                     sh stocks in California exists, however, and some relative
and live less than 25 years. This is a relatively short                   changes in the population have been identied. Com-
life span compared with most offshore rocksh species,                   mercial and recreational catches have steadily increased
though many nearshore rocksh species have a similar or                   during the last 40 years, while the average length and
shorter lifespan.                                      weight of brown rocksh in landings have declined. When
                                              recreational statistics collected during the last 20 years
As with all members of the genus Sebastes, brown rocksh
                                              were compared to results from a 1958 through 1961 rec-
are ovoviviparous. A 12-inch TL female may produce
                                              reational survey, brown rocksh showed a 49 percent
approximately 42,500 eggs, while an 18-inch TL female
                                              decrease in average weight per sh over 30 years. Mean
may produce as many as 266,000 eggs. Peaks in larval
                                              length of brown rocksh obtained from CPFVs and PRBs in
release occur in the pelagic environment in both Decem-
                                              northern California declined by 18 percent and 21 percent
ber-January and May-June. Larvae live in the upper zoo-
                                              respectively over 40 years. In southern California, mean


    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                            California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                        A Status Report                         171
                                        References
         length in the CPFV catches declined by 31 percent during
Brown Rockfish



         the same period. In relation to the length at which 50
                                        Adams, P.B. 1992. Brown Rocksh. In: California’s Living
         percent of males and females are mature, recreational
                                        Marine Resources and Their Utilization, W.S. Leet, C.M.
         landings data indicate that from 1958 to 1961, most brown
                                        Dewees, and C.W. Haugen, eds. California Sea Grant
         rocksh taken had reached sexual maturity. By the 1980s,
                                        Extension Publication UCSGEP-92-12: 127.
         however, few sh taken from shore or from the bays,
         and about half taken from PRBs were sexually mature.     Baxter, R. 1999. Miscellaneous Species: Brown Rocksh.
         Lengths of brown rocksh sampled from commercial land-    In: Report on the 1980-1995 Fish, Shrimp and Crab Sam-
         ings during the last decade also reect that half of the   pling in the San Francisco Estuary, California, J. Orsi, ed.
         sh were at or below the size at which 50 percent of the   Interagency Ecological Study Program for the Sacramento-
         population is sexually mature, and few larger adult sh    San Joaquin Estuary, Technical Report 63: 443-452.
         are being landed compared to historic values. The decline
                                        Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, W.H. VanBuskirk. 1995. The
         in size of sh in these sheries does not seem to be
                                        marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
         associated with incoming year classes, but instead with a
                                        fornia: A historical comparison (1958-86), status of stocks
         depletion of larger adults due to shing pressure. Although
                                        (1980 - 86), and effects of changes in the California cur-
         nearly half of the sh landed statewide are adults that
                                        rent. California Department of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin
         can replenish the population, there are now few large
                                        176: 192 pp.
         adults above the length of the median-sized sh recorded
                                        Love, M.S., J.E. Caselle, and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines
         in the 1958 through 1961 survey. The brown rocksh has
                                        in nearshore rocksh recruitment and populations in the
         been identied as a species vulnerable to severe localized
                                        southern California Bight as measured by impingement
         depletions in other geographic areas; in Washington state,
                                        rates in coastal electrical power generating stations. Fish.
         the Puget Sound stock of brown rocksh was recom-
                                        Bull. 96: 492-501.
         mended for listing as a threatened species in 1999.
                                        Love, M.S. and K. Johnson. 1999. Aspects of the life
                                        histories of grass rocksh, Sebastes rastrelliger and brown
                                                                ,
         Susan E. Ashcraft and Mark Heisdorf
                                        rocksh, S. auriculatus, from southern California. Fish.
         California Department of Fish and Game
                                        Bull. 97 (1):100-109.
                                        Matthews, KR. 1990. A comparative study of habitat use
                                        by young-of-the-year, sub-adult, and adult rockshes on
                                        four habitat types in central Puget Sound. Fish. Bull. 88
                                        (2): 223-239.




           California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                       December 2001
172
Copper Rockfish
History of the Fishery                     rocky reef as well as sandy areas and are referred to as




                                                                        Copper Rockfish
                                benthic juveniles. Copper rocksh in the early juvenile

T  he copper rocksh (Sebastes caurinus) is a highly     stage are morphologically similar to two closely related
   variable species in terms of coloration, and due to    species, gopher rocksh and black-and-yellow rocksh,
this characteristic it has been known by several names,    and the three species at this life stage are extremely
depending to some degree upon locality. These include     difcult to distinguish. Upon settling, color patterns and
copper rocksh, whitebelly rocksh, gopher, white gopher,   morphological characteristics develop and the three spe-
and bolina (this name is most commonly applied to the     cies become separable.
brown rocksh). Copper rocksh is most widely used and     Copper rocksh are an important component of the near-
is the recommended vernacular name. Historically, copper    shore rocky reef system and are frequently encountered
rocksh was considered a common nearshore species.       by scuba divers in this environment. Submersible obser-
Over the past 20 years, copper rocksh have become a      vations of the biotic community off the Big Sur coast
less frequent component of the nearshore environment.     revealed copper rocksh between depths of 70 and 325
Commercially, copper rocksh are landed in a number of     feet. The majority of sightings were of individual (sol-
market categories including copper rocksh as well as red,   itary) sh occurring over rocky reef or boulder elds
bolina, and gopher rocksh groups. It is sold as llets by   and most frequently in areas of high relief. Occasionally,
the market names rocksh or red rocksh and often whole    an individual was observed over sand. Coppers are
as red rockcod; it is considered an excellent food sh.    considered epibenthic, normally occurring slightly above
Copper rocksh is one of the species taken in the live-sh   the substrate.
shery. They have been an important component of the      Tagging studies indicate that copper rocksh, for the most
recreational catch in both skiff and commercial passenger   part, show little movement once they have settled to the
shing vessel sheries, especially off central and northern  bottom. Movement of up to one mile has been noted but
California. Due to its relatively large size, known to reach  the majority of tagged and recaptured copper rocksh
22.9 inches in length, copper rocksh has been considered   are from the locality where they were originally taken.
one of the premium species in the recreational angler’s    This life history characteristic makes species with high
catch and a prime target for the sport diver.         site delity susceptible to local depletion. In areas close
                                to shing ports and higher rates of utilization, fewer and
                                smaller copper rocksh are caught.
Status of Biological Knowledge
                                Copper rocksh reach sexual maturity at about 11.6 inches

T  he copper rocksh was one of the rst species of      total length (TL) for females and 14.6 inches TL for males.
   rockshes to be described from the Pacic Coast,      This is at about ve years of age for females and seven
having been scientically named in 1845 by John Richard-    years for males. Size and age for copper rocksh from off
son from Sitka, Alaska. For many years, the copper and     central California for the rst ve years are as follows: age
whitebelly rocksh were considered as separate species     zero, 3.6 inches TL; age one, 3.7 to 5.9 inches TL; age two,
but morphological and biochemical analyses in the 1980s    4.2 to 9.4 inches TL; age three, 7.0 to 11.5 inches TL, and
have shown these two nominal forms to be conspecic,      age four, 8.9 to 13.2 inches TL. There appears to be no
a highly variable-colored but genetically unique species.   signicant difference in the growth rates between sexes.
The copper rocksh is broadly distributed geographically,
known from the Gulf of Alaska to off central Baja Califor-
nia, Mexico. It also has a broad bathymetric distribution,
known to occur from the shallow subtidal to 600 feet.
As with all rockshes, coppers are viviparous and highly
fecund. A 13.4-inch female is capable of producing
215,000 ova and an 18.5-inch sh of producing 640,000
ova. The largest individuals may well produce over one
million larvae. The larvae are released during winter
months (Jan.-March). Young-of-the-year copper rocksh
are pelagic and recruit into the nearshore environment
at about 0.8 to 1.0 inch during April and May off central
California. The newly recruited copper rocksh initially
associate with canopy-forming kelps such as Macrocystis,
Cystoseira, and Nereocystis. After several months, and at
                                           Copper Rockfish, (Sebastes caurinus) and a sea anemone
about 1.6 inches, the juveniles settle to the bottom on                       Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                        173
         Off central California, copper rocksh have been aged to
Copper Rockfish


                                                      500
         28 years for a 22.1-inch individual. Copper rocksh from




                                        thousands of fish landed
                                                      400
         Puget Sound have been aged to 34 years.




                                          Copper Rockfish
                                                      300
         Copper rocksh feed on a wide variety of prey items.
         Crustaceans form a major part of their diet; these include                200

         Cancer crabs, kelp crabs, and shrimps. Squid of the                   100
         genus Loligo and octopuses are also important food items.
                                                      0
         Fishes, which include young-of-the-year rockshes, cusk-                    1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999


         eels, eelpouts, and sculpins are important forage for     Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Copper Rockfish
         larger individuals. Juvenile copper rocksh feed primarily  Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
         on planktonic crustaceans.
         Hybridization of copper rocksh with brown rocksh has
                                        Phillips, Julius B. 1939. Rocksh of the Monterey wholesale
         been suspected in Puget Sound, but this has not been
                                        sh markets. Calif. Fish and Game 25(3):214-225.
         noted from anywhere else within their range.
                                        Phillips, Julius B. 1958. Rocksh review. In The marine
                                        sh catch of California for the years 1955 and 1956 with
         Status of the Population                   rocksh review. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
                                        105:7-25.

         T  here has been no stock assessment of this species
           in California. However, there is compelling evidence
         that copper rocksh populations have severely declined
         in many areas and large individuals are noticeably less
         common than in past decades. Due to their solitary
         nature, high habitat specicity, and the size they can
         enter the shery (as juveniles), the copper rocksh is a
         prime candidate for local depletion.


         Robert N. Lea
         California Department of Fish and Game



         References
         Karpov, K. A., D. P. Albin, and W. H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
         The marine recreational shery in northern and central
         California: a historical comparison (1958-86), status of
         stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
         Current. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 176, 192 p.
          Lea, R. N., R. D. McAllister, and D. A. VenTresca. 1999.
         Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
         Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
         related sportshes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
         177, 109 p.
         Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle, and W. Van Buskirk. 1998. A
         severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
         rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the southern California
         Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Reports 39:180-195.
         Miller, D. J. and D. Gotshall. 1965. Ocean sportsh catch
         and effort from Oregon to Point Arguello, California July
         1, 1957-June 30, 1961. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
         Bull. 130, 135 p.




           California’s Marine Living Resources:              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                          December 2001
174
Canary Rockfish
History of the Fishery                    Status of Biological Knowledge




                                                                    Canary Rockfish
P                               C
   rior to 1944, the primary gear used for the capture of    anary rocksh, referred to as orange rocksh in
   rocksh was the hook-and-line (primarily vertical long-    older reports, occur from Baja California to southeast
line). Soon after World War II, the “balloon” trawl became  Alaska. Their center of distribution is the Washington-
the dominant gear used to capture rocksh. Canary rock-    British Columbia area, and in California they have com-
sh (Sebastes pinniger) became the largest component in    mercial importance only as far south as Bodega Bay. Elec-
the trawl shery landings in northern California. From    trophoretic differences indicate that canary rocksh may
the 1940s to the late 1960s, rocksh landings began to    have two separate subpopulations: one north, the other
increase steadily, due in part to Asian market demands.    south of central Oregon. A recent assessment of these
Estimated canary rocksh landings for this time period    two portions of the canary rocksh resource suggests the
indicate annual catches of 550 to 2,200 tons, the majority  southern area may be receiving population enhancements
being landed in northern California with trawl gear. The   from the northern spawned sh. Canary rocksh have
exact amounts harvested during this time period are not    been caught at depths below 1,000 feet, but are taken in
known since rocksh landings were not recorded sep-      abundance only to 500 feet.
arately until 1981. During the 1970s, total landings of
                                Canary rocksh grow rapidly until they reach maturity at
canary rocksh in California decreased slightly to between
                                about 17 inches, then more slowly to a maximum age of
440 and 990 tons. Trawl gear continued to dominate
                                70 years and a maximum length of 24.5 inches for females
the total catch (60-70 percent), with recreational catches
                                and 21 inches for males. For example, at one year, females
(15-30 percent) and commercial hook-and-line (5-15 per-
                                average 5.4 inches and males 4.3 inches; at four years
cent) accounting for the rest.
                                both females and males average about 11.7 inches; by age
In 1982, the trawl catch of canary rocksh in California   12, females average 20.2 inches and males 19.1 inches. By
accounted for 77 percent of the total canary rocksh     age 50 they have added little length (females, 24.4 inches;
catch (1,200 tons), with most of the sh being landed in   males, 20.9 inches). Most populations have few individuals
Eureka and Fort Bragg. Recreational and commercial hook-   older than 20 years.
and-line catches accounted for 21 percent and 2 percent
                                Females begin to mature sexually at 10.6 inches, reaching
of the total in 1982. During the 1980s, a new gear, the
                                50 percent maturity at 17.3 inches, and 100 percent matu-
setnet or gillnet entered the shery. Gillnet catches began
                                rity at 21.2 inches. Males begin to mature at 11 inches,
to replace hook-and-line catches for a few years, but
                                reaching 50 percent maturity at 15.7 inches, and 100
accounted for less landings compared to the recreational
                                percent maturity at 17.7 inches. A 10.6-inch female carries
and trawl catches. The trawl remains the dominant gear
                                about 69,000 eggs; a 17.3-inch female about 489,000 eggs;
type for harvesting canary rocksh to this day, but has
                                and a 21.2-inch female about 1,113,000 eggs.
experienced declines to levels nearly matching the hook-
                                Canary rocksh are viviparous, meaning that the females
and-line catches. Since 1982, the total harvest of canary
                                bear free-living young and contribute some energy to their
rocksh in California has declined dramatically to 250
                                young while they are inside the mother. Males fertilize
tons in 1998. The trawl, commercial hook-and-line, recre-
                                the females around December, and the females hold their
ational, and setnet catches account for 50 percent, 42
                                young until December to March. Pelagic juveniles occur
percent, 8 percent, and less than 1 percent of the total
                                in the upper 100 feet of the surface waters from April
canary rocksh landings in 1998. Canary rocksh are cur-
                                to June. It is assumed that the juveniles descend to
rently being managed through bi-monthly trip limits.
Canary rocksh is an important component of the com-
mercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) recreational catch
from central and northern California. This species was
consistently one of the top ten species landed by CPFV
anglers shing in the San Francisco area north to the
Eureka area. Average length of canary rocksh caught by
CPFV anglers is small and usually involves immature sh
(less than 50 percent maturity).




                                                 Canary Rockfish, Sebastes pinniger
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    175
                                         References
         benthic habitats after mid-June. Juvenile canary rocksh,
Canary Rockfish



         like most rockshes, tend to settle in the shallower
         depths of their range and move to deeper waters as they
                                         Crone, P.R., K.R. Piner, R.D. Methot, R.J. Conser, and
         grow older.
                                         T.L. Builder. 1999. Status of the canary rocksh resource
         Adult canary rocksh feed primarily on euphausiids. Next
                                         off Oregon and Washington in 1999. In Pacic Fishery
         in importance as prey are sh, mainly myctophids and
                                         Management Council. 1999. Appendix: status of the Pacic
         adult shortbelly rocksh which are most abundant in the
                                         coast groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended
         fall and winter diet. Gelatinous zooplanktors and associ-
                                         acceptable biological catches for 2000: stock assessment
         ated hyperiid amphipods are common prey but are a minor
                                         and shery evaluation. Portland, Oregon.
         part of the diet. Pelagic juvenile canary rocksh feed on
                                         Williams, E.H., S. Ralston, A.D. MacCall, D. Woodbury,
         copepods and euphausiid eggs and larvae.
                                         and D.E. Pearson. 1999. Stock assessment of the canary
         Predation on canary rocksh is most severe during the
                                         rocksh resource in the waters off southern Oregon and
         pelagic larval and juvenile stages. Juveniles (one to three
                                         California in 1999. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
         inches) are commonly found in the stomach contents
                                         1999. Appendix: status of the Pacic coast groundsh sh-
         of chinook salmon. Undoubtedly, other predators of juve-
                                         ery through 1999 and recommended acceptable biological
         nile sh (other shes, mammals and birds, including the
                                         catches for 2000: stock assessment and shery evaluation.
         common murre) prey on juvenile canary rocksh. After the
                                         Portland, Oregon.
         juveniles descend to the benthos and become adults they
         are much less vulnerable to predators.



         Status of the Population

         T  he canary rocksh population has declined since the
           early 1970s, particularly in the waters north of Califor-
         nia. The population size of age three and older canary
         rocksh for California was estimated to be approximately
         4,700 tons in 1973 and had decreased nearly 60 percent
         to 1,900 tons in 1998. The mean length of canary rocksh
         has declined 13 percent since 1980 in the trawl shery,
         indicating the removal of larger, older sh from the popu-
         lation. Off the coast of Washington and Oregon age two
         and older sh were estimated at 73,700 tons in 1967; in
         1999 the estimate was 12,100 tons. The spawning popula-
         tion of canary rocksh has seen even more dramatic
         declines, with estimates of 1999 spawning population sizes
         of 6-23 percent of historically unshed levels. In 1999, the
         canary rocksh resource off the entire U.S. West Coast
         was declared overshed. Recent predictions of population
         trends indicate the population may take many decades
         to recover to shable levels. Attempts to decrease shing
         pressure on canary rocksh are resulting in severe restric-
         tions for many other West Coast sheries.


         Erik H. Williams and Peter B. Adams
         National Marine Fisheries Service




           California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                        December 2001
176
Quillback Rockfish
History of the Fishery                     quillback to be residential (no movement) or to show




                                                                       Quillback Rockfish
                                 movement of less than six miles. They have also demon-

Q  uillback rocksh (Sebastes maliger) are a minor com-    strated homing ability and day-night movement patterns.
   ponent of the commercial passenger shing vessel      In California, quillback rocksh have been aged to 15
(CPFV) shery and in general are only observed from the     years, but are known to live longer, as they have been
ports of Monterey northward. Only in the Eureka area does    aged to 76 years in Canada. Quillback can grow to 24
this species rank among the 10 most frequently observed     inches, and growth rates differ along its range. In Cali-
benthic sport shes caught by CPFV anglers. In the Fort     fornia, size for a 12-year-old quillback is approximately
Bragg area, quillback rocksh ranked between 13 and 17     7.1 inches. Size at rst maturity for males is 8.7 inches
among benthic sport shes caught by CPFV anglers, and      (four years), and for females is 10.2 inches (six years).
their importance in the shery diminishes with decreasing    In California, size at 50 percent maturity for males and
latitude. A survey of all recreational sport shing modes    females was found to be the same as for rst maturity.
from 1981 to 1986 indicated an average annual harvest of
                                 As with all Sebastes, quillback have internal fertilization
approximately 9,000 sh.
                                 and produce live young. In California, mating takes place
Commercial landings of the “quillback rocksh” market      in the late winter and early spring, with birth occurring
category are signicant only from the San Francisco area    from April through July. After roughly one to two months
northward. However, historical landings are difcult to     in the plankton (0.7 to 2.8 inches), they begin to settle
determine because of the low frequency of quillback       near shore.
rocksh and confused identication with other similar
                                 As planktonic larvae and after they settle, quillback rock-
species. Statewide landings in this market category in
                                 sh feed on other planktonic animals and eggs. As adults
1999 comprised less than 0.3 percent of all rockshes.
                                 they feed on a variety of prey such as crustaceans, espe-
Since 1992, this market category has not been used
                                 cially shrimps; small sh, including rockshes and at-
every year and when used, may have consisted of several
                                 shes; clams; marine worms; and sh eggs.
different species.
                                 Quillback rocksh larvae are subject to predation by jelly-
                                 sh and arrow worms. As juveniles, they are preyed upon
Status of Biological Knowledge                 by shes, including larger rockshes, lingcod, cabezon and
                                 salmon. Various marine birds and pinnipeds eat juvenile

T  he quillback rocksh was rst described by Jordan and    quillback as well. Adults are also subject to predation by
   Gilbert in 1880. Also referred to as orange-spotted,    larger shes including some sharks, as well as sea lions,
yellow-back, or stickleback rocksh, it is part of central   seals, and possibly, river otters.
and northern California’s nearshore benthic assemblage.
                                 Juveniles inhabit very nearshore bottom areas and are
Quillback rocksh are relatively small, and are of “stout”   found over both low and high rocky substrate. They are
morphology; a characteristic common among nearshore       sometimes found among sponges and algae that provide
Sebastes found in close association with the bottom. They    shelter. Adults are most often found in deeper water
are usually orange-brown to black in color with a yellow    and are solitary reef-dwellers living in close association
or orange pale area between the eye and pectoral n.      with the bottom. They are often seen perched on rocks
This pale area is also present as a saddle on the rst     or taking shelter in crevices and holes. Adults have also
few dorsal spines and as speckling on the mid-dorsal      been noted to retreat to eelgrass beds at night. Quillback
surface. A characteristic that helps distinguish this species
from similar species is its long dorsal spines and deeply
notched forward dorsal n membranes. Copper rocksh
and other nearshore shallow dwelling rocksh also have
deeply notched rst dorsals but not so much as quillback.
Quillback rocksh are known from the Gulf of Alaska
to Anacapa Passage in southern California, and are con-
sidered common between southeast Alaska and northern
California. They are found from near the surface to a
depth of 900 feet and can be common at depths of several
hundred feet.
Like other Sebastes of shallow, benthic habit, individual
quillback rocksh are not known to range far. Tagging                       Quillback Rockfish, Sebastes maliger
                                                            Credit: L. Sinclair
studies in central California and Washington have shown
                                                              Miller and Lea


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                       177
                                                       References
           are also associated with the rock-sand interface, but are
Quillback Rockfish



           rarely seen in the open away from suitable cover.
                                                       Love M.S. and R.N. Lea. 1997. Range Extension of the quill-
                                                       back rocksh, Sebastes maliger to the southern California
                                                                      ,
           Status of the Population                                Bight. California Fish and Game 83(2):78-83.
                                                       Matthews, K.R. 1990. An experimental study of the habitat
           W   hile no stock assessment has been done for quillback
                                                       preference and movement patterns of copper, quillback,
              rocksh in California, length-frequency data exist on
                                                       and brown rockshes (Sebastes spp.). Environmental Biol-
           their occurrence in the recreational shery in northern
                                                       ogy of Fishes 30:161-178.
           and central California, as well as in the commercial sh-
                                                       Moser, H.G. 1996. Scorpaenidae: scorpionshes and rock-
           ery from the same region. Between the late 1980s and
                                                       shes. In: H.G. Moser (Editor), The early stages of shes
           mid-1990s, quillback rocksh experienced increased take
                                                       in the California Current region, California Cooperative
           by the commercial shery as the market demand for
                                                       Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, Atlas No. 33, p 733-795.
           premium, live sh increased, yet no signicant trend was
                                                       Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas.
           noted in the average size of sh. Fishing pressure has
           relaxed somewhat in recent years because of restrictions                Roberts, D.A. 1979. Food Habits as an ecological partition-
           placed on the shery. Concern over sustainability of the                ing mechanism in the nearshore rockshes (Sebastes) of
           commercial and recreational nearshore shery has made                  Carmel Bay, California. M.A. Thesis, San Francisco State
           this species of particular interest to managers.                    University. 77 p.
                                                       Wylie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
                                                       rockshes: maturity an seasonality of reproduction. Fish-
           David A. Osorio and Richard Klingbeil
                                                       ery Bulletin 85(2):229-250.
           California Department of Fish and Game
                                                       Yamanaka, K.L. and A.R. Kronlund. 1997. Inshore rocksh
                                                       stock assessment for the west coast of Canada in 1996 and
                                                       recommended yields for 1997. Canadian Technical Report
                        30
                                                       of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 2175, 80 p.
           thousands of fish landed




                        25
            Quillback Rockfish




                                                       Yoklavich, M.M., V.J. Loeb, M. Nishimoto, and B. Daly.
                        20
                                                       1996. Nearshore assemblages of larval rockshes and
                        15
                                                       their physical environment off central California during
                        10
                                                       an expected El Nino event, 1991-1993. Fishery Bulletin
                         5
                                                       94(4):766-784.
                         0 1947  1950  1960  1970  1980    1990    1999


           Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Quillback Rockfish
           Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992




                        California’s Marine Living Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                         December 2001
178
Calico Rockfish
History of the Fishery                     phins have also been known to feed on juvenile and adult




                                                                      Calico Rockfish
                                calico rocksh.

C  alico rocksh (Sebastes dalli) are taken in the southern  Calico rocksh up to 10 inches long and 1.25 pounds
   and central California sport sheries for nearshore    in weight have been measured. They have been aged
rockshes. During the 1980s, the estimated annual calico    to between 11 and 12 years. Male calico rocksh rst
rocksh sport catch averaged 8,900 sh with a high of     become sexually mature at age seven and females reach
21,000 sh taken in 1985. An onboard study of the south-    sexual maturity at age nine. Spawning occurs in southern
ern California commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV)    California between January and May, with peak spawning
or partyboat shery from 1985 through 1987, ranked calico   activity occurring in February. Fertilized eggs are present
rocksh among the top 20 species taken during two of      in November and December. The range of fecundity
the three years surveyed. The same study also showed      observed for calico rocksh was 1,700 to 18,000 eggs
that CPFV anglers discarded large numbers of calico rock-   per female. The pelagic larval stage lasts from one to
sh at sea each year in a practice commonly known as      two months, and the post-larvae then settle out of the
“high grading.” In high grading, only the largest sh were   plankton between 0.08 and 0.1 inches in length.
retained by anglers as part of their bag limits, and the
smaller sh were selectively discarded. For calico rocksh,
                                Status of the Population
the estimated number of discards on CPFVs exceeded
the number of calico rocksh that were kept by anglers

                                T  here are currently no estimates of abundance for
each year. This illegal practice has been widespread at
                                  calico rocksh in California. There were more calico
times in the past and has been difcult to curtail. A
                                rocksh landed annually by sport anglers in the 1980s
more recent estimate of annual California sport catches of
                                than in the 1990s, which may have been a reection of
calico rocksh averaged 5,700 sh per year between 1993
                                the abundance of that species during two strong El Niño
and 1999, with a high of 8,000 calico rocksh caught in
                                events that occurred in the 1980s. Whether the reduced
1995 and in 1998.
                                calico rocksh catch during the 1990s was a result of
Calico rocksh comprise a very minor portion of the
                                changing oceanic conditions or was due to actual deple-
state’s commercial catch. Their small size and scattered
                                tion of calico rocksh stocks by sport and commercial
distribution probably preclude them from being targeted.
                                sheries is not known. Because of the relatively small
Calico rocksh, however, may be one of several small rock-
                                size of adult calico rocksh, they are not usually targeted
sh species, including squarespot, honeycomb, halfbanded
                                by either sport or commercial shermen but are caught
and starry rockshes, that are caught and subsequently
                                incidentally when other nsh species are targeted. Calico
discarded at sea as an unmarketable bycatch in nearshore
                                rocksh appear as bycatch in prawn trawls and other
hook-and-line, trap, or trawl sheries. The quantity of
                                nearshore sheries in southern California and are caught
calico rocksh bycatch in these sheries is currently
                                by sport anglers on CPFVs and private boats when they are
undetermined.
                                shing for other, larger benthic species.


Status of Biological Knowledge

C  alico rocksh range from Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja
   California to San Francisco within a depth range of 60
to 840 feet. They are small, colorful rocksh that inhabit
nearshore areas of southern and central California. Calico
rocksh are distinguished by having a greenish yellow
background color overlaid with dark-brown oblique bars
on the side, and a black spot on the edge of the gill
cover. Juvenile calico rocksh are found in areas of soft
sand-silt sediment, and on articial reefs. Adults inhabit
rocky shelf areas where there is a mud-rock or sand-mud
interface with ne sediments. They are usually associated
with structures that provide vertical relief and sheltered
habitat, including articial reefs. The main diet of calico
rocksh is pelagic crustaceans, including calanoid cope-
pods. They are preyed upon by larger rocksh species,
                                                     Calico Rockfish, Sebastes dalli
lingcod, cabezon, and salmon. Sea birds, sharks, and dol-
                                                   Credit: L. Sinclair, Miller and Lea


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     179
                                                      References
Calico Rockfish


                       30
         thousands of fish landed



                       25
                                                      Ally, J. R., D.S. Ono, R. B. Read, M. Wallace. 1991. Status
           Calico Rockfish




                       20
                                                      of major southern California marine sport sh species with
                       15
                                                      management recommendations, bases on analysis of catch
                                                      and size composition data collected on board commercial
                       10

                                                      passenger shing vessels from 1985 through 1987. Calif.
                       5

                                                      Dept. Fish and Game. Marine Resources. Admin. Rept.
                       0
                         1947  1950  1960  1970  1980   1990    1999

                                                      #90-2. 376 p.
         Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Calico Rockfish
                                                      Haldorson, L. and M. Love. 1991. Maturity and fecundity
         Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1980 &
                                                      in the rockshes, Sebastes spp., a review. Marine Fisheries
         1990-1992
                                                      Review 53(2):25-31.
                                                      Love, M.S., P. Morris, M. McCrae, and R. Collins. 1990.
         Management Considerations                                Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
                                                      Sebastes) from the Southern California Bight. NOAA Tech-
         See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                                      nical Report No. 87, 38 p.
         further information.
                                                      Love, M.S., L. Thorsteinson, C.W. Mecklenburg, and T.A.
                                                      Mecklenburg. 1996. A checklist of marine and estuarine
         David Ono
                                                      shes of the Northeast Pacic, from Alaska to Baja Cali-
         California Department of Fish and Game
                                                      fornia. National Biological Service. Located at Web site
                                                      www.ucsb.edu/lovelab/home.html
                                                      Moser, H.G. and J.L. Butler. 1981. Description of reared
                                                      larvae and early juveniles of the calico rocksh, Sebastes
                                                      dallii. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investiga-
                                                      tions Reports. 22:88-95.
                                                      Moser, H.G. 1996. Scorpaenidae: scorpionshes and rock-
                                                      shes. In: H.G. Moser (Editor), The early stages of shes
                                                      in the California Current region, California Cooperative
                                                      Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, Atlas No. 33, p 733-795.
                                                      Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas.
                                                      RecFIN MRFSS Sample Data, 1980-1989 and 1993-1999.
                                                      Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission. Located at
                                                      Web site: www.PSMFC.org




                       California’s Marine Living Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                         December 2001
  180
Monkeyface
Prickleback                            algal cover, including high and low tide pools, jetties




                                                                                     Monkeyface Prickleback
                                 and breakwaters, and shallow subtidal areas, particularly
                                 rocky reefs and kelp beds. Juveniles are particularly
 History of the Fishery                     adapted for living in the high intertidal zone. The species


 T
                                 is capable of living out of water under algae for extended
   he monkeyface prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus)
                                 periods and has air-breathing capacity. It is considered
   is a nearshore sh that is a minor component of
                                 to be a residential species, moving short distances from
 the recreational and commercial catch. It is frequently
                                 crevices or under rocks to foraging sites. It appears to
 referred to as monkeyface eel and blenny eel due to its
                                 occupy a small home range of several meters and is
 eel-like appearance. However, it is more closely related
                                 primarily active during periods of a ooding tide.
 to bass-like shes (Perciformes) than to true eels. It is a
 member of the prickleback family, Stichaeidae, of which     The coloration of the species is a uniform light brown to
 17 species occur in California. Its elongate body shape     dark green, often with several rust-colored blotches on
 is an adaptation for living in cracks, crevices, and under   the sides of the body. Two dark stripes radiate behind the
 boulders, primarily in the intertidal zone. Monkeyface     eye. Adults have a lumpy ridge on top of the head. The
 prickleback have been found in coastal Indian middens      coloration of both sexes is similar.
 of California along with cabezon and rockshes and were
                                               25
 undoubtedly exploited as a food resource in historic and



                                 thousands of fish landed
                                 Monkeyface Prickleback
 prehistoric times.                                     20

 A specialized recreational shery by shore anglers shing                 15

 in rocky intertidal and shallow subtidal habitat exists for                10
 this species. The most common shing method is “poke
                                               5
 poling,” which normally consists of shing with a long
 bamboo pole, a short piece of wire, and a baited hook.                   0
                                                 1947  1950  1960  1970     1980     1990    1999

 The bait is placed in front of or in holes or crevices in the
                                 Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Monkeyface Prickleback
 rock. Skin and scuba divers also spear them.
                                 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
 The monkeyface prickleback did not rank among the top
 fteen species observed in either beach/bank or jetty/     Monkeyface prickleback grow slowly, particularly after the
 breakwater shing categories in a 1980 through 1986       rst few years of life. A 12-inch sh is approximately three
 Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey (MRFSS)     years old, while a 24-inch sh will be 15 to 17 years old.
 in California. The most recent (1999) MRFSS total catch     Monkeyface prickleback have been aged to 18 years using
 estimate for northern California from all recreational sh-   the otolith and opercular bone, but the largest specimens
 ing categories was 2,000 sh; however, the standard error    have not been aged. The maximum reported size is 30
 of the estimate was much higher than the estimate.       inches in total length; 18 to 24 inch individuals are not
                                 uncommon.
 Commercial landing records in California date from 1928.
 Catch since then can best be described as of minor signi-   Information available on age at sexual maturity suggests
 cance. Since 1991, annual landings have ranged from 12 to    that both sexes begin to mature in their third or fourth
 935 pounds, primarily from the port areas of San Francisco   year at a total length range of 11.0 to 14.2 inches, while
 and Santa Barbara. However, catch statistics may include    50 percent maturity occurs at approximately 15.4 inches
 California moray, rock prickleback, wolf-eel, and other     at ve years of age. Fertilization is internal and spawning
 eel-like shes or true eels.                  activity occurs from January to May, with the peak spawn-
                                 ing period from February to April. Females are oviparous,
                                 depositing their eggs on subtidal, rocky surfaces. Fecun-
 Status of Biological Knowledge                 dity is known to range from 17,500 eggs for a 16-inch,
                                 seven-year old sh to 46,000 eggs for a 24-inch, 11-year-

 T  he monkeyface prickleback ranges along the Pacic
                                 old sh, with smaller sh producing fewer eggs. Nest
   coast from San Quentin Bay, Baja California, Mexico
                                 guarding behavior has been observed but it is unclear
 to central Oregon. It is most common off central Califor-
 nia from San Luis Obispo County to Sonoma County, and
 is uncommon south of Point Conception. They normally
 occur in the intertidal zone with a depth range extending
 from the high intertidal to a reported depth of 80 feet.
 Typical habitat for monkeyface prickleback includes rocky
 intertidal areas with ample crevices, boulders, and                                  Monkeyface Prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus
                                                                            Credit: PSMFC


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                                            A Status Report                      181
Monkeyface Prickleback



                                            1.2




                              thousands of pounds landed
                               Monkeyface Prickleback
                                            1.0

                                            0.8
                 Commercial Landings
                                            0.6
                      1916-1999,
              Monkeyface Prickleback
                                            0.4
               No commercial landing are
                reported for monkeyface
                                            0.2
              prickback prior to 1990. Data
             Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and                0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
              commercial landing receipts.



                                                            Management Considerations
              if the female, male, or both sexes guard the egg mass.
              Larval length at hatching is unknown; larvae begin to
                                                            See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
              settle out of the plankton at 0.7 to 0.9 inches.
                                                            further information.
              The diet of monkeyface prickleback shifts from carnivo-
              rous to herbivorous with an increase in size. As early
              juveniles, up to 3.1 inches, prey items are predominantly                  Robert N. Lea and Paul N. Reilly
              zooplankton and include copepods, amphipods, isopods,                    California Department of Fish and Game
              mysids, and polychaetes. At approximately three inches,
              they then become almost exclusively herbivorous. Over
                                                            References
              sixty species of algae have been recorded as food items.
              Despite this wide array, they appear to feed selectively
                                                            Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1971. Marine Food and
              on eight to 10 species of red and green algae, mostly in
                                                            Game Fishes of California. University of California Press.
              the genera Ulva, Porphyra, Mazzaella, Microcladia, and
                                                            179 p.
              Mastocarpus. Adults appear to prefer annual red and green
              algae to perennial red algae. This preference is deter-                   Horn, M.H., K.L.M. Martin, and M.A. Chotkowski [eds.]
              mined to some degree by ocean season and availability.                   1999. Intertidal Fishes: Life in Two Worlds. Academic
                                                            Press. 399 p.
              Predators of monkeyface prickleback include piscivorous
              birds, such as great egrets and red-breasted mergansers,                  Horn, M.H., S.N. Murray, and T.W. Edwards. 1982. Dietary
              and shes such as cabezon and grass rocksh. Predation                   selectivity in the eld and food preferences in the labora-
              is primarily on the earlier life stages of this species;                  tory for two herbivorous shes (Cebidichthys violaceus
              large juveniles and adult sh most likely evade or outgrow                 and Xiphister mucosus) from a temperate intertidal zone.
              these predators.                                      Marine Biology 67:237-246.
              Other intertidal boulder and crevice-dwelling eel-like                   Love, M. 1996. Probably More than You Want to Know
              shes, such as the rock and black pricklebacks and pen-                   about the Fishes of the Pacic Coast. Really Big Press,
              point and rockweed gunnels, are possible competitors                    Santa Barbara, California, 381 p.
              with monkeyface prickleback for space and food resources.
                                                            Marshall, W.H. and T. Wyllie Echeverria. 1992. Age, length,
              Status of the Population                                  weight, reproductive cycle and fecundity of the monkey-
                                                            face prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus). California Fish

              N  o information is available on the status of stocks
                                                            and Game 78(2):57-64.
                 of monkeyface prickleback. The primary source of
                                                            Miller, K.A. and W.H. Marshall. 1987. Food habits of large
              shing mortality is from recreational poke polers and
                                                            monkeyface prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus. California
              commercial anglers shing from shore or the shallow sub-
                                                            Fish and Game 73(1):37-44.
              tidal, with a lesser number taken spearshing by free
                                                            Ralston, S.L. and M.H. Horn. 1986. High tide movements
              and scuba divers. Historically, both recreational and com-
                                                            of the temperate-zone herbivorous sh Cebidichthys viola-
              mercial landings are considered to be low.
                                                            ceus (Girard) as determined by ultrasonic telemetry. Jour-
                                                            nal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 98:35-50.



                  California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                                     December 2001
  182
Kelp Greenling
 History of the Fishery                     long while those caught at 20 to 40 feet tend to be eight




                                                                     Kelp Greenling
                                 to 13 inches long. Kelp greenling grow faster than most

 K  elp greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus) are shed     nearshore shes during their rst three years. After the
    primarily for sport. The commercial shery has histori-  third year, growth slows, especially in males (as it does
 cally been based largely on catch incidental to the lingcod  in lingcod), so that by the fth or sixth year males are
 or nearshore rocksh sheries, although their importance    smaller than females. The maximum reported age and size
 in the commercial catch has increased since 1997 with     is 16 years and 21 inches. At age three, males average 10.6
 the emergence of a nearshore “live” sh shery. Because    inches and females 9.1 inches. By age ve, the males aver-
 of their abundance in nearshore rocky areas, they are fre-   age 12.6 inches while females are 14.7 inches. Ten-year-
 quently caught by people shing from shore or small boats   olds average 15.5 and 16.4 inches, respectively. These
 and are a common target for spear shermen underwater.     data are from Puget Sound, Washington.
 Sport shing surveys made from 1958 to 1961 showed that    The reproductive behavior of greenling is similar to that of
 kelp greenling were the most frequent catch of shore      the lingcod. Females are mature by their fourth year and
 shermen north of San Francisco, where in some areas      spawn adhesive egg masses on the sea bed and encrusting
 they made up more than 30 percent of the total catch.     biota within the territories of courting males. In Puget
 In California, during those years, an average of 54,000    Sound, females deposit egg masses that range from golf-
 kelp greenling were caught by hook-and-line shermen      ball to tennis-ball size, with an average of about 4,000
 and another 2,000 by spear shermen. In later surveys     eggs per cluster. Females are batch spawners, capable of
 conducted from 1980 to 1999, the estimated sport catch     producing multiple clutches of eggs per spawning season.
 averaged 106,650 sh per year, with 103,000 of those      Males fertilize the eggs and guard the nests until larvae
 taken between Monterey County and the Oregon border.      about one third of an inch long emerge four to ve
 It should be noted that the two sport shing surveys used   weeks later. Often, males guard more than one egg
 different sampling designs, so results may not be compa-    mass at a time, each possibly produced by a different
 rable. By comparison, the commercial catch reported from    female. Studies done in British Columbia and California
 1981 to 1999 averaged about 8,500 sh per year. This      showed some nests did contain egg masses from multiple
 average is somewhat exaggerated by exceptionally large     females. Hatching occurs from December through Febru-
 numbers of sh landed commercially in recent years by     ary in northern California and gets progressively earlier
 the nearshore live sh shery mentioned above. From      to the north, November through January in Puget Sound
 1981 to 1996 average commercial catch was only around     and August through September in Alaska. Larvae and early
 5,500 sh per year, while from 1997 to 1999 that average    juveniles feed on small copepods and spend about one
 increased to 27,400 sh per year. Until recently most of    year in the pelagic environment before entering the near-
 these sh were sold in the fresh-sh market, although     shore benthic community.
 now many are sold live to restaurants. Though llets
                                 After they settle in the nearshore environment, kelp
 from kelp greenling are not as large as those from their
                                 greenling have exible food habits. During most of the
 more popular relative, the lingcod, texture and taste are
                                 year, they consume a variety of prey that are consistently
 comparable.
                                 available in the habitat, including crabs, amphipods, poly-
                                 chaetes and ascidians. There are brief periods when
 Status of Biological Knowledge                 organisms such as juvenile shes or herring spawn become
                                 exceptionally abundant, and kelp greenling shift their food

 K  elp greenling range from San Diego to the Aleutian     habits to take advantage of these opportunities.
   Islands, but are common only north of Morro Bay.
 Here they are one of the most conspicuous shes in
 rocky nearshore habitats occurring often in and around
 kelp beds. The male and female look so different that they
 were rst described as separate species. The body color is
 variable in both sexes, ranging from light gray to brown.
 Males, however, have large irregular blue patches anteri-
 orly, while females are uniformly covered with smaller
 dark spots.
 These solitary sh are common at depths between 10
 and 60 feet, and range down to 150 feet. Sport catches
 indicate that larger sh live in deeper water. For example,
 sh caught at 80 to 100 feet range from 12 to 18 inches                   Kelp Greenling, Hexagrammos decagrammus
                                                              Credit: DFG

  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     183
                                                     References
         The primary predators of adult greenling are lingcod and
Kelp Greenling



         harbor seals. As juveniles they are probably prey to many
                                                     Barker, M. W. 1979. Population and shery dynamics of
         nearshore predators.
                                                     recreationally exploited marine bottomsh of northern
                                                     Puget Sound. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington,
         Status of the Population                                Seattle, 152p.
                                                     Crow, Karen D., D.A. Powers, and G. Bernardi. 1997. Evi-
         T  here are no estimates of abundance for kelp greenling
                                                     dence for multiple maternal contributors in nests of kelp
           in California. The yearly sport catch remained rela-
                                                     greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus, Hexagrammidae).
         tively constant during the rst ten years (1980-1989) it
                                                     Copeia 1: 9-15.
         was surveyed, but has declined steadily from 1993 to 1999.
                                                     Demartini, E. E. 1986. Reproductive colorations, paternal
         Since decline in catch is one symptom of overshing, this
                                                     behavior, and egg masses of kelp greenling, Hexagrammos
         may be an indication that current levels of shing are
                                                     decagrammus, and whitespotted greenling, H. stelleri.
         having adverse effects on the population, although no
                                                     Northwest Science 60(1):32-35.
         population data are available at present to conrm this.
         Spear shermen could oversh local populations, however,                Gorbunova, N. N. 1970. Spawning and development of
         because they can select individual targets, and greenling                greenlings (family Hexagrammidae). In: Rass, T. S. (ed.),
         are particularly vulnerable to spears when guarding their                Greenlings: taxonomy, biology, interoceanic transplanta-
         nests. Also, although commercial catch has been tradi-                 tion. (Trans. from Russian) Isr. Progr. Sci. Transl. No. 5553,
         tionally very low compared to recreational catch, the                  p. 121-185.
         increased shing pressure in recent years by the nearshore
                                                     Rothrock, G. C. 1982. Age-length, weight, fecundity, and
         live sh shery could have a much broader impact on the
                                                     meristics of the kelp greenling (Hexagrammos decagram-
         kelp greenling population in California.
                                                     mus) off California. Masters Thesis, University of California
                                                     of Davis, 95 p.
         Dan Howard
         National Marine Fisheries Service
         Revised by:
         Kelly R. Silberberg
         National Marine Fisheries Service




                    150
         thousands of fish landed




                    120
           Kelp Greenling




                      90

                      60

                      30

                       0  1947  1950  1960  1970  1980   1990    1999


         Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Greenling
         Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992




                      California’s Marine Living Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                         December 2001
 184
Other Nearshore
Rockfishes                           cies are difcult to determine due to the inexact nature of




                                                                    Other Nearshore Rockfishes
                                recording landings. Market categories are often comprised
History of the Fishery                     of multiple species; for example, sampled market catego-
                                ries from the Morro Bay area from 1993 to 1998 revealed a

H  istorically, many of the nearshore rockshes have     wide range of placement of the six species in both
   been taken primarily by recreational anglers shing    group and single species categories. Gopher and grass
from boats, the shore, or by diving. Kelp rocksh (Sebastes  rocksh appeared most frequently in nine other market
atrovirens), gopher rocksh (Sebastes carnatus), black-    categories than their own. The most common classica-
and-yellow rocksh (Sebastes chrysomelas), China rocksh    tion error seemed to occur between gopher and black-
(Sebastes nebulosus), grass rocksh (Sebastes rastrelliger),  and-yellow rockshes with 34.4 percent of the black-and-
and treesh (Sebastes serriceps) have been minor compo-    yellow market category being made up of gopher rocksh.
nents of recreational and commercial sheries. Gopher     The gopher group contained up to 61 percent gopher
rocksh is the only species of these six that comprised    rocksh. While species misidentication does occur, sh
a signicant proportion of recreational landings and was    are often grouped by price rather than by species com-
common enough in commercial landings to have a market     plicating specic landing estimates. Based on DFG CMAS-
category prior to 1994. Gopher rocksh have comprised     TER summaries of reported landings, landings of gopher
up to 13 percent annually of commercial passenger shing    and grass rockshes and the gopher group peaked at
vessel (CPFV) observed landings from the Morro Bay area.    31,255 pounds ($35,740 value) in 1994, 109,003 pounds
A review of the marine recreational shery statistics     ($506,670) in 1995, and 221,018 pounds ($521,163) in
survey (MRFSS) catch data from 1980 to 1999 indicated     1996, respectively.
recreational catches of grass rocksh, China rocksh,
                                The live sh market demand is mainly for sh in the one
gopher rocksh and kelp rocksh have declined since the
                                to two pound size range, and up to four pounds for grass
late 1980s and landings of treesh were higher from 1993
                                rocksh. For gopher, black-and-yellow, grass, and China
to 1999 than 1980 to 1989. While the MRFSS provides catch
                                rockshes, this size range is above the size of sexual
information for shore and vessel-based angling, divers are
                                maturity, although in the development of the shery all
not represented. The “private/rental boat” method con-
                                sh were kept regardless of size. Due to concerns over the
tributed the highest proportion of the gopher rocksh
                                harvest of immature sh, legislation passed in late 1998,
recreational catch for all of California. China rocksh have
                                the Marine Life Management Act, implemented minimum
accounted for up to three percent of CPFV observed
                                commercial size limits on grass, gopher, kelp, black-and-
catches from San Francisco north. Both China rocksh and
                                yellow, and China rockshes. The new size limits are
gopher rocksh are most frequently observed in CPFV
                                12 inches for grass and China rockshes, and 10 inches
and private boat catches. Grass rocksh, kelp rocksh,
                                for gopher, kelp, and black-and-yellow rockshes. The
black-and-yellow rocksh and treesh are more frequently
                                shallow, nearshore nature of this shery renders it very
caught by anglers shing from private boats than by
                                weather dependent. Poor weather, combined with lower
anglers shing from CPFVs or from shore.
                                overall allowable catches, implementation of minimum
Development of the live/premium shery in the late 1980s    size limits, and a lack of a market north of Bodega Bay
resulted in increasing commercial catches of many species   resulted in reduced catches from 1997 to 1999.
occupying the nearshore environment in and around kelp
                                Several of these species are also important in non-con-
beds, including these six rockshes. Live sh are taken
                                sumptive uses. Colorful, accessible, or both, treesh and
primarily by line gear and pot and trap gear, but other
gear types are used. The shery serves mainly Asian Amer-
ican markets that demand top quality (live) sh. Fisher-
men receive premium prices for their catches ranging
from $2 to $10 per pound, compared to $1.50 per pound or
less previously. Grass rocksh command the highest prices
up to $4.84 average price per pound in 1998. With the
exception of treesh, these nearshore rocksh species are
caught primarily north of Point Conception.
Historically, commercial landings have been recorded by
both specic (gopher rocksh) or nonspecic (gopher
group) market categories and until 1994 there were no
specic market categories for any of these nearshore spe-
cies except gopher rocksh. Annual total landings by spe-                     Gopher Rockfish, Sebastes carnatus
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                      185
               kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and China rockshes are                 and range south to the region of Point Eugenia, Baja
Other Nearshore Rockfishes



               frequently observed and photographed by divers. In addi-                California. Each has a restricted habitat, with kelp rocksh
               tion, individuals are taken for the aquarium trade.                   occurring almost exclusively in kelp forests, black-and-
                                                           yellow rocksh occurring in high-relief rocky bottom at
                                                           depths shallower than about 60 feet, and gopher rocksh
               Status of Biological Knowledge                             occurring on rocky reefs from 40 feet to perhaps 150
                                                           feet. The geographical range of the grass rocksh extends

               K  elp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and grass rockshes are
                                                           throughout California and into southern Oregon, but its
                 relatively well studied, while treesh and China rock-
                                                           habitat is restricted to rocky areas shallower than about
               sh are, to differing degrees, less well-known. Most of
                                                           20 feet.
               these species occupy restricted ranges of geography or
                                                           The China rocksh is abundant into Washington, British
               habitat. The treesh is most common in depths of less
                                                           Columbia, and southeastern Alaska, declining in abun-
               than 100 feet or so on rocky reefs, and is restricted largely
                                                           dance south into California. It is quite rare south of Point
               to the region south of Point Conception. Kelp, black-and-
                                                           Conception, and seems to inhabit progressively deeper
               yellow, and gopher rockshes are not abundant north
                                                           water in the southern part of its range. The ranges for
               of Sonoma County (or farther south, for kelp rocksh),
                                                           some of these species have changed in the last 15 to




                            100                                            500
               thousands of fish landed




                                                            thousands of fish landed
                            80                                            400
                                                              China Rockfish
                 Kelp Rockfish




                            60                                            300


                            40                                            200


                            20                                            100


                             0                                            0
                               1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999                   1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999


               Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Rockfish                       Recreational Catch 1947-1999, China Rockfish
               Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992   Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992




                            120                                           120
               Black & Yellow Rockfish
               thousands of fish landed




                                                           thousands of fish landed




                            100                                           100
                                                             Grass Rockfish




                             80                                            80

                             60                                            60

                             40                                            40

                             20                                            20

                             0                                            0
                               1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999                   1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999


               Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Black & Yellow Rockfish                  Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Grass Rockfish
               Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992   Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992




                                                                         70
                            500

                                                                         60
               thousands of fish landed




                                                           thousands of fish landed




                            400
                Gopher Rockfish




                                                                         50
                                                              Treefish




                            300                                            40
                                                                         30
                            200
                                                                         20
                            100
                                                                         10
                                                                          0 1947
                             0
                               1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999                       1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999


               Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Gopher Rockfish                      Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Treefish
               Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992   Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992



                            California’s Marine Living Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                  A Status Report                            December 2001
   186
20 years. Black-and-yellow rocksh and kelp rocksh abun-    gests that typically sedentary individuals may occasionally




                                                               Other Nearshore Rockfishes
dance have declined since the early 1970s in the northern    wander indeterminate distances, on the order of tens of
Channel Islands, and probably throughout the Southern      meters, from their home ranges.
California Bight. Little has been documented on northward    Available data suggest that diets of juvenile sh of all
range expansion for these species, and nothing has been     six species include primarily crustacean zooplanktors such
documented regarding changes in the ranges of gopher,      as barnacle cyprids. Overall adult diets are more varied.
China, and grass rockshes. The treesh seems to be more    Crustaceans and small sh are common diet items for
abundant now in the Monterey area than in the 1980s.      adult sh of all six species. Kelp rocksh also eat cepha-
These changes in distribution seem to be related to ocean    lopods, gastropods, polychaetes, and tunicates. Cephalo-
warming that began in 1977.                   pods and gastropods are consumed by gopher rocksh
Five of the six species are relatively small for rocksh. The  as well, along with ophiuroids (brittle stars) and poly-
grass rocksh, at about 20-22 inches, reaches the largest    chaetes. Black-and-yellow rocksh and China rocksh also
size of the six species. The largest individuals of the other  consume ophiuroids. A variety of mollusks are consumed
ve species rarely exceed 15-17 inches; among the ve,     by China rocksh including cephalopods, gastropods, chi-
the China rocksh reaches slightly larger sizes than the    tons, and nudibranchs. Small sh consumed by these rock-
others, followed in rough order by treesh, kelp rocksh,    shes include juvenile rocksh (mainly blue rocksh), scul-
gopher, and black-and-yellow rockshes. Treesh have not    pins, juvenile surfperch, kelpshes, and plainn midship-
been aged, but at least one study of age and growth       man. Information on diet of treesh is limited.
has been conducted on kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher,
grass, and China rockshes. The greatest ages recorded
                                Status of the Populations
in each of these ve species are between 20 and 26
years. However, because the largest individuals observed

                                W   hile there have been several studies of local abun-
in each species have typically not been aged and
                                    dance in some of these species (particularly black-
because aging to date has been based largely on
                                and-yellow, gopher, and kelp rockshes), there is no com-
readings of whole otoliths, greater maximum ages may be
                                prehensive assessment of their populations. Each species
possible. Different studies have
                                is probably subject to local depression in abundance and
produced different estimates of age at rst maturity,
                                average size where diving, skiff shing, party boat activ-
perhaps because of differences in goals and methodology.
                                ity, or commercial shing is concentrated. The low fecun-
In the ve species that have been aged, many studies
                                dity, restricted habitats, and limited movements of these
suggest that rst maturity occurs in the range of
                                species make them vulnerable to local shing pressure.
three to four years, although one study indicates
                                Statewide, the limited geographic ranges and restricted
later maturity.
                                habitats of these species suggest that they have small
Treesh and kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and China      populations in comparison to more widespread species
rockshes appear to reproduce once per breeding season.     that have traditionally been the targets of commercial
Grass rocksh may reproduce only once per season, but      shing. These species have limited depth distributions
some contradictory data exist. There are no data on       so that all of the spawning population is vulnerable to
spawning seasonality in treesh, but the other ve species   shing and few natural refugia probably exist. Because
appear to spawn in winter through spring. Grass rocksh     good recruitment years are infrequent there is the
seem to reproduce the earliest, giving birth primarily in    danger of removing too many spawners even with limited
December through February (except for an observation in     shing pressure.
August), China rocksh reproduce slightly later, black-and-
yellow and gopher rockshes slightly later still (spawning
                                Management Considerations
through early spring), and kelp rocksh the latest, spawn-
ing through May and June.
                                See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
The adult movement of most of these species may be even
                                further information.
more restricted than other rockshes. Individual black-
and-yellow, gopher, and kelp rockshes have been shown
to inhabit restricted home ranges, and it is likely grass    Ralph J. Larson
rocksh, China rocksh, and treesh share this behavior.    San Francisco State University
Aggressive behavior has been observed in all except grass
                                Deborah A. Wilson-Vandenberg
rocksh (for which observations are limited), and gopher
                                California Department of Fish and Game
rocksh and black-and-yellow rocksh are denitely ter-
ritorial. However, some evidence from articial reefs sug-



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               187
               References
Other Nearshore Rockfishes




               Haaker, P. L. 1978. Observations of agonistic behavior in
               the treesh, Sebastes serriceps (Scorpaenidae). California
               Fish and Game 64:227-228.
               Hallacher, L. E., and D. A. Roberts. 1985. Differential
               utilization of space and food by the inshore rockshes
               (Scorpaenidae: Sebastes) of Carmel Bay, California. Envi-
               ronmental Biology of Fishes 12:91-110.
               Larson, R. J. 1980. Territorial behavior of black and yellow
               rocksh and gopher rocksh (Scorpaenidae, Sebastes).
               Marine Biology 58: 111-122. 1980.
               Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
               Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
               Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
               related sport shes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.
               177. 109 p.
               Love, M. S., and K. Johnson. 1998. Aspects of the life
               histories of grass rocksh, Sebastes rastrelliger and brown
                                       ,
               rocksh, S. auriculatus, from southern California. Fish.
               Bull. 87:100-109.
               Pattison, C. 1999. Nearshore Finshes, In Review of some
               California sheries for 1998, CalCOFI Reports 40:16-18.
               Wilson-Vandenberg, D. A., P. N. Reilly and L. Halko. 1995.
               Onboard sampling of the rocksh and lingcod Commercial
               Passenger Fishing Vessel Industry in northern and central
               California, January through December 1993. Calif. Dept.
               Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin. Rep. 95-2. 122 p.




                 California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                       December 2001
   188
Vermilion Rockfish
History of the Fishery                    skinned, and deep-fried. They are also delicious when




                                                                     Vermilion Rockfish
                                baked with vegetables in the oven or microwave. As with

V  ermilion rocksh (Sebastes miniatus), though highly    most other members of the family, the esh is white, ne
   desirable because of their brilliant color and the aky  in texture, and mild in avor.
texture of their esh when cooked, are only of moderate
importance in California’s commercial and sport sheries.
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
It is difcult to accurately determine what percent of
the commercial catch is comprised of vermilion rocksh,
                                V  ermilion rocksh are found from the San Benito
because individuals in reported landings are often mis-      Islands, Baja California, to Prince William Sound,
identied or combined with other red and orange-colored    Alaska, and occur over rocky bottoms from the shallow
rockshes in the market category of “rocksh, Group      subtidal to 1,400 feet. Large sh are more common at
Red.” From 1991 to 1993, vermilion rocksh landings were   depths greater than 100 feet due to the combined shing
less than 2,000 pounds annually, statewide. This may be in  pressure in shallower waters from commercial and recre-
part because, prior to 1994, there was no printed market   ational shermen. Vermilion rocksh generally remain on
category for vermilion rocksh on landing receipts; thus,   the same reef system on which they settle during their
they were only designated by species when shermen      rst year. Tagging studies have shown no movement of
added the category. Since 1994, “Rocksh, vermilion” has   sh at liberty for one to three years. Vermilion rocksh
been a printed market category on landing receipts. From   are extremely long-lived. A 20-inch individual weighing 5.4
1994 to 1999, pounds landed for both market categories    pounds was aged, using surface aging, at 25 years. Lengths
progressively declined. During this period annual landings  up to 30 inches have been reported. Vermilion rocksh
quotas became more restrictive. Commercial landing in     have lengthy juvenile life stages. Fifty percent of the
the San Francisco area in 1994 and 1995 accounted for 59   population is mature at eight years and these sh average
percent of statewide landings. From 1996 through 1998,    14 inches. The slow growth and long juvenile period make
this percentage declined to 44, 28, and 17, respectively.   vermilion rocksh very susceptible to overshing. Once
From 1996 through 1998, the Eureka area reported the     large individuals are removed from a reef system they are
highest landings within the state (54 percent average for   replaced only by larval settlement.
the three-year period).
                                Peak spawning months are September in central and
Vermilion rocksh comprised less than two percent of     northern California and November in southern California.
all landed shes observed on commercial passenger sh-    The number of developing eggs increases from 63,000 in
ing vessels (CPFV) from Fort Bragg to Monterey from      a sh 12.5 inches long to about 1.6 million in a 21.5-inch
1992 through 1995. During this same period, they consti-   sh. Females are fertilized internally by males. In October
tuted between six and eight percent of all landed shes    of 1997, while conducting population scuba surveys of
observed on CPFVs from Port San Luis and Morro Bay and    subtidal shes in Point Lobos Ecological Reserve, Monterey
averaged 14 inches in length. Along lightly shed areas    County, California, several vermilion rocksh courtship
of the central coast, sh of comparable size comprised    displays were observed and videotaped by divers from
eight percent of the total CPFV catch. Fish taken north of  California Department of Fish and Game. The absence
Monterey by CPFV anglers were slightly larger on average.   of previously published description of vermilion rocksh
In a survey of southern California CPFVs from 1985 through  mating or courtship may be due to the scarcity of mature
1987, vermilion rocksh ranked third in species composi-   individuals in habitat shallow enough to allow routine
tion and represented eight percent of the total observed   observations. Newly released larvae are free swimming
rocksh catch. Between 1983 and 1988, they ranged from    and lead a pelagic existence for three to four months,
two to ve percent of the observed commercial catch of
rocksh landed south of Point Conception.
The average size of observed vermilion rocksh taken
by recreational hook-and-line anglers shing from Point
Piños to Yankee Point in Monterey County, based on creel
surveys at the Monterey Harbor, declined from 1981 to
1999. The average size was 18.8 inches in 1981, 16.1 inches
in 1983, 15.5 inches in 1985, and 14.3 inches in 1987. In
1999, the average size rose to 15.5 inches.
Vermilion rocksh are marketed primarily in a fresh      then settle to the bottom. Juveniles are not strong swim-
dressed form. Because the esh has a short freezer life,
                                                 Vermilion Rockfish, Sebastes miniatus
it is rarely frozen. These rocksh are best when lleted,                                 Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                      189
                                         References
           mers and tend to be very secretive, often taking refuge
Vermilion Rockfish



           in dense algae.
                                         Boehlert, G.W. and M.M. Yoklavich. 1984. Reproduction,
           The pelagic young of vermilion rocksh feed primarily    embryonic energetics, and maternal-fetal relationship in
           upon crustaceans, while adults feed on octopus, squid,    the viviparous genus Sebastes (Pisces, Scorpaenidae). Biol.
           and small shes such as anchovies and blue lanternsh.    Bull. 167:354-370.
           At times, macroplanktonic organisms such as euphausiids,
                                         Gingras, M.L., D.A. VenTresca, M.D. Donnellan, and J.L.
           pelagic red crabs, and pyrosomes (pelagic colonial tuni-
                                         Fisher. 1998. First observations of vermilion rocksh court-
           cates) are found in their stomachs.
                                         ship are from a harvest refuge. Calif. Fish and Game
                                         84(4):176-179.

           Status of the Population                   Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
                                         Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus

           I n 1995, mean total length of observed vermilion rocksh  Sebastes with notes on ecologically related species. Calif.
            taken during CPFV trips in central and northern Califor-  Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull. 177:109 p.
           nia were consistently above the size of sexual maturation.
                                         Reilly, P., D. Wilson-Vandenberg, C. Wilson, and K. Mayer.
           Larger individuals and higher catch per-angler-hour were
                                         1998. Onboard sampling of the rocksh and lingcod com-
           generally observed when shing occurred in deep water
                                         mercial passenger shing vessel industry in northern and
           and greater than 10 nautical miles from ports. Based
                                         central California, January through December 1995. Calif.
           on adjusted logbook data from San Simeon, Port San
                                         Depart. of Fish and Game, Mar. Res. Admin. Rept.
           Luis, and Morro Bay, an estimated 23,000 vermilion rock-
                                         98-1:110 p.
           sh were landed by CPFV anglers in 1995. This total is
                                         Singer, M.M. 1985. Food habits of juvenile rockshes
           2.7-fold higher than the combined estimate (8,530) from
                                         (Sebastes) in a central California kelp forest. Fish. Bull.
           the remaining central and northern California ports.
                                         83:531-541.
                                         VenTresca, D.A., J.L. Houk, M.J. Paddack, M.L. Gingras,
           David A. VenTresca
                                         N.L. Crane, and S.D. Short. 1996. Early life history studies
           California Department of Fish and Game
                                         of nearshore rockshes and lingcod off central California,
                                         1987-92. Calif. Depart. of Fish and Game, Mar. Res. Admin.
                                         Rept. 96-4:77 p.
                                         Wyllie-Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of Califor-
                                         nia rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction.
                                         Fish. Bull. 85(2):229-250.




             California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                       December 2001
  190
Lingcod
History of the Fishery                    the California recreational shery almost doubled during




                                                                        Lingcod
                                that period, from 510,000 pounds per year to 890,000

T  he lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) has long been an     pounds per year. The increase was due largely to an
   important source of food for people living along the   increase in the private boat shery. In 1961, 61 percent
West Coast of North America, although current catches     of the recreational landings came from commercial pas-
are low due to overexploitation of the stock. Archaeologi-  senger shing vessels. Now, 70 percent of the recreational
cal studies of native American habitations along the cen-   landings come from the private boat shery. In both the
tral California coast indicate that between 6200 BC and    commercial and recreational sheries, landings occur pre-
AD 1830, large inshore species such as rockshes, lingcod,  dominately in central and northern California.
and kelp greenling comprised more than half of the shes   Stock assessments conducted by the Pacic Fishery Man-
caught on the open coast. American Indians used spears,    agement Council (PFMC) have indicated large population
nets, weirs, traps, and lures of wood with bone hooks to   declines for lingcod along its entire range. For the
catch lingcod. Early Caucasian settlers caught lingcod as   management areas that include California and Southern
well. Fishing methods in the 1800s were similar to the    Oregon (the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception manage-
hook-and-line techniques currently used to catch lingcod   ment areas), the current estimate of female spawning
in the small boat jig shery.                 biomass is 13 percent of the unshed level. Consequently,
Catches of lingcod have been reported as a separate      shery regulations have become more stringent, as shery
category since 1916 in California. Commercial landings    managers try to rebuild the stock.
from 1916 through 1929 ranged from 400,000 pounds to 1.2   With the implementation of the PMFC’s Groundsh Plan
million pounds. Landings in the rst half of the century   in 1983, the combined Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC)
reached a peak in 1930 at 1.3 million pounds, and then    for the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception management
declined to a low of 314,000 pounds in 1942. The Califor-   areas was 4.8 million pounds, or more than 1.5 million
nia lingcod shery grew again from 1943 through 1950,     pounds higher than the commercial landings. In 1995, the
as landings ranged from 719,000 pounds to a high of 2.1    combined quota for these areas was reduced by about
million pounds in 1948, due primarily to strong markets for  50 percent, and a 22-inch commercial size-limit was insti-
liver oil and seafood. For the next two decades, landings   tuted. A monthly commercial boat-limit of 20,000 pounds
averaged 1.2 million pounds per year, and then began to    per month was established along with a trawl trip-limit
increase in the 1970s, due to the burgeoning west coast    of 100 pounds under the 22-inch size-limit. By 2000, the
trawl shery.                         combined ABC for the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception
During this period of rapid shery growth, lingcod landings  International North Pacic Fisheries Commission (INPFC)
in California almost tripled. From 1972 through 1982,     areas was reduced in half again to less than 1.2 million
commercial landings of lingcod averaged almost three mil-   pounds. The monthly boat limit was reduced to 1,000
lion pounds per year. After a decline in the mid-1980s,    pounds and the commercial size-limit was increased to
landings rebounded to a high level again in 1989. Since    24 inches.
then, however, commercial catches have rapidly declined,   Prior to 1980, there was a recreational catch limit of 10
partly due to management restrictions enacted to rebuild   lingcod per angler. This bag limit was reduced to ve sh
depressed stocks. In 1999, commercial landings were only   in 1980, and a 22-inch size-limit was introduced in 1981. In
313,000 pounds, valued at $283,000.              1996, the bag-limit was reduced to three sh to conform
The character of lingcod sheries has changed greatly     to Oregon and Washington regulations, and the size-limit
in the past 30 years. In the 1970s, about 85 percent of
the commercially landed lingcod were caught with trawls;
however, hook-and-line gear now account for half of the
commercial landings. In addition, the recently developed
nearshore shery that delivers live sh to markets and res-
taurants landed an average of more than 40,000 pounds
per year in the 1990s. There has also been a shift in
the lingcod shery away from commercial and towards
recreational catches. Recreational landings as a percent-
age of total lingcod landings increased from 20 percent in
the 1970s to about 50 percent in the late 1990s. This was
because recreational shing effort in California increased
by 65 percent between the time periods 1958 through
                                                      Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus
1961, and 1980 through 1986. Average annual landings in
                                                     Credit: L. Sinclair, Miller and Lea


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                       191
Lingcod



                                  5




                    millions of pounds landed
                                  4

                         Lingcod      3

                                  2
      Commercial Landings
                                  1
       1916-1999, Lingcod
      Data Source: DFG Catch
      Bulletins and commercial
                                  0  1916 1920  1930  1940            1950            1960     1970     1980     1990     1999
          landing receipts.




     was increased to 24 inches. In 1999, the bag-limit was                 Individuals grow to a maximum length of 39 inches for
     reduced to two sh. In 2000, the size-limit was increased                males and 59 inches for females. Maximum age is thought
     to 26 inches. Also, the lingcod shery was closed south                 to be 25 years. Although there is large variation in length
     of Lopez Point, Monterey County during the months of                  at age, the average one-year-old sh is 13 inches long, and
     January and February and from Lopez Point north to Cape                 a two-year-old is 17 inches long. After age two, females
     Mendocino during March and April.                            begin to grow faster than males. The average length of a
                                                 four-year-old female is 24 inches, of an eight-year-old is
                                                 32 inches, and of a 12-year-old is 35 inches. The average
     Status of Biological Knowledge                             length of a four-year-old male is 22 inches, of an eight-
                                                 year-old is 29 inches, and of a 12-year-old is 32 inches. In

     T  he lingcod is the largest member of the Hexagrammi-
                                                 California, the oldest lingcod on record is a 19-year-old,
        dae family. The scientic name Ophiodon is a combi-
                                                 45-inch female, and the longest is a 51-inch female.
     nation of two Greek words meaning snake and tooth, a
                                                 Lingcod length and age at sexual maturity vary with lati-
     reference to the lingcod’s large teeth. The name elongatus
                                                 tude; lingcod in the northern part of their range are larger
     is of Latin origin and refers to the elongated body. Lingcod
                                                 and mature later than sh in the southern part of the
     are found only off the West Coast of North America. They
                                                 distribution. As with most shes, fecundity increases with
     are distributed in nearshore waters from northern Baja
                                                 size of sh. In the northern end of the lingcod range,
     California to the Shumagin Islands along the Alaskan Pen-
                                                 females can produce 50,000 eggs at a length of 24 inches,
     insula. Their center of abundance is off British Columbia,
                                                 124,000 eggs at a length of 32 inches, and 170,000 eggs
     and they become less common toward the southern end
                                                 at a length of 36 inches. This level of fecundity is low
     of their range.
                                                 compared to many other marine species in the eastern
     Lingcod lack a swimbladder and thus will rest on the
                                                 Pacic, but high for a species that guards eggs.
     bottom or actively swim in the water column. They are
                                                 Lingcod exhibit an interesting spawning behavior, which
     found over a wide range of substrates at depths from 10
                                                 includes a spawning migration into nearshore habitats for
     to 1,300 feet, but most occur in rocky areas from 30 to
     330 feet. Typically, larger lingcod occupy rocky habitats;
     larger animals are found on deeper banks and reefs,
                                                               120
     whereas smaller animals live in shallower waters. Adult
                                                 thousands of fish landed




     lingcod are strongly residential, tending to remain near                              100


     the reefs or rocky areas where they live. Large-scale                                80
                                                     Lingcod




     conventional tagging studies have found that the vast                                60

     majority of mature lingcod are recaptured within six miles                             40

     of where they were tagged, however acoustic tagging                                 20

     studies have indicated frequent short-term movements.                                0
                                                                  1947  1950     1960     1970     1980     1990   1999
     Juveniles tend to disperse and travel over a wider range
                                                 Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Lingcod
     than adults.
                                                 CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
                                                 by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.



        California’s Marine Living Resources:                           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                                       December 2001
192
the deposition of eggs in gelatinous masses, termed nests,   young lingcod have a very large mouth for their body size,




                                                               Lingcod
on rocky substrates. Males establish territory as early as   allowing them to feed on prey much larger than other sh
a month before females lay eggs, and remain on guard at    of their age and size. For large juvenile and adult lingcod,
the nest until eggs are hatched. Preferred nest sites are   sh is the dominant prey, accounting for about 80 percent
rocky areas in shallow water where there are strong cur-    (by volume) of the stomach contents. In California waters,
rents. Males move on to spawning grounds rst, followed    juvenile rockshes are the most important prey.
by large females, who spawn earlier than smaller females.   Most predation on lingcod occurs during the egg stage,
After a female chooses a male and a spawning site, she     and predation becomes less common with age. On rare
swims over the site and deposits a layer of several eggs.   occasions, pelagic juvenile lingcod (1.5 to 2.6 inches) are
The male then swims over the site and fertilizes the eggs.   found in the stomachs of chinook salmon. Other predators
This process is repeated until spawning is completed,     of juvenile sh, such as seabirds and marine mammals
after which the female immediately leaves the spawning     also prey on juvenile lingcod. Small benthic lingcod are
grounds. The eggs become rmly cemented to each other     probably eaten by adult lingcod and marine mammals,
within the gelatinous mass in 24 to 48 hours. A relatively   but have few other predators. Because of their large
strong current is necessary to oxygenate the egg mass and   size, large juvenile and adult lingcod escape all but the
prevent death of the embryos.                 occasional predator.
After spawning, males guard the nests from predation
until the eggs hatch. On occasion, males have been found
                                Status of the Population
guarding two nests if they were close together, and some-
times if the male is removed, a new male will assume

                                L  ingcod harvest has been higher than generally
the guardian role. The nest guarding behavior of lingcod
                                  accepted population replacement rates for the last
make them susceptible to targeted shing during the
                                twenty years. Recent lingcod stock assessments have con-
spawning period. Males guarding nests are territorial and
                                cluded that the lingcod stock is seriously depleted, and
will aggressively strike at bait or lures that come close to
                                that California populations appear to be less than 25 per-
the nest. Targeted shing during the spawning season can
                                cent of their pre-1970s level. By federal law, this level of
thus directly increase lingcod mortality by increasing catch
                                stock depletion requires a management plan that rebuilds
rates. It can also indirectly increase mortality by dislodg-
                                lingcod populations. The rebuilding plan is intended to
ing animals from the nest, resulting in increased egg
                                restore the lingcod stock within 10 years. The substantial
mortality. Fish predators such as kelp greenling, striped
                                reduction in ABC after 1997 and resulting reduced shery
seaperch, and small sculpins will eat lingcod eggs if a
                                harvest was triggered by that rebuilding plan. Low levels
guardian male is removed from the nest. Invertebrates
                                of ABC and harvest will continue until lingcod populations
such as sea urchin, sunower star, and snails also feed on
                                show signs of rebounding. California lingcod appear to be
lingcod eggs, but are not chased away by males guarding
                                highly productive, however, and there is good potential for
the nest. The eggs generally hatch about seven weeks
                                rapid population increases given appropriate decreases in
after they are laid, but incubation can last from ve to
                                shing effort.
11 weeks. Hatching may continue for 24 to 48 hours, after
which the guardian male leaves.
                                Peter B. Adams
Egg hatching is generally synchronous, with most eggs
                                National Marine Fisheries Service
hatching within two to seven days of each other. Newly
hatched larvae are 0.25-0.4 inches in length, and grow     Richard M. Starr
about 0.06 inches per day. The larvae are pelagic for     University of California
about three months from early March to early June and
settle to the bottom when they are about three inches
long. Newly settled juveniles reside in shallow bays and
on nearshore sand and mud bottoms from the beach to
333 feet in depth. Juveniles occur over a wide range of
habitats including mud, sand, gravel, and eelgrass, but by
age two occupy similar habitats as adults.
During the pelagic juvenile stage there is a gradual tran-
sition from a diet of small copepods to one of larger
copepods, crab larvae, amphipods, euphausiids, and her-
ring larvae. As small benthic juveniles, lingcod feed on
herring, atshes, shiner perch, and other shes. Even



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report              193
     References
Lingcod




     Adams, P., E. Williams, K. Silberberg, and T. Laidig. 1999.
     Southern lingcod stock assessment in 1999. Appendix In:
     Status of the Pacic coast groundsh shery through 1999
     and recommended acceptable biological catches for 2000.
     Pacic Fishery Management Council, Portland.
     Cass, A.J., R.J. Beamish, and G.A. McFarlane. 1990. Ling-
     cod (Ophiodon elongatus). Can. Sp. Pub., Fish. and Aquat.
     Sci. 109. 30 p.
     Fitch, J.E. 1958. Offshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
     Fish Game. 80 p.
     Jagielo, T.H. 1990. Movement of tagged lingcod Ophiodon
     elongatus at Neah Bay, Washington. Fishery Bulletin 88(4):
     815-820.
     Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995. The
     marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
     fornia. A historical comparison (1958-86), status of stocks
     (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California current.
     California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 176.
     192 p.
     LaRiviere, M.G., D.D. Jessup, and S.B. Mathews. 1981.
     Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus, spawning and nesting in
     San Juan Channel, Washington. Calif. Fish and Game
     67:231-239.
     Miller, D.J. and J.J. Geibel. 1973. Summary of blue rock-
     sh and lingcod life histories; a reef ecology study; and
     giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, experiments in Monterey
     Bay, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 158.
     137 p.




       California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                       December 2001
194
California Halibut
History of the Fishery                      Marine Resources Protection Zone (MRPZ) was established




                                                                         California Halibut
                                 in 1990 extending three miles off the southern California

C  alifornia halibut (Paralichthys californicus) is an impor-  mainland coast from Point Conception to the Mexican
   tant atsh species in both the commercial and recre-    border and within one mile or 70 fathoms (whichever is
ational sheries of central and southern California. The     less) around the Channel Islands. Gill and trammel nets
highest recorded commercial landing of halibut was 4.7      have been prohibited in the MRPZ since Jan. 1, 1994.
million pounds in 1919, which was followed by an overall     Historically, commercial catches of halibut by hook-and-
decline to a low of 950,000 pounds in 1932. Since 1932, the   line gear have been insignicant when compared to the
average annual catch has been 910,000 pounds, with ve      total pounds landed annually by the trawl and set gillnet
notable peaks in landings: 1936 (1.58 million pounds), 1946   sheries. However, over the last decade, catches of Cali-
(2.46 million pounds), 1964 (1.28 million pounds), 1981     fornia halibut by hook-and-line have ranged from 11 to 23
(1.26 million pounds), and 1997 (1.25 million pounds).      percent of the total pounds landed annually. A majority of
The decline in commercial halibut landings after 1919 has    those landings were made in the San Francisco Bay area
been attributed to increased shing pressure during World    by salmon shermen mooching or trolling slowly over the
War I and to overshing. Fishing restraints during World     ocean bottom.
War II may have allowed halibut stocks to increase, result-   Catches by commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFV)
ing in peak landings in the late 1940s, followed by low     displayed trends similar to the commercial landings from
catches in the 1950s. Increased landings in the mid-1960s    1947 through 1974, with two peaks in 1948 (143,000 hali-
followed warm water (El Niño) years in the late 1950s.      but) and 1964 (141,000 halibut). Following the 1948 peak,
The lowest landings occurred in the early 1970s, with the    annual landings plummeted below 11,000 sh by 1957. The
lowest recorded catch in 1970 of 257,000 pounds. Landings    expansion of the CPFV eet and no size limit restriction
increased during the late 1970s to a peak again in 1981     for the take of California halibut can be attributed to the
and 1997. Since 1980, landings of California halibut have    13-fold decrease in landings between 1948 and 1958. While
remained relatively constant, averaging more than one      the commercial catch increased in the late 1970s and
million pounds annually.                     steadied in the 1980s, the recreational catch remained low
Historically, halibut have been commercially harvested by    and variable with an average annual catch of 8,600 sh
three principal gears: otter trawl, set gill and trammel     from 1971 to 1989. By 1995, CPFV landings surged to a
net, and hook-and-line. The California halibut trawl shery   26-year high of 19,600 sh, declining to 14,200 sh in 1999.
evolved late in the 19th century in the San Francisco      Since 1994, CPFVs operating in the San Francisco Bay area
Bay area. Since then, the boats used to tow this gear      have landed a majority of the halibut statewide.
across the ocean bottom have gone from sail to steam       To assist with the restoration of the California halibut
to gasoline, and nally to diesel powered engines. Today,    resource through the protection of sub-adult sh, a regu-
trawling is permitted in federal waters (three to 200      lation was adopted in 1971 that set a minimum size limit
nautical miles offshore) using trawl nets with a minimum     of 22 inches for sport-caught California halibut. Com-
mesh size of 4.5 inches. Trawling is prohibited within      mercial landings increased slowly after this legislation,
state waters, except in the designated “California halibut    whereas recreational landings remained low and did not
trawl grounds,” which encompass the area between Point      recover to former catch levels.
Arguello and Point Mugu in waters greater than one nauti-
                                 Although California halibut range from the Quillayute
cal mile from shore. Bottom trawls used in this area
                                 River, Washington to Almejas Bay, Baja California, the
must have a minimum mesh size of 7.5 inches, and
trawling is closed from March 15 to June 15 to protect
spawning adults.
A decade after the introduction of the trawl shery to San
Francisco Bay, set gill and trammel nets were shed state-
wide along the coast. Historically, set nets have been the
gear of choice for commercial halibut shermen because
of the restrictions on bottom trawl gear in state waters.
In southern California, gill and trammel nets with 8.5-inch
mesh and maximum length of 9,000 feet are the principal
type of gear used. Today, gill and trammel net shing
is prohibited in Santa Monica Bay, shallow coastal waters
north of Point Sal, and is subject to many other area,
                                                 California Halibut, Paralichthys californicus
depth, and seasonal closures throughout the state. A
                                                                 Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                        195
           commercial shery is concentrated from Bodega Bay in     mortality of newly-settled juveniles and an increase in
California Halibut



           the north to San Diego in southern California, and across   the growth rate of larger juveniles that feed upon the
           the international border with Mexico. The contribution to   abundant small shes in the bays. Juveniles emigrate from
           California landings of halibut captured in Mexican waters   the bays to the coast at about one year of age and 6.9 to
           has varied but has generally been insignicant since 1966.  8.7 inches in length.
           Historically, the shery was centered off southern Califor-  Tagging studies have indicated that California halibut do
           nia and Baja California, but over the past twenty years,   not tend to move extensively. Most sublegal halibut tagged
           the greatest landings have oscillated between ports in    and released from CPFVs in southern California were
           southern and central California. A majority of the halibut  recovered within ve miles from their tag sites; only
           landings made in central California occurred in the San    12 percent were found 10 miles or more from where
           Francisco Bay area. A limited amount of shing occurs     they were tagged. Larger halibut appear to travel the
           around the Channel Islands of southern California, with    greatest distances. One large tagged halibut (33 inches)
           a catch of substantially larger halibut (average length =   was recovered 64 miles away 39 days after release.
           27 inches) than those caught in the nearshore mainland
                                          California halibut may live to 30 years and reach 60 inches
           shery (average length = 24 inches).
                                          in length. The maximum-recorded weight is 72 pounds.
           Commercial shing laws prohibit the sale of California    Male halibut mature at one to three years and eight to
           halibut less than 22 inches in total length, unless the    twelve inches, whereas females mature at four to ve
           weight is at least four pounds whole, 3.5 pounds dressed   years and 15 to 17 inches. Female halibut attain larger
           with the head on, or 3 pounds dressed with the head      sizes at age than males and represent a greater fraction
           off. Four halibut less than the legal minimum size may be   of the commercial landings (60 to 80 percent). Female
           retained for personal use.                  halibut reach legal size (22 inches) at ve to six years of
           Recreational regulations also require a minimum size limit  age, about a year before males.
           of 22 inches, in addition to a daily bag limit of ve Cali-  California halibut are ambushing predators. Adults prey
           fornia halibut when shing south of Point Sur, Monterey    primarily upon Pacic sardine, northern anchovies, squid,
           County, and only three halibut per day when shing north   and other nektonic nearshore sh species. Small juvenile
           of Point Sur. Halibut can be taken in recreational sheries  halibut in bays primarily eat crustaceans, including cope-
           using hook-and-line, spear, or hand.             pods and amphipods, until they reach about 2.5 inches.
                                          They are then large enough to eat gobies that are found
                                          commonly in bays but not on the open coast. Juvenile
           Status of Biological Knowledge                halibut become increasingly piscivorous with size. On the


           A
                                          coast, adult halibut feed primarily on Pacic sardine,
             dult California halibut inhabit soft bottom habitats in
                                          anchovies, and white croaker.
             coastal waters generally less than 300 feet deep, with
           greatest abundance at depths of less than 100 feet. Adults
           spawn throughout the year with peak spawning in winter
                                          Status of the Population
           and spring. Pelagic eggs and larvae occur over the shelf,


                                          A
           with greatest densities in water less than 250 feet deep     bundance of larval California halibut in plankton sur-
           and within four miles of shore. Halibut larvae appear       veys is correlated with commercial landings of halibut,
           to move inshore as they approach metamorphosis. Early     suggesting that this species has a cycle of abundance
           larval stages (about 0.1 to 0.3 inches) occur in midwater   approximately 20 years in length. However, the size of
           more than one mile offshore, whereas transforming larvae   the halibut population may be limited by the amount of
           occur within 0.6 mile of shore and occupy the neuston     available nursery habitat, as juvenile halibut appear to
           (surface zone) at night and the bottom during the day.    be dependent on shallow water embayments as nursery
           California halibut have a relatively short pelagic larval   areas. The overall decline in California halibut landings
           stage (less than 30 days), transforming and settling to    corresponds to a decline in shallow water habitats in
           the bottom at a small size (0.35 to 0.5 inches). Newly    southern California associated with dredging and lling of
           settled and larger juvenile halibut are frequently taken in  bays and wetlands.
           unvegetated shallow-water embayments and infrequently
                                          Recreational and commercial shermen are in conict
           on the open coast, suggesting that embayments are the
                                          over the California halibut resource in southern California.
           important nursery habitats. However, settlement either
                                          A differential minimum size limit of 22 inches for the
           in bays or along the open coast varies yearly and may
                                          recreational shery and 26 inches for the commercial
           reect variability in nearshore currents that inuence the
                                          shery was investigated as a possible management tool.
           onshore transport of larvae. The advantages of bays as
                                          This strategy would allow recreational anglers to harvest
           nursery areas are probably a decrease in the risk of


             California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                       December 2001
  196
                                                                               California Halibut
                    5
  millions of pounds landed


                    4
    California Halibut




                    3

                    2                                             Commercial Landings
                                                                  1916-1999,
                                                                  California Halibut
                    1
                                                                  Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                                  Bulletins and commercial
                    0  1916 1920   1930  1940  1950   1960   1970   1980   1990  1999    landing receipts.




halibut between 22 and 26 inches in length before sh                   population estimate was 3.9 million halibut for southern
had grown large enough to recruit to the commercial                    California, and 700,000 halibut for central California.
shery. Yield-per-recruit (Y/R) analysis indicated that: 1)
differential size limits would provide an increased Y/R for
                                             Management Considerations
the recreational shery, whereas the commercial shery
would experience a loss; 2) overall shing effort was
                                             See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
about twice the optimum level; and 3) Y/R would probably
                                             further information.
increase with diminished shing effort.
The total California biomass of the halibut resource
                                             Sharon H. Kramer
obtained from virtual population analysis (VPA) estimates
                                             MBC Applied Environmental Sciences
              150
                                             John S. Sunada
thousands of fish landed




              120
                                             California Department of Fish and Game
  California Halibut




              90
                                             Revised by:
                                             Stephen P. Wertz
              60

                                             California Department of Fish and Game
              30


              0
                 1947  1950    1960  1970  1980  1990  1999


Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Halibut
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.


in the late 1980s was 5.7 to 13.2 million pounds, with
annual recruitment of sh at age one estimated to be
between 0.45 and 1.0 million sh. The number of juvenile
halibut emigrating from southern California bays to the
open coast (age one) estimated from beam trawl surveys
ranged between 250,000 and 400,000 in the late 1980s.
In the early 1990s, a swept-area trawl survey was con-
ducted to better understand California halibut population
dynamics. This shery-independent survey produced a
biomass and population estimate for halibut in southern
and central California. The survey results indicated a hali-
but biomass of 6.9 million pounds for southern California
and 2.3 million pounds for central California, while the




    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                       A Status Report                  197
           References                           Reed, R.R. and A.D. MacCall. 1988. Changing the size
California Halibut



                                           limit: How it could affect California halibut sheries. Calif.
           Allen, L.G. 1988. Recruitment, distribution, and feeding    Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 29:158-166.
           habits of young-of-the-year California halibut (Paralichthys  Valle, C.F., J.W. O’Brian, K.B. Wiese. 1999. Differential
           californicus) in the vicinity of Alamitos Bay-Long Beach    habitat used by California halibut (Paralichthys californi-
           Harbor, California, 1983-1985. Bull. Southern Calif. Acad.   cus), barred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer), and other
           Sci. 87:19-30.                         juvenile shes in Alamitos Bay, California. Fishery Bulletin,
           C.W. Haugen (ed.). 1990. The California halibut, Paralich-   U.S. 97(3).
           thys californicus, resource and sheries. Calif. Dept. Fish   Wertz, S.P., and M.L. Domeier. 1997. Relative importance
           Game, Fish Bull. 174.                      of prey items to California halibut. California Fish and
           Domeier, M.L., and C.S.Y. Chun 1995. A tagging study      Game 83(1):21-29.
           of the Calfornia halibut, Paralichthys californicus. Califor-
           nia Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports
           36:204-207.
           Kramer, S.H. 1990. Habitat specicity and ontogenetic
           movements of juvenile California halibut, Paralichthys cal-
           ifornicus, and other atshes in shallow waters of south-
           ern California. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Calif. San Diego, 266 p.




             California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                        December 2001
  198
Starry Flounder
History of the Fishery                     Tagging studies have not demonstrated extensive migra-




                                                                       Starry Flounder
                                tions, although there is some movement along the shore.

P  rior to the late 1980s, the starry ounder (Platichthys  There are also thought to be seasonal inshore-offshore
   stellatus) was a common species in both the com-      movements of these sh, possibly related to spawning.
mercial and recreational sheries of northern and central   Most spawning occurs in shallow waters near the mouths
California. Though seldom targeted, it was often taken by   of rivers and estuaries during the winter. In central Cali-
commercial shers seeking more valuable species such      fornia, December and January are the peak months of
as petrale sole or California halibut. Historically, most of  spawning. The number of eggs produced by each female
the commercial catch was made by bottom trawl. During     depends upon her size. A 27-inch sh may produce about
the 1980s, many starry ounders were also taken by gill    11 million eggs. Fertilization is external.
and trammel nets in central California. During the late
                                Eggs of the starry ounder are pelagic, oating near the
1980s, commercial landings declined sharply and remained
                                ocean’s surface. Under laboratory conditions, eggs held
at relatively low levels through the 1990s. From 1992
                                at 51° F hatched in 4.5 days, while those held at 54.5° F
through 1999, landings averaged only 62,225 pounds, rang-
                                hatched in 2.8 days. Newly hatched larvae are less than
ing from a low of 25,353 pounds in 1995 to a high of
                                one-tenth inch long. Metamorphosis occurs 39 to 75 days
100,309 pounds in 1999. This is in contrast to annual land-
                                after hatching. Newly settled juveniles less than one-half
ings of more than a million pounds during the 1970s and
                                inch long are common in low-salinity estuarine waters,
half a million pounds in the 1980s.
                                although settling also occurs along the open coast.
The recreational catch of starry ounders is from piers,
                                Females grow faster and reach larger sizes than do males.
boats, and shore, usually in estuarine and adjacent coastal
                                In central California, most males are sexually mature at
waters. The estimated annual recreational catch for this
                                two years averaging 14.5 inches, most females at three
species in California from 1981 to 1989 averaged 40,000
                                years and 16 inches. The maximum size reported is
sh and ranged from less than 12,000 in 1985 to 63,000
                                36 inches.
sh in 1987. Estimated recreational catches, like com-
                                Larval starry ounders feed on planktonic organisms.
mercial landings, declined dramatically during the 1990s.
                                Newly metamorphosed sh feed largely on copepods and
Catch estimates from 1993 through 1999 averaged 6,000
                                amphipods. As they grow, their diet changes. Five-inch sh
sh per year, and ranged from a high in 1998 of 15,000 sh
                                have developed jaws and teeth that allow them to crush
to lows in 1994 and 1996 of 3,000 sh.
                                small clams and pull worms from their burrows. At 10 to 12
                                inches, they tend to graze on tips of siphons of clams too
Status of Biological Knowledge                 large to be ingested whole. Crabs and polychaete worms
                                are also taken. Sand dollars, brittle stars, and sh are

T  he starry ounder is probably the most easily recogniz-  included in the diets of larger starry ounders.
   able of California’s atshes. The dorsal and anal
                                Wading and diving seabirds such as herons and cormo-
ns are prominently marked with alternating yellow or
                                rants, as well as marine mammals such as harbor seals,
orange and dark bars. The body surface is rough owing
                                feed on juvenile starry ounders in estuaries. However,
to modied star-shaped scales that give rise to the names
                                sea lions and harbor seals feeding on sh caught in gillnets
“starry” and “roughjacket,” as this sh is often called by
                                will pass up a dozen starry ounders to eat a more
shermen. It is very good at assuming the coloration of
the substrate upon which it nds itself. Starry ounders
in California are about equally divided between left-eyed
and right-eyed sh, while those of Japan are nearly all
left-eyed.
Starry ounders range from Korea and Japan, north to the
Bering and Chukchi Seas and the Arctic coasts of Alaska
and Canada, and southward down the coast of North
America to southern California, although they are uncom-
mon south of Point Conception. It is primarily a coastal
species, living on sand and mud bottoms, and avoiding
rocky areas. Though found to depths of 900 feet, they
are much more common in shallower waters. They are
frequently found in bays and estuaries, often one of com-
monest shes in these settings. They are tolerant of                        Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus
brackish and even fresh water.                                               Credit: DFG



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                       199
Starry Flounder



                                         1.2




                           millions of pounds landed
                                         1.0


                             Starry Flounder
                                         0.8
              Commercial Landings
                   1916-1999,
                                         0.6
                 Starry Flounder
            Starry flounder were aggre-
                                         0.4
          gated under the landing classi-
         fication “unspecified flounders”
                                         0.2
          between 1970 and 1982. Data
         Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and                0.0
                                            1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980    1990   1999
           commercial landing receipts.


           valuable California halibut, much to the consternation of                  which suggests that adult sh were no longer present in
           the sherman.                                        the areas where sheries normally operate, and were no
                                                         longer spawning in areas that had previously resulted in
           On occasion, a sh is caught that displays physical charac-
                                                         higher levels of young-of-the-year within the San
           teristics intermediate between a starry ounder and an
                                                         Francisco estuary. Recruitment is largely determined
           English sole and may be a hybrid of those species.
                                                         by survival of larval and juvenile sh. Given the
                                                         importance of bays and estuaries to the young of
           Status of the Population                                  this species, the continued environmental health of
                                                         these areas may be the most important factor in

           N  o studies have been conducted to determine popula-                   maintaining healthy populations of starry ounder.
             tion size of the starry ounder; however, the com-
           mercial landing and the recreational catch trends suggest
                                                         Charles W. Haugen and Dave Thomas
           the California population is now at extremely low levels.
                                                         California Department of Fish and Game
           The circumstance could arise from either a relocation of
           adult sh associated with the 1976-1977 oceanic regime
                                                         References
           shift or a rapid decline in the abundance of spawning
           adults due to shing pressure. The large population
           decline suggested by shery trends is substantiated by                   Orcutt, H.G. 1950. The life history of the starry ounder,
           a shery-independent trawl survey conducted by the Cali-                  Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
           fornia Department of Fish and Game within the San Fran-                   Fish Bull. 78. 64 p.
           cisco estuary from 1980 through 1995. Their results show                  Orsi, J. (editor) 1999. Starry Flounder. Pages 404-415 In:
           age-zero and age-one-plus starry ounder abundance and                   Report on the 1980-1995, Shrimp, and Crab Sampling in
           catch-per-unit-effort dropping dramatically during the late                 the San Francisco Estuary, California. The Interagency
           1980s and remaining at low levels through the 1990s.                    Ecological Program for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estu-
           There is very little or no yearly lag between the precipi-                 ary. Tech. Rept. 63.
           tous drop in the shery harvest and the drop in abun-
           dance of age-zero sh in the San Francisco estuary survey,




              California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                     December 2001
  200
Sanddabs
History of the Fishery                    part of the unspecied atsh catch, which has decreased




                                                                     Sanddads
                                from about 14,000 sh in 1990 to 4,000 sh in 1998.

A  lthough not as important to California sheries as    As an El Niño event is more likely to have an immediate
   other atshes, sanddabs are nevertheless highly     affect on the abundance of sanddab larvae than on har-
prized by the commercial industry and recreational      vestable adults, the immediate drop in sanddab catches
anglers for their excellent edibility. Four species of    during some El Niño years may be due in part to a shift in
sanddabs are found in California waters – Pacic sanddab   shing effort to more desirable species.
(Citharichthys sordidus), longn sanddab (Citharichthys
xanthostigma), speckled sanddab (Citharichthys stig-
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
maeus), and gulf sanddab (Citharichthys fragilis). Com-
mercial sanddab landings and recreational catches consist

                                S anddabs belong to the family Paralichthyidae (some-
predominantly of the two largest species, Pacic sanddab
                                 times included as part of Bothidae - left-eye oun-
and longn sanddab. Pacic sanddab is the most abundant
                                ders). Biogeographically, Pacic sanddab and speckled
and makes up the bulk of the landings in central and
                                sanddab are temperate species whereas longn sanddab
northern California waters, whereas Pacic sanddab and
                                and gulf sanddab are warm-temperate to tropical species.
longn sanddab are caught in southern California. Because
                                Pacic sanddab ranges from the Bering Sea to Cape San
of their smaller size, speckled and gulf sanddabs are not
                                Lucas, Baja California Sur, Mexico; speckled sanddab from
important to the sheries.
                                Point Montague Island, Alaska to Magdalena Bay, Baja Cali-
Recorded sanddab landings were highest (2.6 million
                                fornia Sur, Mexico; longn sanddab from Monterey Bay to
pounds) in 1917. In 1918, landings decreased to 1.8 million
                                Costa Rica; and gulf sanddab from off Ventura, California
pounds, and from 1919 to 1921 they remained less than 0.8
                                to Cape San Lucas, Baja California Sur, and the Gulf of
million pounds. In 1922, annual landings increased, reach-
                                California. Speckled sanddab and Pacic sanddab occur
ing approximately two million pounds in 1925. From 1930
                                throughout the state, with speckled sanddab occurring
to 1974, annual landings were below a million pounds.
                                from the surface to a depth of 1,200 feet, and Pacic
Since 1975, landings have uctuated between 1.4 million
                                sanddab at 30 to 1,800 feet. Maximum depths of both spe-
pounds and 0.6 million pounds annually. During the last
                                cies are suspect as the speckled sanddab seldom occurs
decade, landings have been above the historical annual
                                deeper than 300 feet and Pacic sanddab seldom deeper
average, except for 1983 and 1984, the period of a strong
                                than 600 feet. Longn sanddab occurs at depths from
El Niño event. Landings rebounded in 1985 and have
                                seven to 660 feet, but usually less than 450 feet, and gulf
increased since then. Approximately 1.44 million pounds
                                sanddab from 59 to 1,140 feet. Most species are found on
were landed in 1990, but landings crashed in 1992 (also an
                                muddy to sandy mud bottoms but speckled sanddab occurs
El Niño year) to 0.6 million pounds, and then rebounded
                                commonly on sandy bottoms.
to more than 2.0 million pounds in 1997 and 1999. In the
                                Pacic sanddab is the largest species, reaching 16 inches,
1990s, ex-vessel value ranged from $0.46 to $0.80 per
                                and up to two pounds. Most, however, are smaller than 10
pound (1990 and 1999, respectively). Value increased from
                                inches and weigh, at most, 0.5 pound. The next largest
$0.46 to $0.70 per pound from 1990 to 1993, dropped to
                                species is longn sanddab at 10 inches, followed by gulf
$0.51 per pound in 1995 and 1996, and then increase to a
                                sanddab at nine inches, and speckled sanddab at seven
high of $0.80 per pound in 1999.
                                inches. Pacic sanddab live to a maximum of 10 years
Since 1970, most of the commercial sanddab landings have
                                whereas speckled sanddab live to about 3.5 years. Pacic
been in northern and central California, with the largest
                                sanddabs mature at about three years, whereas the speck-
landings at Eureka and San Francisco Bay and less at
Monterey Bay. The commercial catch of sanddabs is mainly
by otter trawls and some by hook-and-line, especially in
the Monterey Bay area.
Many recreational anglers target them, mostly from small
boats and commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs).
Sanddabs are one of a few sh groups for which there is
no catch limit. Sanddab catches from CPFVs were small
during the 1990s, with reported catches reaching 2,200
sh in 1990 and dropping to about 100 sh in 1998 (a
strong El Niño year). About 70 percent of these were taken
in southern California between Long Beach and Newport
                                                Pacific Sanddab, Citharichthys sordidus
Beach. Sanddabs comprise an unknown, but probably large
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     201
Sanddabs



                                    3.0




                     thousands of pounds landed
                                    2.5

                                    2.0
                         Sanddabs
                                    1.5

                                    1.0
       Commercial Landings
       1916-1999, Sanddabs
                                    0.5
        Data Source: DFG Catch
       Bulletins and commercial
                                    0.0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960    1970   1980   1990   1999
           landing receipts.




                                                    References
      led sanddab matures at one year. Spawning begins in
      July, peaks in August, and ends sometime in September
      for Pacic sanddab and extends from spring to fall for                   Allen, M. J. 1976. Addition of Citharichthys fragilis Gilbert
      speckled sanddab. Females may spawn twice during a                     to the California fauna. Calif. Fish Game 62(4):299-303.
      season. In contrast, most northern atsh species spawn
                                                    Allen, M. J. 1982. Functional structure of soft-bottom sh
      during late winter to early spring.
                                                    communities of the southern California shelf. Ph.D. dis-
      Sanddab larvae are pelagic and may be found near the                    sertation. Univ. Calif., San Diego, La Jolla, CA. 577 p.
      surface and out to many miles offshore. Sanddab larvae
                                                    Arora, H.L. 1951. An investigation of the California sand
      transform and settle to the bottom at lengths of 0.6
                                                    dab, Citharichthys sordidus (Girard). Calif. Fish and Game.
      to 1.6 inches. Juveniles and adults feed near or on the
                                                    37:3-42.
      bottom on a variety of nektonic and benthic prey, includ-
                                                    Ford, R.F. 1965. Distribution, population dynamics, and
      ing shrimp, crabs, marine worms, squid, octopus, eggs,
                                                    behavior of a bothid atsh, Citharichthys stigmaeus.
      and small shes. Speckled sanddab feed largely on mysids
                                                    Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, San Diego. La
      and amphipods, but small Pacic sanddabs feed on cope-
                                                    Jolla, CA.
      pods and polychaetes. Adults feed more on euphausiids
                                                    Hensley, D. A. 1995. Paralichthyidae: Lenguados. Pages
      and squid. Sanddabs, in turn, are preyed upon by larger
                                                    1349-1380 In: W. Fischer, F. Krupp, W. Schneider, C.
      shes, diving birds, and marine mammals.
                                                    Sommer, K. E. Carpenter, and V. H. Niem (eds.), Guia
                                                    FAO para la identication de especies para los nes de
      Status of the Population                                  la pesca Pacico Centro-oriental, Vol. III, Vertebrados
                                                    Parte 2. United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organiza-

      C  ommercial landings indicate that sanddab populations                  tion, Rome, It.
        are in good condition and currently are not being over-
                                                    Kramer, D. E., W. H. Barss, B. C. Paust, and B. E. Brachen.
      harvested. The Pacic Fishery Management Council has
                                                    1995. Guide to Northeast Pacic atshes: families Bothi-
      not recommended a change in the minimal acceptable
                                                    dae, Cynoglossidae, and Pleuronectidae. Alaska Sea Grant
      biological catch of incidentally caught “Other Flatsh”
                                                    College Program, Marine Advisory Bull. No. 47. 104 p.
      (which includes sanddabs) during the past decade, indicat-
                                                    Moser, H. G., and B. Y. Sumida. 1996. Paralichthyidae:
      ing a stable and likely reasonably utilized resource.
                                                    lefteye ounders and sanddabs. Pages 1325-1355 In: H. G.
                                                    Moser (ed.), The early stages of shes in the California
      M. James Allen                                       Current Region. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Atlas
      Southern California Coastal Water Research Project                     No. 33.
      Robert Leos
      California Department of Fish and Game




         California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                                     December 2001
202
Other Flatfishes
History of The Fishery                      in the annual landings of sole. Turbot landings averaged




                                                                      Other Flatfishes
                                  about 47,000 pounds per year from 1953 to 1999, with

S  everal atsh species are taken incidentally in com-     a peak of 176,000 pounds in 1954, and another good
   mercial groundsh sheries. These include the rock      year occurring in 1959 (129,000 pounds). Since 1964 there
sole (Pleuronectes bilineatus), butter sole (Pleuronectes     has been an overall general decline in commercial turbot
isolepis), fantail sole (Xystreurys liolepis), sand sole (Pset-  landings. Landings in 1999 were approximately 8,000
tichthys melanostictus), slender sole (Eopsetta exilis),     pounds, the lowest since 1953. Pacic halibut contributed
bigmouth sole (Hippoglossina stomata), California tongue-     heavily to the minor atsh shery prior to the mid-1950s.
sh (Symphurus atricauda), curln turbot (Pleuronichthys     The last good year for Pacic halibut landings was 1952,
decurrens), hornyhead turbot (Pleuronichthys verticalis),     when 242,600 pounds were landed. Landings then began
spotted turbot (Pleuronichthys ritteri), C-O turbot (Pleu-    a rapid downward trend. From 1969 to 1988, no landings
ronichthys coenosus), diamond turbot (Hypsopsetta gut-      were recorded, except for three years: 1971, 1972, and
tulata), arrowtooth ounder (Atheresthes stomias), and      1986 (25, 235, and 34,500 pounds, respectively). From
Pacic halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis). Some of these,     1989 to 1999, landings did increase somewhat, averaging
notably the Pacic halibut, diamond turbot, and rock sole,    approximately 4,600 pounds per year.
are taken by recreational anglers as well, but most are      Most of the incidental atsh are taken by otter trawls.
caught primarily by commercial boats. Arrowtooth oun-      The exception is Pacic halibut, where set longline is the
der and Pacic halibut are considered as minor atshes      dominant gear used. Trammel nets are used to catch
in California atsh sheries because they are landed       some atsh in central and southern California waters,
in relatively small quantities. However, both species are     and many small-boat commercial shermen use hook-and-
major components in the atsh sheries in northern        line. Recreational anglers occasionally catch soles or tur-
waters from Oregon to Alaska.                   bots while shing for sanddabs, starry ounder, or Califor-
Landings of most of these atshes are difcult to extract    nia halibut. Diamond turbots are sought by recreational
from landings data for the early years (beginning in 1916),    anglers in quiet coastal waters, bays, and sloughs.
because many were combined with other categories of
atsh. For example, prior to 1931 turbots were included
                                  Status of Biological Knowledge
with soles. Also, some species such as Pacic halibut are
included in California landings, even though most were

                                  I n general, atsh spawn during late winter and early
landed elsewhere and shipped to California ports. Starting
                                   spring. Arrowtooth ounder, however, spawn as late as
in the early 1950s, some of these atsh landings, primar-
                                  August in the southeast Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska,
ily arrowtooth ounder (1950) and soles (1953), were listed
                                  where the greatest concentrations of this species are
separately in the catch data.
                                  found. The larvae are pelagic and undergo metamorphosis
Generally, incidental atsh catches have contributed       to the adult form. After atsh settle on the bottom,
only a small amount to the annual statewide commercial      they eat small crustaceans, polychaetes, and mollusks. As
landings. From 1953 to 1999, these annual atsh landings     they grow, they eat larger food forms of the same groups.
averaged about 0.1 percent of the total statewide land-      Some, such as sand sole, arrowtooth ounder, and Pacic
ings. During this period, ounders (mostly arrowtooth       halibut, include sh in their diet.
ounder) comprised 49.2 percent of incidental atsh
landings, soles 41.2 percent, turbots 8.0 percent, and
Pacic halibut 1.6 percent. Starting in the 1960s, commer-
cial landings of minor atsh, as a group, have declined,
although not all species showed this trend.
Since 1950, arrowtooth ounder landings averaged
278,300 pounds per year with peak years occurring in 1956
(1,070,700 pounds), 1960 (1,007,700 pounds), and 1961
(1,100,900 pounds). These high landings were due, in part,
to the less desirable shes, such as arrowtooth ounder,
nding a market with the animal food industry, primarily
as mink food. Arrowtooth ounder no longer is used for
mink food, but is processed for human consumption. Inci-
dental sole landings since 1953 averaged about 244,000
pounds per year, with a peak in 1979 when 839,000 pounds
                                                  Diamond Turbot, Hypsopsetta guttulata
were landed. After 1979, there was a general decline
                                                               Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                              A Status Report                     203
Other Flatfishes



                                          1.2




                            millions of pounds landed
                                          1.0


                            Arrowtooth Flounder
             Commercial Landings
                                          0.8
                   1916-1999,
             Arrowtooth Flounder
                                          0.6
                    Arrowhead
            flounder were aggregated
                                          0.4
          under the landing classification
              “unclassified sole” prior
                                          0.2
            to 1950. Data Source: DFG
          Catch Bulletins and commercial
                                          0.0
                                             1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960    1970   1980   1990   1999
                 landing receipts.




                                          200
                            millions of pounds landed




                                          150
                                 Turbot




                                          100

             Commercial Landings
                                          50
              1916-1999, Turbot
             Data Source: DFG Catch
             Bulletins and commercial
                                           0
                 landing receipts.                    1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960    1970   1980   1990   1999



           As a group, minor atsh species range from the Gulf of                    by the Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC). The
           California/Baja California to the Bering and Chukchi Seas                   densities of arrowtooth ounder are low south of Cape
           off Alaska. Within this overall range some species are                     Blanco, Oregon. Pacic halibut landings in California have
           quite restricted while others are found throughout most                    declined since the peak years during the 1930s; however,
           of this range. They occur from shallow water to depths in                   the species is considered uncommon in California waters.
           excess of 3,000 feet (Pacic halibut).                             Pacic halibut are monitored extensively by the Interna-
                                                          tional Pacic Halibut Commission (IPHC) and recent stock
                                                          assessment analysis indicates that while abundance in
           Status of the Populations                                   numbers is still quite high relative to the levels of 1975 or
                                                          1980, the prospect for a decline in the biomass in waters

           M  ajor uctuations of commercial landings of ounder,
                                                          north of California is a possibility.
             soles, and turbot have occurred since 1950. Despite
           these uctuations and declining commercial landings that
           started in the 1960s, market sampling and commercial
           landing records indicate that these populations remain
           in good condition and currently are not being over-har-
           vested. Arrowtooth ounder stock assessment work con-
           ducted in 1993 by the Washington Department of Fisheries
           indicated that the status of the population, at that time,
           was in good condition because there was no decline
           in shery catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) between 1987 and
           1992 and no trend in triennial bottom trawl survey CPUE
           from 1977 to 1992. Current catch levels remain well below
           the level of acceptable biological catch (ABC) established


               California’s Marine Living Resources:                          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                      December 2001
  204
Management Considerations                 Kramer, D. E. et al. 1995. Guide to Northeast Pacic




                                                             Other Flatfishes
                              Flatshes. University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for      Marine Advisory Bulletin No. 47.
further information.                    Nitsos, R.J. and P.H. Reed. 1965. The animal food shery
                              in California, 1961-1962. Calif. Fish and Game. 51:16-27.
Robert Leos                        Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1999. Status of the
California Department of Fish and Game           Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 1999 and Recom-
                              mended Acceptable Biological Catches for 2000. Pacic
                              Fishery Management Council, Portland, Oregon.
References                         Ripley, W.E. 1949. Bottom sh. Pages 63-75 in The com-
                              mercial sh catch of California for the year 1947 with an
Best, E. A. 1961. The California animal food shery,
                              historical review 1916-1947. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
1958-1960. Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission, Bulletin.
                              Bull. 74.
5:5-15.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME               California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                          A Status Report               205
   White Seabass
    History of the Fishery                           line shing takes place during the early spring, when large
                                         seabass are available.

    W   hite seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) have been            Although the legal size limit for white seabass is 28 inches
       favored by California anglers and consumers for at          (about seven pounds), the average commercially caught
    least a century. Coastal Indian middens have yielded            sh is nearly 40 inches (about 20 pounds). Because of con-
    many seabass ear bones (otoliths) suggesting that this           sumer demand, seabass has always commanded relatively
    sh was highly regarded for food and possibly used for           high prices. In 2000, commercial shermen were typically
    ceremonial purposes.                            paid $2.25 per pound for whole sh. At the retail level the
    Commercial landings of white seabass have uctuated            sh are sold fresh, primarily as llets and steaks.
    widely over the nearly 85 years of record keeping. Almost         Recreational shing for white seabass began around the
    three million pounds were reported in 1922, 599,000 in           turn of the century. Because of their size and elusive
    1937, 3.5 million in 1959, and 58,000 in 1997. Since 1959         nature, seabass are popular with anglers. Historical
    the trend has been one of decline, although landings have         records show that anglers on commercial passenger shing
    been over 100,000 pounds for the years 1984 through 1991          vessels (CPFVs), shing in California waters, landed an
    and 1998-1999. Although there was a commercial shery           average of 33,400 sh annually from 1947 through 1959.
    in the San Francisco area from the late 1800s to the mid-         The catch steadily declined to an average of 10,400 sh
    1920s, landings of sh caught north of Point Conception          in the 1960s, 3,400 sh in the 1970s, and 1,200 sh in
    rarely exceeded 20 percent of the total California catch.         the 1980s, but increased to 3,000 sh in the 1990s. In
    Today, catches of white seabass are concentrated along           fact, the 1999 recreational catch of white seabass from
    the coast from Point Conception to San Diego and around          California waters was greater than 11,000 sh and appears
    the Channel Islands. The frequency of sh caught north           to be as high for 2000. Additional seabass are caught
    of Point Conception has increased in the past few years,          by anglers aboard private boats, but accurate catches by
    although the pounds landed still represent less than 20          private boat anglers are difcult to estimate.
    percent of the total California catch. Before 1982, Califor-        Today, sport anglers catch white seabass that are gener-
    nia commercial shermen landed thousands of pounds             ally between seven and 25 pounds. This was not true
    of white seabass taken in Mexico. Often these landings           in the past. While the 28-inch size limit also applies to
    comprised more than 80 percent of the annual catch.            recreational anglers, most of the catch prior to the 1990s
    Since then, the Mexican government has denied access            (kept and released) was between 20 and 24 inches. In a
    permits to U.S. shermen, and the shery is concentrated          survey of private boaters at launch ramp facilities from
    in California.                               1978 through 1982, biologists found that only six to 16
    During the early years of the shery, commercial catches          percent of the white seabass kept were of legal size. In
    were made using gillnets, hook-and-line, and round haul          a similar survey aboard CPFVs from 1985 through 1987,
    nets such as lamparas and purse seines. Purse seining was         biologists reported that 16 to 25 percent of the seabass
    curtailed in the late 1920s because decreasing catches           caught were legal. However, this has changed dramatically
    made it uneconomical. Since all round haul nets were            with the apparent increase in the abundance of legal-size
    prohibited in the early 1940s, gillnets have been the major        white seabass. During the period from 1995 through 1999,
    commercial shing gear. Set gillnet shing for white sea-         data collected from private boat anglers revealed 77 per-
    bass within state waters was completely disallowed begin-         cent of the sh were legal size while data from CPFV
    ning in 1994. Therefore, drift gillnetting is the primary         anglers showed 80 percent of the sh were legal size.
    shing method utilized today. Some commercial hook-and-          White seabass are more often caught with live bait than
                                         with dead bait or lures, but all are effective when the sh
                                         are actively feeding. Seabass can sometimes be brought
                                         to the surface by heavy chumming with live bait. Anglers
                                         shing around Santa Catalina Island have reported con-
                                         sistently good catches using blacksmith and silversides
                                         as bait. However, when available, live squid and Pacic
                                         sardines are popular baits. Spearshing for large seabass
                                         by free divers (without SCUBA) is successful in kelp beds.
                                         Regulations covering white seabass have been in effect
                                         since 1931, and have included a minimum size limit, closed
                                         seasons, bag limits, and shing gear restrictions. Such
                                         regulations are in effect today, with slight variations. A
                      White Seabass, Atractoscion nobilis
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
206
                                                                               White Seabass
                   4
millions of pounds landed



                   3
    White Seabass




                   2
                                                                 Commercial Landings
                                                                 1916-1999,
                   1                                              White Seabass
                                                                 Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                                 Bulletins and commercial
                   0                                              landing receipts.
                     1916 1920   1930  1940  1950    1960   1970   1980   1990   1999



shery management plan for white seabass is presently                   Spawning occurs from April to August, with a peak in the
being adopted and the need for additional regulations will                late spring to early summer. Fecundity (egg productivity)
be considered.                                      for this species has not been determined, but a maturity
                                             study in the late 1920s reported that females begin matur-
                                             ing when four years old (nearly 24 inches), and some
Status of Biological Knowledge                              males were sexually mature at three years (20 inches). All
                                             white seabass have probably spawned at least once by age

W   hite seabass is the largest member of the croaker
                                             six (nearly 32 inches).
   family (Sciaenidae) in California. Fish weighing
                                             The eggs, which are the largest of any croaker on the
nearly 90 pounds with lengths of ve feet have been
                                             west coast (approximately 0.05 inch in diameter), are
recorded, but individuals larger than 60 pounds are
                                             planktonic. The larvae, which are darkly colored, have
seldom seen. White seabass range from Magdelena Bay,
                                             been collected from Santa Rosa Island, California to Mag-
Baja California, Mexico to the San Francisco area. They are
                                             delena Bay, Baja California. Most are found in the inshore
also found in the northern Gulf of California. During the
                                             areas of Sebastian Viscaino and San Juanico Bays, Baja
strong El Niño of 1957-1959, seabass were reported as far
                                             California, indicating that major spawning occurs off cen-
north as Juneau, Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.
                                             tral Baja California.
The center of the white seabass population presently
                                             Young-of-the-year white seabass, ranging in length from
appears to be off central Baja California. Recent genetic
                                             0.25 inch to 2.25 inches, inhabit the open coast in waters
research of seabass populations shows that some mixing of
                                             12 to 30 feet deep. They associate with bits and pieces
sh from California and Mexico does occur. However, there
                                             of drifting algae in areas of sandy ocean bottom. Some
may be local subpopulations of sh that do not mix regu-
                                             time between the ages of one and three years old, they
larly. While the question of population continuity remains
                                             move into protected bays where they utilize eelgrass com-
unresolved, there is evidence that each summer the sh
                                             munities for cover and forage. Older juveniles are caught
move northward with warming ocean temperatures (as
                                             off piers and jetties and around beds of giant kelp. Adult
demonstrated by catches). Biologists believe the move-
                                             seabass occupy a wide range of habitats including kelp
ment is probably spawning-related.
                                             beds, reefs, offshore banks, and the open ocean. Adult
                                             white seabass eat Pacic mackerel, Pacic sardines, squid,
              70
                                             pelagic red crabs, and Pacic herring.
              60
thousands of fish landed




                                             Laboratory spawning of white seabass was rst induced in
              50
  White Seabass




                                             1982. Beginning in 1983, the California Department of Fish
              40
                                             and Game initiated the Ocean Resources Enhancement
              30
                                             and Hatchery Program (OREHP) to test the feasibility of
              20
                                             raising seabass for population enhancement. That goal was
              10
                                             achieved in the rst 10 years of the program and the goals
              0 1947  1950    1960  1970  1980  1990   1999

                                             of the program have been expanded to test the feasibility
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, White Seabass
                                             of enhancing marine sh populations through the stocking
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
                                             of cultured sh. By 1999, more than 375,000 juvenile
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.



    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                       A Status Report                 207
                                        References
        white seabass had been released off southern California,
White Seabass



        and it is estimated that 17,500 of those may have
                                        Allen, L.G. and M.P. Franklin. 1988. Distribution and abun-
        survived to legal size or larger. Additionally, valuable
                                        dance of young-of-the-year white seabass, Atractoscion
        life history information has been gathered during this
                                        nobilis, in the vicinity of Long Beach Harbor, California in
        program through ecological surveys, tagging, and genetic
                                        1984-1987. Calif. Fish and Game 74:245-248.
        studies. However, more work is necessary to determine
        if articial propagation is successful in enhancing the     Clark, F.N. 1930. Size at rst maturity of the white seabass
        seabass population.                       (Cynoscion nobilis). Calif. Fish and Game 16:319-323.
                                        Moser H.G., D.A. Ambrose, M.S. Busby, J.L. Butler, E.M.

        Status of the Population                    Sandknop, B.Y. Sumida, and E.G. Stevens. 1983. Descrip-
                                        tion of early stages of white seabass, Atractoscion nobilis,

        T                                with notes on distribution. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish.
          he range of the white seabass population has con-
                                        Invest. Rep. 24:182-193.
          tracted since the early part of this century, and few
        are found regularly north of Point Conception. Few data     Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
        are available concerning the status of seabass in Mexico,    (croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
        and it is difcult to determine whether the decline in     Bull. 54. 62 p.
        California waters indicates an overall population decline.
                                        Thomas, J.C. 1968. Management of the white seabass
        Population estimates have not been made. Fishery biolo-     (Cynoscion nobilis) in California waters. Calif. Dept. Fish
        gists have been concerned about the decline in landings     and Game, Fish Bull. 142. 34 p.
        since the late 1920s. Today, this concern still exists within
                                        Vojkovich, M. and R.J. Reed. 1983. White seabass, Atrac-
        the scientic community, commercial shing industry, and
                                        toscion nobilis, in California-Mexican waters: status of the
        with the angling public. Human-induced changes, such
                                        shery. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:79-83.
        as pollution, overshing, and habitat destruction have
        probably contributed to this long-term population decline.
        However, natural environmental changes can also inu-
        ence the population. The large numbers of small seabass
        caught in recent years suggests that the warm water
        period beginning with the 1982-1983 El Niño helped to
        increase young sh survival. Young sh surveys conducted
        in southern California, as part of OREHP, showed a dra-
        matic increase in the number of sh taken in research
        gillnet sets. During research work in 1997 over 600 juve-
        nile sh were captured, in 1998 approximately 700 sh
        were taken, and in 1999 slightly over 1,300 juveniles were
        captured. Anecdotal evidence from commercial and sport
        shers conrms this dramatic increase in juvenile white
        seabass. It is unknown whether this increase in juveniles
        will subsequently enhance the adult spawning population.


        Marija Vojkovich and Steve Crooke
        California Department of Fish and Game




          California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
 208
Giant Sea Bass
History of the Fishery                     Status of Biological Knowledge




                                                                     Giant Sea Bass
B                                A
   ecause giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) grow slowly      lthough this species is most frequently referred to
   and mature at a relatively old age, they are suscep-      as black seabass in California, the American Fisheries
tible to overshing. As a consequence, they have suffered    Society has designated the common name as giant sea
a serious decline in numbers. Commercial landings from     bass. Black seabass is an unrelated Atlantic coast species.
U.S. waters peaked in 1932 near 200,000 pounds before      Giant sea bass were originally assigned to the grouper
declining. Mexican waters were more productive (peaking     family, Serranidae, but later placed in a new family,
at over 800,000 pounds in 1932) and did not permanently     Percichthyidae. Although family placement has still not
sink below 200,000 pounds until 1964. A few hook-and-line    been resolved, similarities between larvae of wreckshes
shermen targeted giant sea bass, but they were         and giant sea bass seem to support placement in the
also caught incidentally by gillnets set for halibut and    family Polyprionidae.
white seabass.                         Small juveniles are bright orange with large black spots.
Recreational landings, reported in numbers of sh rather    As they grow they lose the orange coloration and take on a
than pounds, show a similar trend of peaking and perma-     bronzy purple color. The spots slowly fade as the sh gets
nently declining. The peak in California landings occurred   larger and darker, with large adults appearing solid black
in 1963 while Mexican landings peaked in 1973. That these    to gray with a white underside. Giant sea bass are capable
recreational sheries peaked after the commercial shery    of rapid and dramatic color changes. Large sh retain the
is due to the later development of the recreational shery   ability to display large black spots, can take on a bicolor
rather than a reection of the giant sea bass population. A   appearance (light below, dark above), white mottling, jet-
few boats developed a special recreational shery target-    black or light gray. As implied by the name, the most
ing spawning aggregations during the summer months.       dramatic feature of giant sea bass is their large size. The
Trips made in July to certain reefs between Point Abreojos   International Game Fish Association world record for this
and Magdalena Bay, Baja California, consistently produced    species is 563.5 pounds, caught at Anacapa Island in 1968.
70 to 100 giant sea bass. One trip produced 255 in three    Giant sea bass reach lengths in excess of seven feet, and
days. Once these aggregations were exploited the shery     are nearly as big around as they are long.
disappeared with the sh.                    Despite the conspicuous size and protected status of giant
In 1981, a law was passed that prohibited the take of      sea bass, there are no published scientic studies to pro-
giant sea bass for any purpose, with the exception that     vide details of the biology and habits of this creature. In
commercial shermen could retain and sell two sh per      the eastern Pacic, giant sea bass range from Humboldt
trip if caught incidentally in a gillnet or trammel net. This  Bay to the tip of Baja California, and occur in the northern
law also limited the amount of giant sea bass that could be   half of the Gulf of California. Some authors have stated
taken in Mexican waters and landed in California. A vessel   that this species is also found along the coast of northern
could land up to 1,000 pounds of Mexican giant sea bass     Japan and the Sea of Japan, but this may be a case
per trip but could not land more than 3,000 pounds in a     of mistaken identity. Within California it is rarely found
calendar year. The law was amended in 1988, reducing the    north of Point Conception. Adult giant sea bass seem to
incidental take to one sh in California waters. Although    prefer the edges of nearshore rocky reefs. These reefs
this law may have prevented commercial shermen from      are relatively shallow (35 to 130 feet) and often support
selling giant sea bass in California, it did not prohibit    thriving kelp beds. Although the kelp may disappear due
shing over habitats occupied by this species and probably   to a strong El Niño or overgrazing by sea urchins, giant
did little to reduce the incidental mortality of giant sea   sea bass remain at the reef. At certain times of the year,
bass, as giant sea bass that were entangled in the nets
were discarded at sea. The 1981 rule changes were more
effective in protecting giant sea bass in Mexico, since
large landings had been historically made by hook-and-line
shermen targeting grouper, cabrilla, and giant sea bass
off the Pacic coast of Baja California. The banning of
inshore gillnets displaced the California shery from the
majority of areas inhabited by giant sea bass; it is reason-
able to assume that this closure signicantly reduced the
incidental mortality of giant sea bass in California.

                                                   Giant Sea Bass, Stereolepis gigas
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                     209
Giant Sea Bass




                                       Giant Sea Bass (total commercial landings)
                                                              1.0




                                           millions of pounds landed
                                                              0.8

                                                              0.6

             Commercial Landings
                                                              0.4
         1916-1999, Giant Sea Bass
          Data reflects catch from both
                                                              0.2
         California and Mexican waters
            landed in California. Data
         source: DFG Catch Bulletins and                                      0.0  1916 1920       1930        1940   1950   1960   1970    1980   1990   1999
          commercial landing receipts.




                                                                                          found over at sandy bottom and are sometimes caught
                         900
                                                                                          over deep ridges (230-265 feet) off the coast of Del Mar by
          thousands of pounds landed




                         800
                                                                                          anglers targeting rocksh.
                         700
             Giant Sea Bass




                         600
                                                                                          Given their depressed population and protected status,
                         500
                                                                                          it is unlikely an aging study of giant sea bass will be
                         400
                         300
                                                                                          completed in the near future. Although aging data are
                         200
                                                                                          sparse, it is safe to say these sh grow slowly and live a
                         100
                                                                                          long time. Estimated growth-rates are six years to reach
                          0  1916 1920  1930   1940                 1950      1960  1970  1980     1990  1999

                                                                                          30 pounds, 10 years to reach 100 pounds, and 15 years to
                                                                         California Waters
                                                                         MexicanWaters
                                                                                          reach 150 pounds.
          Commercial Landings by Location 1916-1999, Giant Sea Bass
                                                                                          Spawning has never been observed in nature, but gonad
          Landings separated by location of catch. All landings were recorded at California ports.
                                                                                          examinations suggest that it occurs between July and
          Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
                                                                                          September. Male sh have been observed to be mature
                                                                                          at 40 pounds, and females at 50 to 60 pounds. Anecdotal
                         900                                                                information suggests that giant sea bass aggregate at spe-
                         800
                                                                                          cic locations and times to spawn. Because of the large
           number of fish landed




                         700
             Giant Sea Bass




                                                                                          size of this species, females are capable of producing
                         600
                         500                                                                enormous numbers of eggs. The ovaries of a 320-pound
                         400
                                                                                          specimen contained an estimated 60 million eggs. Fertile,
                         300
                                                                                          hydrated giant sea bass eggs are relatively large for a
                         200
                                                                                          marine species, measuring about 0.06 inch in diameter.
                         100
                          0 1947
                                                                                          The eggs oat to the surface and hatch in about 24 to 36
                               1950     1960                      1970     1980     1990     1999

                                                                            California Waters
                                                                                          hours. The larvae drift and feed in the plankton for about
                                                                            MexicanWaters
                                                                                          a month before settling to the bottom and beginning their
          Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Giant Seabass
                                                                                          lives as juveniles. Giant sea bass have spawned in captivity
          Data derived from commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch
                                                                                          several times, most recently at the Long Beach Aquarium
          as reported by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1936; no data available
                                                                                          of the Pacic where a single pair spawned in two succes-
          for 1941-1946; data separated by location of catch. Catch Data was not available
                                                                                          sive years, nearly weekly beginning in June and ending in
          for 1999.
                                                                                          August or September.
          adults can be found well away from the reef foraging for
                                                                                          Examinations of sh caught in Mexico indicate that the
          squid over a sandy bottom.
                                                                                          principal prey items are sting rays, skates, lobster, crabs,
          The orange juvenile phase has been reported among drift-
                                                                                          various atsh, small sharks, mantis shrimp and an occa-
          ing kelp scattered over the bottom in 20 to 35 feet of
                                                                                          sional kelpbass or barred sandbass. Earlier analyses found
          water, over the soft muddy bottom outside of the Long
                                                                                          blacksmith, ocean whitesh, red crab, sargo, sheephead,
          Beach breakwater, and over at sandy bottom in Santa
                                                                                          octopus and squid. Giant sea bass are not built for speed,
          Monica Bay. Larger juveniles up to 31 pounds have been
                                                                                          and the majority of their prey consists of organisms that


                         California’s Marine Living Resources:                                               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report                                                           December 2001
 210
                                Status of the Population
live on the bottom. The vacuum produced when the huge




                                                                Giant Sea Bass
mouth is rapidly opened draws such organisms into their

                                T  he California population of giant sea bass is well below
mouth. Giant sea bass themselves are eaten by a variety
                                  historical highs. Anecdotal information suggests that
of shes and marine mammals when they are small. In
                                numbers may be beginning to rebound under current mea-
addition to humans, large sharks prey on adults.
                                sures. No hard data exist that provide actual or relative
Except for the short period of time they spend as plank-
                                numbers of giant sea bass.
tonic larvae, giant sea bass live in close association with
the bottom. This way of life may become a problem for
this species. The sediments along the coast of southern
                                Management Considerations
California carry high loads of toxins. In fact, an area off
the Palos Verdes peninsula is thought to contain higher     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
levels of DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) than any-      further information.
where else in the world’s oceans. PCB is another pollutant
that is prevalent along the coast of southern California.
                                Michael L. Domeier
Many forms of invertebrates live in these sediments,
                                Peger Institute of Environmental Science
ingesting the pollutants along with the organic material
they feed on to survive. These organisms occupy very
low trophic levels, and the toxins are passed up the food
                                References
chain in increasing concentrations. Long-lived, top level
predators accumulate the highest levels of toxins. Giant
                                Domeier, Michael L. and Patrick L. Colin. 1997. Tropical
sea bass caught in southern California have been found to
                                reef sh spawning aggregations: dened and reviewed.
have high body burdens of DDE and PCB. Fish collected
                                Bull. Mar. Sci. 60 (3):698-726.
200 miles south of the Mexican border were found to be
                                Eschmeyer, W.N., E.S. Herald, and H. Hammann. 1983.
free of toxins. Thus, California populations of giant sea
                                A eld guide to Pacic Coast shes of North America.
bass may suffer from more than just overshing. These
                                Houghton Mifin Company. Boston, MA. 336 p.
two toxins have been found to affect reproduction in
other species of sh, as well as in amphibians, reptiles,    Shane, M. A., W. Watson, and H. G. Moser. 1996. Polypri-
and birds.                           onidae: giant sea basses and wreckshes. Pages 873-875
                                In: H. G. Moser (ed.), The early stages of shes in the
It is presumed that giant sea bass migrate to specic sites
                                California Current Region. Coop. Fish. Invest. Atlas No. 33.
to spawn. This was almost certainly the case prior to
                                Allen Press Inc., Lawrence, KS. Calif.
the exploitation of the spawning aggregations, but it is
not known how far individuals traveled to participate in
the aggregation, or whether these migrations take place
today. The process of site selection for spawning aggrega-
tions is not well understood, but experimental manipula-
tion of small aggregating reef species suggests that once
a site is selected young sh learn its location from older
sh. In this way, the same traditional spawning aggrega-
tion sites are used by subsequent generations of sh.
Once the learning cycle has been broken it is not known
how a new (or the same) spawning aggregation may form.
The population may have to reach a particular density
before the process of forming annual spawning aggrega-
tions becomes a possibility. Giant sea bass have been
found in groups year round at a few locations in southern
California. Although anglers that come across these areas
and hook several giant sea bass in one day may be led to
believe that this species is thriving, giant sea bass remain
absent from the vast majority of our coast. It is likely that
the sh are gregarious, and after heavy exploitation, the
population has collapsed to a very few focal points where
they can be found in healthy numbers.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               211
   Yellowtail
    History of the Fishery                          catch. However, in the 1950s private boaters began taking
                                         a signicant number of sh. During some years, private

    S  port and commercial sheries for yellowtail (Seriola         boaters land more yellowtail than do CPFV anglers.
      lalandi) have existed off California since the late 1800s.      For instance, during 1997, private boat anglers shing
    Commercial or subsistence shing is the older of the two,         off California, landed 472,000 sh compared to 163,000
    with modern hook-and-line sport shing getting its start         recorded by CPFV anglers. The increase in the number
    in 1898 at Santa Catalina Island. Prior to 1898, sportsmen        of private boat anglers may impact the yellowtail
    used handlines, a practice which faded with the advent          resource more than continued effort by CPFV anglers or
    of hickory rods, functional reels, and linen line. Both the        commercial shermen.
    sport and commercial sheries in California are conned          Major shing areas for CPFV and private boat anglers
    to the area south of Point Conception. The shery usually         include the Channel Islands, Santa Monica Bay, Dana Point
    occurs in nearshore areas, often adjacent to kelp beds.          to Oceanside, La Jolla, San Clemente Island, Santa Cata-
    During the summer, sh may be found offshore under            lina Island, and the Coronado Islands. Long-range CPFVs
    oating mats of kelp.                           sh primarily from Cedros Island south. They often con-
    Commercial landings of yellowtail have uctuated greatly         centrate on the offshore banks, especially in the Magda-
    in the past, ranging from a high of 11.5 million pounds in        lena Bay area. The commercial shery is conducted in the
    1918 to a low of 9,769 pounds in 1995. Market conditions         same areas as the sport shery.
    appear to dictate landings more than does the health of
    the resource. When market demand for fresh yellowtail
                                         Status of Biological Knowledge
    was high or the canneries needed sh because tuna were
    unavailable, the price to the sherman was great enough

                                         Y  ellowtail are found from British Columbia, Canada to
    to encourage trips for the sh.
                                           Mazatlan, Mexico. They are present in the Gulf of Cali-
    The commercial shery for yellowtail was restricted to          fornia, occurring as far north as the Bay of Los Angeles.
    small live bait boats working off southern California or the
                                         Most yellowtail spawn during the summer months, June
    Coronado Islands, Baja California, Mexico, until 1933. At
                                         through September. During this period, adults move off-
    that time, purse seiners began shing in Mexican waters,
                                         shore and form spawning aggregations. Some two-year-old
    as the supply of yellowtail off California had decreased
                                         females may spawn, but all females over three years of
    and it was illegal to seine them north of the international
                                         age are capable of spawning. Young sh spawn only once
    border. Gillnet boats also started landing yellowtail taken
                                         during the season, while those seven years of age (20
    incidentally to white seabass landed commercially in Cal-
                                         pounds) and older are capable of multiple spawnings. A
    ifornia. However, nearshore gillnet shing was banned
                                         20-pound sh is capable of producing 940,000 eggs during
    beginning in 1994. This greatly reduced the amount of sh
                                         a single season.
    landed by commercial shers since only hook-and-line gear
                                         Yellowtail are opportunistic daytime feeders. Off southern
    and gillnets shed outside three miles are legal methods
                                         California, yellowtail stomachs contain sardines, ancho-
    of take.
                                         vies, jack mackerel, Pacic mackerel, and squid. Fish
    Data from commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) logs
                                         taken off Mexico frequently are full of pelagic red crabs.
    provide a general indication of the magnitude of the
                                         Age and growth studies conducted on yellowtail indicate
    sport shery for yellowtail in southern California. During
                                         the sh are relatively slow growing. They gain approxi-
    years when the water was warm, CPFVs have landed
                                         mately three to four pounds a year during most of their
    over 450,000 sh. When the water was cold, yellowtail
                                         lives, although very large individuals may gain only one to
    catches were sometimes less than 10,000 sh. Prior to the
                                         two pounds per year. Growth can vary considerably from
    early 1950s, CPFVs were responsible for most of the sport
                                         year to year and also between and within geographical
                                         areas. The largest recorded individual weighed 80 pounds.
                                         The average sizes at selected ages are: age one, 20 inches
                                         and 3.8 pounds; age two, 25 inches and 7.4 pounds; age
                                         three, 28 inches and 9.9 pounds; age four, 31 inches and
                                         13.2 pounds; age ve, 33 inches and 15.9 pounds; age 10,
                                         44 inches and 35 pounds.
                                         Within southern California and at the Coronado Islands,
                                         sport anglers generally land yellowtail that weigh four to
                                         12 pounds. Long-range CPFV anglers shing off central
                          Yellowtail, Seriola lalandi
                                         Baja California usually catch 12 to 18 pound sh. Com-
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
212
                                                                                  Yellowtail
                14
millions of pounds landed


                12
                10
    Yellowtail




                   8                                              Commercial Landings
                                                                 1916-1999, Yellowtail
                   6
                                                                 Data Source: DFG Catch
                   4                                              Bulletins and commercial
                                                                 landing receipts. Yellowtail
                   2                                              landings include fish caught in
                                                                 waters south of the state but
                   0  1916 1920   1930  1940  1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999    landed in California.




mercial gillnet shermen generally land 10 to 20 pound
                                            Status of Population
yellowtail because of the selective nature of the nets.


                                            W
Commercial hook-and-line shermen usually land four to                    hile no population estimate is available for the
12 pound sh, although none can be less than 28 inches                    northern stock of yellowtail, the resource appears
long, measured in fork length.                             to be healthy. The stock is probably not as large as it
                                            was in the early 1950s, but it can support signicant
Results of a tagging study conducted by the California
                                            sport and commercial sheries when oceanic conditions
Department of Fish and Game indicate there are two
                                            are favorable.
stocks of yellowtail off Baja and southern California. One
group occurs south of Cedros Island, Baja California, while               Data collected during the 1970s and early 1980s indicate
the second group occupies the area from Cedros Island                  that the northern population has undergone a shift in sh
northward. There is some interchange of sh between                   size. Two and three year olds now dominate the catch,
the two groups around Cedros Island. Because of limited                 whereas six to nine year olds made up the majority of the
mixing between the two stocks, the southern California                 catch in the past. The shift in size could be an indicator of
shery is wholly dependent on sh recruited from the                  either population stress or good recruitment.
northern population.
                                            Because more of the northern stock is available to
The number of yellowtail available to southern California                sport anglers during warm water conditions, CPFV catches
shermen in any given year is dependent on whether                   during El Niño events provide an indication of the health
warm water conditions exist off northern Baja California.                of the resource. The El Niño event of 1997, which proved
Excellent yellowtail catches have occurred during years                 to be the strongest of many events beginning with 1983,
when water temperatures were at least three to ve                   pushed many young yellowtail north into southern Califor-
degrees F above normal in the spring. Conversely, periods                nia. The 1996 year class dominated the sport shery
of cool water produce low catches. When sh are avail-                 during the summer of 1997 as one-year-old sh. The 1996
able, they usually are found nearshore in the spring and                year class remained off southern California during the
fall but offshore during the summer months.                       winter of 1998 and again dominated the shery as two-
                                            year-olds. During 1998, the commercial shery harvested
                                            almost a quarter million pounds of yellowtail since most
                                            of the 1996 year class sh reached legal size midway
                                            through the summer. This commercial catch represented
            500

                                            a four-fold increase from 1997. With the cooling of ocean
thousands of fish landed




            400
                                            waters off southern California in 1999 and 2000, sport
    Yellowtail




            300
                                            and commercial yellowtail catches dropped. However, the
                                            1996 year class continued to dominate the sport shery
            200

                                            during both years. Based on data from the MRFSS, the
            100
                                            1996 year class was the strongest in recent history. Over
              0
                                            1.0 million yellowtail from the 1996 year class were landed
                1947  1950    1960  1970  1980  1990  1999


                                            by CPFV and private boat anglers between 1997 and 2000.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Yellowtail
Data Source: DFG, Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel logbooks.


    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                          California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                      A Status Report                     213
                                     References
       The department initiated a minimum size limit on sport
Yellowtail



       caught yellowtail during 1998 in an effort to reduce the
                                     Baxter, J.L. 1960. A study of the yellowtail Seriola dorsalis
       catch of one-year-old sh. The 10 sh limit was retained,
                                     (Gill). Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 110. 96 p.
       but a 28-inch FL size limit was adopted with sport anglers
       allowed to retain ve sh less than 28 inches FL.      Crooke, S.J. 1983. Yellowtail, Seriola lalandei Valenci-
                                     ennes. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:84-87.

       Management Considerations                  Radovich, J. 1961. Relationship of water temperature to
                                     marine organisms of the northeast Pacic, particularly
                                     during 1957 through 1959. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
       See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                     Bull. 112. 62 p.
       further information.


       Stephen J. Crooke
       California Department of Fish and Game




         California’s Marine Living Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December 2001
214
Pacific Bonito
History of the Fishery                     Pacic bonito is well known for its ghting ability and




                                                                     Pacific Bonito
                                quality as a food sh. Bonito can be caught recreationally

T  he Pacic bonito (Sarda chiliensis) is an economically   with live anchovies and sardines or by casting or trolling
   important commercial species from Magdalena Bay      with metal lures and feather jigs. Off California, recre-
in southern Baja California, Mexico to Point Conception,    ational anglers typically catch bonito year round south
California, and in most years is ranked as one of       of Point Conception with the highest catches in summer.
the top 15 species sought by recreational shermen in     North of Point Conception, recreational anglers usually
southern California.                      take bonito during the fall months.
As a result of the expansion of the commercial passenger    Bonito are taken commercially by troll gear, gillnets, and
shing vessel (CPFV) industry after World War II, Pacic    pole and line gear, but the landings of sh caught by these
bonito catches by CPFVs increased from 36,500 in 1947     methods usually average less then two percent of the total
to over one million sh in 1960. Most of these sh were    catch. The primary commercial shing gear for bonito
caught between Malibu Beach and the Coronado Islands.     is the purse seine. The purse seine eet consists of
CPFV logbook landings of bonito remained high during the    two general groups: the local “wetsh” vessels with sh
1960s, with more than one million sh taken in 1964,      load capacities of 30 to 100 tons, and the larger tuna sein-
1968, and 1969. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, CPFV     ers capable of carrying 150 to 500 tons. Wetsh boats har-
landings dropped and then stabilized with decadal aver-    vest mackerel and sardines, but seasonally target bonito,
ages for the 1970s and 1980s at 313,200 and 372,700 sh,    squid, and bluen tuna. Nearly all of these wetsh seiners
respectively. In the 1990s, the number of sh taken by     are based in San Pedro and sh in the Santa Barbara
CPFVs dropped again. Logbook landings ranged between      and San Pedro Channels. The large tuna seiners, now
2,880 and 263,000 sh with a decadal average of 101,700.    all but absent from California, operate primarily in the
The 1999 landings were the lowest annual catch on record    tropical waters off Mexico and Central and South Amer-
and the decadal average the lowest since the 1940s.      ica. Although the primary target for these seiners is yel-
                                lown tuna, these vessels take bonito during their return
During the 1980s, more then one-half of the bonito catch
                                trips to the United States to help compensate for small
was made from private boats as this method of angling
                                tuna catches.
became increasingly popular. A similar trend was observed
in the 1990s with private boats landing between 33 per-    Off California, commercial shing for bonito occurs year
cent and 57 percent of the recreational catch. Private     round south of Point Conception with the largest catches
boat landings in the 1990s ranged between 1,200 and      in late summer and early fall. North of Point Conception,
128,400 sh with a decadal average of 49,600. This was     commercial shing for bonito occurs primarily in the
signicantly lower than the 1980s decadal average of      summer and fall.
560,000 sh.                          Over the last 80 years, commercial landings of bonito
Recreational catches can be impacted by the availability    have ranged between 127,600 pounds (1956) and 31.9 mil-
of other desirable species. In the 1980s and 1990s, highly   lion pounds (1975). During the rst half of the twentieth
desirable species such as yellown tuna, bluen tuna,     century, landings of bonito gradually increased from about
and albacore occasionally were available in large numbers.   500,000 pounds in 1916 to around 10.9 million pounds in
The reductions in recreational landings of bonito can be    1941. Landings briey peaked again after World War II, but
attributed in part to a shift in targeted effort from bonito  dropped during the 1950s and early 1960s. Landings then
to these more desirable species.                showed a major upward trend from the mid-1960s through
                                the mid-1970s, increasing more than four-fold between
Changes in regulations can also impact recreational
                                1965 and 1975. Starting in the late 1970s, this trend
catches. In 1982, a 24-inch size limit was imposed on
                                reversed with landings dropping in the 1980s to a decadal
bonito. Part of the reduction in sport landings after 1982
was probably due to this size restriction, but the impact
of this regulation was probably limited because of a ve
sh tolerance for undersized bonito that was included
with the size restriction.
The bulk of the recreational catch consists of one-year
bonito approximately 18 inches long. During fall and
spring migrations, larger two-year sh become available to
anglers. About ve to 10 percent of the landings consist of
sh larger then 24 inches.
                                                    Pacific Bonito, Sarda chiliensis
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     215
Pacific Bonito



                                       35




                         millions of pounds landed
                                       30

                                       25
                            Pacific Bonito    20

                                       15

                                       10
           Commercial Landings
         1916-1999, Pacific Bonito
                                       5
           Data Source: DFG Catch
          Bulletins and commercial                 0
                                         1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990  1999
               landing receipts.




         average of eight million pounds (compared to 9.7 million                 bonito is a pulse shery. When bonito become more abun-
         pounds for the 1960s and 17.7 million pounds for the                   dant, either from a gradual increase in the population or
         1970s). In the 1990s, landings for this sh ranged between                from the recruitment of a strong year class, then some
         157,000 and 9.58 million pounds with a decadal average                  of the commercial shing effort in Mexican waters shifts
         of 1.9 million pounds. This average was higher than that                 to this species. The resource is harvested until the sh
         observed in the 1950s (1.8 million pounds) but lower than                 are no longer abundant. Effort then is redirected to other
         those from the previous three decades.                          species until such time as the bonito resource becomes
                                                      abundant again.
         In the 1990s, bonito’s ranking among the other commer-
         cial species also dropped. By total weight, bonito ranked                 The availability of other desirable species can have a
         among the top 20 species landed by California sheries for                profound impact on the landings of bonito. Lower avail-
         most of the 1980s. In contrast, during the 1990s, this sh                ability of other more desirable species due to environmen-
         ranked among the top 20 species only in 1990 and 1998.                  tal changes or management changes can increase the
                                                      amount of bonito landed. For instance, bonito were tar-
         The amount of bonito landed is impacted by its avail-
                                                      geted during seasonal yellown tuna closures in the 1970s
         ability, the availability of other desirable species, market
                                                      because an incidental take of the more valuable yellown
         demand, and price. Off of California, the availability of
                                                      tuna was allowed while shing for bonito. On the other
         bonito can vary considerably between seasons and years.
                                                      hand, high availability of more desirable species can
         Some of this variation can be attributed to the migratory
                                                      reduce the amount of bonito landed. This was likely the
         movements of these sh and some to oceanic changes. For
                                                      case in the 1980s and 1990s when a number of more
         instance, during El Niño events, more of the stock may
                                                      desirable species including yellown tuna, skipjack tuna,
         move northward, becoming more available to California
                                                      albacore tuna, and bluen tuna were at times quite abun-
         sheries, while during La Niña events, fewer sh may
                                                      dant. In 1986, for example, high availability of bluen
         move into California waters.
                                                      tuna with a value of $1,550 per ton resulted in the
         The availability of bonito also can be impacted by shing
                                                      wetsh seiners shifting their effort toward that species;
         restrictions. During the years from 1943 to 1958 and 1975
                                                      as a result, bonito landings in 1986 dropped to a low of
         to 1978, at least 50 percent, and often more than 90
                                                      533,000 pounds.
         percent, of the landed bonito were taken off Baja Califor-
                                                      Market demand for bonito has been low over the last
         nia, Mexico. During the last two decades, Mexico has
                                                      two decades. Commercial bonito landings are primarily
         restricted access to foreign vessels shing in its nearshore
                                                      purchased by canneries that process bonito for human
         waters and California landings originating from Mexico
                                                      consumption with the offal utilized for pet food or for
         have declined to less than 10 percent of the total landings.
                                                      reduction to shmeal. Cannery orders for this sh in
         In addition, the availability of bonito in California waters
                                                      recent years have been limited. Higher demand exists
         can be impacted by the amount of sh taken by the com-
                                                      for yellown tuna, skipjack tuna, albacore, and bluen
         mercial shery in Mexican waters. Mexican commercial
                                                      tuna for human consumption; for Pacic mackerel and
         landings of bonito over the last several decades show
                                                      jack mackerel as pet food; and for northern anchovy as
         sharp periodic increases in the take of this sh. This
                                                      shmeal. Bonito also are sold fresh or frozen or are pro-
         pattern suggests that the Mexican commercial shery for
                                                      cessed by curing or smoking. The market for this product


             California’s Marine Living Resources:                        CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                                    December 2001
216
is currently small, but is growing due to the changes in    observed in an aquarium, females swim with a wobble




                                                                             Pacific Bonito
California’s demographics.                   while males use color barring on their bodies to show
                                their interest and aggressive nature. This aggressive verti-
Prices for bonito have generally showed an upward trend
                                cal barring coloration in males has also been observed in
over time. Between the 1960s and early 1980s, the price
                                aquarium-held bonito at feeding time. During courtship,
of bonito increased from $50 to $90 per ton to $550 per
                                males will follow directly behind the displaying female,
ton. The price then declined to $200 to $300 per ton
                                jockeying for position. The successful male and female
in the mid-1980s but increased again in the 1990s to an
                                then pair and synchronize the release of gametes at the
average of $990 per ton. While the 1990s average price is
                                onset of a tight circle swim. Gametes are broadcast into
the highest reported for bonito, it is still lower than that
                                the seawater where fertilization takes place.
paid for desirable sh such as bluen tuna which usually
sells for four to ve times the price of bonito.        Sexual maturity differs between males and females.
                                Pacic bonito females begin to mature at two years of age
                                and are fully mature at 24 inches. Males are more preco-
Status of Biological Knowledge                 cious. About 44 percent of the one-year males spawn,
                                and all are mature at two years of age or 20 inches in

P  acic bonito is a rapidly growing piscivorous sh. In
                                length. Spawning begins in January and continues for a
   one year this sh can reach roughly 20 inches in fork
                                ve-month period. Peak spawning occurs off central Baja
length, and weigh about four pounds. At two years of age,
                                California, but may take place in southern California late
bonito average roughly 25 inches in fork length and weigh
                                in the season or during El Niño episodes. Some localized
about eight pounds. Their growth slows in the latter half
                                spawning may also take place near warm-water discharges
of life with the sh reaching 32 to 35 inches and 17 to
                                from electrical generating stations. Individuals may spawn
22 pounds at six years. The California angling record is a
                                more than once during a season. A 6.6-pound female
22-pound sh caught off Malibu Beach in 1978, but larger
                                releases an estimated 0.5 million eggs in one season.
sh are occasionally reported.
                                Bonito consume prey equaling about six percent of their
Swimming is continuous to maintain orientation and respi-
                                body weight per day. Northern anchovies are common
ration, and is powered by richly oxygenated red muscle
                                prey, but market squid, highly vulnerable to predation
tissues near the tail. As the sh grow, the proportion of
                                while spawning, sometimes become a major part of the
red muscle tissue increases; hence, larger sh become
                                diet. Pacic sardines may also be a signicant food source.
relatively more powerful swimmers. At a continuous-main-
tenance swimming speed, aquarium-held sh averaging 22
                                Status of the Population
inches in length swim as much as 43 miles daily.
Bonito is a temperate epipelagic schooling sh with a

                                W   arm water conditions in the 1980s and 1990s may
discontinuous distribution in the eastern Pacic Ocean. It
                                   have provided good conditions for bonito survival,
ranges from Chile to the Gulf of Alaska, but is absent from
                                but large catches have been sporadic and the trends
the central coast of Mexico south to Panama. The north-
                                in both commercial and recreational landings continue
ern population typically is centered between southern
                                downwards. This downward trend may be due in part
California and central Baja California, but this distribution
                                to a shift in targeted effort from bonito to other more
can shift northward during warm-water years. This species
                                desirable species and to low market demand. It also may
migrates approximately 600 miles along the United States
                                be due to changes in the distribution and migration of this
- Mexico coastline, moving southward from southern Cali-
                                northern population in response to oceanographic changes
fornia in the winter and northward from Baja California
                                that have taken place over the last two decades. However,
in the summer. This migration probably is a response to
changing sea temperatures since these sh appear to be
impacted by local variations in sea temperature. Individu-                1.4

als tagged and released within warm-water discharges                   1.2
                                millions of fish landed




                                             1.0
from electrical generating stations have been recaptured
                                  Pacific Bonito




                                             0.8
near their release site up to three years later. These
                                             0.6
tagging studies suggest that some bonito do not move
                                             0.4
southward in the winter and instead overwinter in the
                                             0.2
Southern California Bight.
                                             0.0  1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999
There is no external anatomical differences between the
                                Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Pacific Bonito
sexes. However, behavioral and visual cues can be used to
                                CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
distinguish males from females. During courtship of bonito
                                by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                                            A Status Report              217
                                       References
         this downward trend may well be due to a decline in
Pacific Bonito



         stock abundance. If this is the case, then current shing
                                       Black, G. 1979. Maturity and spawning of the Pacic
         practices may make it difcult for this stock to rebuild.
                                       bonito, Sarda chiliensis lineolata, in the eastern North
                                       Pacic. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
         Management Considerations                  Rept. 41. 60 p.
                                       Campbell, G. and R.A. Collins. 1975. The age and growth
         See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                       of the Pacic bonito, Sarda chiliensis, in the eastern North
         further information.
                                       Pacic. Calif. Fish and Game 61:181-200.
                                       Collette, B.B. & C.E. Nauen. 1983. FAO species catalogue
         Jeffrey Smiley, Deborah Aseltine-Neilson,
                                       vol. 2: Scombrids of the world. An annotated and illus-
         Ken Miller and Marija Vojkovich
                                       trated catalog of tunas, mackerel, bonitos and related
         California Department of Fish and Game
                                       species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis (125) Vol
                                       2. 137 p.
                                       Collins, R., D. Huppert, A. MacCall, J. Radovich, and
                                       G. Stauffer. 1980. Pacic bonito management information
                                       document. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
                                       Rept. 44. 94 p.
                                       Goldberg, S. R., and D. Mussiett. 1984. Reproductive cycle
                                       of the Pacic bonito, Sarda chiliensis (Scombridae), from
                                       northern Chile. Pacic Science 38:228-231.
                                       Magnuson, J.J. and J.H. Prescott. 1966. Courtship, loco-
                                       motion, feeding, and miscellaneous behaviour of Pacic
                                       bonito (Sarda chiliensis). Anim. Behav. 14:54-67.
                                       Squire, J.L., Jr. 1982. Catch temperatures for some impor-
                                       tant marine species off California. NOAA Tech. Rept. NMFS
                                       SSRF-759. 27 p.
                                       Yoshida, H.O. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on bonitos
                                       of the genus Sarda. NOAATech. Rept. NMFS Circ. 432. 50 p.




           California’s Marine Living Resources:          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                      December 2001
218
California Barracuda
History of the Fishery                     shermen has been low. In 1999, commercial shermen




                                                                     California Barracuda
                                received an average price of $0.70 per pound.

T  he California barracuda (Sphyraena argentea), also     The popularity of California barracuda as a game sh goes
   known as the Pacic barracuda, has played a signi-    back to at least the mid-1920s, as is evident from photo-
cant role in the growth and development of California’s    graphs and newspaper accounts. However, the California
commercial and sport shing industries. Taken primarily    Department of Fish and Game (DFG) did not begin collect-
off southern California and northern Baja California,     ing records of commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV)
Mexico, barracuda gured prominently in the development    sport sh landings until 1936. Records from 1936 through
of the purse seine shery. Additionally, they have long    1940 reveal that CPFV barracuda landings (in numbers
been a major component of the southern California sport    of sh) exceeded those of other sport shes, and that
sh catch.                           they often equaled or exceeded commercial landings (in
Annual records of commercial barracuda landings date      weight) for barracuda taken in California waters. Annual
back to 1889, but only nine years of intermittent records   landings for these ve years averaged about 630,000 sh.
exist through 1915, and these are not specic as to catch   Records were not kept from 1941 through 1946 due to
areas. Commercial landings of barracuda in 1889 were      shing restraints during World War II. As interest in marine
0.5 million pounds, and by 1915 they were up to 3.6 mil-    sport shing grew in the post-World War II era, the sport
lion pounds. Since 1916, landing records have differenti-   take of barracuda greatly exceeded that of the com-
ated barracuda caught in California waters (essentially off  mercial eet in California waters. Between 1946 and 1971,
southern California) from those caught in waters south of   CPFV barracuda landings ranged from 87,600 to 1.2 million
the international border with Mexico (northern Baja Cali-   sh, for an overall annual average of 447,000 sh. In
fornia). By 1916, The southern California purse seine eet   1971, the current 28-inch minimum size limit for all sport-
consisted of at least seven vessels by 1916. Inuenced by   caught barracuda became effective, causing an 86 percent
the economic impetus of World War I, the commercial bar-    decline in CPFV barracuda landings from the previous year.
racuda shery grew concurrently with the rapid develop-    Since 1971, CPFV landings of barracuda have been increasing,
ment of the purse seine eet.                 ranging between 26,300 and 446,000 sh annually.
Attempts to manage the barracuda shery began in 1915     The Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey has
with a minimum size limit of 18 inches for hook-and-line    shown that, on average, 54 percent of the total barracuda
caught barracuda. Since then, many commercial and sport    catch is from CPFVs, 45 percent is from private and
regulations on gear, seasons, weight, size, and bag limits   rental boats, and one percent is from shore. In the late
have been enacted, modied, or repealed. Today, most      1980s, a DFG study determined that roughly 60 percent of
commercially caught barracuda are taken by gillnets with    CPFV-caught barracuda are released (almost all of which
3.5-inch mesh, although some are taken by hook-and-line.    are less than 28 inches). The study also indicated Los
The minimum size limit is 28 inches. May and June are     Angeles County accounted for 58 percent of the CPFV
usually the peak months of commercial shing activity     barracuda landings.
for barracuda.                         Sport anglers, especially aboard CPFVs, usually use live
Between 1915 and 1970, commercial landings of barracuda    anchovies or sardines to sh for barracuda. Anchovies and
harvested from California’s nearshore waters averaged 2.1   sardines are also used to chum and hold barracuda schools
million pounds annually, despite a gradual decline in land-  close to the boat. Metal or plastic articial lures in a
ings since 1925. Landings have remained relatively low     variety of shapes and colors are also popular. Sport-caught
since 1970, averaging about 113,500 pounds annually. Prior   barracuda are taken mainly near the surface. Most shing
to 1926, California barracuda harvested south of the inter-  activity occurs from May through September, when surface
national border exceeded those catches made in Califor-    water temperatures range between 62° and 70°F.
nia. Barracuda harvest from Mexican waters remained an
integral part of the California shery until 1969, averaging
over one million pounds annually. But over the past 30
years, landings have been insignicant, averaging only 600
pounds annually. The major cause for the decline was the
imposition of increasingly restrictive commercial shing
regulations by Mexico which became increasingly restric-
tive to California shermen over the years.
In general, commercial barracuda prices are a function
of supply and demand. Historically, the price paid to
                                                California Barracuda, Sphyraena argentea
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                      219
            Status of Biological Knowledge                              northern anchovy, Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, jack
California Barracuda



                                                         mackerel, and Pacic saury. In association with kelp beds

            T  he California barracuda is a nearshore, epipelagic,                  or shallow water habitats, they may feed on topsmelt and
              schooling sh found from Cabo San Lucas, Baja Cali-                  California grunion. Opportunistic feeding on market squid
            fornia to Kodiak Island, Alaska. Catch origins indicate                  made vulnerable during their spawning activity is likely.
            the population is centered between San Quentin, Baja                   Previous references to the predators that feed on Califor-
            California and Point Conception, California. During warm                 nia barracuda have listed sea lions, seals, porpoises, and
            water oceanic events, such as El Niños, a portion of                   giant sea bass. Analyses of the gut contents and scat
            the population may shift northward into central Califor-                 from marine mammals have failed to discover barracuda
            nia. Frequently seen at the surface, barracuda have been                 remains. Observations of California sea lions and harbor
            taken at depths of 120 feet.                               seals opportunistically feeding on barracuda injured or
            Growth in length is most rapid during the rst year of                  entrapped by shing gear are common, but these animals
            life. Barracuda reach a total length of 14 inches at one                 more typically feed on the same size prey as adult barra-
            year. At two years, they have grown to 20 inches and                   cuda. Giant sea bass are more likely predators on juveniles
            weigh about one pound. However, the maximum growth                    and adult barracuda.
            by weight of nearly one pound per year is achieved by                   California barracuda have an inshore distribution during
            four- and ve-year-old sh. The minimum size limit of                   their early life history. Fish a few inches long are observed
            28 inches, approximately a three-pound sh, is near the                  in protected bays and marinas. Larger young-of-the-year
            average size for a four-year-old. At this age, females are                sh school below the canopy of semi-protected kelp-bed
            about 0.75 inches larger than males, and the difference                  habitats. Older juveniles and adults form large schools
            increases to about 2.5 inches in sh over six years old. The               that disperse widely in the open-water environment.
            oldest sh aged was an 11-year-old measuring 41 inches
                                                         Movements of California barracuda have been studied by
            and weighing about nine pounds. Larger and presumably
                                                         tagging. Fish tagged during May 1959 at locations off
            older sh include the state angling record of 15 pounds 15
                                                         northern Baja California and off southern California were
            ounces and a 17-pound sh caught off Carpenteria in 1958
                                                         recovered at intermixed locations, indicating a single pop-
            that measured 46.5 inches.
                                                         ulation. Movements of up to 100 miles north and south
            California barracuda produce pelagic eggs and larvae. Fer-                occurred during the summer, but a portion of the recover-
            tilization takes place externally as the sexes simultane-                 ies were at the release sites. However, a general migra-
            ously release their gametes. At two years, almost all males                tion pattern that was distinctly northward during the
            and 75 percent of females are sexually mature. All are                  summer and less distinctly southward during the fall was
            mature at three years of age. Full sexual maturity occurs                 indicated. Movements are presumably a response to sea
            in males at a length of 20 inches and in females at                    temperature, and warm overwintering temperatures off
            22 inches. In a single spawning, a two-year-old female                  southern California reduce the southward return. High
            may produce 50,000 eggs, increasing to about 400,000 by                  catch success during spring and summer off southern Cali-
            age six. Individuals may spawn more than once during a                  fornia has been correlated with warm sea temperatures
            spawning season. Off southern California, spawning takes                 the preceding winter.
            place from April to September, peaking in June.
            Feeding habits of California barracuda are not well docu-
                                                         Status of the Population
            mented, but some potential prey species can be men-
            tioned. During pelagic schooling movements, barracuda

                                                         T  he status of the California barracuda population
            may feed on other open water schooling shes such as
                                                           is unknown, because data concerning catch, shing
                                                         effort, and age composition are scarce. Barracuda catches
                         1.4
                                                         off California are variable for many reasons, one of which
                         1.2
            millions of fish landed
            California Barracuda




                                                         is that barracuda are migratory with a preference for
                         1.0

                                                         warmer waters. During an El Niño event, when warmer
                         0.8

                                                         than normal water masses move up the coast, barracuda
                         0.6

                                                         are caught far north of their normal range and in greater
                         0.4

                                                         than average numbers off southern California, suggesting
                         0.2

                                                         a higher population level. This was apparent during the
                         0.0
                            1947  1950  1960  1970  1980   1990    1999

                                                         1957-1959 El Niño event, one of the most intense on
            Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Barracuda                    record. However, during the similarly intense 1982-1983
            CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported  and 1997-1998 El Niño events, barracuda catches did not
            by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.


                         California’s Marine Living Resources:              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                          December 2001
220
                                                                       California Barracuda
              9
              8
millions of pounds landed
 California Barracuda




              7
              6
              5
              4
                                                         Commercial Landings
              3
                                                         1916-1999,
              2                                           California Barracuda
              1                                           Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                         Bulletins and commercial
              0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   landing receipts.




                                    References
increase appreciably. Assuming shing effort and the per-
centage of the population migrating northward were simi-
                                    Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
lar, the difference suggests that the barracuda population
                                    Status of major southern California marine sport sh spe-
was depressed during the latter El Niño periods. Since the
                                    cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
late 1980s, catches have increased but remain well below
                                    ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
those reported prior to 1970. This is due to the fact
                                    commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
sport anglers may no longer keep short barracuda as they
                                    1987. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div., Admin.
were allowed to do prior to 1971. Only during one three-
                                    Rep. 90-2. 376 p.
year period, 1958 though 1960, has the number of bar-
racuda off southern California been estimated by the DFG.        Orton, G.L.1955. Early developmental stages of the Califor-
Estimates ranged from 1.6 to 2.9 million sh.              nia barracuda, Sphyraena argentea Girard. Calif. Fish and
                                    Game. 41:167-176.
Because of uncontrollable factors such as migration,
water temperature, and Mexico’s management policies,          Pinkas, L. 1966. A management study of the California
the DFG’s management policies for this species probably         barracuda Sphyraena argentea Girard. Calif. Dept. Fish
have a limited effect on its population level. Nevertheless,      and Game, Fish Bull. 134. 58 p.
the regulations are intended to reduce the likelihood of
                                    Schultze, D.L. 1983. California barracuda life history, sh-
overshing this valuable resource.
                                    eries, and management. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest.
                                    Rep. 24:88-96.

Management Considerations                        Walford, L.A. 1932. The California barracuda Sphyraena
                                    argentea. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 37. 122 p.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.


J.R. Raymond Ally and Ken Miller
California Department of Fish and Game
Updated by Stephen P. Wertz
California Department of Fish and Game




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                                A Status Report                   221
   Kelp Bass
   History of the Fishery                          bag limits for sport caught kelp and sand bass combined.
                                        The new size limit began at 10.5 inches and was increased

   K  elp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) are popularly referred       several times until the 12-inch limit was reached in 1959.
     to as calico bass and represent one of the most impor-        The kelp bass catch has uctuated greatly since the 1960s.
   tant nearshore, recreational species in the waters off          The largest CPFV catches occurred during the mid-1980s,
   of southern California. This important species has been         estimated at over 1,000,000 sh annually. Since 1980,
   the target of southern California anglers and commercial         the CPFV kelp bass catch has ranged from 273,000 to
   shermen since the early 1900s. In the early years of          2,795,000 sh in 1988 and 1986, respectively, and aver-
   the shery, catch statistics grouped kelp bass and the          aged about 1,000,000 kelp bass per year. CPFV landings of
   two other Paralabrax species, barred sand bass and spot-         kelp bass typically peak in the late spring and early fall.
   ted sand bass, into a single “rock bass” category. Based         The recent Federal Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics
   on recent information, it is very likely that kelp bass         Survey estimated that since 1990 the catch from shore,
   comprised most of this catch category early on. The larg-        pier, and private boat anglers averages about 900,000
   est commercial landings of rock bass occurred during           kelp bass per year which exceeds that of CPFV shermen
   the 1920s and 1930s; annual landings averaged 500,000          (about 800,000 sh per year). The CPFV landings of kelp
   pounds. A sharp decline in shing activity occurred during        bass steadily declined each year from 1993 to 1999.
   and after World War II and landings never exceeded
                                        The most productive shing areas for kelp bass in recent
   150,000 pounds from 1941 through 1953. The general
                                        years have been off the Coronado Islands, Baja California,
   decline of the rock bass resource prompted conservation
                                        Mexico; Point Loma and La Jolla in San Diego County;
   measures, which in 1953 made commercial shing for rock
                                        Dana Point and Huntington Beach in Orange County; Santa
   bass illegal in California waters. Legally sold sh imported
                                        Catalina Island and Horseshoe Kelp in Los Angeles County;
   from Mexico dwindled to insignicant levels since the late
                                        and around the Channel Islands in Santa Barbara and
   1950s. Sport anglers using light hook-and-line tackle catch
                                        Ventura Counties.
   kelp bass while shing from piers, beaches, private boats,
   and commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs). Sport
   catch records for rock bass taken by CPFVs have been
                                        Status of Biological Knowledge
   available since 1935, but only CPFV records since 1975


                                        K
   reliably differentiated kelp bass catches from the other           elp bass have ranged historically as far north as the
   rock bass. Early sport anglers considered the kelp bass a           mouth of the Columbia River and south to Bahia Mag-
   nuisance when attempting to catch more desirable game-          dalena, Baja California, Mexico. However, they are rare
   sh. Only the largest “bull bass” were sought. In 1939,         north of Point Conception. They are abundant in southern
   a limit on sport sh catches in California, 15 total sh         California waters including the shores of all the Channel
   in an aggregate of several species, was the rst man-          Islands. They are typically found in shallow water (surface
   agement attempt to prevent depletion of popular sport          to 150 feet) being closely associated with high relief struc-
   sh populations.                             ture, including kelp. Kelp bass range throughout the water
                                        column, but seem to concentrate between eight and 70
   Intense shing immediately after World War II may have
                                        feet. In general, they live solitary lives but form assem-
   caused a progressive decrease in the size of landed bass,
                                        blies to spawn and to feed on small schooling sh. Early
   and the popular kelp bass shery was deteriorating. The
                                        tag and release studies showed little movement for the
   California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) instituted
                                        majority of kelp bass and concluded that if they move at
   comprehensive studies in 1950 that resulted in size and
                                        all, it is to nearby rocky reefs or short distances to gather
                                        into breeding assemblages. More recently, tagging studies
                                        in the northern portion of the Southern California Bight
                                        from Point Conception south the northern Channel Islands
                                        indicated the kelp bass were quite mobile with some sh
                                        traveling as far as 50 miles.
                                        Kelp bass have the broad diet of a generalized carnivore
                                        consisting of small shes (including anchovies, sardines,
                                        surfperch, queensh), squids, octopuses, crabs, shrimps,
                                        and amphipods. They forage primarily in the midwater,
                                        but occasionally feed on the bottom. Young kelp bass
                                        feed on small crabs, copepods, and plankton. They
                      Kelp Bass, Paralabrax clathratus  feed lightly in the winter and most heavily during May
                                Credit: DFG  through September.


     California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
222
                                             mid-1970s and early-1980s may be attributed to El Niño




                                                                              Kelp Bass
              700
                                             events that provide anglers with alternative species to
              600
thousands of fish landed




                                             catch. Peak landings have followed each El Niño event.
              500
    Kelp Bass




                                             DFG surveys of the CPFV industry in the 1970s and 1980s
              400
                                             indicated a stable spawning population is being main-
              300

                                             tained because of the large number of age classes that
              200

                                             are caught and kept by anglers. Approximately 85 percent
              100

                                             of the kelp bass kept by CPFV anglers measure between
               0
                 1947  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999

                                             11.4 to 15.9 inches, representing up to seven age classes.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Bass
                                             However, the alarming decline of recreational catch from
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
                                             all sources that has occurred in the 1990s is a major cause
by CPFV logbooks. Prior to 1973, Kelp Bass and Barred Sand Bass CPFV catch data
                                             for concern.
were aggregated.


Kelp bass mature between seven and 10.5 inches in length
                                             Management Considerations
and about three to ve years and form breeding aggrega-
tions in deeper water off of kelp heads and rocky head-                  See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
lands, generally, in depths down to 150 feet. Several                   further information.
hundred ripe adults may aggregate in a small area during
spawning. During spawning, high-contrast, black and white
                                             Larry G. Allen
individuals with yellow-orange snouts are usually males,
                                             California State University, Northridge
and sh with golden hues and yellow chins and jaws are
usually females. Spawning occurs primarily around the                   Tim E. Hovey
full moon from April through November peaking in the                   California Department of Fish and Game
summer months. Kelp bass produce pelagic eggs (0.04
inches in diameter) which enter the plankton in coastal
                                             References
waters. Larvae remain in the plankton for 28 to 30 days at
which time they settle out in shallow water in attached,
                                             Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
as well as drift algae including kelps. Young-of-year kelp
                                             Status of major southern California marine sportsh spe-
bass grow to a length of about two inches in the rst
                                             cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
90 days of life.
                                             ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
Kelp bass are known to grow to 28.5 inches and 14.5                    commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
pounds. The oldest known kelp bass was 34 years old                    1987. Calif Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin.
and 25 inches long. Juvenile kelp bass can be ve to six                 Rept. 90-2: May, 1991.
inches after one year and are about 12 inches (legal size)
                                             Cordes, J.F., and L.G. Allen. 1997. Estimates of age,
at ve years. The average 10 year-old kelp bass is about 18
                                             growth, and settlement from otoliths of young-of-the-year
inches in total length. As with most shes, growth is highly
                                             kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus). Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci.
variable with the largest sh not necessarily being the
                                             96:43-60.
oldest. The world record kelp bass (14.5 pounds) caught
                                             Love, M.S., A. Brooks, and J.R.R. Ally. 1996. An analysis of
off Newport Beach in 1995 was 27 years old while a 9.5
                                             commercial passenger shing vessel sheries for kelp bass
pound sh caught at San Clemente Island in 1993 was 34
                                             and barred sand bass in the southern California Bight. Calif
years old.
                                             Dept. Fish and Game 82(3): 105-121.
                                             Love, M.S., A. Brooks, D. Busatto, J.S. Stephens, Jr. and
Status of the Population                                 P.A. Gregory. 1996. Aspects of the life histories of the
                                             kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) and barred sand bass (P.
I n the 1970s and 1980s, the kelp bass was among the top
                                             nebulifer) from the southern California Bight. U.S. Fish.
 three species taken by the average angler per hour of
                                             Bull 94: 472-481.
shing (along with barred sand bass and Pacic mackerel).
                                             Young, P.H. 1963. The kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus)
In 1986 and 1989, kelp bass were the most commonly
                                             and its shery, 1947-1958. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
taken species in the CPFV eet. Throughout the 1980s,
                                             Fish. Bull. 122.67 p.
kelp bass have consistently ranked among the top ve
shes caught by CPFV anglers. DFG surveys indicate the
estimated total catches of kelp bass have increased since
the mid-1970s. Low periods of kelp bass landings in the


    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                       A Status Report                223
   Barred Sand Bass
    History of the Fishery                          private boat, CPFVs, etc.) ranged as high as 1,940,000 in
                                         1988. The CPFV landings of barred sand bass remained

    B  arred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer) are commonly          stable at around 600,000 sh from 1993 to 1996, but
      caught by anglers in California. Since the late 1970s,        declined dramatically thereafter. On average, landings of
    this species has consistently ranked among the top 10           barred sand bass in the 1990s were about 40 percent
    species in the southern California marine sport sh catch.        lower than those in the 1980s.
    The major barred sand bass shing sites include the Silver
    Strand, Del Mar, San Onofre, Huntington Flats area off
                                         Status of Biological Knowledge
    Orange County, the inshore portion of northern Santa
    Monica Bay off Pacic Palisades and Santa Monica in Los

                                         B  arred sand bass range from Santa Cruz south to Bahia
    Angeles County, and the Ventura Flats area off northern
                                           Magdalena, Baja California, Mexico. They are rare
    Ventura County. Barred sand bass are targeted exclusively
                                         north of Point Conception. Sand bass chiey inhabit the
    by sport anglers; the commercial harvest of this species
                                         shallow waters near the southern California mainland, but
    has been illegal since 1953. Throughout the 1930s and
                                         have been captured at depths as great as 600 feet, but
    early 1940s, sand bass, as well as kelp bass, were not con-
                                         the greatest concentrations are found in depths less than
    sidered to be quality angling fare but gained tremendously
                                         90 feet. Young sand bass are abundant in very shallow
    in popularity as game shes by the mid-1950s. At that
                                         water (ve to 30 feet). The name “sand bass” is somewhat
    time, concern about the resource by sport shermen and
                                         unfortunate since they are usually closely associated with
    shery managers resulted in the initiation of life history
                                         sand/rock interfaces of deep reefs and articial structures
    studies and the formulation of conservation measures. By
                                         and are rarely found out over sandy expanses.
    1959, a 10-sh bag limit and a 12-inch minimum size limit
                                         Barred sand bass feed mainly on small shes (including
    had been imposed on all three kelp and sand bass species,
                                         anchovies, sardines, midshipman), and invertebrates such
    measures designed to counteract the declining numbers,
                                         as crabs, clams, and squid. The largest barred sand bass
    and shrinking size composition of the bass catches. The
                                         on record measured 26 inches in length, and the maxi-
    commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) bass shery
                                         mum-recorded weight was 11.1 pounds. Like their sympat-
    responded positively to this management regime, and
                                         ric congener the kelp bass, barred sand bass are also
    landings of kelp and sand bass increased substantially
                                         relatively slow growing. A juvenile barred sand bass is
    through the 1960s and early 1970s. From 1975 through
                                         approximately six inches long after one year, and reaches
    1989, the CPFV barred sand bass catch expanded threefold
                                         sexual maturity between seven and 10.5 inches in length
    to a peak of 400,000 sh in 1988. Although lacking some
                                         and about three to ve years. The oldest known barred
    of the sporting qualities of kelp bass, barred sand bass
                                         sand bass was found to be 24 years old.
    are much more susceptible to hook-and-line gear and are
    somewhat easier to catch. When CPFV skippers target            Barred sand bass form large breeding aggregations over
    barred sand bass aggregations, they can usually produce          sandy bottoms at depths of 60-120 feet in the summer
    substantial catches for their passengers, even for novice         months. Spawning occurs in these aggregations from
    anglers possessing minimal shing skills. In 1985, 1987 and        April through November, usually peaking in July. During
    1988, barred sand bass was the leading bass species in the        spawning, high-contrast, gray and white individuals with
    CPFV catch exceeding kelp bass landings for the rst time         large golden-yellow crescents under their eyes are usually
    since 1961 when kelp bass and sand bass landings were           males. Sand bass produce a large number of small pelagic
    rst reported separately. Estimates of annual barred sand         eggs that enter the plankton in coastal waters. Young-of-
    bass landings from all sport shing activities (shore, pier,       the-year sand bass begin appearing in shallow, nearshore
                                         waters in the early fall.
                                         DFG tagging studies have revealed that barred sand bass
                                         are capable of movements of from ve to 40 miles. In the
                                         early 1970s, evidence was presented that tumors, defor-
                                         mities, and other anomalies found in barred sand bass may
                                         have been linked to industrial and domestic wastes dis-
                                         charged into the nearshore environment. Reports of such
                                         abnormalities have decreased in the past two decades.




                    Barred Sand Bass, Paralabrax nebulifer
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
224
Status of the Population




                                                                            Barred Sand Bass
                                             700




                               thousands of fish landed
                                             600



T  he barred sand bass catch rose steadily in importance




                                 Barred Sand Bass
                                             500
  from 1975 to late 1989, to the point where sand bass                 400

are rivaled only by kelp bass in the nearshore recreational               300

catch off southern California. From 1975 to 1978, barred                 200

sand bass ranked in the top ten in CPFV catch. By 1986                  100

to 1989, barred sand bass consistently ranked in the top                  0
                                                1947 1950  1960  1970  1980  1990    1999

three species and was the top ranked species in CPFV
                               Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Barred Sand Bass
catch in 1988. CPFVs and private boats take the majority
                               CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
of sand bass while shing the summer spawning aggrega-
                               by CPFV logbooks. Prior to 1973, Barred Sand Bass abd Kelp Bass CPFV catch data
tions. Several factors seem to account for the upward
                               were aggregated.
trend. Most signicantly, CPFVs, which account for the
greatest portion of the barred sand bass catch, have
                               References
begun to target them more frequently, especially during
the summer spawning period. The sh are concentrated at    Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
that time, usually in well-dened areas along the coast.   Status of major southern California marine sportsh spe-
Also, new barred sand bass spawning sites have been dis-   cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
covered over the last 20 years and are now being exploited  ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
by CPFVs and private boats. As shing effort targeting    commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
barred sand bass has increased, there has been concern    1987. Calif Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin.
that the stock may become over-exploited. Although,      Rept. 90-2: May, 1991.
more information must be collected before the impacts of
                               Love, M.S., A. Brooks, and J.R.R. Ally. 1996. An analysis of
this intense shing on barred sand bass populations can be
                               commercial passenger shing vessel sheries for kelp bass
determined, landings have recently begun to decline and
                               and barred sand bass in the southern California Bight. Calif
there is cause for concern.
                               Dept. Fish and Game 82(3): 105-121.


Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.


Larry G. Allen
California State University, Northridge
Tim E. Hovey
California Department of Fish and Game




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                              California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                                          A Status Report               225
   Spotted Sand Bass
    History of the Fishery                            kayaks, the accessibility to spotted sand bass habitat has
                                          opened up dramatically. This accessibility has generated

    T  he spotted sand bass (Paralabrax maculatofasciatus)           interest in the spotted sand bass as a challenging recre-
      has quickly gained popularity with nearshore anglers          ational shery.
    for its aggressive behavior and ghting ability. Recre-           Although the annual catch of spotted sand bass for the
    ational angling for the spotted sand bass has seen a             record keeping period has been considerably lower than
    dramatic increase in the last 10 years, resulting in angling         the catches of the kelp bass and the barred sand bass, the
    tournaments that target spotted sand bass exclusively.            increase in shing pressure and landing numbers is cause
    Not considered quality-angling fare in the 1930s and the           for concern due to their restricted habitat in southern
    early 1940s, the spotted sand bass began to gain in popu-          California waters. Early DFG shore surveys revealed that
    larity with shore and bay anglers in the mid-1950s. During          due to its restricted bay habitat and geographically local-
    that period, almost all landings were made from shore or           ized populations (San Diego Bay, Mission Bay, Newport
    by small skiff anglers shing within the bays of southern          Bay, Anaheim Bay), the spotted sand bass shery may have
    California. Concern regarding the growing pressure on this          been viewed as a less important sport shery by the public.
    little-known resource by sport anglers resulted in the            However, recent increases in landing numbers, indicate that
    formulation of conservation measures for the spotted sand          this view may be changing.
    bass. These measures include the restriction on com-
    mercial exploitation of the genus Paralabrax in 1953, and
                                          Status of Biological Knowledge
    in 1959, the adoption of a 10-sh bag-limit and a 12-inch
    size-limit on kelp bass and barred sand bass, as well as

                                          T  he spotted sand bass has an historic range from Mazat-
    the spotted sand bass. Unfortunately, early landing data of
                                            lan, Mexico to Monterey, California. However, this spe-
    spotted sand bass were either lumped in with the other
                                          cies is rarely seen north of Santa Monica Bay. Included
    Paralabrax landings or not adequately reported. For these
                                          within that range are substantial populations in the Gulf
    reasons, accurate landings numbers for this species are
                                          of California. Southern California populations are typically
    difcult to obtain and no substantial data were recorded
                                          restricted to sandy or mud bottom habitat within shallow
    until the mid-1970s.
                                          bays, harbors and coastal lagoons that contain eelgrass,
    Surveys conducted by the Department of Fish and Game             surfgrass and rock relief. These areas act as warm-water
    on skiff shing estimated that the annual catch of spotted          refuges for this generally subtropical species.
    sand bass in southern California waters ranged from 12,790
                                          Spotted sand bass grow rapidly during their rst two
    to 23,933 sh between 1976 and 1981. Additional estimates
                                          years. Some specimens may reach as much as 8.8 inches
    of sport catch, based on data from boat and shore shing,
                                          at the end of their rst year and there is no signicant
    indicated that between 53,000 and 170,000 spotted sand
                                          difference in growth rates between males and females.
    bass were taken per year from 1980 to 1989. No landing
                                          Spotted sand bass spawn in the warm summer months,
    data were recorded from 1990 to 1993; however, from
                                          from late May to early September and the presence of
    1994 to 1999 between 37,000 to 347,000 spotted sand bass
                                          multiple sized oocytes in gravid females indicates that this
    were landed either by shore or small skiff shermen, a
                                          is a multiple spawning species.
    substantial increase from the landings numbers recorded
    in the 1980s. This rise in landings can be attributed to           During the spawning season, spotted sand bass form
    an increased interest in recreational shing in shallow           breeding aggregations at or near the entrances of bays in
    nearshore waters and consequential increase of angling            southern California. Observations on spawning in the wild
    pressure on the resource. Additionally, with the introduc-          have shown that females initiate the spawn by leaving the
    tion of oat-tube technology and the popularity of ocean           bottom and entering the water column to release eggs. At
                                          the time of release, multiple males may dart in to fertilize
                                          the eggs. The observed episode was extremely brief and
                                          once completed all participants return to the bottom.
                                          The eggs and larvae are pelagic and enter the plankton in
                                          the coastal waters, settling out of the water column at 25
                                          to 31 days. Juvenile spotted sand bass (greater than two
                                          inches) have several dark stripes running longitudinally
                                          along their sides, making them similar in appearance to
                                          juvenile barred sand bass. Juveniles of this species occupy
                                          eelgrass beds and can share these nursery environments
                 Spotted Sand Bass, Paralabrax maculatofasciatus
                                          with their sympatric juvenile relatives, the barred sand
                                   Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                               December 2001
226
bass and the kelp bass. Adults usually occupy a depth of




                                                                              Spotted Sand Bass
                                            600
two to 30 feet, however specimens have been taken from




                                 thousands of fish landed
                                            500
waters as deep as 200 feet in the Gulf of California.




                                  Spotted Sand Bass
                                            400
The spotted sand bass appears to have a complex mating                 300
system. Individual populations within southern California
                                            200
display varied patterns of reproduction. In San Diego Bay,
                                            100
protogynous hermaphroditism, where individuals start
                                              0
their lives as females and after a period of time change to                   1947  1950  1960  1970  1980   1990    1999


                                 Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Spotted Sand Bass
males occurs. In Anaheim and Newport Bays, gonochorism,
                                 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; catch data not available for 1989-1992
a pattern where the individuals do not change sex is
found, resulting in an essentially equal distribution of
                                 sporadic recruitment by spotted sand bass, and the future
males and females throughout the age and size class in
                                 of this shery may depend on such a policy.
the population. During the spawning season, male and
                                 What effect ever-increasing development in the attractive
female spotted sand bass exhibit a denite sexual color
                                 bay communities will have on the spotted sand bass popu-
dimorphism. Males will display a whitish chin color and an
                                 lations is unknown. Waterfront development may perma-
overall high-contrast, body coloration, while females will
                                 nently alter nursery habitat, water quality and may nega-
display a yellow chin and a darker body. Male spotted sand
                                 tively impact recruitment, resulting in a negative impact
bass mature at 7.8 inches and about 1.4 years and females
                                 on certain populations.
mature at about 6.7 inches and about one year of age.
The impact of potential sex change, if any, on these values   Environmental conditions such as sea surface water tem-
is unknown.                           peratures may inuence recruitment as well. Spotted sand
                                 bass have been shown to have a substantial increase
In California waters, adult spotted sand bass have a diet
                                 in recruitment success during elevated sea surface tem-
that consists primarily of crabs and clams, with shes
                                 peratures occurring nearshore in southern California just
forming a relatively small component of their overall food
                                 after El Niño episodes. In other years, recruitment has
compliment. The crab component consists of brachyuran
                                 been poor. This sporadic recruitment pattern may have
crabs, and the dominant bivalve in the diet is the jack-
                                 an adverse effect on a population that is subjected to an
knife clam.
                                 increase in angling pressure.
While spotted sand bass can reach 14 years-of-age, most
have a maximum life span of about 10 years. The current
world record spotted sand bass is an individual caught in
                                 Management Recommendations
1995, which measured 23 inches and weighed 6.7 pounds.
This record sh was 10 years old.                See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                 further information.
Signicant morphological and genetic differentiation has
occurred among spotted sand bass populations throughout     Tim E. Hovey
their geographic range. The Gulf of California populations    California Department of Fish and Game
appear to be distinct from those on the Pacic coast.
                                 Larry G. Allen
Those populations in southern California also appear to be
                                 California State University, Northridge
genetically distinct from those in the mid-Baja, Pacic coast.
This subpopulation structure indicates that spotted sand bass
exhibit limited dispersal from their restricted habitats.
                                 References
                                 Allen G. L, T.H. Hovey, M.S. Love and J.T.W. Smith 1995.
Status of the Population                     The life history of the spotted sand bass (Paralabrax
                                 maculatofasciatus) within the southern California bight.

T  he spotted sand bass shery has received a dramatic
                                 CalCOFI 1995: 193-203.
   increase in angling pressure in the last 10 years, and
                                 Hovey T.E., and L.G. Allen 2000. Reproductive patterns of
it is unclear how the increased pressure will effect the
                                 six populations of the spotted sand bass, Paralabrax macu-
limited, and genetically distinct, southern California popu-
                                 latofasciatus, from Southern and Baja California. Copeia
lations. Studies indicate that most of the spotted sand
                                 2000(2): 459-468.
bass caught by recreational anglers are released. The
restrictive, limited environment inhabited by spotted sand    Miller J.D., R.N. Lea 1972. Guide to the coastal marine
bass tends to amplify the adverse effects of environmen-     shes of California. Calif. Dep. Fish and Game Bull. 157,
tal changes and of recreational shing pressure. Factor in    249 pp.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                                            A Status Report               227
   California Corbina
    History of the Fishery                            Status of Biological Knowledge

    T                                      T
      he California corbina (Menticirrhus undulatus) is a             he California corbina is a slender croaker with a gray
      nearshore croaker that is reserved for the recreational           to bluish back and a white attened belly. It has a
    shery. It has been illegal to take corbina with nets since         short, stiff chin barbel and may have wavy oblique lines
    1909, and illegal to buy or sell them since 1915. This            on its sides. The corbina ranges from Point Conception,
    wary species is a challenge to anglers. Sometimes corbina          California to the Gulf of California. It is found along sandy
    can be seen in small schools, swimming slowly along the           beaches and shallow bays to depths of 45 feet, but is most
    bottom seeking food. While feeding in this manner, it            common in about six feet of water. It is usually found in
    seldom takes bait. The corbina is considered one of the           small groups of several individuals, with larger sh being
    most difcult sh to catch in southern California, although         more solitary.
    on occasion it takes an angler’s bait without hesitation. Its        Corbina can grow to 30 inches and weigh 8.5 pounds; a
    temperamental behavior, ne ghting qualities, and tasty           veried specimen measuring 28 inches and weighing seven
    esh make it a popular sport sh.                      pounds, four ounces was caught in 1955. Females grow
    Corbina can be taken throughout the year, but shing is           faster than males, especially after two years, and reach
    best in summer and early fall. Most corbina are caught            a larger size. A three-year-old female is about 15 inches
    along sandy surf-swept beaches, but they are also taken           whereas a three-year-old male is about 13 inches. Appar-
    from piers and jetties; anglers on private and rental            ently, corbina residing in bays grow much faster than
    boats, and commercial passenger shing vessels seldom            those on the open coast. A 23-inch female corbina caught
    take them. A 1965-1966 survey estimated that 30,000             on the open coast was eleven years old, whereas similarly
    corbina were taken by southern California shore anglers           sized females from the bay were aged at six years. More
    along the open coast, making it the third most abundant           than 50 percent of females are mature at 12 inches (two
    species accounting for 13 percent of the surf-angler’s            years) and all are mature at 15 inches (three years). Males
    creel. Anglers use conventional, spinning, and y-shing           mature at about 10 inches (two years). The spawning
    gear. The best baits are soft-shelled sand crabs, mussels,          season is from May through September and is heaviest
    bloodworms, and clams.                            from June through August. Spawning apparently takes
                                          place offshore, since running-ripe sh are not often found
    The annual number of corbina caught by anglers has
                                          in the surf zone; eggs are pelagic. Small (1.5 to 3 inches)
    been quite variable. Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics
                                          corbina have been captured inside the surf zone to 30
    Survey annual catch-estimates for 1980 through 1998
                                          feet of water.
    ranged between 17,000 and 75,000 sh; the average was
    44,600. Annual catch estimates were much lower in the            The corbina feeds predominantly on benthic organisms.
    1990s than during the 1980s; however, catches-per-unit-           Individuals may be seen feeding in the surf, at times in
    effort were similar.                             water so shallow their backs are exposed. They scoop up
                                          mouthfuls of sand and separate out food by pumping sand
                                          through their gill openings. The diet of juveniles consists
                                          of clam siphons and small crustaceans. As they grow, they
                                          consume larger parts of clams and sand crabs.
                                          Limited tagging studies indicate that the corbina does
                                          not move around much; it has no discernible migratory
                                          pattern. The greatest distance traveled was 51 miles.




                    California Corbina, Menticirrhus undulatus
                                   Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                               December 2001
228
Status of the Population                    References




                                                                California Corbina
P  opulation size, recruitment, and mortality of California  Baxter, J.L. 1966. Inshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
  corbina are unknown. Beach seine hauls along the      of Fish and Game. 80 p.
open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded slightly lower    Carlisle J.G., Jr., J.W. Schott, and N.J. Abramson. 1960.
but similar numbers of corbina to those obtained during a    The barred surfperch (Amphistichus argenteus Agassiz) in
similar study from 1953 through 1956. In addition, similar   southern California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
angler catch-per-unit efforts during the 1980s and 1990s    109. 79 p.
indicate that the population is sustaining itself under pres-
                                Joseph, D.C. 1962. Growth characteristics of two south-
ent recreational harvest levels.
                                ern California surfshes, the California corbina and spotn
                                croaker, family Sciaenidae. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Management Considerations                    Fish Bull. 119. 54 p.
                                O’Brien, J.W. and C.F. Valle. 2000. Food habits of Califor-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for        nia corbina in southern California. Calif. Fish and Game,
further information.                      86(2):136-148.
                                Pinkas, L., M.S. Oliphant, and C.W. Haugen. 1968. South-
Charles F. Valle and Malcolm S. Oliphant (retired)       ern California marine sport shing survey: private boats,
California Department of Fish and Game             1964; shoreline, 1965-1966. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
                                Fish Bull. 143. 42 p.
                                Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
                                (croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
                                Bull. 54. 62 p.
                                Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciaeni-
                                dae) of California. Calif. Fish and Game. 5:13-20.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               229
   Spotfin Croaker
    History of the Fishery                          sions and holes near shore. These “croaker holes” are
                                         well known to surf anglers. Spotn croaker aggregate

    T  he spotn croaker (Roncador stearnsii) is a nearshore        in small groups or schools of usually fewer than 50
      croaker reserved for the recreational shery. It has         sh; however, schools containing several hundred sh are
    been illegal to take them with nets since 1909, and illegal        occasionally encountered.
    to buy or sell them since 1915. Anglers can experience          Spotn croaker can grow to 27 inches and weigh 14
    good shing when there are croaker “runs” and when            pounds. A sh weighing 10.5 pounds was eight or nine
    “croaker holes” are found. Most of the spotn croaker           years old, and a 26.5-inch long individual was at least 15
    catch consists of smaller sh (one to three pounds).           years of age. During the breeding season, females develop
    Its ghting spirit and delicate taste make it a prized          blackish streaks on their bellies, while larger males have
    sport sh.                                golden pectoral and pelvic ns, and are commonly called
    Spotn croaker can be taken throughout the year, but           golden croaker. Apparently, most males are mature at
    shing is best in late summer. Most spotn croaker are          nine inches (two years), and most females are mature at
    caught from shore on piers and jetties along beaches and         12.5 inches (three years); all are mature at 14.5 inches
    in bays; they are occasionally taken by private and rental        (four years). Spawning occurs from June to September. It
    boats but are rarely taken by commercial passenger shing         probably occurs offshore, since few ripe sh have been
    vessels. Anglers use conventional and spinning gear. The         captured in the surf zone. Small (two- to four-inch) spotn
    best baits are marine worms, clams, and mussels.             croaker have been captured inside the surf zone to 30
                                         feet of water.
    Annual landings of spotn croaker have uctuated greatly.
    Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey (MRFSS)           The spotn croaker is a bottom feeder. The diet of
    annual catch estimates for 1980 through 1998 ranged            juveniles consists of small crustaceans and clam siphons.
    between 1,000 and 46,000 sh; the average was 14,900.           Larger individuals use their strong pharyngeal teeth
    Catch-per-unit effort has remained relatively low and           to crush shells and consume whole clams, mussels,
    stable since 1980, but started to increase in the             and polychaetes.
    late 1990s.                                A limited tagging program showed that the spotn croaker
                                         moves around considerably, especially from bay to bay,
                                         without a discernible pattern. Fish tagged in Los Angeles
    Status of Biological Knowledge                      Harbor were later recaptured as far south as Oceanside.


    T  he spotn croaker is a medium-bodied croaker with a
      bluish gray back, brassy sides, and a silver to white
                                         Status of the Population
    belly. It has a large, distinctive black spot at the base
    of its pectoral n. The spotn croaker ranges from Point
                                         S  outhern California is on the northern fringe of the spot-
    Conception, California to Mazatlan, Mexico. In California,          n croaker population. Their population size, recruit-
    it is most common south of Los Angeles Harbor. It lives          ment, and mortality are unknown. Modications of bay
    along beaches and in bays over sandy to muddy bottoms           and nearshore environments, including development, land
    at depths from four to 50 feet. Most spotn croaker            lls, and dredging, have had an adverse effect on the
    are found in 30 feet of water or less, preferring depres-         habitats of this species. Beach seine hauls along the
                                         open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded many fewer
                                         spotn croaker than during a similar study from 1953
                                         through 1956. However, catch-per-unit effort estimates
                                         from MRFSS data and gillnet sets inside bays and along the
                                         open coast indicate that spotn croaker populations were
                                         increasing in the late 1990s.




                      Spotfin Croaker, Roncador stearnsii
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
230
Management Considerations              References




                                                          Spotfin Croaker
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for   Baxter, J.L. 1966. Inshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
further information.                 of Fish and Game, 80 p.
                           Joseph, D.C. 1962. Growth characteristics of two southern
                           California surfshes, the California corbina and spotn
Charles F. Valle and Malcolm S. Oliphant (retired)
                           croaker, family Sciaenidae. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
California Department of Fish and Game
                           Fish Bull. 119. 54 p.
                           Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
                           (croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
                           Bull. 54. 62 p.
                           Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciaeni-
                           dae) of California. Calif. Fish and Game. 5:13-20.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report               231
   Yellowfin Croaker
    History of the Fishery                         Although very little is known about their basic life history,
                                        it appears that spawning occurs during summer months.

    T  he yellown croaker (Umbrina roncador) is a nearshore        Young-of-the-year have been found near the entrance of
      croaker that has been reserved for the recreational         embayments during late fall and offshore in 30 feet of
    shery since 1915. It is primarily caught by anglers shing       water during winter. They have been reported to reach 18
    from sandy beaches, piers, jetties, harbors and bays from        inches in length and weigh over ve pounds, however sh
    Santa Barbara south to the U.S.- Mexico border. This          over two pounds are uncommon. The current California
    croaker is among the most common sh caught from many          state record is three pounds and 14 ounces. Preliminary
    of southern California’s piers and sandy beaches during         ageing estimates indicate that a 10-inch sh is about
    summer months. It is important to many anglers because         4 years old and a 15-inch sh is about 10 years old.
    they can be readily caught from shore with minimal invest-       Yellown croaker are opportunistic predators that feed
    ment in shing gear and time. Yellown croaker are typi-        during day and night. Their diet consists of a broad variety
    cally caught with light spinning gear using a variety of        of prey, however California grunion eggs, mysids, and
    popular baits, including live and dead anchovies, mussels,       pelecypods are the most important components. Small sh
    blood worms, and ghost shrimp. About 80 percent of the         feed primarily on mysids, whereas large sh concentrate
    catch occurs from May-October. Anglers shing from piers        on bivalves. Yellown croaker eggs, larvae, and small
    and breakwaters account for 35 percent of the total catch,       juveniles are preyed upon by many shes; larger individu-
    whereas anglers shing from private skiffs and beaches         als are preyed upon by seals, sea lions, halibut and other
    account for 35 percent and 25 percent, respectively. The        large shes.
    commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) eet accounts
    for approximately ve percent of the total catch. CPFV
                                        Status of the Population
    catches uctuated from a high of over 8,000 sh in 1947
    to less than 100 sh in 1958. Catches are relatively low

                                        N  o population estimates exist for yellown croaker, and
    because the CPFV eet rarely targets shallow (< 25 feet)
                                          stock structure has not been examined. The popula-
    sandy areas where yellown croaker are most abundant.
                                        tion appears healthy despite potentially damaging impacts
                                        associated with recreational shing, contaminants from
    Status of Biological Knowledge                     urban run-off, and shoreline habitat modications such as
                                        development, dredging, lling, and erosion control proj-

    Y  ellown croaker have a series of yellow-brown stripes        ects. In fact, the population may be increasing; catch-
      on their back, mostly yellow ns, and a pronounced         per-unit-effort data from the Marine Recreational Fishery
    chin barbel. Yellown croaker range from Point Concep-         Statistics Survey have increased during each of the past
    tion to the Gulf of California, but are most abundant south       ve years. In addition, a shery independent study found
    of the Palos Verdes Peninsula. They occur in small schools       a much greater abundance of yellown croaker in the
    over soft bottom habitats from shore to 125 feet, but          mid-1990s than a similar study conducted during the mid-
    are most commonly found in waters less than 30 feet.          1950s. Increased sea surface temperatures caused by sev-
    Yellown croaker are also common in harbors and bays          eral El Niño events during the 1990s have probably ben-
    and occasionally frequent kelp beds.                  eted yellown croaker, since they are a warm temperate
                                        species whose center of abundance is in warmer waters
                                        off Baja California. However, without regular monitoring
                                        of catch and effort data it is difcult to accurately assess
                                        the status of the shery.



                                        Management Considerations
                                        See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                        further information.


                                        John W. O’Brien and Malcom S. Oliphant (retired)
                                        California Department of Fish and Game


                     Yellowfin Croaker, Umbrina roncador
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
232
                                             References




                                                                            Yellowfin Croaker
              10
thousands of fish landed



              8
                                             Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
  Yellowfin Croaker




                                             (croakers) of California. California Department of Fish and
              6
                                             Game, Fish Bulletin 54.
              4
                                             Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciae-
              2
                                             nidae) of California. California Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
              0  1947 1950  1960  1970  1980   1990    1999


Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Yellowfin Croaker
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.




    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                       A Status Report               233
   White Croaker
    History of the Fishery                         late 1940s and early 1950s, averaging about 70,000 sh per
                                       year. Since 1954, however, they have averaged well below


    A
                                       30,000 sh per year, with one exceptional peak in 1988 of
      lthough not a highly prized species, the white croaker
                                       about 120,000 sh. Landings from 1990 through 1998 have
      (Genyonemus lineatus) has been an important con-
                                       averaged about 12,000 sh per year, with approximately
    stituent of commercial and sport sheries in California.
                                       96 percent of the landings from southern California.
    Before 1980, most of the catch was in southern California.
    However, since 1980, the majority of the catch has been in
    central California. The changes in shing methodology and
                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
    area of greatest landings since 1980 are due primarily


                                       W
    to the entrance of Southeast Asian refugees (mainly Viet-          hite croaker is one of eight species of drums, from
    namese) into this shery. Many of these refugees who            the family Sciaenidae, recorded off of California.
    settled in California’s coastal areas were gillnet shermen      Genyonemus is a combination of two Greek words, genys,
    in their homelands and sought to earn their living here        meaning lower jaw, and nemus, meaning barbell. The
    by that method of shing. The underutilized white croaker       species name lineatus is a Latin word meaning striped.
    resource (especially in central California) and moderate        White croaker are often sold in sh markets under the
    start-up costs required for gillnetting (small to medium-       name kingsh, and they are often called tomcod, tommy,
    size boats and moderate gear costs) offered many of          roncador, or ronkie by sportshermen.
    them an opportunity to enter the commercial shing busi-
                                       White croakers have subfusiform compressed bodies, infe-
    ness. In contrast, most of the sport catch is in southern
                                       rior mouths with a subterminal lower jaw, falcate pectoral
    California. Anglers shing from piers, breakwaters, and
                                       ns, thoracic pelvic ns, and a truncate caudal n. They
    private boats account for about 90 percent of the catch.
                                       are typically silvery to brassy colored, with a small, but
    Prior to 1980, white croaker landings averaged 658,000         prominent black spot at the base of each pectoral n
    pounds annually and exceeded one million pounds in sev-        and a cluster of minute barbells on the membranes under-
    eral years. Peak landings in 1952 (88 percent in southern       neath the lower jaw.
    California) were probably in response to the total collapse
                                       The white croaker is an abundant, nearshore species in
    of the sardine shery that year. From 1980 through 1991,
                                       California, usually found over soft, sandy-mud substrata.
    total landings have averaged 1.1 million pounds and were
                                       They range from Vancouver Island, British Columbia to
    above one million pounds in all but four years. Since 1991,
                                       Magdalena Bay, Baja California, but are not abundant
    landings have averaged 461,000 pounds and have steadily
                                       north of Point Reyes, California. They usually swim in
    declined to an all time low of 142,500 pounds in 1998.
                                       schools, and are found from the surf zone to depths
    Before 1980, the commercial catch of white croakers was        as great as 780 feet and in shallow bays, sloughs, and
    primarily by round haul net (mainly lampara), although         lagoons. Most of the time, they occupy nearshore areas
    some were taken by trawl, gillnet, and hook-and-line.         at depths of 10 to 100 feet, but sometimes are fairly
    After 1980, most white croakers have been taken by gillnet       abundant to a depth of 300 feet.
    and hook-and-line. Most of the commercial catch is sold
                                       The maximum recorded length for white croaker is 16.3
    in the fresh sh market, although a small amount is used
                                       inches; however, sh larger than about 12 inches rarely
    for live bait. “Kingsh” is the most common name seen
                                       occur. Fish up to four pounds have been reported, but
    in markets. Also, small quantities of another croaker, the
                                       those weighing over two pounds are extremely rare. White
    queensh, are included in the commercial landing records,
                                       croakers live to about 15 years and over 50 percent of both
    mostly for southern California.
                                       sexes are sexually mature by one year (about 5 1/2 inches
    Landings of white croaker by recreational anglers aboard        for males, six inches for females). By three or four years
    commercial passenger shing vessels, were highest in the        and 7.5 inches, all white croakers are mature.
                                       In southern California, white croakers spawn mainly from
                                       November through April, with peak months being January
                                       through March. In central California, they spawn all year
                                       and may have winter and summer spawning peaks (ovary
                                       weights were found to be highest in January and Septem-
                                       ber and lowest in May). Females may spawn about once
                                       every ve days and about 18 to 24 times each season,
                                       depending upon their size and age. Batches of eggs range
                                       from an estimated 800 eggs in a six-inch female to 37,200
                     White Croaker, Genyonemus lineatus  in a 10-inch female. The fertilized eggs are pelagic and
                                Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
234
                                                                                White Croaker
                   4
  millions of pounds landed



                   3
     White Croaker




                   2


                                                                  Commercial Landings
                   1
                                                                  1916-1999, White Croaker
                                                                  Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                                  Bulletins and commercial
                   0
                       1916 1920  1930  1940  1950    1960   1970   1980   1990   1999    landing receipts.




                                             Status of the Population
occur in depth ranges from about 25 to 120 feet. The
larvae initially are pelagic and most abundant in ocean

                                             T  he size of the white croaker population is not known.
depth ranges from about 50 to 75 feet. As the larvae grow,
                                                Although previous catch data indicated that the over-
they descend toward the bottom and migrate towards
                                             all population was healthy and sustaining itself under sh-
shore. Juveniles occur near the bottom where ocean
                                             ing pressure, recent declines in commercial catches imply
depth is about 10 to 20 feet. As they mature, they migrate
                                             that future monitoring may be needed.
to somewhat deeper water.
White croaker are omnivores, their diet including a variety
of worms, shrimps, crabs, squid, octopuses, clams, small
                                             Management Considerations
shes, and other items, living or dead. They feed primar-
ily at night and on the bottom, although some midwater                  See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
feeding occurs during the day. They are preyed upon by                  further information.
seals, sea lions, halibut, giant sea bass, bluen tuna, and
other shes.
                                             Shelly L. Moore
                                             Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
              140

                                             Paul W. Wild
thousands of fish landed




              120
  White Croaker




                                             California Department of Fish and Game
              100

              80

                                             References
              60

              40
                                             Love, M.S., G.E. McGowen, W. Westphal, R.J. Lavenberg,
              20
                                             and L. Martin. 1984. Aspects of the life history and shery
              0
                                 1980
                 1947 1950     1960  1970     1990  1999
                                             of the white croaker, Genyonemus lineatus (Sciaenidae),
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, White Croaker                        off California. Fish. Bull., U.S. 82:179-198.
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
                                             Moore, S.L. 1998. Age and growth of white croaker (Gen-
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
                                             yonemus lineatus (Ayres)) off Palos Verdes and Dana Point,
                                             California. M.S. Thesis. California State University, Long
White croakers that live near marine waste discharges may
                                             Beach. 87 p.
concentrate toxic materials such as pesticides (DDT, DDE,
etc.), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), metals (zinc,
selenium, mercury, etc.), and petroleum products in their
bodies at levels that are considered hazardous for human
consumption. Some white croakers in these areas are dis-
eased and malformed and some show reproductive impair-
ment. Current health guidelines advise against human
consumption of white croakers from southern California
waters in Santa Monica Bay, off the Palos Verdes Penin-
sula, and the Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbor area.


    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Marine Living Resources:
          December 2001                                       A Status Report                  235
   Surfperches
    General                                  ment line, and a standard two-hook surf leader with size
                                         six hooks, is ideal for shore based surfperch shing.

    T  he surfperches, family Embiotocidae, are a small abun-        Annual commercial landings of surfperches have also been
      dant assemblage of 23 species found predominantly in         highly variable. While the market for fresh “perch” llets
    temperate eastern North Pacic waters, two which are           is relatively small, the total catch for the shery was
    found in the Sea of Japan. Nineteen of the 20 species           49,000 pounds in 1999. The California Department of Fish
    found in California occur in inshore coastal waters. Tule-        and Game did not distinguish between species in their
    perch (Hysterocarpus traski) occupies freshwater and estu-        statistics until 1987, simply listing the category as surf-
    arine habitats. Collectively, the 19 marine species are          perch. Currently, there is a large commercial shery for
    found in a variety of habitats, including beaches, rocky         various surfperches in the southern part of the state
    substrate, intertidal and subtidal kelp beds. A few species        and a moderate shery focusing on redtail surfperch in
    inhabit several of the habitat types. Included in this group       northern California.
    are the pile perch (Rhacochilus vacca), rubberlip surfperch
                                         Surfperches can be identied by their elliptical, com-
    (Rhacochilus toxotes), shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggre-
                                         pressed body form and forked tail. Most are marked with
    gata), walleye surfperch (Hyperprosopon argenteum),
                                         bars or stripes. They have a continuous dorsal n with
    and the white surfperch (Phanerodon furcatus). The major-
                                         nine to 11 spines and 19-28 soft rays. The anal n has
    ity of surfperches occupy only one type of habitat. Spe-
                                         three spines with 15-35 soft rays.
    cies most commonly found along beaches include the
                                         The diet of surfperches consists of isopods (e.g., rock
    barred surfperch (Amphistichus argenteus), calico surf-
                                         lice) of all sizes, and gastropod mollusks (e.g., snails); vari-
    perch (Amphistichus koelzi), redtail surfperch (Amphisti-
                                         ous amphipods (e.g., skeleton shrimp), polychaete worms,
    chus rhodoterus), silver surfperch (Hyperprosopon ellipti-
                                         brittle stars, and small crabs, also are included. Surf-
    cum), and the spotn surfperch (Hyperprosopon anale).
                                         perches are usually bottom grazers, but apparently will
    Black perch (Embiotoca jacksoni), dwarf perch (Microme-
                                         feed midwater when competitors are absent.
    trus minimus), kelp perch (Brachyistius frenatus), rainbow
    perch (Hypsurus caryi), reef perch (Micrometrus aurora),         Surfperch reproduction is viviparous, their young being
    sharpnose seaperch (Phanerodon atripes), and striped           highly developed and free swimming at birth. Newborn
    seaperch (Embiotoca lateralis) tend to be associated with         males of a few species are reproductively mature.
    rocky substrate and kelp beds. The pink seaperch (Zalem-
                                         Much information is lacking on this group. Although the
    bius rosaceus) inhabits deep water and is seldom taken in
                                         taxonomy has been recently rened, life history and habi-
    the sport catch.
                                         tat requirements are areas in need of more research.
    The surfperch shery in California includes both sport
    and commercial components. The sport shery is enjoyed
                                         Barred Surfperch
    by anglers of all ages who sh for surfperch from piers,
    jetties, sandy beaches, and boats. The recreational catch
    of surfperch for 1999 totaled 489,000 sh, with the major-
                                         History of the Fishery
    ity being caught in central and northern California. The
                                         The commercial shery for barred surfperch is minor com-
    average sport catch for 1993 through 1999 was 864,000
                                         pared to the sport shery. Its popularity as a sport sh
    sh with a high of 1,119,000 sh in 1998.
                                         stems from abundant numbers and accessibility. The aver-
    Surfperch are easy to catch, which makes them highly
                                         age catch for the 1993-1999 period was 176,000 sh in
    sought. They can be caught using light gear and a variety
                                         southern California, and 202,000 sh in the remainder
    of baits such as clams, tubeworms, or sand crabs. A spin-
                                         of the state. In the southern California sport shery for
    ning or casting outt using 10 to 15 pound test monola-
                                         barred surfperch, 99 percent were caught from beaches
                                         and jetties. Similarly, 99 percent of central and northern
                                         California’s catch also came from shore. The best months
                                         for shing are December, January, and February with the
                                         majority of large individuals being gravid females. Sand
                                         crabs are the best bait for barred surfperch, especially
                                         female sand crabs carrying orange colored eggs. Small jigs
                                         and spinners also work well. Although barred surfperch
                                         are excellent sport sh for the light tackle angler, they are
                                         sometimes considered a pest to anglers pursuing other sh
                                         such as California halibut or corbina.
                   Barred Surfperch, Amphistichus argenteus
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
236
Status of Biological Knowledge                 Status of Biological Knowledge




                                                                      Surfperches
Barred surfperch have eight to 10 rust-colored, irregular    The calico surfperch can be identied by its silvery sur-
bars on their sides with spots in between. The background    face, which is covered by olive-green mottling and broken
color is usually silver or white, and the back can take     bars down each side. The calico reaches a length of 12
on a blue or grayish coloration. Similar species are the    inches and rarely weighs more than one pound.
calico surfperch and the redtail surfperch, but the barred   The range of the calico surfperch is from north central
surfperch can be distinguished from the redtail and calico   Washington to northern Baja California. The primary habi-
because it lacks red coloration in its ns.           tat of the calico is sandy beaches, although they can
Barred surfperch are found in small schools along sandy     occasionally be found over rocky substrate. The vertical
beaches and near jetties, piers, and other sources of food   distribution of the calico includes depths from the surface
and cover. They range from Bodega Bay in northern Cali-     down to 30 feet.
fornia to north central Baja California. While the majority
are found in the surf zone, some have been caught in
water as deep as 240 feet. The largest individual ever
taken was a female that weighed 4.5 pounds and was 17
inches in length. Most sh are in the one- to two-pound
range and are highly prized by anglers.
Barred surfperch mate during the fall and winter months,
and young are released during spring and summer. Males
and females both darken considerably during courtship,
and males make “gure-eights” around females before
mating. A female can produce from four to 113 young,
depending on her size. Females undergo a ve-month
gestation period, and juveniles are born at about 1.75                       Calico Surfperch, Amphistichus koelzi
                                                               Credit: DFG
inches in length. Juveniles are miniature replicas of the
parents and are independent at birth. The young usually     Status of the Population
live relatively close to where they were born.
                                At this time, little information is available on the popula-
                                tion status of the calico surfperch.
Status of the Population
During the last seven years, the sport shery in southern
                                Pile Perch
California has yielded up to 306,000 barred surfperch
(1998), while central and northern California together pro-
duced upwards of 252,000 sh annually. No estimates have
                                History of the Fishery
been made of the size or current status of the barred
                                Pile perch sustain a limited commercial shery in Del Mar,
surfperch population.
                                California, and Papalote Bay, Baja California, but do not
                                contribute substantially to annual commercial landings in
Calico Surfperch                        the state.
                                They are of interest as a sport sh throughout the state,
History of the Fishery                     with an average of 16,000 perch caught between 1993
                                and 1999. Many are caught from piers, jetties, beaches,
The calico surfperch is of moderate sport value along
                                or skiffs. Pile perch may be caught year-round on any
the California coast. Due to its striking similarity and fre-
                                number of popular baits, including clams, sand shrimps,
quent misidentication with the redtail surfperch, calico
                                and worms.
surfperch, until recently, have been considered of minor
importance in the sport catch. The mean sport catch
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
from 1993-1999 was 16,000 sh. There is no targeted com-
                                Pile perch can be identied by the silvery sides with a
mercial catch but small numbers are taken in the directed
                                dark vertical bar about midbody, and a unique dorsal
redtail surfperch shery. The calico shery has historically
                                n with the rst few soft dorsal rays longer than any
included shing from piers, sandy beaches, and skiffs.
                                of the others, giving the n a peaked appearance. They
                                are equipped with strong, well-developed teeth, enabling
                                them to feed on hard shelled mollusks, crabs, and other



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                     237
                                           spawning season. The sport catch since 1993 has ranged from
Surfperches



                                           a low of 10,000 sh in 1998, to a high of 56,000 in 1994.

                                           Status of Biological Knowledge
                                           Redtail surfperch are distinguished by the nine or ten ver-
                                           tical, orange-to-brassy bars alternating at the lateral line
                                           and the light red pelvic, anal, and caudal ns. The body
                                           is moderately deep and laterally compressed, with a light
                                           green back and silver sides and belly. During the 1990s,
                           Pile Perch, Rhacochilus vacca
                                           adult female redtail averaged 10.5 inches and weighed 1.1
                                    Credit: DFG
                                           pounds, while the males averaged 9.8 inches and weighed
       crustaceans. Their specialized dentation differs enough         0.8 pounds. The largest recorded California redtail was a
       from rubberlip surfperch to convince some ichthyologists        female that was 16.5 inches long and weighed 3.7 pounds.
       to place them in their own genus (Damalichthys).            The largest recorded individual was 16.5 inches long and
                                           weighed 3.7 pounds. Females produce eight to 45 young
       Pile perch are found between southeastern Alaska and
                                           about one year after fertilization, sometime between May
       northern Baja California, including Guadalupe Island. They
                                           and August.
       usually live along rocky shores, from the surface down to
       150 feet, and grow to around 17.5 inches in length.           Redtail surfperch are found from Vancouver Island,
                                           Canada, to Monterey Bay, California, but the shery is
       Fecundity increases with age and size of the females.
                                           centered north of the San Francisco Bay area.
       Average fecundity at rst reproduction is 11.7 young, and
       sometimes exceeds 60 in older females. Adult longevity of
                                           Status of the Population
       pile surfperch is seven to 10 years.
                                           There are no estimates of the size of the redtail surfperch
       Status of the Population                        stocks in California coastal waters. The commercial catch
                                           averaged 50,000 pounds during the 1970s, 48,000 pounds
       Because accurate landings data for pile perch are lacking,
                                           during the 1980s and 38,000 pounds during the 1990s,
       little can be concluded about the current population
                                           which suggests a decreasing population. Another indicator
       status in California.
                                           of problems with the population is the decrease in weight
                                           from an average per sh weight of 1.8 pounds during
       Redtail Surfperch                            the late 1950s and early 1960s, to 0.9 pounds during
                                           the 1990s.
       History of the Fishery
       Redtail surfperch sustain a sport shery from central Cali-
       fornia to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They support
       a commercial shery only in northern California, espe-
       cially in the inshore waters of the Eureka/Crescent City
       area where over 99 percent of the catch is taken. These
       sh are taken primarily from sandy beaches or the mouths
       of rivers and streams entering the sea, but also can be
       caught from jetties and piers inside harbors and bays.
       Humboldt and Del Norte counties in northern California
       are the primary locations of the winter redtail commercial
       shery. Fishing is mostly from open beaches using hook-
       and-line gear. The best catches are in March and April
       when the sh are concentrated for spawning. Commercial                         Redtail Surfperch, Amphistichus rhodoterus
                                                                          Credit: DFG
       shing is closed from May 1 to July 15. The annual com-
       mercial harvest averaged 37,000 pounds over the last 10
       years, with a high catch in 1990 in excess of 62,000 pounds
       and a low catch of around 27,000 pounds in 1998.
       Sport shing for redtails occurs in the same areas where
       they are commercially taken. They are taken year-round
       by hook-and-line, but are usually targeted during the



         California’s Marine Living Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                            December 2001
 238
Rubberlip Surfperch                            comprise a substantial portion of the state’s sport shery.




                                                                           Surfperches
                                      The mean take of striped seaperch for the last seven years
                                      was 65,000 sh, almost wholly from central and northern
History of the Fishery
                                      California. These perch are easily taken from piers, jet-
The rubberlip surfperch is one of the many important            ties, beaches, and skiffs, and are favorites of anglers due
surfperch sport sh along the California coast. It is caught        to their beautiful coloration.
along jetties and piers, and also taken by skiff anglers
nearshore or in kelp beds. The sport catch over the last
seven years ranged from 13,000 sh in 1993 to 44,000 sh
in 1997 with an average of 19,000. The commercial shery
is very small with landings of less than 1,000 pounds
annually from southern California.

Status of Biological Knowledge
The large, thick lips of the rubberlip distinguish it from
other surfperches. Its coloration varies from olive-to
brassy-brown on the sides, with one or two dusky bars                            Striped Seaperch, Embiotoca lateralis
                                                                   Credit: DFG
on adult sh. The pectoral ns are yellow to orange, and
the pelvic ns are usually black. The maximum length of
                                      Status of Biological Knowledge
rubberlip seaperch is 18.5 inches, making the rubberlip
                                      Striped seaperch can be easily identied by the red, blue,
the largest of the surfperches.
                                      and yellow lines that run laterally along the length of the
Rubberlip surfperch are found from Russian Gulch State
                                      body. Maximum length is 15 inches. These sh are sexually
Beach (Mendocino County), California, to central Baja Cali-
                                      mature in their third year of life and produce about 18
fornia, including Guadalupe Island. These sh range from
                                      young per female. At age seven, the average number
inshore waters to depths of 150 feet.
                                      of young produced per female is 32. The maximum life
Although no data have been collected on age at sexual           expectancy for this sh is approximately 10 years.
maturity, gravid rubberlip surfperch have been caught
                                      Striped seaperch are found from southeastern Alaska to
from April to June. Time of birth is estimated to
                                      northern Baja California.
be midsummer.

                                      Status of Population
                                      Population estimates of striped seaperch have not been
                                      made, but recent landing gures indicate that this species
                                      should be able to sustain a healthy sport catch.



                                      Walleye Surfperch
                                      History of the Fishery
                Rubberlip Surfperch, Rhacochilus toxotes
                              Credit: DFG
                                      Sport anglers enjoy shing for walleyes. In 1993, anglers
                                      caught 164,000 individuals, well over 90 percent being
Status of the Population
                                      caught from shore, jetties, and piers. Walleyes can be
No recent estimates have been made of the rubberlip            taken on sand crabs and other invertebrates, as well as on
perch population its size is unknown at this time.             small spinners and jigs. They are excellent to eat.

                                      Status of Biological Knowledge
Striped Seaperch                              Walleye surfperch are silver to bluish above, with very
                                      faint pink bars that fade quickly after death. Most notable
History of the Fishery                           are the large eyes and black tipped pelvic ns. Similar
Striped seaperch is one of the eight to 10 species that          species are the spotn surfperch and the silver surfperch.
make up the small commercial “perch” shery. However,           However, the spotn has black spots on its dorsal and anal
it is a minor component when compared to such species           ns, while the silver lacks any black coloration.
as the barred surfperch. Conversely, striped seaperch do


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                       California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                                  A Status Report                    239
Surfperches



                                     400




                       thousands of pounds landed
                                     300

                           Surfperch
                                     200


        Commercial Landings
                                     100
       1916-1999, Surfperches
         Data Source: DFG Catch
        Bulletins and commercial
                                      0
                                        1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980    1990   1999
             landing receipts.




       Walleye surfperch are found in large schools along sandy                  Surfperch habitats have been, and will continue to be,
       beaches, jetties, kelp beds, and other habitats with rich                  areas of conict. As humans develop the shoreline,
       invertebrate life. They range from Vancouver Island, Brit-                 areas inhabited by surfperches may become polluted or
       ish Columbia, to central Baja California, including Guadal-                 destroyed. Although surfperches may adapt to structures
       upe Island. They reach a length of 12 inches and are found                 such as jetties and piers, it should not be assumed that
       to depth of 60 feet.                                    they can continue to adapt to all the changes that are
                                                     forced upon them.
       Walleye surfperch mate from November to December and,
       after a ve-month gestation period, give birth in mid-                   Action is needed if surfperch populations are to
       April. Males engage in an aggressive “swooping” courtship                  be restored.
       before mating. Females, depending on size, will have ve
       to 12 young that are about 1.5 inches at birth. The young
                                                     Ronald A. Fritzsche
       are miniature replicas of the parent and mature the fall or
                                                     Humboldt State University
       winter following their birth.
                                                     Patrick Collier
       Status of the Population                                  California Department of Fish and Game
       The recent sport take has averaged 112,000 sh per year.
       However, the total stock size is unknown at this time.
                                                     References
                                                     Fritzsche, R.A. and T.J. Hassler. 1989. Species proles: life
       Surfperch: Discussion                                    histories and environmental requirements of coastal shes


       S
                                                     and invertebrates (Pacic Southwest) - pile perch, striped
         urfperches are important both commercially and as
                                                     seaperch, and rubberlip seaperch. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
         sport sh. Most of the California coastal species are
                                                     Biol. Rep. 82(11.103) U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR
       taken in the sport catch and the majority of the catch
                                                     EL-82-4. 15pp.
       is taken when spawning aggregations are present. Female
       surfperches are intentionally targeted by sport anglers                   Holbrook, Sally J., Russel J. Schmitt, and John S. Ste-
       because they are larger than males. Sport anglers also                   phens, Jr. 1997. Changes in an assemblage of temperate
       grade their catch, which probably results in an even                    reef shes associated with a climate shift. Ecological
       greater take of mature females with a resulting decline                   Applications. 7 (4), pp 1299-1310.
       in the shery. The redtail and barred surfperches are
                                                     Karpov, K.A., D. P. Albin and W. H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
       the most notable in the commercial catch and may be
                                                     The marine recreational shery in northern and central
       important to local economies. Total commercial surfperch
                                                     California. Calif. Fish and Game Bull.176:192 pp.
       landings have uctuated over the years, but over the
                                                     Tarp, F.H. 1952. A revision of the family Embiotocidae (the
       long-term have declined by 25 percent since the 1950s.
                                                     surfperches). Calif. Fish and Game Fish Bull. 88:1-99.
       Recent research has indicated that some of the decline is
       associated with the increases in water temperature.




          California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                                     December 2001
 240
Opaleye and Halfmoon
History of the Fishery                    nearshore environment. Larval distributions mirror the




                                                                  Opaleye and Halfmoon
                               adults latitudinally, with the larval stages distributed pri-

T  he commercial catch of opaleye (Girella nigricans) and  marily in the neuston. CalCOFI data indicate that halfmoon
  halfmoon (Medialuna californiensis) has been small.    larvae are occasionally taken well off shore, while most
Neither of these species is part of a designated shery but  opaleye larvae are taken within 70 miles of the coast.
both appear regularly as incidental catch in commercial    Young opaleye leave the pelagic environment and enter
and recreational sheries.                  the intertidal when they are about an inch long. They are
                               found in relatively high tide pools preferring warm water
During the 40 years prior to 1990, the average catch of
                               (>75º F), and feed largely on small invertebrates. As they
halfmoon has been 16,714 pounds, with a high of 50,007 in
                               grow to a size of three to six inches, the young leave
1956. Recently, catches have been well below this mean,
                               the pools and form small schools in the shallow subtidal,
with a peak in 1989 of 5,204 pounds. The mean catch
                               eventually changing their diet to include primarily algae.
of opaleye in the 43 recorded years prior to 1990 was
                               Adults browse in the kelp bed on kelp and other algae,
4,748 pounds with a high of 23,688 pounds in 1973. The
                               often moving in medium sized schools. Young halfmoon
mean catch for the last 10 years is 2,709, with very small
                               stay in the shallow subtidal and kelp bed habitat occupy-
catches recorded since 1995. Interestingly, a small number
                               ing the same position as the adults. Juvenile opaleye
of halfmoon and opaleye are entering the live sh market.
                               have been reported to clean parasites from other sh on
The 1999 landings of opaleye were largely live sh (616
                               occasion.
pounds) and the price for the catch is now up to $1.37
per pound. Neither species was recorded in large numbers
in the California Department of Fish and Game’s gill and
                               Status of the Population
trammel net study, although the opaleye was at one time
a bycatch of nearshore purse seiners.
                               T  he abundance of opaleye and halfmoon, and their
CPFV landings of opaleye are low, averaging 679 sh per      status as incidental catch rather than as targeted spe-
year since 1990. By contrast, CPFV catches of halfmoon    cies, makes it unlikely that either the sport or commercial
have averaged over 50,000 sh per year. 1998 was an      sheries will have an effect on the populations. Data
extremely poor year for catches of these species, yielding  gathered in southern California since 1974 at Palos Verdes
only eight percent and 16 percent of the average catch    and King Harbor show no population trends and suggest
of opaleye and halfmoon respectively. In the last reported  both species are stable with regular recruitment.
survey of pier and jetty shing (1965-1966), both species
were abundant and it is likely they remain an important
                               John Stephens
part of that shery today.
                               Occidental College (retired)


Status of Biological Knowledge

A  s herbivores, the members of the sea chub family,
   Kyphosidae, play an important role in kelp forest com-
munities. They regulate kelp growth, and on occasion may
overgraze, causing damage to newly transplanted or iso-
lated kelp plants or small kelp beds. The opaleye reaches
a length of 26 inches and a weight of 16 pounds, while
the halfmoon reaches 19 inches and 5 pounds. Kyphosids
have small mouths with a single prominent row of blade-
like, incisor teeth that are used for cutting vegetation.
The opaleye is olive green with two light spots under the
mid-dorsal. The halfmoon is blue to blue-gray, sometimes
with a lateral white stripe, and the spinous dorsal n is
much lower than the soft dorsal. Both species range from
central California to Baja California. While the opaleye is
more common north of Point Conception, the halfmoon
extends its range to the south into the Gulf of California.
Both reach a depth of a little over 100 feet.
Larvae of both species are pelagic and are followed by                        Opaleye, Girella nigricans
                                                          Credit: DFG
a pelagic juvenile schooling stage, which appears in the


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                   241
Opaleye and Halfmoon



                                           25




                             thousands of pounds landed
                                           20

                                           15
                                 Opaleye
               Commercial Landings
               1916-1999, Opaleye
                                           10
            Landings data unavailable prior
                to 1930 and for 1941,
                                           5
             1945-1946, 1972, 176-1977,
             and 1982-1983. Data Source:
               DFG Catch Bulletins and                 0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990  1999
             commercial landing receipts.


             References
             Norris, K.S. 1963. The functions of temperature in the
             ecology of the percoid sh Girella nigricans (Ayres) Ecol.
             Monographs 33:23-62.
             Orton, R.D., L.S. Wright, and H. Hess. 1987. Spot
             polymorphism in Girella nigricans (Perciformes:
             Kyphosidae)-geographic and inter-size class variation.
             Copeia(1)1987:198-203.
             Stevens, E.G., W. Watson, and H.G.Moser. 1990. Develop-
             ment and distribution of larvae and pelagic juveniles of
             three kyphosid shes (Girella nigricans, Medialuna cali-
             forniensis and Hermasilla azurae) off California and Baja
             California. Fish. Bull. U.S. 87:745-768.




                 California’s Marine Living Resources:                        CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                                    December 2001
  242
Silversides
T  here are three species of silversides (family Atherinop-  the water. A rapid feeding activity takes place, making it




                                                                    Silversides
  sidae) in California ocean waters, grunion, topsmelt    easier to catch sh with hooks or hoop nets.
(Atherinops afnis), and jacksmelt (Atherinopsis californi-
ensis). Information on grunion is presented in a separate
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
section. Even though “smelt” is included in the common
names of these species, silversides differ in part from true

                                T  opsmelt range from the Straits of Juan de Fuca, British
smelts (family Osmeridae) in having two dorsal ns (one
                                  Columbia, to the Gulf of California. They attain a
with spines), while the true smelts have one dorsal n and
                                total length of 14.5 inches, but individuals in sport catches
an adipose n near the tail.
                                are usually six to eight inches in length. There are
                                seven subspecies of topsmelt, three of which are in Cali-
History of the Fishery                     fornia. These numerous subspecies demonstrate varied
                                behavior and reect the different environments occupied

S  ilversides are marketed fresh for human consumption    by this species: kelp beds, harbor areas, and sandy beach
  or bait. The commercial shery for silversides has been  areas. They usually form loose schools but will congregate
conducted with gillnets, lampara nets, and round haul     when feeding.
nets. Historically, set lines have been used in San Fran-   Topsmelt grow about 2.5 to four inches the rst year, gain
cisco Bay for jacksmelt, and during the 1920s beach nets,   another two inches the next year, and grow proportionally
pulled ashore by horses, were used at Newport Beach.      less each year until they reach maximum size of about 14
Commercial catches of jacksmelt have varied sharply over    inches. The largest topsmelt that has been aged was seven
the past 80 years. The high year for this shery was 1945,   or eight years old. Some topsmelt spawn by their second
when more than two million pounds were taken. During      year but most reach maturity during their third year. The
the 1990s, the catch varied between 40,765 pounds in      spawning period is from April through October with a peak
1997 and 2,530 pounds in 1998 and 1999, with most of      in May and June. This species attaches its eggs in a mass
the catch being landed in the Los Angeles area. This is an   on eelgrass and low growing algae in harbors and bays,
occasional or incidental shery, and uctuations observed   and possibly on kelp. The egg mass from each female is
in catch records reect demand, not true abundance.      intertwined to the substrate by ne string-like laments
Principal commercial shing areas are usually in harbors    attached to each egg. Eggs may be deposited more
and bays such as San Pedro, Monterey, San Francisco,      than once in a spawning season. Topsmelt larvae are
Tomales, and Humboldt. Commercial catches of topsmelt     particularly abundant in tidal basins and the shallow edges
are not as large as those of jacksmelt because of the     of coastal bays. Juvenile topsmelt generally move into the
smaller size and more scattered distribution of topsmelt.   open water of estuaries, bays, and coastal kelp beds.
There are no commercial or sport bag and possession
                                The food of topsmelt consists primarily of plankton spe-
limits on these species.
                                cies including crustaceans. Intertidal inhabitants eat algae
Jacksmelt and topsmelt make up a signicant portion of     and y larvae, as well as crustaceans. Bay forms have
the pier and shore sport catch throughout California, and   been observed working along muddy bottoms for food
private boat anglers shing nearshore catch them occa-     items. Topsmelt have the ability to withstand a wide range
sionally. From 1958 to 1961, these two species comprised
about 10 percent of the total hook-and-line sport catch by
numbers (272,000 jacksmelt and 43,000 topsmelt) in cen-
tral and northern California. These are among the most
abundant shes available to pier and shore anglers and
represent a very important recreational shery, especially
for children. When taken with light shing gear, they are
easy to catch and excellent ghters.
Jacksmelt are caught by a variety of sport shing meth-
ods. A string of half-a-dozen bright red articial ies or
small hooks baited with shrimp or squid is the most suc-
cessful terminal tackle used by pier anglers. Single baited
hooks are also used from piers and by shore and skiff
anglers. The larger jacksmelt is quite a game sh and
will take a small spinner or lure cast out and retrieved
with a series of quick jerks. Young jacksmelt and topsmelt                  Jacksmelt, Atherinopsis californiensis
are quickly attracted with breadcrumb chum thrown into                                 Credit: DFG


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                    243
Silversides



                                    100




                         thousands of pounds landed
                                        80

                             Silversides     60
           Commercial Landings
                 1916-1999,
                                        40
                 Silversides
            Data Source: DFG Catch
                                        20
           Bulletins and commercial
       landing receipts. No commercial
           landing are reported for
                                        0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960    1970   1980   1990   1999
           silversides prior to 1976.



         of salinity concentrations. They are found in mesohaline                   The larvae and young are distributed near the surface in
         waters and have been known to live in salt ponds with                    harbors, along sandy beaches, and in the kelp canopy,
         salinities as great as 72 parts per thousand – twice that                  often mixed with the young of topsmelt. Their food habits
         of open ocean water.                                     are not well known, but it can be assumed that sh as
                                                       fast as jacksmelt, that readily take a moving lure, are
         Topsmelt are a very important species in bay and near-
                                                       predatory animals. Small sh as well as crustaceans make
         shore ecosystems in southern California. Collections of
                                                       up part of their diet.
         shes by beach seine in bays are almost always numeri-
         cally predominated by young topsmelt. Young-of-the-year                   The species is not desired by some sport anglers because
         topsmelt were found to contribute 85 percent of the                     of the presence of relatively large sized worms in the
         total annual sh production in the shallow water areas                    esh. These are an intermediate stage of a spiny-head
         of Upper Newport Bay. Topsmelt have been shown to                      worm that is thought to be a parasite in sharks and
         be the most ubiquitous and numerically abundant sh                     pelicans. It probably is harmless to man, and denitely is
         species in submarine meadows of surfgrasses on the                      harmless when the esh is cooked.
         open coast. They are one of the ve primary species
         brought to the breeding colonies of the least tern, an
                                                       Status of the Populations
         endangered seabird.


                                                       S
         Jacksmelt form dense and larger schools than topsmelt                      tock sizes of these two species have not been deter-
         and range over much of the inshore area of California. The                    mined. At present, there are no indications that top-
         geographic range is from Yaquina Bay, Oregon to Santa                    smelt or jacksmelt are being overshed in California. How-
         Maria Bay, Baja California. They are usually found in bays                  ever, as these species occur in inshore waters, they are
         and within a few miles of shore in a salinity range from                   at risk of being affected by pollutants and loss of habitat
         seawater to mesohaline. This species attains a length of                   through development.
         22 inches, with 17-inch sh commonly taken. Jacksmelt
         are relatively fast growing, reaching 4.5 to ve inches in
         the rst year and up to eight inches during the second
         year. Jacksmelt mature at two to three years or about
         eight inches. The oldest jacksmelt aged, a 16-inch male,
         was 11 years old. The spawning season is during winter,
         from October to April. Large masses of eggs, about the
         size of small BBs, are attached to eelgrass and algae by
         means of long laments. Pinkish egg masses have been
         observed along with herring eggs during winter months in
         Elkhorn Slough and attached to eelgrass in Tomales Bay.
         Jacksmelt eggs have been observed to hatch in salinity
         as low as ve parts per thousand. Jacksmelt can spawn
         several times during a spawning season.




            California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                                     December 2001
 244
Management Considerations             References




                                                        Silversides
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for  Clark, F.N. 1929. The life history of the California jack-
further information.                smelt, Atherinopsis californiensis. Calif. Div. Fish and
                          Game, Fish Bull. 16. 22 p.
                          Demartini, E.E. 1982. The spring-summer ichthyofauna of
Paul A. Gregory
                          surfgrass, Phyllospadix, meadows near San Diego, Califor-
California Department of Fish and Game
                          nia. Bull. South. Calif. Acad. Sci. 80(2):81-90.
                          Hubbs, C.L. 1918. The sh of the genus Atherinops, their
                          variation, distribution, relationships and history. Amer.
                          Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 38(13):409-440.
                          Quast, J.C. 1968. Observations on the food of kelp-bed
                          shes. Pages 109-142 in Utilization of kelp-bed resources
                          in southern California, Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
                          Bull. 139.
                          Wang, Johnson C. S. 1986. Fishes of the Sacramento-San
                          Joaquin Estuary and Adjacent Waters, California: A Guide
                          to the Early Life Histories. Tech. Rpt. 9 (FS/B10-4ATR
                          86-9) Internet address: http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/kopec/
                          tr9/.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME           California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                      A Status Report              245
   Grunion
    History of the Fishery                         and no holes may be dug in the beach to entrap them.
                                       Anglers sixteen years of age and older must posses a valid

    T  he commercial use of grunion (Leuresthes tenuis) is        sport shing license. Grunion may be taken June 1 through
      very limited, this species forming a minor portion         March 31. There is no bag limit for grunion.
    of the commercial “smelt” catch. Grunion are taken inci-
    dentally in bait nets and other round haul nets, and
                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
    limited quantities are used as live bait. In recent years, no
    commercial landings have been reported. However, since

                                       T  he grunion is now classied in the family of New World
    grunion usually are taken with other small sh and are not
                                         silversides, Atherinopsidae, along with the jacksmelt
    separated out, catch records would not show any landings.
                                       and topsmelt in California. They are small, slender sh
    The grunion’s principal value is as the object of a          with bluish green backs, silvery sides and bellies. Silver-
    unique recreational shery. These sh are famous for their       sides differ from true smelts, family Osmeridae, in that
    spawning habits, which are so remarkable as to arouse an        they lack the trout-like adipose n. They normally occur
    “I don’t believe it” response from a person hearing about       from Point Conception, California, to Point Abreojos, Baja
    them for the rst time. They are the only species of sh        California. They are rarely found from San Francisco on
    in California to actually leave the water to spawn in wet       the north to San Juanico Bay, Baja California, on the
    sand on beaches. They are subjects of widespread popular        south. They inhabit the nearshore waters from the surf
    interest, bringing thousands of people to beaches during        to a depth of 60 feet. A description of their essential
    night high tides in spring and summer months to catch the       habitat would be the surf zone off sandy beaches. Marking
    sh or just to observe them. Grunion hunting has become        experiments indicate that they are nonmigratory.
    one of the famous sports of southern California. As the
                                       Young grunion grow very rapidly and are about ve inches
    sh leave the water to deposit their eggs, they may be
                                       long by the time they are one year old and ready to
    picked up while they are briey stranded. Racing for sh
                                       spawn. Grunion adults normally range in size from ve to
    spotted far down the beach and clutching for the small
                                       six inches with a maximum size recorded at 7.5 inches.
    bits of slippery, wriggling energy provide an exhilarating
                                       Average body lengths for males and females respectively
    time for young and old alike. The attraction provided by
                                       are 4.5 and 5.0 inches at the end of one year, 5.5 and 5.8
    grunion can only be realized when one sees the numbers
                                       inches at the end of two years, and 5.9 to 6.3 inches at the
    of people lining the more popular beaches in the Los
                                       end of three years. The normal life span is two or three
    Angeles area on the night of a predicted run. Often there
                                       years, but individuals four years old have been found. The
    seem to be more people than sh, but at other times,
                                       growth rate slows after the rst spawning and stops com-
    everyone catches sh.
                                       pletely during the spawning season. Consequently, adult
    In the 1920s, the recreational shery was showing denite       sh grow only during the fall and winter. This growth rate
    signs of depletion, and a regulation was passed in 1927        variation causes annuli to form on the scales, which have
    establishing a closed season of three months, April          been used for aging purposes.
    through June. The shery improved, and in 1947, the
                                       Grunion spawn at night on the beach, from two to six
    closure was shortened to April through May. Grunion may
                                       nights after the full and new moon, beginning a little
    be taken by sport shermen using their hands only. No
                                       after high tide and continuing for several hours. As a wave
    appliances of any kind may be used to catch grunion,
                                       breaks on the beach, the grunion swim as far up the slope
                                       as possible. The female arches her body, keeping her head
                                       up, and excavates the semi-uid sand with her tail. As her
                                       tail sinks, the female twists her body and digs tail rst
                                       until she is buried up to her pectoral ns. After the female
                                       is in the nest, up to eight males attempt to mate with her
                                       by curving around the female and releasing their milt as
                                       she deposits her eggs about four inches below the surface.
                                       After spawning, the males immediately retreat toward the
                                       ocean. The milt ows down the female’s body until it
                                       reaches the eggs and fertilizes them. The female twists
                                       free and returns to the sea with the next wave. The whole
                                       event can happen in 30 seconds, but some sh remain on
                                       the beach for several minutes.

                         Grunion, Leuresthes tenuis
                            Credit: Mike Brock


      California’s Marine Living Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
246
                               Management Considerations
Spawning may continue from March through August,




                                                               Grunion
with possibly an occasional extension into February and
                               See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
September. However, peak spawning is from late March
                               further information.
through early June. Once mature, an individual may spawn
during successive spawning periods at about 15-day inter-
vals. Most females spawn about six times during the
                               Paul A. Gregory
season. Counts of maturing ova to be laid at one spawning
                               California Department of Fish and Game
ranged from about 1,600 to about 3,600, with the larger
females producing more eggs.

                               References
The eggs incubate a few inches deep in the sand above
the level of subsequent waves. They are not immersed in
                               Clark, F.N. 1925. The life history of Leuresthes tenuis,
seawater, but are kept moist by the residual water in the
                               an atherine sh with tide controlled spawning habits.
sand. While incubating, they are subject to predation by
                               Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 10. 51 p.
shore birds and sand-dwelling invertebrates. Under normal
conditions, they do not have an opportunity to hatch until  Darken, R. S., K. L. M. Martin, and M. C. Fisher. 1998.
the next tide series high enough to reach them, in 10 or   Metabolism during delayed hatching in terrestrial eggs of
more days. Grunion eggs can extend incubation and delay    a marine sh, the grunion Leuresthes tenuis. Physiological
hatching if tides do not reach them, for an additional four  Zoology 71: 400-406.
weeks after this initial hatching time. Most of the eggs
                               Dyer, B. S. and B. Chernoff. 1996. Phylogenetic
will hatch in 10 days if provided with the seawater and
                               relationships among atheriniform shes (Teleostei:
agitation of the rising surf. The mechanical action of the
                               Atherinomorpha).Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Soci-
waves is the environmental trigger for hatching, and the
                               ety 117: 1-69.
rapidity of hatch, in less than one minute, indicates that
                               Griem, J. N. and K. L. M. Martin. 2000. Wave action: The
it is probably not an enzymatic function of softening
                               environmental trigger for hatching in the California grun-
the chorion, as in some other shes. One can witness
                               ion, Leuresthes tenuis (Teleostei: Atherinopsidae). Marine
the spectacle of grunion eggs hatching. If you gather a
                               Biology 137:177-181.
cluster of eggs after a grunion run, keep them in a loosely
covered container of damp sand in a cool spot. After 10    Spratt, Jerome D. 1971. The Amazing Grunion. Marine
to 15 days, place some in a jar of seawater shaken briey,  Resources Leaet No. 3. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
and they will hatch before your eyes in a few minutes.
                               Thompson, W.F. 1919. The spawning of the grunion
Grunion food habits are not known. They have no teeth,    (Leuresthes tenuis). Calif. Fish and Game Comm., Fish
and feed on very small organisms, such as plankton. In a   Bull. 3. 27 p.
laboratory setting, grunion eat live brine shrimp. Humans,
                               Walker, B. 1952. A guide to the grunion. California Fish and
larger sh, and other animals prey upon grunion. An
                               Game 38: 409-420.
isopod, two species of ies, sandworms, and a
beetle have been found preying on the eggs. Some
shorebirds such as egrets and herons prey on grunion
when the sh are on shore during spawning. The
reduction of spawning habitat, due to beach erosion,
harbor construction, and pollution is probably the
most critical problem facing the grunion resource.




Status of the Population

D  espite local concentrations, the grunion is not an
  abundant species. While the population size is not
known, all research points to a rather restricted resource
that is adequately maintained at current harvest rates
under existing regulations.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report              247
   Pacific Angel Shark
   History of the Fishery                            shery for these sharks ended and the smaller mesh hali-
                                          but set gillnets again became the standard. Vessels used

   D  iscarded as a nuisance species by halibut gillnet sh-         in the shery are generally in the 25 to 40 foot range,
      ermen for several decades, the Pacic angel shark            suited for inshore coastal operations. Trawl vessels often
   (Squatina californica) became one of the most sought             caught a few angel sharks incidentally, but landings were
   after commercial shark species in the Santa Barbara             insignicant compared to the set gillnet harvest. Trawl
   Channel during the 1980s. Changes in consumer accep-             landings represented one percent of the total catch in
   tance of sharks as high quality food sh and a concen-            1990, rising to 17 percent in 1994.
   trated marketing effort by an innovative processor work-           There has been little recreational interest in angel shark
   ing with local shermen, stimulated development of the            as nearshore anglers using hook-and-line catch relatively
   angel shark shery in the Santa Barbara Channel area             few compared to other more active sharks. One study
   in 1976. Two key elements led to the rapid growth of             logged only 12 angel sharks compared to over a thousand
   this shery: maintenance of quality and freshness of             other sharks landed between 1997 and 2000. Nearly all of
   the shark by cleaning and dressing (removal of head             the angel sharks were caught at night.
   and ns) at sea; and development of a method to llet
                                          In 1977, landings of dressed angel shark totaled 328
   this irregularly shaped shark to satisfy retail distributors
                                          pounds. By 1981, landings rose to 258 thousand pounds,
   and consumers. Market development was linked to the
                                          and by 1984, to 610 thousand pounds. Landings of angel
   popular but seasonal thresher shark, which is caught by
                                          shark exceeded one million pounds annually in 1985 and
   the drift gillnet eet in the summer and fall. As supplies
                                          1986, replacing the thresher shark as the number one
   of thresher shark diminished in the winter, angel shark
                                          species of shark taken for food in California.
   was promoted as a viable substitute. Local demand grew
                                          Fishing effort throughout the early development and
   rapidly as Santa Barbara and Ventura seafood retailers
                                          expansion phase was concentrated off Santa Barbara
   and restaurant owners found ready acceptance among
                                          and Ventura counties and around the northern Channel
   consumers. Nearly every part of this shark, with the
                                          Islands, especially Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands.
   exception of skin, cartilage, and offal is utilized. The
                                          Landings began to decline in 1987, dropping to 940
   head and ns are sold as crab bait, large llets are cut
                                          thousand pounds with an ex-vessel value of $542,000
   from the trunk, and portion-controlled pieces from the
                                          and further declining to 248 thousand pounds ($166,000)
   tail are used in sh and chips dishes. Small irregular-
                                          in 1990. A minimum size limit adopted by the DFG
   shaped pieces are used to make shark jerky. A yield of 50
                                          in 1986 contributed to a decrease in landings in the
   percent of the dressed shark is generally expected.
                                          following years.
   The development of markets for angel shark was a signi-
                                          A second major decline in landings occurred in 1991 when
   cant benet to halibut shermen, providing them with
                                          a voter initiative was passed banning the use of gill and
   a supplemental source of income. As demand increased
                                          trammel nets within three miles of the southern California
   for angel shark in the early 1980s, innovative shermen
                                          mainland coast and within one mile around the Channel
   developed nets to harvest them specically. Because of
                                          Islands. Many gill-netters switched to other sheries and
   their selectivity for market-sized angel shark, these nets
                                          a few dropped out entirely or retired. In 1990, a total
   caught only a few large California halibut. Nonetheless,
                                          of 144 vessels (including a few trawlers) landed angel
   8.5-inch mesh monolament gillnets designed for halibut
                                          shark and by 1994, the number was reduced 50 percent
   continued to be used to take both species. After area
                                          to 72. These boats landed 23 thousand pounds, a decline
   closures were instituted in 1994, the directed gillnet
                                          of 91 percent from the catch in 1990. Of the 72 vessels
                                          reporting landings, nine boats landed the major share
                                          (61 percent). The closures, in effect, established a large
                                          “no-take” reserve for angel shark in southern California,
                                          since gillnetting, considered to be the most viable shing
                                          method for this species, was eliminated in the primary
                                          nearshore angel shark habitat.
                                          Another factor affecting the shery and contributing to
                                          the decline in landings was the sale of the primary angel
                                          shark processing plant in 1991 and its subsequent closure
                                          in 1992. This led California seafood wholesalers and retail-
                                          ers to search for alternative sources of angel shark, as the
                    Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica
                                  Credit: DFG


     California’s Marine Living Resources:                   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                               December 2001
248
                                                                            Pacific Angel Shark
               1.4
thousands of pounds landed


               1.2
  Pacific Angel Shark




               1.0
                                                          Commercial Landings
               0.8                                          1916-1999,
                                                          Pacific Angel Shark
               0.6                                          Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                          Bulletins and commercial
               0.4
                                                          landings receipts. No
               0.2                                          commercial landing are
                                                          reported for Pacific angel shark
               0.0                                          prior to 1977.
                  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999




demand in California remained high, especially for use as         Cooperative sheries research began in 1979 to obtain
sh and chips in seafood restaurants.                   information on angel shark distributions, migrations,
                                      growth rates, and eventually, reproductive rates. Members
Prior to the 1994 shing area closures, a gillnet shery for
                                      of the commercial shing industry helped initiate the
angel sharks began in the upper reaches of the Gulf of
                                      investigations, which, with the participation and coop-
California and a processing plant was established in Puerto
                                      eration of university research and extension personnel,
Peñasco, Mexico. By 1993, imports of angel shark llets
                                      helped sheries managers develop a management plan in
were being used to meet the market demand in California.
                                      1986. Development of regulatory guidelines for this shery
One buyer estimated imported llets increased from 65
                                      is an example of a “co-management” approach involving
thousand pounds in 1994, to approximately 90 thousand
                                      a partnership of managers and resource users. The drop
pounds in 1999. Since 1997, a share of these sharks has
                                      in landings after 1986 was partially attributed to a new
been caught off Ensenada and Cedros Island near Guerrero
                                      size limit, though sheries biologists and shermen agree
Negro. The frozen and glazed imported llets represent a
                                      that management regulations were initiated too late to
weight of approximately one-quarter of the whole shark,
                                      maintain a sustainable yield angel shark shery with the
so the actual landing gure was closer to 360 thousand
                                      harvest levels experienced in the mid-1980s.
pounds in 1999 from Mexican waters.
California landings dwindled to 19 thousand pounds in
                                      Status of Biological Knowledge
1995 and 18 thousand pounds in 1996, but began to
increase again between 1997 (33 thousand pounds) and

                                      T
1999 (53 thousand pounds). Adding the Mexican imports             he Pacic angel shark is reported to occur only in
(from two processing operations) to the California land-            the eastern Pacic Ocean from southeastern Alaska to
ings provides a better estimate of the California market          the Gulf of California and from Ecuador to Chile. A gap
demand and consumption of angel shark, which in 1999            in distribution separating subpopulations of S. californica
totaled over 413 thousand pounds. Mexican imports now           occurs between the equator and 20° North latitude. The
provide at least 87 percent of the total market share of          southern population was earlier reported as a separate
the state.                                 species, S. armata.
The ex-vessel price for angel shark in 1977 was 15 cents          Angel sharks are relatively small, bottom-dwelling elas-
per pound. The price rose to 35 cents per pound in 1982          mobranchs, attaining maximum length of ve feet and
($1.60 to $1.70 per pound at retail markets) as demand           a weight of 60 pounds. In the Santa Barbara Channel,
increased for the rm, white-eshed shark. With contin-          commercially caught specimens generally range in size
ued market demand and lower landings, ex-vessel prices           between three and four feet, although minimum size
in 1991 rose to 75 cents per pound dressed (head off)           limits now allow the take of females 42 inches and above
and in 1999 averaged 91 cents per pound. The standard           and males 40 inches or more. Angel sharks range in depth
ex-vessel price in 2000 is reported to be over $1 per           from three to over 600 feet. Fishermen working the north-
pound. Retail prices have increased to between $4 and $6          ern Channel Islands reported that most of their catches
per pound.                                 were between 30 and 240 feet. After the inshore area
                                      closures were set in 1994, shing shifted to deeper waters
                                      between 100 and 300 feet.


   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Marine Living Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                       249
                                           Status of the Population
           Pacic angel shark are usually found lying partially buried
Pacific Angel Shark



           on at, sandy bottoms and in sand channels between

                                           T  he rapid increase in angel shark landings between
           rocky reefs during the day, but they may become active at
                                             1983 and 1986 led to concern that stocks were being
           night. Tagged specimens near Santa Catalina Island were
                                           over-exploited. Over 79,000 individual angel sharks were
           found to move from a few feet to four nautical miles per
                                           reported taken during the 1985-1986 season. Considering
           night. However, individual sharks have been observed to
                                           the low fecundity and apparent lack of signicant migra-
           remain in the same place with no apparent movement for
                                           tions of angel sharks, the need to develop a management
           up to 10 days.
                                           plan became critical. A minimum retention size limit was
           Sonic tagging studies conducted at Santa Catalina Island
                                           proposed by DFG in 1987 and became law in 1989. Because
           indicated that 11 sharks with transmitter tags remained
                                           these sharks are nearly always retrieved alive, limiting
           near the Island for up to 90 days, although movement
                                           retention size is a viable regulation. However, landings
           around the island was extensive. Of 30 conventionally
                                           had decreased before the inception of the regulation,
           tagged sh all but one angel shark remained in the same
                                           indicating a declining population along the Santa Barbara-
           general vicinity in which they were tagged. The lone
                                           Ventura County coastline and around the northern Chan-
           exception was a shark tagged on the coast and captured
                                           nel Islands. The minimum size restriction is believed to
           three and a half years later at Santa Cruz Island. Without
                                           have been effective in decreasing the numbers of imma-
           further evidence from tag and recovery data, resource
                                           ture sharks harvested and also to have decreased harvest
           managers assume that isolated stocks may exist near
                                           pressure on exploited stocks. The area closures had a
           islands, separated from the mainland and other islands by
                                           much more severe effect on the shing community and led
           deep water channels (including San Clemente, San Nicolas,
                                           to the unintended consequence of shifting the shery to
           Santa Barbara, and Santa Catalina Islands). A 1997 report
                                           Mexico where, at present, no management of the species
           on the genetic variability of angel sharks, from two of
                                           exists. Large numbers of gillnet “pangas” on both sides
           the northern Channel Islands (Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz
                                           of the Baja Peninsula now sh angel sharks for Mexican
           Islands) and a more southern island (San Clemente Island)
                                           markets and for export to California.
           showed that there were signicant allele frequency differ-
                                           No population studies have been conducted on angel shark
           ences between sharks from the northern and southern
                                           since the nearshore shery ended in 1994. A comparative
           areas. This electrophoretic study provides a strong indica-
                                           research survey of nearshore sh assemblages around
           tion that genetically isolated populations of angel sharks
                                           Santa Catalina Island and along the mainland (Santa Bar-
           exist in California.
                                           bara to Newport Beach) between 1996 and 1998 indicated
           Several techniques have been utilized in an effort to age
                                           that Squatina was a commonly caught species at many of
           angel sharks, but to date aging this species has been
                                           the 10 sampling stations. The researchers reported that
           unsuccessful. Researchers have observed that angel sharks
                                           the survey showed a greater abundance and proportion-
           are born with six to seven bands in their vertebral centra,
                                           ately larger biomass for nearshore sharks than any other
           but growth curves based on size and band counts were
                                           southern California study. Further, they note that gillnets
           found to be atypical. Both centrum edge histology and
                                           are much more efcient for sampling mobile and elusive
           size-frequency analyses have proven inconclusive. Sharks
                                           shes than trawls and diver surveys. In terms of biomass,
           grown in the laboratory, along with eld-tagged, tetracy-
                                           angel sharks ranked third at Santa Catalina Island
           cline-injected returns, indicated no periodic basis for band
                                           and ninth at the mainland sites. There have been no
           deposition in the vertebrae, but indicated that calcied
                                           recent studies of Squatina populations at the northern
           band deposition is more related to rapid somatic growth.
                                           Channel Islands.
           Sexual maturity in both males and females occurs between
           35 and 39 inches total length. Embryos present per female
                                           Management Considerations
           range between one and 11, with a mean of six pups
           produced annually from March to June. A 10-month gesta-
                                           See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
           tion period was estimated for this species.
                                           further information.
           Major prey items of angel shark include queensh and
           blacksmith in the summer and market squid in the winter.
           Fishermen in the Santa Barbara Channel report that mack-    John B. Richards
           erel and Pacic sardines are found in angel shark stomachs   University of California, Santa Barbara
           during the fall and early winter, along with squid, which
           predominates during the winter and spring.




             California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                        December 2001
250
References




                                                   Pacific Angel Shark
Cailliet, G.M., H.F. Mollet, G. Pittenger, D. Bedford,
and L.J. Natanson. 1992. Growth and demography of
the Pacic angel shark (Squatina californica) based on
tag returns off California. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res.
43:1313-1330.
Natanson, L.J., G.M. Cailliet, and B.A. Weldon. 1984. Age,
growth, and reproduction of the Pacic angel shark (Squa-
tina californica) from Santa Barbara, California. AM. Zool.
24(3):130A.
Natanson, L.J., and G.M. Cailliet 1986. Reproduction
and development of the Pacic angel shark (Squatina
californica) off Santa Barbara, California. Copia 1986.
(4):987-994.
Pondella, Daniel J. II., and L.G. Allen. 2000.The nearshore
sh assemblage of Santa Catalina Island. Pages 394-400.
In: Proceedings of the Fifth California Islands Symposium,
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History: March 29-April
1, 1999. , OCS Study MMS 99-0038. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Minerals Management Service, Camarillo, CA.
Richards, J.B. 1987. Developing a localized shery: the
Pacic angel shark, Pages 147-160. In: Sharks: an inquiry
into biology, behavior, sheries and use. S. Cook (ed.) EM
8330. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis,
OR.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report         251
   Leopard Shark
   History of the Fishery                           and from shore (41 percent), with a small percent landed
                                         by partyboats (four percent). The commercial catch,

   T  he leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata) is taken as          largely incidental in recent years, is taken mainly by set
      both a food and game sh in California, and its distinc-       net (53 percent), hook-and-line (30 percent), and trawl
   tive markings and hardiness also make it desirable for           (13 percent).
   public aquarium displays. Although some commercial land-          A 36-inch minimum size and a possession limit of three sh
   ings may be lumped under a general “shark, unspecied”           have been in effect for the sport shery since 1991. This
   category, those reported as “leopard shark” have ranged          size limit was also extended to the commercial shery in
   from 9,270 pounds in 1958, to a high of 101,309 pounds           1994, both for market and aquarium display. Additionally,
   in 1983. These landings, while not extensive, increased in         the state has general restrictions on usage of certain
   the south and decreased in the north during the 1980s.           types of commercial gear in the nearshore zone.
   Landings in southern California began increasing in 1981,
   and in 1985 surpassed landings in northern California for
                                         Status of Biological Knowledge
   the rst time since the collection of statistics began
   in the 1940s. Since 1991, landings have averaged about

                                         T  he leopard shark, also known as “tiger shark” and
   31,000 pounds per year, with about 57 percent of the
                                           “cat shark,” ranges from Mazatlan, Mexico, into the
   landings occurring south of Point Piedras Blancas. Leg-
                                         northern Gulf of California, and northward to Oregon. It is
   islative curtailment of inshore gillnetting in the San
                                         most common in shallow water from the intertidal down
   Francisco/Monterey Bay area undoubtedly contributed
                                         to 15 feet, less so down to 300 feet or deeper in ocean
   to much of the decline in northern California landings
                                         waters. Favoring muddy bays and sloughs, especially in
   after 1986.
                                         northern California, it is known to move out and in with
   Judging from estimates made since 1980 by the National
                                         the tides to feed over shallow tidal mudats. It also
   Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Marine Recreational Fish-
                                         occurs along the open coast and around offshore islands
   eries Statistics Survey, the recreational leopard shark
                                         off southern California, where it frequents kelp beds,
   catch appears to be greater than the commercial catch,
                                         sandy bottoms near rocky reefs, and the surf zone along
   although these estimates are subject to large sampling
                                         sandy beaches.
   variability. According to the survey, sport catches in Cali-
                                         The population structure throughout its range is not
   fornia between 1980 and 1988 averaged over 52,000 sh
                                         clearly understood, but is thought to consist of regional
   per year with a low of 33,000 sh taken in 1980 and a
                                         stocks among which there is relatively little exchange.
   high of 59,000 sh taken in 1988. Since 1993, an estimated
                                         Tagging studies in central California have shown there is
   average of 45,000 leopard sharks have been taken by
                                         at least some mixing between stocks in San Francisco
   anglers, with a low of 34,000 taken in 1993 and again in
                                         Bay and those in central and southern California, but
   1994, and a high of 58,000 taken in 1997.
                                         such exchange appears limited. The Gulf of California,
   A variety of shing methods and gear types are used in the
                                         Mexico, stock is presumed to be separate from the
   sheries for leopard sharks. Most of the recreational catch
                                         California stocks.
   is taken angling with baited hooks with some spearshing
                                         The maximum recorded and veried total length is about
   by divers. Analysis of tag-recaptures in the central Califor-
                                         six feet long. The oldest validated age that has been
   nia area in the 1980s suggests that most angler-caught
                                         determined by reading tetracycline-labeled rings on the
   leopard sharks are taken from private boats (55 percent),
                                         vertebrae, is 26 years for a 49-inch female, an average
                                         of 1.8 inches per year. Size at birth is about eight to 10
                                         inches in total length. Longevity is presumed to be around
                                         30 years.
                                         The live-bearing female leopard shark produces from
                                         seven to 36 offspring in an annual reproductive cycle.
                                         Males mature at seven years, and females at 10 years,
                                         when sh reach lengths between 40 and 42 inches total
                                         length. The gestation period is estimated at 10 to 12
                                         months. Birth apparently takes place from March through
                                         July. The only known eye-witness account of leopard
                                         sharks giving birth in the wild is that of a sherman who
                                         observed “pupping” activity at Santa Catalina Island in
                      Leopard Shark, Triakis semifasciata  southern California in the 1940s. Dozens of large females,
                    Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program


     California’s Marine Living Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
252
                                                                           Leopard Shark
            120
thousands of pounds landed


            100
   Leopard Shark




               80

               60                                          Commercial Landings
                                                          1916-1999, Leopard Shark
               40                                          Commercial landings for
                                                          leopard shark were not
               20
                                                          reported prior to 1977. Data
                                                          Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   commercial landing receipts.




                                     Status of the Population
with backs and dorsal ns breaking the surface of the
water over a shallow mudat in Catalina Harbor, were

                                     T  he leopard shark is one of the many species con-
observed releasing their pups in the three to four-foot
                                       sidered, but not now actively regulated, under the
deep water; some of the pups were seen milling around in
                                     Pacic Fishery Management Council’s Groundsh Manage-
water only about a foot deep.
                                     ment Plan. Regulatory actions enacted by the State of
This shark is an opportunistic benthic feeder. Inverte-
                                     California have contributed signicantly toward protecting
brates taken include crabs, ghost shrimp, clam siphons
                                     this species. Even though the commercial catch may be
and sometimes whole clam bodies, polychaete worms,
                                     underestimated because of reporting problems, this spe-
fat innkeeper worms, and octopuses. Fishes in the diet
                                     cies does not appear to be at risk, judging by the com-
include herring, anchovy, topsmelt, croakers, surfperches,
                                     bined landings in relation to previously calculated esti-
gobies, rockshes, midshipman, atshes, and small elas-
                                     mates of shing mortality and exploitation rates and cur-
mobranchs such as smoothhounds, guitarshes, and bat
                                     rent conservation measures which appear to have reduced
rays. Leopard sharks seasonally consume the eggs of her-
                                     these rates. The imposition of a sport and commercial
ring, topsmelt, jacksmelt, and midshipman.
                                     shing size limit and general curtailment of gillnetting
The leopard shark is preyed upon by the white shark and
                                     within this species’ nearshore range appear to have halted
sevengill shark, and presumably other large sharks as well,
                                     the increase if not reduced total shing mortality over
which are known to enter bays. The phenomenon of young
                                     the past decade. Commercial sport shing boat catches of
sharks being preyed on by larger sharks is not uncommon.
                                     leopard shark in California have dropped from an average
These nomadic sharks often occur in schools, sometimes          of 6.8 sh per trip between 1980 and 1991 to an average
with smoothhounds, which also belong to the houndshark          of 4.0 sh after the size limit was imposed from 1992
family. Numbers of animals may suddenly appear in an           to 1995, as more sh were released. Also encouraging is
area, then move on. Although generally timid and wary of         evidence that mortality from hooking injuries is quite low.
divers, there is one record of an attack on a skin diver in
                                     The size of the California leopard shark population has
1955 in California.
                                     not been estimated, and the only information on relative
Movements of this species have been studied in central          changes in stock abundance is what can be inferred from
California. Tagging in San Francisco Bay has revealed that        catch statistics. Because of its rather limited geographical
this stock is mostly resident, although at least 10 percent        range with little exchange among regional stocks within
of the population moves out of the bay into the ocean           this range, resident stocks near large population centers
during fall and winter. One female at liberty for 20 years        may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localized shing
was recaptured in south San Francisco Bay less than ve          pressure. A recent re-assessment of the leopard shark’s
miles from where she was originally tagged. Of the longer         intrinsic productivity and vulnerability to harvest revealed
distance migrants, one three-foot male tagged in San           it to be even more susceptible to over-exploitation than
Francisco Bay was recaptured in Santa Monica Bay a            previously reported. Its annual rate of increase under
decade later.                               maximum sustainable yield exploitation has been calcu-
                                     lated at only about two to three percent per year. And
                                     while the size limit protects juveniles, it does not protect



   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Marine Living Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                      253
                                        References
        mature adults in their prime reproductive years in feeding
Leopard Shark



        and near shore pupping areas. Nonetheless, it appears
                                        Ackerman, J.T., M.C. Kondratieff, S.A. Matern, and J.J.
        that current conservation measures, as long as they are
                                        Cech, Jr. 2000. Tidal inuence on spacial dynmics of leop-
        in place, appear to provide adequate protection for the
                                        ard sharks, Triakis semifasciata, in Tomales Bay, California.
        sustainability of the California stock of this species at the
                                        Environmental Biology of Fishes 58: 33-43.
        present time. Possible future shing mortality increases
        within regulatory constraints could be a concern if mature   Au, D. W. and S.E. Smith. 1997. A demographic method
        females become an increasingly important component of      with population density compensation for estimating pro-
        the catch, or if inshore sheries develop that are efcient   ductivity and yield per recruit of the leopard shark, Triakis
        at targeting this species.                   semifaciata. Canadian J. Fish. Aqua. Sci. 54, 415-20.
                                        Cailliet, G.M. 1992. Demography of the central California
                                        population of the leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata).
        Susan E. Smith
                                        Austr. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 43: 183-193.
        National Marine Fisheries Service
                                        Kusher, D.I., S.E. Smith, and G.M. Cailliet. 1992. Validated
                                        age and growth of the leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata,
                                        with comments on reproduction. Environmental Biology of
                                        Fishes 35, 187-203.
                                        Russo, R.A. 1975. Observations on the food habits of
                                        leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) and brown smooth-
                                        hounds (Muselus henlei). Calif. Fish Game 61:95-103.
                                        Smith, S.E. and N. Abramson. 1990. Leopard shark Triakis
                                        semifasciata distribution, mortality rate, yield, and stock
                                        replenishment estimates based on a tagging study in San
                                        Francisco Bay. Fish. Bull., U.S. 88(2):371-381.




          California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
254
Soupfin Shark
History of the Fishery                     nental shelf waters from close inshore, including shallow




                                                                    Soupfin Shark
                                bays, often near the bottom, but also offshore waters up

T  he soupn shark (Galeorhinus galeus) was the mainstay   to 1,500 feet deep. In the eastern North Pacic they range
   of the shark shery boom for vitamin oils between     from British Columbia to central Baja California.
1936 and 1944 when over 24 million pounds were landed.     Coast wide there is a preponderance of adult males in
Prior to that time, soupns were mainly marketed within    the northern part of the state and females to the south;
the local Asian communities up and down the Pacic       in central California the sex ratio is about one to one.
coast. The meat sold anywhere from $0.10 to $0.20 per     Adult males south of Point Conception tend to occur in
pound, but the ns, which are used for soup stock brought   deeper water (more than 65 feet) while females occur
as much as $2.50 per pound prior to 1936. The shery for    closer inshore (less than 45 feet). Soupns often occur in
this species began in earnest when it was discovered that   small schools that segregate by size and sex.
their livers were rich in vitamin oil. The value of each
                                Soupns are highly migratory, moving to the north during
shark species was based on its high potency vitamin oil
                                the summer and south during the winter or into deeper
and the soupn was found to have the highest vitamin
                                waters. They are swift moving and can travel up to 35
oil levels among California’s shark species. Prior to the
                                miles per day and have been reported to travel at a
development of this shery, cod liver oil was produced in
                                sustained rate of 10 miles per day for up to 100 days.
Europe and exported to the United States. With the onset
                                One soupn tagged off Ventura was captured 26 months
of World War II and the curtailment of cod liver oil produc-
                                later off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Another shark
tion in Europe, these events set the stage for the expan-
                                tagged in San Francisco Bay was recaptured 12 months
sion of this shery. Shipping cod liver oil from Europe
                                later in the same location.
became so hazardous that its production and exportation
                                Soupn sharks are ovoviviparous, with litters of between
eventually declined to nothing. The West Coast soupn
                                six and 52 young, the average being 35. The litter size
shark population represented a tremendous source of raw
                                increases in proportion to the female’s size. Mating takes
material. The market for shark liver oils to replace the
                                place during the spring with a gestation period of about 12
non-available cod liver oil improved rapidly and in a rela-
                                months. Southern California, south of Point Conception, is
tively short time the huge potential of the Pacic coast
                                an important nursery ground. Adult females and newborn
soupn supply had been tapped. The shery nally col-
                                soupns occur in considerable numbers in this area. Pups
lapsed in the mid-1940s from over-exploitation and the
                                are born during the spring at a size of between 12 and
development of synthetic vitamins. This shery decimated
                                16 inches. Males mature between 53 and 60 inches, and
the soupn population, particularly nursery areas in San
                                grow to a maximum size of 70 inches. Females mature
Francisco and Tomales bays, which to this day have never
                                at about 24 inches, and grow to a maximum size of 77
fully recovered. In the mid-1970s, there was a renewed
                                inches. Males mature in eight to nine years and females
interest in shark sheries, although this time for their
                                in about 11 years. The maximum estimated age for these
meat as food for human consumption.
                                sharks is about 40 years.
While the commercial shery for soupns has been widely
                                Soupns readily forage on both demersal and pelagic
recounted, less attention has been paid to its recreational
                                bony sh species, although larger individuals prefer
exploitation. Soupns were one of the more common spe-
                                cartilaginous shes. Invertebrate prey includes cepha-
cies caught in San Francisco Bay during the late 1940s
                                lopods, crabs, shrimp, and lobster. Young sharks tend
through the early 1960s by recreational anglers. This sh-
                                to feed more heavily on invertebrates than do adults.
ery declined somewhat until the Jaws phenomenon of the
                                Natural predators on soupns, particularly juveniles,
mid-1970s brought about a renewed awareness of sharks.
                                include the white shark, sevengill shark, and possibly
Sport shing boats in San Francisco Bay and southern
                                marine mammals.
California began targeting these, among other shark spe-
cies. Unlike the commercial shery, landings data for
recreational caught soupns are sketchy at best and are
under-reported, if reported at all. Soupns are prized by
recreational anglers for their meat.



Status of Biological Knowledge

T  he soupn shark is one of ve species of houndsharks
   (Family Triakidae) found in California waters. Along                      Soupfin Shark, Galeorhinus galeus
                                                             Credit: DFG
the California coast, soupn sharks generally inhabit conti-



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    255
Soupfin Shark



                                         300




                          thousands of pounds landed
                                         250


                             Soupfin Shark
                                         200
            Commercial Landings
                                         150
         1916-1999, Soupfin Shark
             Data Source: DFG Catch
                                         100
            Bulletins and commercial
          landing receipts. Commercial
                                         50
          landings prior to 1977 were
        not available. All shark landings                 0
                                            1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
          were aggregated until 1977.




          Status of the Population                                   References

          C  alifornia’s soupn shark population has not been stud-                  Cailliet, G.M., D.B. Holts, and D. Bedford. 1992. A review
            ied in over 50 years and its status is unknown. Since                   of the commercial sheries for sharks on the west coast
          1977, the shery has averaged between 150,000 and                       of the United States. In: Shark Conservation: Proceedings
          250,000 pounds dressed weight landed annually.                        of an International Workshop on the Conservation of Elas-
                                                         mobranchs. Eds. J. Pepperell, J. West, and Peter Woon.
                                                         Pp. 13-29.
          David Ebert
                                                         Ebert, D.A. 1986. Observations on the elasmobranch
          US Abalone
                                                         assemblage of San Francisco Bay. Calif. Fish Game, 72
                                                         (4): 244-249.
                                                         Ripley, W.E. 1946. The biology of the soupn, Galeorhinus
                                                         zyopterus. Calif. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. no. 64, 96 pp.
                                                         Roedel, P.M. and W.E. Ripley 1950. California sharks and
                                                         rays. Calif. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. no. 75, 88 pp.




              California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                                     December 2001
256
Skates and Rays
History of the Fishery                     from around 228,566 pounds in 1989 to 1,912,695 pounds




                                                                    Skates and Rays
                                in 1999. This trend is most notable in the trawl shery

S kates and rays are not specically sought by commer-    after 1994.
  cial shermen, but are taken incidentally, primarily by   Some of the apparent increase may be due to increased
bottom trawlers in central and northern California waters.   landings of previously discarded catch. In 1994, the com-
Of the species identied in the commercial catch the most   mercial groundsh shery was divided into limited entry
common are the shovelnose guitarsh (Rhinobatos produc-    and open access components, each with new regulations
tus), bat ray (Myliobatis californica), big skate (Raja    and quotas. Groundsh quotas for both components were
binoculata), and thornback (Platyrhinoidis triseriata). This  signicantly reduced in the period from 1994 through
does not represent the true catch composition, however,    1999, leaving more space in the boats’ holds for non-quota
as 98 percent of the landings are listed as “unidentied    species. Trawl vessels have supplemented their groundsh
skate.” A few nearshore species, most commonly the bat     landings with skate and ray bycatch. There is considerable
ray and shovelnose guitarsh, are the target of small     uncertainty whether the total impact on the skate and ray
sport sheries.                        resource has increased or if more of the catch is being
Only the wings of skates caught in the commercial shery    retained and landed.
are marketed. The bodies are either discarded at sea or
occasionally sold as bait for the rock crab shery. Skate
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
wings are sold fresh and frozen, predominantly in the
Asian fresh sh markets in southern California. Wings are

                                S  kates and rays (batoids) can be distinguished from
also dried or salted and dehydrated for the Asian markets.
                                  sharks by having pectoral ns which extend above and
At times, skates have been processed for shmeal, but
                                in front of the gills, attaching to the head and forming
most such enterprises experienced economic failure. Sea-
                                an expanded and attened disc with gill slits located
food restaurants and retail markets have been suspected
                                completely on the underside. They can be thought of as
of punching out rounds of skate wing to serve as cheap
                                sharks attened to accommodate a life spent on the sea
substitutes for scallops.
                                oor. Twenty species of rays and skates have provisionally
Historically, the economic value of the skate shery com-   been recorded from California waters.
pared to other seafood sheries was relatively small. From
                                Rays and skates occur in all marine habitats, from pro-
1958 to 1969 the ex-vessel price for skate wings ranged
                                tected bays and estuaries to open seas, ranging from
from $.01 to $.02 per pound. Prices increased from $.12
                                the surface to 9,500 feet deep. While some species are
per pound in the 1970s to $.25 per pound in 1991.
                                common, others are known from only a few specimens. So
This increase has continued through the 1990s ranging
                                far as is known, batoids follow the typical elasmobranch
as high as $1 or more and averaging around $.40. In
                                reproductive strategy in which sexual maturity is attained
1999, the total ex-vessel value of skates and rays was
                                relatively late in life, brood size is relatively small, and
approximately $340,000.
                                fecundity is generally low. These characteristics make
Central California (Monterey and San Francisco) shared     populations more susceptible to overshing.
the majority of the skate catch from 1948 through 1989,
                                All batoids have internal fertilization, but two different
accounting for 41 to 100 percent of the annual landings
                                modes of development exist. The skates are egg layers, or
and more than 70 percent of the total catch during the
                                oviparous. Following fertilization, the yolk is enclosed in a
period. The northern California areas (Eureka, Crescent
City, and Fort Bragg) have played an increasing role since
about 1975. Over the period from 1989 through 1999,
the northern California catch has increased dramatically,
accounting for nearly 75 percent of the total catch. Areas
south of Monterey remain relatively insignicant in terms
of total landings.
From 1916 to 1990, skate landings, which ranged from
36,247 pounds (1916) to 631,240 pounds (1981), comprised
two to 90 percent of the total elasmobranch catch (11.8
percent average). Like the shark shery, which had peaks
from 1937 to 1948, and more recently from 1976 to 1990,
the skate catch has uctuated widely during the last
half century. In the past 10 years, however, skate and
                                                     Longnose Skate, Raja rhina
ray landings have increased nearly ten-fold in California,
                                                            Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    257
Skates and Rays



                                         3.5




                           millions of pounds landed
                                         3.0
                                         2.5
                                Skates      2.0
             Commercial Landings
              1916-1999, Skates
                                         1.5
             Data Source: DFG Catch
            Bulletins and commercial                 1.0
         landing receipts. Landings data
                                         0.5
         are not available prior to 1943,
           1945-1947, 1950, 1952, and
                                         0.0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970    1980   1990   1999
                   1955-1956.




           tough, permeable egg case, which is deposited on the sea                  of enlarged, hooked thorns along the front edge (malar
           oor. The embryo develops within the egg case, feeding                   thorns) and lateral edge (alar thorns) of the disc. The tail
           on nourishment stored in the attached yolk mass. Hatched                  is slender, with two small dorsal ns located near the tip.
           egg cases (commonly known as “mermaid’s purses”) are                    The caudal n is small or absent, and there are no
           washed ashore and frequently found by beachcombers. All                   stinging spines. Skates have paired electric organs along
           other batoids are live bearing, or viviparous. The embryo                  the sides of their tails, which generate weak, low-voltage
           is protected by, and develops within, a portion of the                   electric currents believed to be used in intra-specic com-
           female’s oviduct, which functions as a uterus. The gesta-                  munication, possibly for mate recognition or to demon-
           tion period for skates and rays varies widely; depending                  strate aggression. These electric currents are not harmful
           on the species it may range from two to 18 months.                     to humans.
           Batoids feed on a variety of worms, mollusks, crustaceans,                 The California skate ranges from the Strait of Juan De
           other invertebrates, and shes. Some lie buried on the                   Fuca to southern Baja California. It is common inshore in
           bottom to wait for prey, while others actively forage. As                  shallow bays at depths of 60 feet or less, but also occurs in
           a group they have a large variety of feeding strategies,                  deeper water to a depth of 2,200 feet. Females and males
           ranging from straining plankton (manta), to electric shock                 both reach sexual maturity at a total length of about 30
           (electric ray), to excavation and suction (bat ray). In                   inches. They feed on shrimp and other invertebrates.
           turn, marine mammals, sharks, and other large shes                     The big skate ranges from the Bering Sea to southern Baja
           prey upon batoids. An adult giant sea bass (Stereolepis                   California, but is relatively rare south of Point Conception.
           gigas) was found to have three whole thornbacks in its                   It occurs at depths from 10 to about 2,600 feet, being
           stomach. Batoid predator avoidance adaptations include                   most common at moderate depths. It is the only known
           cryptic (camouage) coloration and burying themselves in                  Californian skate with more than one embryo per egg
           sand or mud. In some species, rows of sharp spines on the                  case. The big skate grows to a length of up to eight
           back and/or tail also serve as protection. Only a few of                  feet, but usually does not exceed six feet and about 200
           the batoid species are dangerous to humans. Electric rays                  pounds. Females mature at 12 to 13 years and a length
           are capable of producing a powerful shock, and stingrays                  of 51 to 55 inches; males mature at seven to eight years
           can inict serious wounds on unwary anglers and bathers.                  and a length of 39 to 43 inches. It feeds on crustaceans
                                                         and shes.
           The Skates and Softnose Skates -
                                                         The longnose skate also ranges from the Bering Sea to
           Families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae
                                                         central Baja California, and is usually found on the bottom
           The skates are the largest group of batoid shes. Nine spe-
                                                         at depths from 80 to 2,250 feet. It attains a maximum
           cies in three genera are presently known to occur in Cali-
                                                         length of about 4.5 feet. Females mature at eight years
           fornia waters. California’s three commercially important
                                                         and a length of 28 inches; males mature at ve years and
           skates are the California skate (Raja inornata), big skate
                                                         a length of 24 inches.
           (R. binoculata), and longnose skate (R. rhina).
                                                         Other skate species include the sandpaper skate (Bathy-
           The skates have a greatly attened, usually rhomboidal
                                                         raja interrupta) and starry skate (Raja stellulata) occur-
           shaped disc. Most species have enlarged thorns or sharp
                                                         ring in moderate depths and the deep-sea skate (B.
           spines (denticles) on disc and tail. Adult males have rows


              California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                     December 2001
258
abyssicola), roughtail skate (B. tachura), and white skate   The Pacic electric ray (Torpedo californica) ranges from




                                                                Skates and Rays
(B. spinosissima) occurring in deep water up to 9,500     northern British Columbia to central Baja California, at
feet (deep skate). One other species, the broad skate     depths from 10 to 1,400 feet. Commonly found over sandy
(Amblyraja badia) is very rare with only two records      bottoms, it also occurs in rocky areas and kelp beds.
from California.                        Females reach a length of over 4.5 feet, while males may
                                reach three feet. It feeds exclusively on sh, including
The Guitarshes and Thornbacks -                anchovies, herring, kelp bass, mackerel, and halibut. One
Families Rhinobatidae and Platyrhinidae            four-foot female ray was observed to consume a two-foot
                                silver salmon. Unlike most predatory sh, however, it does
The guitarshes derive their name from their similarity in
                                not initially seize its prey with its mouth, but rst immobi-
shape to the musical instrument; head tapered or round,
                                lizes it with electric discharges. It then manipulates the
attened, and somewhat broader than their sturdy, shark-
                                prey toward its mouth, using its remarkably dexterous
like tail. Thornbacks share this general body shape, but
                                disc, before swallowing it.
have rows of spines down the dorsal surface. Guitarshes
and thornbacks are usually found on the bottom and close    Sometimes aggressive when approached or provoked by
inshore. All are viviparous, the embryos being nourished    divers, it may swim toward them with pectoral ns curled
by nutrients stored in their yolksac. They have small, blunt  downward in a challenging manner. While its electric
teeth used for crushing, and feed on invertebrates such as   shock may be quite powerful, reaching up to 60 volts in
worms, crustaceans, and mollusks, as well as small shes,   larger individuals, it does not extend a great distance
and are generally harmless to humans. Three species are    from the ray’s body. The shock is apparently not fatal to
known from California waters.                 humans, but often snaps the backbone of prey sh.
The shovelnose guitarsh (Rhinobatos productus) has a
                                The Myliobatidiform Rays (Stingrays) - Families
sharply pointed snout and a tapered, somewhat shovel-
                                Urolophidae, Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae, Gymnuridae,
shaped disc. It ranges from San Francisco to the Gulf of
                                and Mobulidae
California, but is rare north of Monterey Bay. It is found
in shallow coastal waters, bays, sloughs and estuaries     The stingrays are a large and rather diverse group, most
over sandy or muddy bottoms to a depth of about 50       of which have a greatly attened disc and whiplike
feet. Mating occurs during the summer months in southern    tail with one or more serrated stinging spines that are
California and the females give birth to live young the    readily replaced when they become old or worn. This
following spring or summer. Newborn guitarsh are six     group includes both the smallest and largest batoids. Most
inches long, with up to 28 pups per litter. Females reach a  are bottom-dwellers, occurring in shallow inshore waters,
length of 5.5 feet and a weight of about 40 pounds; males   bays, estuaries and sloughs, but some are also found
are smaller. The banded guitarsh (Zapteryx exasperata)    in deeper waters. At least one species of stingray and
has a more rounded snout and dark banding across the      all mantas and mobulas are epipelagic, occurring in the
disc. It inhabits rocky reefs and gravel beds and occurs    upper water column of the open ocean.
rarely in southern California.                 The stingrays bear live young and are unique among the
The thornback (Platyrhinoidis triseriata) is identied by   elasmobranchs in their method of nourishing the devel-
three parallel rows of large, curved spines running down    oping embryo. A nutritive uid called uterine milk is
the back and base of its tail to just past the rst dorsal   secreted from hair like processes called trophonemata,
n. Adults reach a length of 2.5 to three feet. Thornbacks   which line the oviduct wall. Adults feed on soft benthic
occur in shallow water to depths of 150 feet resting on    invertebrates, mollusks, crustaceans, and benthic, midwa-
sandy bottoms partially or completely buried. Thornbacks    ter, and schooling nektonic shes.
are common in the southern part of the state and Baja     Rays are usually popular when displayed in public aquaria;
California, becoming more rare to the north.          bat rays are especially suited for shallow petting tanks.
                                Although used by cultures throughout the world for food,
The Electric Rays - Family Torpedinidae
                                myliobatidiform rays are of little interest to California
Electric rays are found worldwide in all tropical and     commercial shermen, who mostly consider them a nui-
warm-temperate seas. They have a greatly expanded sub-     sance. Because most species have a stinging spine, care
circular disc that is eshy toward the margins, and spe-    should be taken when handling them.
cialized to accommodate the two kidney-shaped electric
                                The round stingray (Urolophus halleri), our most common
organs. These organs are modied muscles capable of
                                stingray, has a nearly round disc and short, stout tail
producing a powerful electrical shock. Only one species is
                                with well-developed caudal n and stinging spine. It
known from California waters.
                                ranges from northern California to Panama, but is most
                                abundant south of Point Conception. A benthic species


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                259
         with restricted habitat requirements, this ray is limited to  reaches a maximum disc width of 32 inches. It is a fre-
Skates and Rays



         a relatively shallow coastal zone at depths from three to   quent incidental catch of drift longline gear.
         100 feet, occurring primarily in water less than 50 feet    The California buttery ray (Gymnura marmorata) inhab-
         deep. It can be found off beaches and in protected bays,    its shallow bays and sandy beaches. It has a very wide
         sloughs, channels and inlets, where it inhabits loose sand   disc, reaching widths up to ve feet. The buttery ray is
         or mud bottoms.                        found from Point Conception to Peru, including the Gulf
         The round stingray’s stinging spine is located far enough   of California.
         back on its tail to afford a powerful stinging reex. When   Found worldwide in tropical seas the Pacic manta (Manta
         large numbers of round stingrays congregate off beaches,    birostris) is seen on rare occasions in southern California.
         injuries to bathers can result. This danger can usually    The manta can reach a maximum width of 25 feet.
         be avoided, however, by shufing one’s feet or pushing     Its close relative, the mobula (Mobula japonica), which
         a stick along the bottom. Injuries from the spine may     occurs in temperate waters of the Pacic, is also rarely
         also result when rays are removed from nets or hooks.     seen in southern California. Mobulas are smaller than
         While the wounds do not appear to be fatal, they can      mantas, reaching a maximum width of four to seven feet.
         be severely painful, and can cause vomiting, diarrhea,     Mantas and mobulas are unique among the batoids in
         sweating, cramps, and difculty breathing.           being lter feeders. They pass huge volumes of water
         The bat ray (Myliobatis californica) is a common seasonal   across complex lter plates at the gills, straining out small
         inhabitant of shallow inshore waters from Oregon to the    pelagic crustaceans and schooling shes.
         Gulf of California. It occurs in muddy or sandy bays and
         sloughs as well as rocky areas and in kelp beds from near
                                         Status of the Populations
         the surface to depths of 150 feet.


                                         B
         Gestation is estimated to take from nine to 12 months,       ased on existing data, little can be said about the
         with two to 12 young per litter. Size range at birth is 8.7     current or past population levels of California’s skates
         to 13.8 inches disc width (wingtip to wingtip). Onset of    and rays. While landings are increasing dramatically, this
         sexual maturity in males occurs at an age of two to three   may or may not reect an actual threat to the resource.
         years and a disc width of 17.7 to 24.5 inches; maturity in   Fish that were discarded in the past, dead and alive, are
         females occurs at ve to seven years and disc width of     now being retained and landed. The increase in landings,
         35 to 40 inches.                        however, certainly warrants close monitoring. Although
         Female bat rays reach a greater size than males, attaining   some skate species may have higher growth rates than
         a maximum disc width of 70.9 inches and weight of 210     other elasmobranchs, compared with bony shes they
         pounds. The largest reported male is 40 inches wide      have slow growth rates, late age at maturity, and
         at a weight of 37 pounds. Bat rays grow slowly, reach     low fecundity. Other regions have already witnessed
         sexual maturity relatively late, have few young, and seem   decreases in skate and ray populations. In Japan and the
         to be fairly long-lived. A 60-inch disc width female was    Irish Sea, landings have decreased and overshing has
         estimated to be 24 years old.                 apparently occurred.
         Bat rays feed on clams, abalones, oysters, marine snails,   The impact of sport sheries on skates and rays is rela-
         worms, shrimps, and crabs. Bat ray predation on oysters    tively unknown. Data from 48 shark derbies in Elkhorn
         is a major reason for the fencing seen around commercial    Slough from 1950 to 1990 show, however, that shovelnose
         oyster beds. Pieces of backbone (centra), tooth plates,    guitarsh, which in the 1950s and 1960s were the second,
         and sting fragments have been identied from coastal      and in some years the most abundantly caught elasmo-
         shell-mounds, suggesting that bat rays were a regular diet   branch, virtually disappeared from the catch in later
         item of early California natives.               years. In the 1990s, there was a two-thirds decrease in
                                         the catch-per-unit effort for bat rays compared to the
         The diamond stingray (Dasyatis brevis) is found in shallow
                                         1950s catch rates in these derbies. Pacic States Marine
         waters to a depth of 55 feet. It ranges from southern
                                         Fisheries Commission recreational sheries sampling, how-
         California (with a possible record from British Columbia) to
                                         ever, shows continued catches of bat rays, big skates,
         Peru inhabiting sand and mud bottoms, often around kelp
                                         shovelnose guitarsh, and thornback. The total numbers
         beds. Maximum reported size is 38.5 inches disc width.
                                         caught are hard to determine from the numbers of sam-
         A truly open ocean species, the pelagic stingray (Ptero-
                                         pled skates and rays, as sampled catch numbers vary
         platytrygon violacea) is commonly found swimming in
                                         widely from year to year.
         open water well above the bottom. Found worldwide in
         warm-temperate and tropical waters the pelagic stingray




           California’s Marine Living Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                        December 2001
260
Management Considerations             References




                                                         Skates and Rays
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for  Compagno, L.J.V., 1999. Systematics and body form. ed.:
further information.                William C. Hamlett, In: Sharks, skates, and rays: the biol-
                          ogy of elasmobranch shes. Johns Hopkins University
                          Press, pp. 1-42.
George D. Zorzi
                          Ferguson, A., and G. Cailliet. 1990. Sharks and rays of
California Academy of Sciences
                          the Pacic coast. Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation,
Linda K. Martin
                          Monterey, Calif. 1-64.
Monterey Bay Aquarium
                          Love, M. 2000. Probably more than you want to know
Revised by:
                          about the shes of the Pacic coast. Really Big Press,
John Ugoretz
                          Santa Barbara, Calif. 381 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game
                          Martin, L., and G.D. Zorzi. 1993. Status and review of
                          the California skate shery. In: Conservation Biology of
                          Elasmobranchs, NOAA Technical Report, NMFS 115:39-52.
                          McEachran, J.D., and K.A. Dunn. 1998. Phylogenetic
                          analysis of skates, a morphologically conservative clade
                          of elasmobranchs (Chondrichthyes: Rajidae). Copeia
                          2:271-290.
                          Roedel, P.M., and W.E. Ripley. 1950. California sharks and
                          rays. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Fish Bull. 75:1-88.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME           California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                      A Status Report               261
Skates and Rays




         California’s Marine Living Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report              December 2001
262
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish




                                                            Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
         California     Pacific    White   Arrowtooth       Starry  California
                        Croaker 1   Flounder 2    Flounder 3
    Cabezon  Barracuda     Bonito                           Halibut   Lingcod
Year  Pounds   Pounds     Pounds    Pounds     Pounds      Pounds    Pounds    Pounds

1916   569  2,687,362    480,406    779,287      ----      453,916   4,052,173    617,236
1917   434  3,060,323     889,376   835,259      ----     1,151,876   4,379,312    930,519
1918    167  4,837,284   2,441,714   1,014,820      ----      818,835   4,624,218    915,836
1919   ----  5,824,957   3,509,098    609,175     ----      435,731   4,698,123  1,063,136
1920   ----  8,201,335    873,648    461,459     ----      481,581   4,279,582    687,954
1921   ----   7,625,162    324,737    391,085      ----      293,656   3,653,861   425,543
1922   ----  6,250,218     957,942   581,863      ----      539,220   3,254,505   568,481
1923   ----  7,200,575    1,115,247    411,564     ----      508,961   2,229,381    467,347
1924   ----   7,128,523   1,045,282    384,317      ----      379,770   2,576,882   400,432
1925  3,352  8,036,449     879,166   536,654      ----      594,420   2,452,551    683,130
1926   ----  5,022,464   3,121,604    484,921      ----      667,711   1,349,031    649,902
1927    752  6,199,739   1,718,008    529,267      ----      590,064   1,303,559   556,308
1928  2,628  6,452,456   2,107,089    441,758     ----      399,880   1,187,651   853,537
1929  1,196  5,228,610   2,918,544    476,497     ----      580,752   1,102,573   1,167,120
1930  1,046  4,763,766   5,164,260    457,167     ----      391,096   1,097,760  1,288,172
1931   1,115  4,177,538   3,079,673    414,034      ----      169,806    969,773  1,229,088
1932  4,678  2,926,775   2,862,286    447,531     ----      543,806    949,702    899,912
1933  4,265  3,072,962   2,252,199    564,274      ----      457,998    989,649  1,088,955
1934  5,265  2,182,822   3,202,694    634,345      ----      537,164   1,037,008    857,600
1935  10,537   2,617,824   7,896,484    768,676     ----      656,113   1,575,863   1,017,455
1936  18,468  2,977,842    7,215,916    652,134     ----      621,186   1,582,907   758,547
1937  8,189  2,938,490   7,808,070    645,759      ----      974,770   1,207,235   968,258
1938  5,425  2,529,812   7,839,993    493,209      ----      542,812   1,078,229   646,004
1939  4,023  4,092,054   9,918,875    542,901      ----      739,311    991,621   576,972
1940  3,392  3,714,832   5,291,140    412,228      ----      804,089    948,457   692,243
1941  13,346  4,201,928   10,907,602    325,155     ----      601,577    706,650   529,772
1942  2,312  3,454,537   1,650,689    284,225      ----      370,125    750,539   314,334
1943  7,532  3,775,338   2,282,299    396,633      ----      505,399   1,111,998   719,318
1944  3,906  3,648,308     818,871    367,701     ----      366,520   1,485,463   746,039
1945  4,417  3,873,257   2,714,181    459,515     ----      337,543   1,748,821   758,395
1946  7,860   3,107,024   5,625,648    437,023      ----      509,448   2,457,187  1,156,127
1947  4,526  2,665,745   13,697,183    458,686      ----      527,072   1,787,901  1,940,747
1948  8,202  2,125,737    9,135,126    643,123     ----      405,251   1,306,629  2,056,088
1949  16,073  2,457,684   1,829,541    764,429     ----      356,374   1,256,435  1,656,184
1950  21,679  2,258,415     695,614   750,722     74,309      913,765   1,092,748  1,915,905
1951  23,875  2,106,928    776,803    682,269     59,801     1,128,892    868,201   1,672,114
1952  34,556  2,094,206   2,142,517   3,273,702    112,913      597,477    525,402  1,366,279
1953  13,365  1,438,846   3,102,647   1,201,134     88,367      502526    530,315    952,103
1954  6,262  1,562,739   2,319,060    913,802    550,457      500,550    661,331   947,383
1955  6,944   1,140,959    136,990    819,488   748,249      650,180    509,742   964,926
1956  12,415    752,527    127,614   889,870   1,070,597      375,400    455,659    931,311
1957  13,206    682,666    219,149   535,362    933,715      504,461    376,815  1,639,654
1958  19,612    915,259   5,546,806    770,534    643,880      471,202    267,446  1,599,515
1959  9,508  1,152,601    3,011,616  1,534,382    787,254     1,046,926    354,242  1,406,297
1960  3,067  1,229,668   1,250,544   1,078,119  1,007,679      259,038    376,263  1,307,129
1961  4,952    709,379   8,512,972    889,164    60,659      315,337    654,554  1,439,943
1962  2,474    746,476   2,134,902    687,633     53,326      338,192    863,086  1,112,204
1963  2,811    378,714   4,022,522    551,059    17,345      521,310   1,120,369  1,133,008
1964  5,281    334,140   2,612,269    838,584     9,735      420,986   1,276,105   836,377
1965  7,438    362,058   5,638,340   1,135,566     11,595      378,389   1,243,718    812,690
1966  12,599    319,116  19,148,494    790,997     3,503      380,628   1,011,412   800,303
1967  14,284    313,184  21,219,431    496,378     6,041      870,707    838,058   938,655
1968  20,106    140,500  14,921,929    941,304     13,400      856,157    671,654  1,094,054
1969  25,837     74,593  17,201,847    525,514     9,986      374,840    274,277  1,113,508
1970  10,698    24,588   9,192,304    564,871     6,120       ----    257,444  1,531,399
1971  4,518     17,264  20,268,984    334,395     2,661       ----    336,871  2,097,949
1972  5,853     13,915  22,312,627    373,410   163,947        ----    309,245  3,246,186
1973  4,554     37,605  30,787,731    227,096    236,244        ----    273,526  3,559,621
1974  14,901    36,498  18,817,766    514,317   210,510        ----    306,479  3,824,107
1975  7,332    58,597  31,873,688    577,785    70,714       ----    508,913  3,190,195
1976  19,166    162,091   8,896,859    497,961   185,228        ----    628,400  3,120,220
1977  12,150     77,119  22,547,605    588,551    222,300        ----    467,862  1,694,539
1978  28,781    48,437   7,882,396    422,288    206,603        ----    441,440  2,015,460
1979  50,327     37,327  3,960,071    716,315   238,203        ----    665,546   3,161,120


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Marine Living Resources:
       December 2001                              A Status Report              263
                     Commercial Landings -
                     Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish




                                     California        Pacific        White      Arrowtooth         Starry      California
                                                            Croaker 1      Flounder 2      Flounder 3
                            Cabezon      Barracuda         Bonito                                        Halibut       Lingcod
                     Year     Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds

                     1980     60,146         66,553      14,242,114      1,064,141        122,820         ----        726,852      2,810,797
                     1981     53,460         67,594      16,615,051       978,734        105,550         ----       1,262,265      2,839,852
                     1982     62,214         73,394      6,062,617      1,331,801        106,414        2,551       1,214,375      3,036,923
                     1983     20,515         21,256      8,154,181       783,153         54,405       104,066       1,130,581      1,976,790
                     1984     14,741        28,660       6,179,690      1,491,487         71,409       468,753       1,107,332      2,095,429
                     1985     22,506         68,025      6,089,254      1,437,132         83,297       383,797       1,256,375      1,531,569
                     1986     16,000         56,143       532,778      1,245,317         41,452       276,110       1,184,090      1,153,820
                     1987     6,884        113,258      11,140,031       912,963        100,182       210,976       1,188,881      1,858,678
                     1988     12,746        138,067       8,682,920      1,135,763         79,997       217,402       1,114,559      1,958,700
                     1989     25,012        133,262       2,406,757      1,027,804         62,465       135,945       1,213,193      2,790,853
                     1990     25,996        169,931       9,577,955       774,869        119,468        80,397        924,448      2,345,841
                     1991     16,293        341,646        562,060       995,435        345,090       102,938       1,041,167      1,735,834
                     1992     36,535         81,210      2,337,818       715,950        218,173        78,185        885,346      1,351,434
                     1993     39,312        109,812       1,047,606       714,249        125,347        41,897        746,559      1,519,828
                     1994     82,924        300,832        921,160       474,552        161,936        33,244        534,723      1,251,353
                     1995    193,814        302,790        157,439       565,144        259,994        25,580        771,628      1,185,394
                     1996    245,230        369,134        980,576       529,272        110,415       49,286        914,236      1,066,023
                     1997    264,754        145,377        641,598       345,034        104,739        94,591       1,325,175      1,132,160
                     1998    372,760        131,131      2,495,167       142,441         82,096       100,303       1,185,177       331,705
                     1999    302,563        202,726        191,269       203,061         94,301       76,462       1,313,150       312,445

                     - - - - Landings data not available.
                     1
                        Landings for White Croaker for 1916-1969 include Queen Fish,
                     2
                        Arrowtooth flounder were aggregated under unclassified sole prior to 1950. The drop in landings following 1959 reflects the elimination of recording catch utilized.
                     3
                        Starry Founder were aggregated under unspecified flounders from 1970 until 1982.
                     4
                        Yellowtail landings include fish caught south of the State but landed in California.




                         California’s Marine Living Resources:                            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                                        December 2001
264
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d




                                                       Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
    Monkeyface               California   Giant    California
    Prickleback  Opaleye  Sanddab   Scorpionfish  Sea Bass   Sheephead   Silversides
Year    Pounds   Pounds   Pounds     Pounds   Pounds     Pounds     Pounds

1916     ----    ----  2,228,734     8,014  153,440      3,549     ----
1917     ----    ----  2,631,862     17,425  158,380      5,906     ----
1918     ----    ----  1,751,609     28,237  248,795     22,978     ----
1919     ----    ----   709,738    25,432  185,270     17,972     ----
1920     ----    ----   721,810    35,674  148,037     14,567     ----
1921     ----    ----   784,011    58,380  127,431     23,925     ----
1922     ----    ----  1,170,979    42,121   97,354     18,205     ----
1923     ----    ----  1,363,911     60,466  226,995     31,628     ----
1924     ----    ----  1,699,832    109,070   231,404     24,267     ----
1925     ----    ----  1,952,847    223,104   189,072     48,811     ----
1926     ----    ----  1,143,935    108,068   377,934     138,927     ----
1927     ----    ----   892,718   113,457   467,595     159,397     ----
1928     ----    ----  1,108,764     97,083  382,115     372,677     ----
1929     ----    ----  1,051,868    107,797   404,386     288,422     ----
1930     ----    ----   616,349    88,610  394,009     243,689     ----
1931     ----   17,913   472,805     91,688  502,064     198,347     ----
1932     ----  15,279   665,345     85,503  473,846     89,591     ----
1933     ----   4,272   562,994    64,160  453,023     58,609     ----
1934     ----   3,896   767,025    65,939  861,498     143,552     ----
1935     ----   1,424   675,597    69,549  631,759     188,022     ----
1936     ----   1,781   621,675    110,417  398,595     128,577     ----
1937     ----   1,778   516,195   137,312   715,584     81,466     ----
1938     ----    100   639,328   155,386   407,826     72,031     ----
1939     ----     20   821,204   128,628   460,943     71,361     ----
1940     ----     39   779,078   122,133   366,683     62,352     ----
1941     ----    ----   442,487     95,287  409,537      49,119     ----
1942     ----     66   353,540     44,332  378,780     50,258     ----
1943     ----     17   505,338     42,550  700,855     151,048     ----
1944     ----     7   551,269    57,270  434,880     168,653     ----
1945     ----    ----   592,062     94,656  330,168     249,584     ----
1946     ----    ----   679,072   145,129   432,561     267,125     ----
1947     ----   1,519   701,413   127,048   244,304     193,489     ----
1948     ----    564   804,695    155,076   188,011     100,227     ----
1949     ----    954   722,183   148,367   114,401     63,524     ----
1950     ----   6,278   690,621   139,523   150,796     66,209     ----
1951     ----   1,006   543,821    101,437   277,484     61,410     ----
1952     ----    525   659,874    83,610  313,494     36,231     ----
1953     ----    392   690,443    119,628   411,979     35,426     ----
1954     ----   9,164   753,471   134,310   350,276     29,184     ----
1955     ----   6,117   781,564   108,056   365,487     13,152     ----
1956     ----   3,433   789,280   100,232   331,318      6,575     ----
1957     ----   5,198   692,083     73,268  242,353     11,033     ----
1958     ----   2,351   406,438     64,872  216,027     11,366     ----
1959     ----   4,866   466,684     37,342  249,909     10,233     ----
1960     ----   1,208   348,373     29,203  241,690      4,740     ----
1961     ----   2,337   562,964    26,718  340,363     12,602     ----
1962     ----   1,674   679,911    57,951  446,209     20,327     ----
1963     ----   4,378   555,783    75,521  303,579     28,011     ----
1964     ----   2,001   589,526    94,225  222,715     17,934     ----
1965     ----   3,149   479,041    82,736  351,750     12,153     ----
1966     ----  19,432    720,101   108,499   340,967     15,984     ----
1967     ----  17,298    687,168    82,656  230,604     19,628     ----
1968     ----   11,173   714,622   125,175   158,421     12,750     ----
1969     ----  15,929    696,482   115,471   154,761     13,285     ----
1970     ----  22,452   678,505    154,961   129,541      3,805     ----
1971     ----   5,281   785,401   131,144   117,258     8,854     ----
1972     ----    ----   920,822    132,016    95,313      7,084     ----
1973     ----  23,688   904,001    158,860    90,837      3,072     ----
1974     ----    ----   975,276   157,833    80,439      3,721     ----
1975     ----   2,654  1,015,557    173,452    59,291      6,031     ----
1976     ----    ----  1,293,872    173,675    56,128     8,325    11,256
1977     ----    ----   809,615   116,734    49,363      6,409    42,766
1978     ----   3,591   743,206    71,209   66,227     11,144     8,686
1979     ----   5,335  1,322,739     32,745   40,942      8,819    60,121


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME               California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report            265
                     Commercial Landings -
                     Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish




                          Monkeyface                            California         Giant      California
                          Prickleback       Opaleye       Sanddab      Scorpionfish       Sea Bass      Sheephead       Silversides
                     Year     Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds         Pounds

                     1980      ----         6,134      1,280,474        59,168        38,623        9,105        33,685
                     1981      ----         5,362       942,163        56,284        37,903        12,910        16,683
                     1982      ----         ----      1,057,614        62,264         6,999       11,776        88,770
                     1983      ----         ----       565,839        31,719         3,740       12,634        87,864
                     1984      ----         4,041       553,068        24,984         11,118       25,098        49,881
                     1985      ----         4,253       971,417        34,501        11,809        28,500         8,563
                     1986      ----         3,583       981,297        15,544        12,953        29,252         4,902
                     1987      ----         4,599      1,175,880        28,823        12,037        33,711         1,115
                     1988      ----        12,104      1,164,144        29,869        12,337        29,345         9,358
                     1989      ----         8,690      1,408,187        17,639         8,760       33,039         5,751
                     1990       92         6,939      1,433,861         8,407         7,259       123,526         3,590
                     1991       934         1,278      1,232,085         1,452        11,741       191,774         4,786
                     1992       13         4,124       623,219        77,323          ----       258,502         3,660
                     1993       125         3,777       773,906        58,877          ----       314,151         5,279
                     1994       750         6,017      1,499,812       113,123          ----       259,099        15,188
                     1995       765          963      1,493,536        90,740          ----       253,827         6,591
                     1996       561          986      1,738,110        76,444          ----       252,266        36,824
                     1997       179          358      2,046,029        95,880          ----       366,440        41,029
                     1998       224         1,717      1,428,411       112,822          ----       261,498         2,571
                     1999       170          939      2,069,189        86,675          ----       129,585         2,562

                     - - - - Landings data not available.
                     1
                        Landings for White Croaker for 1916-1969 include Queen Fish,
                     2
                        Arrowtooth flounder were aggregated under unclassified sole prior to 1950. The drop in landings following 1959 reflects the elimination of recording catch utilized.
                     3
                        Starry Founder were aggregated under unspecified flounders from 1970 until 1982.
                     4
                        Yellowtail landings include fish caught south of the State but landed in California.




                         California’s Marine Living Resources:                            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                                        December 2001
266
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d




                                                       Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
      White        Pacific Angel  Leopard  Soupfin
                                                Yellowtail 4
     Seabass  Surfperch      Shark   Shark   Shark     Skates   Turbot
Year   Pounds   Pounds     Pounds   Pounds  Pounds     Pounds   Pounds   Pounds

1916   798,115  221,186      ----    ----    ----      ----   2,608   1153394
1917   899,997  252,503      ----    ----    ----      ----   1,327   2745995
1918  1,613,520  203,420      ----    ----    ----      ----   3,664  11515372
1919  2,455,367  192,481      ----    ----    ----      ----   2,115   5005265
1920  2,628,108  186,381      ----    ----    ----      ----    855   2704937
1921  2,569,489  253,199      ----    ----    ----      ----    219   2490796
1922  2,932,051  243,776      ----    ----    ----      ----   1,534   3414423
1923  2,373,847  359,682      ----    ----    ----      ----   1,011   4062608
1924  1,489,589  305,726      ----    ----    ----      ----   1,868   4714149
1925  1,885,109  272,351      ----    ----    ----      ----   3,926   3179891
1926  2,216,402  208,910      ----    ----    ----      ----   1,365   5023114
1927  2,273,407  262,893      ----    ----    ----      ----   3,950   4224853
1928  1,300,214  236,974      ----    ----    ----      ----   9,234   2683514
1929  1,562,232   311,194      ----    ----    ----      ----   1,323   3075264
1930  1,626,422  267,972      ----    ----    ----      ----   7,345   4770756
1931  1,399,413  223,092      ----    ----    ----      ----  18,284   2525853
1932   804,796  207,222      ----    ----    ----      ----  23,422   1796364
1933  1,163,079  214,511      ----    ----    ----      ----  49,615   3898888
1934   851,197  192,596      ----    ----    ----      ----  72,548   2347161
1935  1,066,419  241,525      ----    ----    ----      ----  72,287   8148718
1936   808,093  207,280      ----    ----    ----      ----  116,275  10092470
1937   599,419  210,309      ----    ----    ----      ----  75,990   5371475
1938   626,647  155,815      ----    ----    ----      ----  85,896   6812318
1939   994,396  139,394      ----    ----    ----      ----  104,585   2866288
1940   915,716   57,977      ----    ----    ----      ----  62,124   5956804
1941   908,296   25,832      ----    ----    ----      ----  26,940   9830690
1942   553,855   58,018      ----    ----    ----      ----   6,571   2726269
1943   500,183  113,018      ----    ----    ----     81,109  38,047   4934879
1944   393,988  146,546      ----    ----    ----     50419   72,825   2957171
1945   527,730  217,486      ----    ----    ----      ----  159,870   3534052
1946   616,476  192,430      ----    ----    ----      ----  49,847   4561583
1947  1,083,023  289,182      ----    ----    ----      ----  101,784   9952854
1948  1,114,290  302,087      ----    ----    ----     119101  114,701  10384694
1949  1,409,599  326,336      ----    ----    ----    123464   95,605   7317740
1950  1,531,374  242,354      ----    ----    ----      ----  128,080   3529901
1951  1,533,255  237,331      ----    ----    ----     84634  110,164   4669736
1952  1,147,103  213,357      ----    ----    ----      ----  81,895   9446979
1953   873,293  281,998      ----    ----    ----     415669   69,158   5212383
1954  1,206,111  118,499      ----    ----    ----     136221  175,918   1656778
1955   914,865  136,554      ----    ----    ----      ----  100,498   164322
1956  1,081,223  187,681      ----    ----    ----      ----  83,294   370887
1957  1,507,095  245,699      ----    ----    ----     171678   96,055   508951
1958  2,849,763  189,679      ----    ----    ----     176896   72,533   169630
1959  3,423,353  212,853      ----    ----    ----    240801   129,225   231284
1960  1,236,198  164,273      ----    ----    ----    146934   62,438   248633
1961   694,224  118,245      ----    ----    ----     299317   71,367   380769
1962   574,408  165,115      ----    ----    ----     182178   80,383   188421
1963   891,220  172,884      ----    ----    ----     216825   96,819    69726
1964  1,391,081   133,115      ----    ----    ----    222705   93,280   110099
1965  1,428,145  187,736      ----    ----    ----     153475   78,531   127805
1966  1,337,850  160,381      ----    ----    ----     154014   83,327   245207
1967  1,222,759  202,513      ----    ----    ----     196751   72,853   150668
1968   861,880  168,040      ----    ----    ----    186350   69,504   163177
1969  1,098,708  156,528      ----    ----    ----    106068   25,033   234155
1970  1,101,445  241,409      ----    ----    ----    102,982   28,067   184223
1971   823,884  184,938      ----    ----    ----     61,233  24,882   390520
1972   777,388  272,913      ----    ----    ----    118,386   18,123   258071
1973   808,905  138,000      ----    ----    ----    133,433   36,400   235622
1974   752,496  148,086      ----    ----    ----     86,158  20,681   204957
1975  1,182,410  113,757      ----    ----    ----    135,291   27,697   210411
1976  1,058,673  142,037      ----    ----    ----    161,137   29,590   475931
1977  1,199,644  110,233       366   22,267  162,166    161,426   19,985   1814650
1978  1,160,755  174,064     82,383   34,956  176,070    275,057   21,902   460782
1979  1,205,666  201,160     128,295   38,939  276,428    309,521   42,657   427612


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME              California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                          A Status Report             267
                     Commercial Landings -
                     Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish




                            White               Pacific Angel      Leopard       Soupfin
                                                                                                   Yellowtail 4
                           Seabass      Surfperch         Shark       Shark        Shark        Skates       Turbot
                     Year     Pounds       Pounds        Pounds       Pounds       Pounds        Pounds       Pounds        Pounds

                     1980    997,412       162,952       112,051        40,085       192,336       155,216       21,238       365176
                     1981    776,033       182,675       268,640        51,506       264,938       631,420       33,776       347297
                     1982     70,795      367,704       318,960        70,610       250,504       287,808       47,358        75109
                     1983     77,964      211,556       360,323       101,309       177,770       185,690       46,803       171956
                     1984    118,099       182,120       633,273        67,855       278,541       116,293       23,053       132165
                     1985    125,380       122,078      1,248,487        75,838       277,740       195,837       29,729       259759
                     1986    106,671       124,983      1,241,130        74,741       212,279       150,125       19,847        57746
                     1987    116,490       145,751       940,187        55,371       201,489       169,712       42,582        56866
                     1988     107,619      107,284       491,348        41,737       140,566       127,861       23,810        85131
                     1989    116,023       118,010       268,252        50,459       165,324       174,659       30,574        28329
                     1990    133,692       137,745       250,850        41,295       125,726       143,754       20,164        40267
                     1991    163,803       104,778       181,765        47,742       105,010       113,222       20,574        21560
                     1992    125,149       129,662       123,554        42,242       95,779       103,468       26,855        15281
                     1993    100,060       111,261       66,654        52,150       77,452        78,070       17,262        59066
                     1994     78,932       93,672       23,230        27,559       79,455        93,391       10,055        31992
                     1995     73,293       89,643       19,711        18,660       63,911       413,278       14,961        9789
                     1996     96,162       85,279       17,995        13,849       83,868      1,830,094       16,450        29680
                     1997     58,554       76,512       33,673        20,508       84,933      2,965,344       20,905        73428
                     1998    156,734        73,731       55,342        26,206       78,446      1,836,803       11,473       244858
                     1999    247,188        49,396       53,375        25,484       98,326      1,872,076        8,020        66175

                     ---- Catch data not available
                     1
                       No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
                     2
                       Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
                     3
                       Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
                     4
                       Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
                     5
                       Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
                       Sand Bass, and combined catches.
                     6
                       White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.




                         California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                                     December 2001
268
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish




                                                                                         Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
     California       Barred         Kelp     Kelp and        Spotted       Giant Sea       Pacific
     Barracuda       Sand Bass         Bass Barred Sand Bass       Sand Bass          Bass       Bonito      Cabezon
     No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 3   No. of Fish1, 3  No. of Fish1, 2, 5   No. of Fish1, 4    No. of Fish1, 2  No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 2
Year

1947    677,449         ----        ----       682,789        ----          160       36,496        9,886
1948    384,056         ----        ----       630,223        ----          439       14,519       14,590
1949    366,423         ----        ----       796,959        ----          212       5,372       14,125
1950    256,367         ----        ----       619,397        ----          179       2,359       15,971
1951    269,545         ----        ----       781,609        ----          261       14,475       18,029
1952    336,862         ----        ----       536,075        ----           92       7,649       10,847
1953    170,550         ----        ----       711,395        ----          135       6,321        9,650
1954    282,552         ----        ----       876,667        ----          102       70,078       13,132
1955    154,962         ----        ----       497,343        ----          162       22,409       12,366
1956     87,603        ----        ----       470,362        ----           74       61,404       18,195
1957    577,184         ----        ----       609,071        ----          151      258,555        14,479
1958    782,723         ----        ----       653,671        ----          203      422,568        9,909
1959   1,195,585         ----        ----       428,426        ----          184      776,386        5,329
1960    755,408         ----        ----       478,656        ----          228     1,199,919        2,516
1961    391,884         ----        ----       613,604        ----          310      849,426        2,639
1962    335,507         ----        ----       789,149        ----          390      798,725        4,538
1963    483,699         ----        ----      1,219,344        ----          598      775,719        9,726
1964    303,070         ----        ----      1,103,394        ----          353     1,298,804        6,491
1965    443,304         ----        ----      1,230,313        ----          580      806,322        7,575
1966    892,697         ----        ----      1,278,939        ----          548      644,415        10,293
1967    470,480         ----        ----      1,003,914        ----          622      349,952        5,419
1968    372,246         ----        ----      1,317,963        ----          496     1,102,936        4,349
1969    358,518         ----        ----      1,246,175        ----          653     1,130,241        4,583
1970    373,801         ----        ----       922,260        ----          487      651,898        6,372
1971     50,474        ----        ----       948,121        ----          598      152,795        4,611
1972     38,243        ----        ----       842,681        ----          244      418,984        11,452
1973     92,483       35,698       14,609       656,186        ----          816      472,451        7,551
1974     55,284      178,534       245,683       618,026        ----          419      141,619        6,964
1975     26,289      106,804       353,463       499,679        ----          228       80,438        6,433
1976    107,557       156,056       485,280       655,810        ----          561      197,382        6,445
1977     48,701      118,545       272,705       398,089        ----          205      161,962        5,620
1978     73,174      110,377       360,277       476,982        ----          140      315,643        8,887
1979     69,434      169,337       290,448       462,980        ----          574      538,476        5,469
1980     27,909      229,107       355,950       585,432       149,000          653      560,508        6,208
1981     69,924      237,084       501,927       739,562       201,000          221      654,051        5,830
1982     73,135      273,828       312,891       587,349       138,000           45      218,478        5,247
1983     81,989      158,353       304,645       463,270       231,000           13      348,050        3,758
1984     87,414      136,612       222,771       359,913       297,000           97      377,678        1,759
1985     75,448      299,152       273,299       572,620       310,000           81      120,139        1,760
1986     88,118      265,014       435,516       700,602       537,000           74      340,480        4,386
1987     157,913      408,635       325,685       734,323       255,000           41      517,523        4,773
1988    148,058       451,125       319,629       770,780       423,000           41      250,495        5,418
1989    137,222       421,110       393,892       815,065        ----           73      339,382        6,353
1990    196,030       423,885       439,701       863,586        ----          109      263,007        6,713
1991    177,390       495,784       321,926        817,714        ----           16      116,451        4,555
1992    248,055       363,304       463,673       827,130        ----           20      115,866        5,199
1993    203,693       313,390       355,088       668,563       367,000           48      139,567        2,812
1994    268,219       286,444       276,087       562,531       273,000           50      106,280        1,866
1995    326,868       350,540       231,687       582,227       319,000           32       39,995        1,810
1996    271,859       604,132       282,673       886,805       298,000           3       72,665        3,003
1997    334,704       490,048       335,127       825,175       347,000           2      102,474        3,133
1998    455,803       377,890       233,591        611,481      219,000           12       57,655        2,579
1999    386,318       435,778       129,475       742,081       189,000           12       2,810        2,905

---- Catch data not available
1
  No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
  Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
  Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
  Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
  Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
  Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
  White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                   California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                                               A Status Report                         269
                     Recreational Catch -
                     Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish




                            White       Yellowfin        Kelp        Other      California               Monkeyface     Blk & Yellow
                           Croaker        Croaker      Greenling     Greenlings       Halibut       Lingcod     Prickleback       Rockfish
                          No. of Fish1, 2, 6  No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4
                     Year

                     1947     58,034         8,166        ----         ----       104,436        22,011         ----         ----
                     1948     89,825         3,667        ----         ----       143,462        24,406         ----         ----
                     1949    121,053         3,032        ----         ----       104,639        26,131         ----         ----
                     1950     76,765          999        ----         ----       85,935        23,868         ----         ----
                     1951     62,945          663        ----         ----       59,295        24,052         ----         ----
                     1952     77,948          708        ----         ----       34,158        17,389         ----         ----
                     1953     57,606         1,367        ----         ----       34,292        13,011         ----         ----
                     1954     66,964         2,411        ----         ----       59,674        22,940         ----         ----
                     1955     27,349          595        ----         ----       35,802        29,113        ----         ----
                     1956     16,289         1,099        ----         ----       21,661        37,649         ----         ----
                     1957     8,648          275        ----         ----       10,795        38,012         ----         ----
                     1958     20,000          95        ----         ----       16,192        39,801         ----         ----
                     1959      6,895         132        ----         ----       25,365        31,206         ----         ----
                     1960     8,633          275        ----         ----       48,310        28,232         ----         ----
                     1961     21,782          325        ----         ----       108,011        23,466         ----         ----
                     1962     27,256          778        ----         ----       118,966        25,399         ----         ----
                     1963     37,225          562        ----         ----       125,669        27,513         ----         ----
                     1964     23,269          993        ----         ----       141,465        25,263         ----         ----
                     1965     21,448         1,386        ----         ----       118,213        33,260         ----         ----
                     1966     17,285         1,619        ----         ----       88,726        44,676         ----         ----
                     1967     20,590          645        ----         ----       63,582        43,559         ----         ----
                     1968     10,906          211        ----         ----       54,663        42,449         ----         ----
                     1969     15,273         1,351        ----         ----       27,634        32,693         ----         ----
                     1970     18,519          770        ----         ----       29,968        61,833         ----         ----
                     1971     21,112        2,230        ----         ----       10,598        63,239         ----         ----
                     1972     38,811          597        ----         ----        8,140       103,965         ----         ----
                     1973     29,158          627        ----         ----        9,622        80,778         ----         ----
                     1974     27,521          176        ----         ----       10,292        79,685         ----         ----
                     1975     27,456         1,390        ----         ----        9,118       88,976         ----         ----
                     1976     21,165          278        ----         ----       10,075        80,863         ----         ----
                     1977     20,122          139        ----         ----        6,982        46,521         ----         ----
                     1978     17,630          285        ----         ----        5,409        65,869         ----         ----
                     1979     11,834          199        ----         ----        6,329        75,826         ----         ----
                     1980     27,461          123       5,535         582        6,517        89,349         ----        2,873
                     1981      9,228         537       47,183        30,739       11,440        65,604        2,503        11,165
                     1982     10,162          549       90,545        19,275       11,804        49,791        16,910       18,827
                     1983      7,738         112       61,001        23,777        5,682        30,543        9,874       32,282
                     1984      4,649         587       62,615        18,653        3,209        23,797        3,269       64,747
                     1985      3,166         234       63,019        29,649        7,090        20,603        2,026       101,962
                     1986     11,981          295       74,065        28,783        7,848        25,585        1,516       37,024
                     1987     3,225          289      131,689        30,861        7,560        42,504        8,179       23,780
                     1988    121,478          875       85,196        26,413       11,926        66,597        21,244       30,550
                     1989     15,062         4,274       85,736        19,306        9,116       76,517        8,388       27,415
                     1990      4,861         661        ----         ----        6,658        59,845         ----         ----
                     1991     16,768         1,098        ----         ----        5,984        49,824         ----         ----
                     1992      4,824         371        ----         ----        4,341        43,251         ----         ----
                     1993     11,449         1,354       61,044        10,585        5,335        38,323        11,375       68,742
                     1994      6,042        1,544       58,892        21,567        7,549        31,091        1,227       32,901
                     1995     17,084         2,084       49,636        23,615       19,345        30,542        3,953       25,612
                     1996     26,323          880       55,389        35,751       19,092        29,734        1,656        9,704
                     1997      9,960         616       29,901        21,822       15,846        36,218        1,079        8,201
                     1998      6,917        1,204       20,346        47,183       12,191        20,386        2,110       14,178
                     1999     10,744          506       16,504        4,080       14,339        26,847         551       15,078

                     ---- Catch data not available
                     1
                       No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
                     2
                       Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
                     3
                       Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
                     4
                       Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
                     5
                       Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
                       Sand Bass, and combined catches.
                     6
                       White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.




                        California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                                     December 2001
270
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d




                                                                                         Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
        Black         Blue       Brown        Calico        China        Copper       Gopher         Grass
      Rockfish      Rockfish       Rockfish      Rockfish       Rockfish       Rockfish      Rockfish       Rockfish
     No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4    No. of Fish1, 4  No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4
Year

1947      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1948      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1949      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1950      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1951      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1952      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1953      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1954      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1955      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1956      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1957      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1958      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1959      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1960      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1961      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1962      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1963      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1964      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1965      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1966      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1967      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1968      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1969      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1970      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1971      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1972      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1973      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1974      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1975      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1976      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1977      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1978      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1979      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1980     50,951       517,610        74,064        ----        7,770       189,428       36,771         3,264
1981    350,763      1,514,280        84,474       11,798        14,512       437,077       29,999        44,284
1982    431,844      1,929,444        117,438        2,224        38,413       271,800       22,427        48,854
1983    198,192      1,327,726       137,383        9,384        23,290       102,643      190,248        92,726
1984    474,352      1,400,043       285,695        4,594        22,229       129,170      356,589        72,028
1985    533,936      1,111,013       259,985        22,492        38,656       189,013      449,470       102,049
1986    442,879       733,148       292,393        8,802        62,273       159,723      454,368        60,549
1987    258,788      1,029,206       171,218        3,523        72,216        83,868      378,773        42,010
1988    329,358       911,028       351,357        22,281        56,307       182,081      220,296        65,149
1989    306,667       564,761       145,565        9,084        49,499       109,824      172,187        12,338
1990      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1991      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1992      ----         ----         ----        ----         ----         ----       ----         ----
1993    421,554      1,643,812       141,836        2,932        48,831        117,518      287,503        26,865
1994    313,817       413,219        47,965        4,958        45,130        73,600      208,224        11,522
1995    255,659       310,691        70,253        9,166        38,337        59,617      87,390        14,047
1996    182,263       383,204        80,335        6,137        29,078        92,907      101,182        11,848
1997    133,483       447,897        78,202        3,360        9,091        30,026       73,816        17,188
1998     77,780       413,373        60,707        3,333        7,985        49,632      83,305        13,697
1999    187,786       461,444       106,390        4,758        23,473        69,736      139,289        10,724

---- Catch data not available
1
  No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
  Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
  Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
  Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
  Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
  Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
  White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                   California’s Marine Living Resources:
        December 2001                                               A Status Report                         271
                     Recreational Catch -
                     Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish




                             Kelp        Olive      Quillback      California        White      California
                           Rockfish      Rockfish       Rockfish     Scorpionfish      Seabass      Sheephead       Treefish      Yellowtail
                          No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 2   No. of Fish1, 4   No. of Fish1, 2
                     Year

                     1947      ----        ----         ----       26,062        20,724        13,004        ----        6,948
                     1948      ----        ----         ----       52,554        24,078        17,261        ----        13,028
                     1949      ----        ----         ----       37,030        65,545        15,440        ----        17,710
                     1950      ----        ----         ----       53,419        54,718        14,281        ----        6,971
                     1951      ----        ----         ----       35,721        44,367        20,416        ----        23,721
                     1952      ----        ----         ----       39,068        41,043        16,481        ----        59,263
                     1953      ----        ----         ----       28,952        28,182        17,349        ----        27,702
                     1954      ----        ----         ----       33,462        41,588        21,499        ----        40,872
                     1955      ----        ----         ----       28,613        30,103        14,102        ----        36,468
                     1956      ----        ----         ----       36,558        19,755        14,789        ----        29,198
                     1957      ----        ----         ----       13,473        19,030        15,105        ----       242,686
                     1958      ----        ----         ----       13,743        34,039        18,120        ----       123,384
                     1959      ----        ----         ----       11,477        10,593        17,146        ----       457,350
                     1960      ----        ----         ----       15,111       15,697        11,541        ----       254,969
                     1961      ----        ----         ----       26,672        14,082        15,210        ----        42,367
                     1962      ----        ----         ----       33,314        14,564        13,488        ----        21,826
                     1963      ----        ----         ----       53,896        19,800        18,443        ----        45,705
                     1964      ----        ----         ----       73,844        14,901        26,822        ----        39,104
                     1965      ----        ----         ----       71,888        9,775        41,651        ----        18,367
                     1966      ----        ----         ----       69,851        3,972        52,967        ----        80,163
                     1967      ----        ----         ----       63,280        3,385        42,676        ----        31,392
                     1968      ----        ----         ----       59,863        4,138        33,075        ----        58,049
                     1969      ----        ----         ----       63,011        4,056        49,626        ----        79,202
                     1970      ----        ----         ----       82,522        4,359        39,464        ----        97,376
                     1971      ----        ----         ----       84,913        5,265        38,300        ----        44,608
                     1972      ----        ----         ----       65,886        3,858        33,541        ----        59,031
                     1973      ----        ----         ----       83,475        7,083        46,234        ----       221,287
                     1974      ----        ----         ----       85,956        4,003        30,379        ----       121,149
                     1975      ----        ----         ----       81,438        3,158        30,496        ----        19,742
                     1976      ----        ----         ----       47,524        2,671        32,926        ----        28,962
                     1977      ----        ----         ----       73,214        2,096        28,512        ----        34,141
                     1978      ----        ----         ----       44,114         433        34,409        ----        38,528
                     1979      ----        ----         ----       64,226        1,352        31,995        ----        71,483
                     1980     2,690       81,231          361       95,615        1,002        34,368        8,033        44,246
                     1981     63,346       249,843         3,109       73,362         887        46,479       16,911        88,911
                     1982     19,380       327,679         2,245       67,339        1,899        37,242       25,849        37,308
                     1983     55,608       313,474        18,117       50,834        1,003        68,972       31,712       178,688
                     1984     94,097       299,704         4,190       46,538         973        38,522       24,886        96,018
                     1985     87,811       217,905         5,106       66,762        1,045        35,934       34,310        45,509
                     1986     66,766       168,991         7,326       72,675        1,634        36,707       26,974        42,005
                     1987     27,662       200,751         1,798       59,125         616        21,072       14,954        58,537
                     1988     31,884       120,961         3,647      132,520        2,383        31,701       13,319        68,020
                     1989     33,603       94,760         4,531      163,552        1,365        23,612       20,835        61,746
                     1990      ----        ----         ----      160,948        2,563        34,374        ----        69,805
                     1991      ----        ----         ----      181,755        1,743        43,150        ----        14,195
                     1992      ----        ----         ----       77,290         698        25,778        ----        40,834
                     1993     45,015       206,164        27,216       69,570        1,403        26,910       32,982        35,681
                     1994     65,578       115,519         4,609       90,665        2,519        19,955       31,000        19,882
                     1995     50,034       58,382         3,102       94,398        4,266        23,737       51,834        29,445
                     1996     30,248       50,194         1,777      119,492        1,452        23,455       52,777        66,763
                     1997     31,058       62,620         3,940      141,354        1,730        25,788       19,745       398,345
                     1998     12,915       45,207          889      119,620        1,365        18,363       23,101       250,857
                     1999     19,554       59,489         6,295      225,726        11,517        23,089       40,339        78,466

                     ---- Catch data not available
                     ---- Catch data not available
                     1
                       No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
                     2
                       Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
                     3
                       Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
                     4
                       Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
                     5
                       Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
                       Sand Bass, and combined catches.
                     6
                       White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.


                        California’s Marine Living Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                                     December 2001
272
Nearshore Marine
Plant Resources:                        marine ora. Never a case of one-size-ts-all, effective




                                                                Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview
                                management of these resources requires consideration of

Overview                            each species’ cycle of life in each habitat. Is the species
                                an annual (such as the sea palm, Postelsia) or perennial
                                (such as the giant kelp, Macrocystis)? How abundant is the

A  bounty of marine algae ourishes along the coast
                                species? When and where does it grow best? What parts
   of California, providing habitats and food for inverte-
                                of the seaweed and how much could be harvested and
brates, shes and marine mammals in nearshore communi-
                                still sustain a healthy wild population? Where does new
ties rivaling the richness and diversity of coral reefs.
                                growth occur: is it restricted to meristems at the tips
Our state’s marine ora includes over 700 species and
                                or is cell division diffuse along the length of the whole
varieties of seaweeds: lamentous and eshy red algae, as
                                structure? How fast can it recover from being trimmed?
well as animal-like corallines; brown algae, including the
                                Should specic reproductive structures (such as the sea
distinctive, leathery kelps; delicate green algae and a few
                                palm’s topknot of blades) be restricted from harvesters?
sea grasses. The undersea vegetation is sustained by our
                                The seasonal weather patterns and seasonal cycles of
nutrient-rich coastal waters. The diversity of undersea life
                                growth and reproduction affect plants in the sea, just as
is enhanced by the variety of living conditions, and the
                                they do on farmlands. But, as with crops on land, it is
range of wave exposures and substrates available from
                                rarely one sole factor that sets the stage.
protected, muddy inlets to granitic outcrops exposed to
                                Biological interactions (such as diseases or over-grazing by
crashing, open ocean waves.
                                sea urchins), pollution, catastrophic storms, and oceano-
California seaweeds have been collected from the wild
                                graphic conditions, such as El Niño and La Niña cause
since the mid-19th century when they were dried and
                                changes in the distribution and abundance of seaweeds.
shipped to San Francisco and China. In some cases, inter-
                                Warmer, nutrient-stressed El Niño conditions can deter
tidal rocks were charred with gasoline torches or
                                growth of giant kelp and the full development of its
burning wood to clear off herbivores and less desirable
                                canopy. With less canopy on the sea surface, more sunlight
seaweeds and allow better recruitment and growth of
                                penetrates to the understory kelps (such as the winged
edible red algae, such as nori (Porphyra). A variety of
                                kelp Pterygophora) which may grow and persist in spite
species has been collected on a small scale for com-
                                of lower nutrients. In contrast, the cold, nutrient-rich La
mercial sale or home use: wakame (Alaria), kombu
                                Niña conditions can lead to exceptional growth of giant
(Laminaria), sea palm (Postelsia), bladderwrack (Fucus),
                                kelp and an extensive, shady canopy that can inhibit some
bull kelp (Nereocystis), and the green sea lettuce
                                of the understory seaweeds.
(Ulva.) The giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, an important
                                There is some evidence that people, even nature lovers,
source of the gelling compound alginate for industrial
                                can have negative effects on seaweed and animal com-
uses, has been harvested mechanically by commercial
                                munities. Researchers found that intertidal rocks in less
harvesting ships. The giant kelp has also been hand-har-
                                accessible coastal sites near Santa Cruz had greater diver-
vested for aquacultural use as abalone food. As phar-
                                sity and abundance than sites with more human visitors.
maceutical research for new medicines targeted marine
                                And the state continues to attract additional human visi-
organisms for testing, several varieties of seaweeds were
                                tors and residents, with a population increase of 571,000
collected for screening as sources of antibiotic and anti-
                                in 1999 alone. Our three largest cities (Los Angeles, San
cancer compounds.
                                Diego and San Jose) collectively gained 98,000 additional
The value of nearshore seaweeds in recreational settings
                                residents that year. As California’s population continues
has more recently gained public attention as a conse-
                                to increase, the state will harbor an estimated 41 million
quence, in part, of increased participation in ocean sports
                                residents by 2010. If tourism and coastal recreational
and underwater photography, as well as the successful
                                activities (such as tidepooling, kayaking, and surng) also
cultivation and display of seaweeds in public aquariums.
                                increase, the incidence of intertidal trampling and casual
Popular books, magazine articles and television programs
                                collecting in popular beach locations will heighten. The
on marine topics reinforced the heightened awareness.
                                undersea vegetation that attracts so much recreational,
And, as coastal residents and visitors have come to appre-
                                educational and commercial interest warrants thoughtful
ciate seaweeds aesthetically and for their role of providing
                                management to ensure its continued richness and abun-
food and habitats for invertebrates and shes, conicts
                                dance along the coast of California.
have developed over the perceived environmental and
aesthetic impacts of harvesting and appropriate uses of
these resources.                        Judith L. Connor
                                Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Plans for protection of our seaweeds and nearshore habi-
tats are complicated by the very diversity of California’s


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                   273
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview




                       California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report              December 2001
    274
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       275
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
276
Giant Kelp
History of the Use and Harvest                 Today, giant kelp is harvested on kelp beds from Imperial




                                                                     Giant Kelp
                                Beach, near the U.S.-Mexico border, to Monterey Bay, Cali-

V  arious species of kelp, including giant kelp (Macrocys-  fornia. Mexican harvesters in Ensenada provide another
   tis pyrifera) have been used for hundreds of years in   source of kelp from beds off Baja California. Giant kelp is
many parts of the world as food for humans and animals.    one of California’s most valuable living marine resources
Kelp has also been used for many years in Asia and       and in the mid-1980s supported an industry valued at more
Europe as a fertilizer and as a component of gunpowder.    than $40 million a year. The annual harvest has varied
Algin, found in the cell walls of kelp, is valuable as an   from a high of 395,000 tons in 1918 to a low of less
efcient thickening, stabilizing, suspending, and gelling   than 1,000 tons in the late 1920s. Such uctuations are
agent. Algin is used in a wide range of food and industrial  primarily due to climate and natural growth cycles, as well
applications including desserts, gels, milk shake mixes,    as market supply and demand. During the 10-year period
dairy products, and canned foods. It is also used in salad   1970 to 1979, the harvest averaged nearly 157,000 tons,
dressings to emulsify and stabilize them, in bakery prod-   while from 1980 to 1989 the average harvest was only
ucts to improve texture and retain moisture, in frozen     80,400 tons. The harvest was low in the 1980s because
foods to assure smooth texture and uniform thawing, and    the kelp forests were devastated by the 1982-1984 El Niño
in beer to stabilize the foam. In industrial applications,   and accompanying storms, and by the 200-year storm that
it is used for paper coating and sizing, textile printing,   occurred in January 1988. In most areas, the beds of giant
and welding-rod coatings. In pharmaceutical and cosmetic    kelp recovered quickly, with the return of cooler, nutrient
applications, it is used to make tablets, dental impres-    rich waters. Harvests in California increased to more than
sions, antacid formulations, and facial creams and lotions.  130,000 tons in 1989 and to more than 150,000 tons in
Giant kelp is harvested in California to supply food to    1990. During the 1990s, increasing international competi-
several aquaculture companies for rearing abalones. It     tion from Japan for the “low end,” or less puried end of
is also used for the herring-roe-on-kelp shery in San     the sodium alginate market caused ISP Alginates to reduce
Francisco Bay.                         harvests by about 50 percent. ISP Alginates anticipates
                                California’s harvest in this decade will be approximately
Giant kelp was rst harvested along the California coast
                                80,000 tons annually.
during the early 1900s. Many harvesting companies oper-
ated from San Diego to Santa Barbara beginning in 1911.    Methods of harvesting are used to suit the harvesters’ pur-
Those companies primarily extracted potash and acetone     poses and needs. The ISP Alginates Company uses specially
from kelp for use in manufacturing explosives during      designed vessels that have a cutting mechanism on the
World War I.                          stern and a system to convey the kelp into the harvester
                                bin. A propeller on the bow slowly pushes the harvester
In the early 1920s, having lost the war demand, kelp
                                stern-rst through the kelp bed, and the reciprocating
harvesting virtually stopped. In the late 1920s, giant kelp
                                blades mounted at the base of the conveyor are lowered
was again harvested off California. Philip R. Park, Inc.,
                                to a depth of three feet into the kelp as harvesting begins.
of San Pedro began harvesting kelp in 1928 to provide
                                The cut kelp is gathered on the conveyor and deposited in
ingredients for livestock and poultry food. The following
                                the bin. These vessels can each collect up to 600 tons of
year, Kelco Company of San Diego (now ISP Alginates, Inc.)
                                kelp in one day and to facilitate its harvesting operations,
began harvesting and processing giant kelp.
                                the company conduct regular aerial surveys. The survey
Since 1917, kelp harvesting has been managed by the
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) under regu-
lations of the Fish and Game Commission. Although the
surface canopy can be harvested several times each year
without damage to the kelp bed, regulations state that
kelp may be cut no deeper than four feet beneath the
surface. There are 74 designated kelp beds and each is
numbered; a kelp harvesting permit is required. Specic
beds can be leased for 20 years; however, no more than
25 square miles or 50 percent of the total kelp bed
area (whichever is greater) can be exclusively leased by
a company holding a harvesting permit. In addition to
leased beds, there are “open” beds that can be harvested
by any company holding a permit. Permit holders pay an
additional royalty of $1.71 to $1.91 per wet-ton of kelp
                                                   Giant Kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera
harvested, depending on the international market price.
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    277
Giant Kelp



                                      400

                                      350




                         thousands of tons landed
                                      300

                            Giant Kelp      250
          Commercial Landings
                                      200
         1916-1999, Giant Kelp
          Data Source: commercial                 150
               landing receipts.
                                      100
       Kelp landings consist primarily
       of giant kelp; commercial kelp                50
       harvest data is not available for
                                       0
                                         1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990    1999
            1921 through 1930.




        information is used to direct harvesting vessels to mature                 and low ocean temperatures (50˚ to 60˚ F), fronds can
        areas of kelp canopy with sufcient density for harvesting.                 elongate up to 24 inches a day. Fronds can reach a length
                                                      of more than 150 feet, and large plants can have more
        The Pacic Kelp Company uses a modied U.S. Navy
                                                      than 100 fronds. The fronds eventually mature, die, and
        landing craft with a cutting device and conveyor system
                                                      break away (slough) naturally, giving way to young fronds.
        mounted on the bow to harvest giant kelp off central
                                                      Although giant kelp plants can live up to eight years,
        California. The Pacic Kelp Company vessel holds approxi-
                                                      individual fronds survive for only about six to nine months,
        mately 25 tons of kelp. In contrast, for the herring-roe-on-
                                                      and individual blades about four months.
        kelp shery, kelp is harvested by hand from small skiffs
        or other small boats and then transported by truck to San                  Giant kelp reproduction involves two very different growth
        Francisco Bay.                                       forms, the large canopy-forming sporophyte and the
                                                      microscopic gametophyte. Specialized reproductive blades
                                                      (sporophylls), located just above the holdfast on an adult
        Status of Biological Knowledge                               sporophyte, liberate trillions of microscopic zoospores
                                                      each year. The zoospores then settle on the bottom and

        F  orests of giant kelp occur in the temperate oceans of
                                                      develop into microscopic male and female gametophyte
          the world. These forests are especially well developed
                                                      plants. Fertilization of the female gametophyte produces
        along the West Coast of North America from Punta
                                                      an embryonic sporophyte. This tiny plant will develop
        Abreojos, about midway down Baja California, Mexico,
                                                      into a canopy-forming adult within seven to 14 months
        to San Mateo County. They create a unique habitat that
                                                      if it survives competition with other plants and avoids
        provides food, shelter, substrate, and nursery areas for
                                                      being eaten by grazers or being destroyed by undesirable
        nearly 800 animal and plant species. Many of these ani-
                                                      environmental factors.
        mals and some plants are of importance to sport and
        commercial sheries.
        Typically, giant kelp ourishes in wave-exposed areas of
        nutrient-rich, cool water that is 20 to 120 feet deep.
        By means of a root-like structure called a holdfast, the
        kelp attaches to rocky substrate. Along the protected
        shoreline of Santa Barbara County, however, giant kelp
        also grows on sand substrate. Here, it attaches to exposed
        worm tubes or the remains of old holdfasts. Kelp fronds
        originate from the holdfast, and eventually grow to the
        surface. A frond is composed of a stem-like stipe and
        numerous leaf-like blades. A gas-lled bladder (pneumato-
        cyst) at the base of the each blade helps buoy the frond
        in the water column.
        Giant kelp absorbs nutrients from the water through all its
        surfaces. Under optimal conditions of high nutrient levels
                                                                             Giant kelp life cycle.


            California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                                     December 2001
278
Status of the Beds                        out, since both areas are likely to experience the same




                                                                Giant Kelp
                                 oceanographic conditions in any year. So the change in

T  he density and abundance of a kelp canopy varies      relative abundance of kelp between these two areas is of
   by location, year, and season. In central California,    greater concern. It suggests that factors other than the
sloughing and deterioration occur in late summer and       warming trend is responsible for the declines along the
early fall. Canopies virtually disappear during the late     mainland coast.
fall and winter, when storms cause frond and plant loss.     The health and long term survival of the kelp forests
Canopies usually begin forming again in the spring, becom-    are inuenced by a variety of factors, including storms
ing dense in the summer. Off southern California, kelp      and climactic events, grazing, competition, sedimenta-
canopies frequently grow throughout the year in the       tion, pollution, and disease. These can be divided into
mild weather conditions. Dense canopies often develop      natural and human induced causes. Because water of
during the winter, when there are virtually no canopies in    the Southern California Bight is warmer than the rest of
central California.                       the state, uctuations in water temperature may have a
During the last 30 years, the size, distribution, and loca-   more profound affect on kelp survival there compared to
tion of the kelp canopy throughout California has uctu-     central and northern parts of the state. Human-induced
ated considerably. Fluctuations can be viewed as seasonal    impacts, pollution, and coastal development also tend
events and as long-term changes. Decreases in canopy       to be greater in southern California where there are
area were due to both natural and man-induced distur-      more people.
bances. Increases were due to natural growth and in some     The southern California kelp beds, in particular, provide
instances may have beneted from restoration efforts.      examples of both. Waters south of Point Arguello, referred
An aerial survey conducted in 1967 showed a total of 70     to as the Southern California Bight, are considerably
square miles of kelp canopy along the entire California     warmer than the rest of the state. Accordingly, uctua-
coast. Of that, 53.9 square miles was recorded for south-    tions in water temperature tend to have a more profound
ern California. The southern California portion showed      affect on kelp survival than in the central and northern
that 33 square miles occurred along the mainland coast      parts of the state. Human induced causes also tend to be
and 20.9 square miles around the Channel Islands. A simi-    greater in southern California due to the concentration of
lar survey conducted in 1989 reported 40.7 square miles     the state’s population within this region, with its associ-
along the entire coast. Of this, 17.5 was recorded for      ated pollution and coastal development.
southern California. The Channel Islands accounted for
                                 Excessive wave action from storms and surge can break
9.8 square miles, while the mainland coast of southern
                                 kelp fronds and dislodge entire plants. Dislodged plants
California totaled 7.7 square miles. During the most recent
                                 increase kelp loss by entangling nearby kelp, pulling them
statewide kelp forest survey, conducted in 1999, a total
                                 from their attachment. During the 1980s and 1990s, at
of 17.8 square miles of giant kelp was charted along the
                                 least three major oceanographic events affected kelp
California coast, 11.4 square miles of that recorded off
                                 beds: 1) the 1982-1984 El Niño and a devastating storm;
southern California, including the offshore islands. The
                                 2) the 1992-1994 El Niño and subsequent storms; and
1999 survey shows only 3.7 square miles of the 17.8 total
                                 3) the 1997-1998 El Niño, which was the warmest of the
along the mainland coast, while 7.7 square miles was
                                 three. The warm water and storms associated with the El
recorded in the Channel Islands.
                                 Niño destroyed plants, inhibited kelp growth, and resulted
The methodology used to conduct aerial surveys is sub-      in minimal canopy development throughout southern Cal-
ject to a high degree of error. The photographic method     ifornia. During the 18 year-period from 1981 to 1998,
utilizes infrared lm to highlight temperature differences    sea surface temperatures exceeded the previous 60-year
between kelp canopy at the water’s surface and the back-     mean in all but a single year (1988). In 1967, there were
ground water temperature. Kelp immediately below the       approximately 18 square miles of kelp canopy near Santa
surface is invisible to this method. So the results can vary   Barbara, compared to only six square miles remaining in
due to wind waves and local currents. These errors could     1989. The giant kelp forests on sand substrate near Santa
be greatly reduced by more frequent surveys.           Barbara had still not returned in 2000.
This being said, it is still evident that a declining trend is  Fishes such as opaleye and halfmoon regularly graze upon
occurring, particularly in southern California. This can be   kelp. Large numbers of these shes can damage the kelp
at least partly explained by the warming trend of the past    forests, especially when conditions are unfavorable for
twenty years and the frequency of severe El Niños.        kelp growth. Crustaceans, such as amphipods, isopods and
However, when the distribution of kelp canopy in southern    crabs, can also graze and damage kelp. The historical
California between the Channel Islands and the mainland     removal of the southern sea otter from southern Califor-
coast is examined, the warming trend should be factored     nia certainly changed the balance of the predator/prey


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               279
       relationship in the kelp bed community. But nally, the    The discharge of heated and turbid cooling water caused
Giant Kelp



       intensive shing for the remaining sea urchin predators    the loss of approximately 150 acres of kelp. This single
       such as sheephead and spiny lobster, and for sea urchin    event was the only time when the damage was so well
       competitors such as abalone, tremendously altered the     documented that mitigation could be required as compen-
       sea urchin population dynamics in the forest. As a result,  sation for the loss.
       sea urchin populations increased exponentially in some    In the 1950s and 1960s, once-productive kelp forests off
       areas and overgrazed the kelp, creating areas referred to   Point Loma and La Jolla in San Diego County and along
       as “urchin barrens.”                     the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County began
       Human-caused disturbances include sedimentation of the    to deteriorate. This too was attributed to biological and
       rocky bottom, which can retard kelp growth and even      physical factors related primarily to human activities. Cur-
       bury young plants, preventing development and reproduc-    rently, there are several areas where the status of kelp
       tion. Pollution can affect kelp forests in a variety of    is of concern, including the entire Santa Barbara/Ventura
       ways. Industrial and domestic wastewater discharges car-   coastline, the Malibu coast, portions of the Palos Verdes
       rying toxins, including pesticides and heavy metals, are   Peninsula, the coast between Newport and Laguna Beach,
       released into coastal waters where they can accumulate    San Onofre, south Carlsbad and Point Loma. Other kelp
       in the sediments. Such chemicals alter the physical      losses have undoubtedly occurred as a direct result of
       and chemical environment near the discharge and may      human activities along the southern California coastline,
       decrease growth and survival of the kelp forests. Thermal   but the lack of strong baseline data prevents resource
       outfalls from power plants also have localized effects    agencies from proving damages and seeking compensa-
       on kelp forests. Wastewater and thermal discharges can    tion. The development of computerized Geographic Infor-
       increase turbidity and redistribute sediments into nearby   mation Systems may provide effective tools to document
       kelp forests, affecting kelp growth and survival. A variety  and analyze such damages in the future.
       of pathogens are known to affect kelp but their broad
       impacts on kelp forests have not been studied. While
                                      Kelp Restoration
       tumors, galls, and lesions have been observed on kelp,
       only occasionally have they caused severe damage.

                                      I n 1963, Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Kelco
       Short and long-term declines, or in one case a complete     began a cooperative project to develop techniques to
       disappearance of southern California kelp beds, associated  protect and restore kelp forests off San Diego. Work
       with human activity have been documented. Prior to the    involved sea urchin control, including the use of lime
       1920s, an extensive kelp bed, known as Horseshoe Kelp     and crushing of individual urchins and kelp transplanting.
       existed off the coast of what is now Los Angeles Harbor.   Later experimentation between 1991 and 1992 involved
       It was reported to have measured a quarter- to a half-mile  feeding urchins along a front to discourage feeding on
       wide and two miles long. A department Information Bul-    attached plants and to increase urchin reproduction, so
       letin reported interviews with “old time shermen” who    that commercial harvesting might be encouraged. This
       recalled the kelp bed beginning to decline during the     work appears to have succeeded in restoring kelp to these
       1920s and 1930s coinciding with the widening of the main   beds. However, this is a labor intensive effort, and there
       channel and west basin of Los Angeles Harbor, which      are indications that when the work ceases, the urchin
       included the dredging removal of an entire island, (Dead-   fronts redevelop, calling into question the long term ben-
       man’s Island). Some recalled that the Whites Point Sewer   ets of any one-time restoration effort, as well as the
       Outfall, which began discharging in 1934, was associated   economic feasibility of conducting such work as a long
       with the disappearance of the last remnants of this bed.   term solution and over a broader area.
       The Horseshoe Kelp Bed grew in a water depth of 80
                                      Between 1967 and 1980, kelp restoration was conducted
       to 90 feet. While kelp at this depth is still common in
                                      along the Palos Verdes Penensula (PVP) by the Institute
       the Channel Islands, no kelp grows along the southern
                                      of Marine Resources and the department. This work also
       California mainland coast at this depth today.
                                      combined sea urchin control and kelp transplanting. The
       Several years’ declines to kelp beds near Salt Creek in    objective was to establish several small stands of kelp,
       Orange County and Barn Kelp near Las Pulgas Canyon off    which would provide seed stock for new and expanding
       Camp Pendleton Marine Base in San Diego County were      beds. In 1974, the rst naturally expanding kelp stand
       associated with extensive grading of land around drain-    in 20 years was observed off PVP. By 1980, when restora-
       ages adjacent to these beds.                 tion work was discontinued, nearly 600 acres of kelp had
       The most thoroughly documented human induced decline     become established. By 1989, aerial surveys revealed over
       was associated with the start-up of the San Onofre      1,100 acres of kelp off PVP. Two subsequent El Niño events
       Nuclear Generating Station in northern San Diego County.   have severely decreased the size of these beds.


         California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December 2001
280
Kelp restoration work has also been conducted in storm           a persistent kelp bed, the reef will be expanded to a




                                                                    Giant Kelp
damaged areas off Santa Barbara and along the Orange            minimum of 150 acres in ve years.
County coast. Shortly after the 1982-1984 El Niño, Kelco          It appears now that the creation of new reef substrate,
began developing techniques for restoring kelp beds in           rather than other techniques, may provide a valuable
Santa Barbara County. In 1987, under contract with the           mechanism for increasing the capacity for kelp bed expan-
department, Kelco implemented operations for anchoring           sion throughout southern California in future years.
giant kelp in the sandy habitat near Santa Barbara. Sev-
eral kelp forest nuclei were established; however, sea
                                      Management Considerations
urchin grazing and unfavorable water conditions impeded
progress. By the early 1990s, it became evident that this
                                      See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
restoration attempt had failed.
                                      ther information.
Loss of Orange County kelp forests from Newport Harbor
to San Mateo Point was caused by heavy rainfall and
siltation in 1980, the 1982-1984 El Niño, and the effects of        Dennis Bedford
urchin grazing. Under contract with the department, MBC           California Department of Fish and Game
Applied Environmental Sciences company established kelp
forest nuclei between Newport Harbor and Laguna Beach.
                                      References
This was done by transplanting adult and juvenile giant
kelp and controlling sea urchins. Those kelp forests south
                                      California State Lands Commission. 1999. Final Program
of Laguna Beach recovered naturally after a few years.
                                      Environmental Impact Report for the Construction and
Those beds north of Laguna Beach, where restoration
                                      Management of an Articial Reef in the Pacic Ocean Near
efforts took place, have not recovered.
                                      San Clemente, California.
In 1992, the department Articial Reef Program built a
                                      McPeak, R.H. and D.A. Glantz. 1984. Harvesting Califor-
10-acre, low relief (three feet or less in height) reef out-
                                      nia’s kelp forests. Oceanus. 27(1)19-26.
side the harbor entrance channel to Mission Bay, San Diego
County. The reef was constructed from broken slabs of            North, W.J. 1992. Review of Macrocystis Biology. In I.
concrete provided by the demolition of a nearby roadway.          Akatsuka (ed.). Biology of Economic Seaweeds.
By 1993, a kelp bed had naturally established itself on this
                                      Schott, Jack. Dago Bank and its horseshoe kelp bed. Cali-
reef. This bed has persisted through the spring of 2000.
                                      fornia Department of Fish and Game, Marine Resources
During the fall of 1999, the Southern California Edison           Information Bulletin, no. 2. 1976.
Company built a 22-acre experimental reef off the city
of San Clemente, aimed at mitigating the damage to kelp
from the San Onofre Nuclear Power Station. It is still too
early to evaluate the success of this project, although
based on a great deal of research, and the success of
the Mission Beach reef, there is great optimism that it
will succeed. If it does succeed in providing substrate for




                A kelp cutter operating near Santa Barbara
                               Credit: DFG


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                       California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                   A Status Report              281
   Bull Kelp
    History of the Use and Harvest                       1996, the Fish and Game Commission developed designa-
                                          tion numbers (300 series) for all the kelp beds north

    U  ntil the late 1980s, there was little targeted harvest         of San Francisco and established beds that could be exclu-
      of bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) in California,          sively leased by interested parties, a program similar to
    except as a small component of the localized edible             the one in use for giant kelp harvest. Prior to this, there
    seaweed industry. In central California, Nereocystis and          were no ofcial designations in this area, so any northern
    Macrocystis often form mixed beds and it is likely bull           kelp bed could be harvested for commercial purposes.
    kelp would have been incidentally taken during harvest           The Crescent City rm applied for and received exclusive
    of those beds, but not recorded separately on harvest            lease privileges for bed 312 in 1997. In accordance with
    records. Department records indicate about 19 tons of            department regulations, they were required to produce
    kelp, probably a mixture of Macrocystis and Nereocystis,          a kelp bed biomass estimate prior to harvest. They esti-
    were harvested from what is presently bed 302 off the            mated 205 acres of kelp beds in the approximately ve
    Bodega Bay–Tomales Bay area between 1993 and 1999. All           miles of coastal area between Pt. St. George and Whaler
    of this kelp was used by local abalone culturists. Other          Island within bed 312 (an area representing only a fraction
    uses of bull kelp include pickling the stipe and marketing         of the entire geographic area of bed 312). The November
    it as a specialty food product, and using the dried parts          1996 survey yielded a point estimate of 5,475 tons of bull
    for arts and crafts. In southern Oregon, bull kelp was           kelp within those 205 acres, at 27 tons per acre. Based
    harvested from Orford Reef in the mid-1990s as an ingredi-         on that survey, their annual harvest would be limited to
    ent in liquid fertilizer. The Oregon Division of State Lands        15 percent of that estimate, equivalent to 821 tons. While
    has since discontinued permitting that harvest.               their harvest up to that time was only 132 tons (in 1996),
    Currently, there is only one mariculture rm harvesting           or 16 percent of their allowance, their bid application
    signicant quantities of bull kelp for abalone food. This          projected steady harvest increases through 2001, peaking
    business is located in Crescent City, Del Norte County,           at a 500-ton projected harvest. Through 1999, their high-
    and has been harvesting bull kelp from Point Saint George          est harvest in any year has been 149 tons.
    to Crescent City harbor since 1988. Because bull kelp
    declines in the winter months, they often augment their
                                          Status of Biological Knowledge
    supply with giant kelp from central California. From
    1990 to 1994, the company and the department worked

                                          B  ull kelp is primarily found adjacent to exposed shore-
    together to determine the possible effects of small scale
                                            lines along the Pacic coast of North America, ranging
    harvesting on Nereocystis populations. The company kept
                                          from Unalaska Island, Alaska to Point Conception, Cal-
    detailed records of harvest amount, location, bed condi-
                                          ifornia. Along the central California coast, Macrocystis
    tion, and effort in hours. Though not required by regula-
                                          and Nereocystis occur together, forming extensive kelp
    tion, they hand-harvest to a depth of about 2.5 feet below
                                          forests in this region. However, from the Monterey Bay
    the surface, which allows the take of the upper portion of
                                          area northward to Alaska, Nereocystis becomes the domi-
    the stipe, the pnuematocyst and all the fronds, resulting
                                          nant canopy kelp species in coastal waters. Within the
    in the loss of the entire plant. During this experimental
                                          nearshore environment, bull kelp, like giant kelp, is asso-
    period annual harvest ranged from six to 149 tons, and
                                          ciated with hard substrates at depths of approximately
    impact to the local beds was considered to be minimal. In
                                          10 to 70 feet, where it provides habitat and food for
                                          hundreds of species, many of them commercially and
                                          recreationally valuable.
                                          Distribution of marine algae is not only restricted geo-
                                          graphically but also limited by a number of other factors
                                          within the nearshore environment, including water move-
                                          ment, light, temperature, nutrients, pollution, compe-
                                          tition, and predation. The complex trophic interaction
                                          among sea otters, macro-herbivores and kelps has been
                                          documented by a number of researchers. Generally, the
                                          occurrence of sea otters in a kelp forest community
                                          greatly limits the population of invertebrate kelp grazers,
                                          thereby increasing kelp productivity. In northern Cali-
                                          fornia, absent the sea otter, commercial and sport sher-
                                          men have acted to signicantly reduce populations of
                        Bull Kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana
                                          sea urchins and abalone, two major kelp grazers. While
                    Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
282
kelp populations have increased, the competition among      high light, nutrient and water clarity levels. Bull kelp




                                                                Bull Kelp
seaweeds for space and light rules out any generalizations    stipe elongation can reach ve inches per day, while blade
regarding specic impacts on bull kelp due to the reduc-     growth accelerates to about 3.5 inches per day just prior
tion of these grazer populations.                to the plant reaching the surface. At maturity the growth
                                 rate of the holdfast can average about 0.2 inches per day.
The morphology of bull kelp is quite different from that of
giant kelp. The most notable difference is the possession    Water temperature plays an important role in the growth
by bull kelp of only one pneumatocyst, situated on the      of Nereocystis. Mean sea surface temperatures over the
end of the hollow stipe for otation. Giant kelp has many    distributional range of Nereocystis vary from 55° F to 59°
gas bladders running its entire length. While bull kelp     F at the southern end to 39° F to 50° F off the Aleutian
is also attached to the substrate by a holdfast, the size    Islands. The population of bull kelp in Diablo Cove has
of the holdfast is much smaller than that of giant kelp.     been adversely affected by the warm water discharge
The holdfast resembles a small disk with many nger-like     from the Diablo Canyon power plant which began in 1985.
haptera. Much like giant kelp, the stipe of a bull kelp     Plants in contact with the discharge experienced deterio-
sporophyte is long, reaching lengths of up to 130 feet. The   ration of blade tissue, which resulted in early death. This
bull kelp stipe does not have the same tensile strength as    observation helps to explain the decline of Nereocystis
giant kelp but is more elastic under stress. Bull kelp is able  that occurs during El Niño events.
to stretch more than 38 percent of its length before break-   Nereocystis is an opportunistic colonizer that takes advan-
ing. The pneumatocyst gives rise to short dichotomous      tage of substrate clearing caused by storms, sand scour-
branches from which up to 64 blades are borne. The        ing, or other disturbances. While bull kelp can rapidly
bull kelp canopy provides most of the photosynthetic       recruit to a newly cleared location, its longevity as the
and nutrient absorbing surface for energy production.      dominant canopy-forming species depends on environmen-
Blade lengths of more than 13 feet have been reported for    tal conditions being conducive for its survival and detri-
mature plants, but it is typical to nd a range of blade     mental for its major competitors. The biggest factor in
sizes (two to 11 feet) on most plants. The reproductive     growth of Nereocystis is the availability and quantity of
structures (sporangia) are located on the blades in aggre-    light. Light levels below the surface canopy have been
gations called sori, with mature sori located in patches     shown to decrease by almost 100 percent and below the
near the blade tips and immature regions near the base      secondary canopy, well below the minimum level neces-
of the blades.                          sary for growth. Thus, in established kelp communities
Reproduction in bull kelp undergoes a cyclic alternation     there can be insufcient light and hard substrate for
of generations similar to that of giant kelp and other      recruitment and growth of bull kelp.
laminarians. The large plant commonly referred to as bull
kelp represents the sporophytic phase while the gameto-
                                 Status of the Beds
phytic phase is microscopic. During its sporophytic phase,
spore production usually begins several weeks after the

                                 T  he kelp resources of the eastern Pacic coast were
blades reach the surface. Biagellate spores are formed
                                   rst mapped in 1912. The survey extended from the
within the sporangia on the blades. As the spores reach
                                 Gulf of Alaska to Cedros Island, Baja California. Along the
maturation during the summer and fall, the sori are
                                 central coast of California between Point Montara, San
abscised from the blades and the spores released. Upon
                                 Mateo county and Point Conception, subsequent coastwide
settlement, germination begins, and over the course of
                                 surveys have not differentiated between Nereocystis and
several weeks, somatic growth gives rise to the gameto-
                                 Macrocystis. Since the rst survey in 1912, little work has
phyte. After about 11 weeks, motile sperm are released
                                 been done along the north coast of California, primarily
and fertilization of the eggs takes place. The resulting
                                 due to the absence of the commercially valuable Macro-
zygotes grow as sporophytes. Once at the surface, stipe
                                 cystis pyrifera in this region. Current knowledge of the
and blade elongation rates decrease while the plant
                                 population levels of Nereocystis off the north coast is
increases in biomass.
                                 based on 1989 and 1999 surveys of the California coast,
As an annual plant, bull kelp has evolved an optimal repro-   and information provided by a kelp harvester about
ductive strategy that involves accelerated stipe growth     the resource in the Crescent City area. Population abun-
to reach the ocean surface where it can initiate spore      dance estimates resulting from these surveys are usually
production and release. Plants initiated in late March      expressed in terms of square miles of surface area.
sometimes have developing sori prior to reaching the
                                 Despite the year-to-year variability in bull kelp coverage,
surface in May and spore release via abscission of the
                                 both the 1912 and the 1989 surveys yielded similar results
sorus begins as early as June. Maximum bull kelp growth
                                 for the northcoast and about 6.5 square miles of canopy.
rates occur under optimal environmental conditions of



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report              283
                                     Management Considerations
      The 1999 survey, however, indicates about a 42 percent
Bull Kelp



      decline in kelp coverage in the Point Montara, San Mateo
                                     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
      county to Shelter Cove, Humboldt county area. This
                                     ther information.
      decline is contrary to anecdotal observations along the
      Mendocino county coast in 1999, which indicated one of
      the most extensive kelp canopies in the last decade. The
                                     Peter Kalvass and Mary Larson
      apparent decline may be due in part to the timing of the
                                     California Department of Fish and Game
      1999 survey, which was conducted after a major storm
      had passed through the region, destroying portions of
      the kelp beds. Another factor to be considered is the
                                     References:
      improved method used to interpret aerial photographs in
      1999, which resulted in a more accurate representation    Amsler, C.D. and M. Neushul. 1989. Diel periodicity
      of kelp beds. This would seem to indicate that previous    of spore release from the kelp Nereocystis luetkeana
      surveys may have overestimated the true extent of the     (Mertens) Postels et ruprecht. J. Exp. Mar. Bio. Ecol.
      beds. And nally, kelp beds are subject to high variability  134:117–127.
      in coverage and density from year to year.
                                     Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game. 2001. Final Environmental
      The 1912 survey estimated that about 32 percent of the    Document – Giant and Bull Kelp Commercial and Sport
      17.55 square mile kelp canopy in central California was    Fishing Regulations - Section 30 and 165, Title 14, Califor-
      bull kelp. However, since that survey there has not been   nia Code of Regulations. March 2001.
      an effort to estimate the proportion of bull kelp in the
                                     Estes, J.A. and D.O. Duggins. 1995. Sea otters and kelp
      area. In this region, bull kelp is generally restricted to
                                     forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community
      areas unsuitable for giant kelp and the outer edges of
                                     ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65(1):75-100.
      giant kelp beds and inshore of Macrocystis within the
                                     Foreman, R.E. 1984. Studies on Nereocystis growth in Brit-
      surge zone. However, following winter storms with heavy
                                     ish Columbia, Canada. Hydrobiologia 116/117:325–332.
      wave disturbance, bull kelp can become more abundant,
      sometimes replacing giant kelp removed by the storms.     Foster, M.S. and D.R. Schiel. 1985. The ecology of giant
                                     kelp forests in California: a community prole. Biological
      Changes in kelp abundance over time and location are
                                     Report 85(7:2). USFWS. 152 pp.
      evident. For example, during the period from 1975 to
      1982, biomass at Diablo Cove in San Luis Obispo County    Nicholson, N.L. 1970. Field studies of the giant kelp Nereo-
      declined from 200 tons per acre to 4.8 tons per acre. At   cystis. Journal of Phycology 6:177-182.
      Van Damme Bay in Mendocino County, a density of six tons
                                     Vadas, R.L. 1972. Ecological implications of culture studies
      per acre was calculated in July 1990. Peak abundances in
                                     on Nereocystis luetkeana. J. Phycol. 8:196–203.
      the Crescent City area ranged from 24 to 28 tons per acre
      during the period from 1994 to 1996.
      Researchers reported that the Fort Bragg, Mendocino
      County area kelp beds appeared to increase in size and
      density between 1985 and 1988 based on aerial photo-
      graphic surveys of the area. The Nereocystis beds were
      thought to have reached maximum potential during this
      period. The increase was coincident with the removal of
      over 32,500 tons of red sea urchins from Mendocino and
      Sonoma Counties by commercial divers. In 1992, the same
      beds showed delayed and reduced kelp recruitment and
      growth. The causes of the poor recruitment in 1992 may
      have been associated with the El Niño event of that year.
      These examples illustrate the kind of uctuations that
      occur in the recruitment of bull kelp along the north coast
      and the factors that may play a role in the variability of
      this resource.




        California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December 2001
284
Sea Palm
Status of Biological Knowledge




                                                          Sea Palm
T  he sea palm, Postelsia palmaeformis, is a brown alga
   rst described by Franz Joseph Ruprecht in 1852 from
specimens collected near Bodega Bay, California. It is
locally abundant in the upper to mid-tidal zones from
Vancouver Island, British Columbia to Morro Bay, California
but is restricted to rocks exposed to heavy surf. Although
it is illegal to harvest this attractive kelp, some people
collect it for souvenirs or to eat its tender blades.
Postelsia is an annual kelp, thriving in dense aggregations
where its dispersal and recruitment are local and
inuenced by seasonal disturbance. Several studies
have documented sea palm’s relationship to its unique
habitat — its tolerance of and dependence on heavy surf
and its common association with the California mussel.



Status of the Beds

A  lthough individuals can regenerate blades, they
   cannot survive if they are cut near the base of the
stipe. All of these characteristics (restricted habitat, short
life span, local dispersal, and limited powers of regenera-
tion) signify a species that cannot tolerate heavy harvest-
ing pressure. Although many stands of Postelsia are dif-
cult to access, others are in or adjacent to recreational
areas where they are at risk from human disturbance.
Education of the public is the best defense for the conser-
vation of this charismatic and ecologically interesting alga.


Kathy Ann Miller
University of Southern California



References
Blanchette, C. 1996. Seasonal patterns of disturbance
inuence recruitment of the sea palm, Postelsia palmae-
formis. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 197: 1-14.
Dayton, P. 1973. Dispersion, dispersal, and persistance of
the annual intertidal alga, Postelsia palmaeformis Rupre-
cht. Ecology 54: 433-438.
Holbrook, M., M. Denny, & M. Koehl. 1991. Intertidal
“trees”: consequences of aggregation on the mechanical
and photosynthetic properties of sea-palms. J. Exp. Mar.
Biol. Ecol. 146: 39-67.
Kalvass, P. 1994. The effect of different harvest methods
on sea palm sporophyll growth. Calif. Fish and Game
80: 57-67 Paine, R. 1988. Habitat suitability and local
                                                 Sea Palm,
population persistence of the sea palm, Postelsia pal-                     Postelsia
maeformis. Ecology 69:1787-1794.                                palmaeformis
                                                 Credit: CA Sea
                                                 Grant Extension


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                         A Status Report            285
   Agarophytes and
   Carrageenophytes                        Agars of lesser quality are extracted from Gracilaria and
                                   Hypnea species.
                                   The lower quality, and less expensive, types of agar are
    History of Use and Harvest                  used for their gelling and water barrier properties in food
                                   products (frozen foods, bakery icings, meringues, dessert
    A  gar is a Malay word for the gel, (which is now known
                                   gels, candies and fruit juices). As a gelling agent in foods,
      to be a carrageenan) that is part of the cell wall of
                                   agar is used at greater than one per cent concentration.
    seaweeds in red algal genus Eucheuma. Its discovery is
                                   For viscosity control and stabilization, lower levels (0.2-0.8
    preserved in a folk legend that originated about 1660. A
                                   percent) are used. Agar is not assimilated by the human
    Japanese emperor and his Royal Party were lost in the
                                   digestive system and, in fact, serves as a laxative. Indus-
    mountains during a snowstorm and arriving at a small
                                   trial applications are paper sizing/coating, adhesives, tex-
    inn they were ceremoniously treated by the innkeeper,
                                   tile printing/dyeing, castings, impressions, etc. The mid-
    who offered them a seaweed-jelly dish with their dinner.
                                   quality agars are used as the gel substrate in biological
    Perhaps the innkeeper prepared too much jelly or the
                                   culture media. Most agar media are made at a 1.0-1.5 per-
    taste was not attractive; in any case, some jelly was
                                   cent concentration in water, melt above 185°F and gel at
    thrown away. It froze during the night and, after thawing
                                   105°F. They are also important in medical/pharmaceutical
    and draining, was reduced to a thin, papery substance.
                                   elds as bulking agents, laxatives, suppositories,
    The innkeeper took the residue and, to his surprise, found
                                   capsules, tablets and anticoagulants. The most highly
    that by boiling it up with more water, the jelly could
                                   puried and upper market types (the neutral fractions
    be reconstituted.
                                   called agarose) are used in molecular biology for sep-
    In 1881, the German microbiologist Dr. Robert Koch, rst   aration sciences (electrophoresis, immunodiffusion and
    established the use of agar in preparing solid culture    gel chromatography).
    media for bacteriological research. By 1903, there were
                                   Carrageenans are extracted from members of the red
    500 factories manufacturing agar in Japan. The California
                                   algal families Hypneaceae, Phyllophoraceae, Solieriaceae,
    agar industry was developed initially by Dr. Matsuoka
                                   and Gigartinaceae. Chondrus crispus used to be the sole
    in 1921 with U.S. patents for extraction and processing.
                                   source of carrageenan, but species of Gymnogongrus,
    Horace Selby (the founder of American Agar and Chemical)
                                   Eucheuma, Ahnfeltia and Iridaea are now used. The
    and C.K. Tseng rened methods prior to and during World
                                   market for carrageenan has grown by at least ve percent
    War II, when agar was not available from Japan.
                                   per year for the last 25 years. About 25,000 tons of
    Carrageenan, another gel, was originally derived from the   carrageenan, valued at $200 million, are produced world-
    red alga, Chondrus crispus (Irish Moss), and has a 600    wide. Eucheuma and Kappaphycus are important carra-
    year folk history in Ireland that includes milk puddings   geenan weeds in Hawaii, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malay-
    thickened by boiling sweetened milk with dried Chondrus.   sia, China and Thailand. In 1996, the Philippines exported
    The word carrageenan is derived from the colloquial Irish   $94 million worth of carrageenan from farm raised and
    name for this seaweed, carrageen, or carraigín; “little    natural stands of Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma spino-
    rock” (from the Irish place name, probably Carrigeen Head   sum. Another principal source is natural populations of
    in County Donegal). Since the 1940s, the best-known use    Chondrus crispus in the Maritime Provinces of Canada,
    of carrageenan has been in products such as chocolate     where about 50,000 wet tons are harvested each year.
    milk and ice cream, but they are also important in other
                                   Carrageenans are far more widely used than agar as
    industrial applications.
                                   emulsiers/stabilizers in numerous foods, especially milk-
    About 10,000 tons of agar, valued at $200 million, are    based products. It is estimated that the average human
    produced worldwide from species in the red algal families   consumption of carrageenans in the United States is 250
    Gelidiaceae and Gracilariaceae. There is currently a short-  milligrams (0.01 ounce) a day. Kappa, iota and lambda
    age of exploitable populations of agar-producing sea-     carrageenans differ in gelling and milk reactivity and are
    weeds; consequently, agar is an expensive product. The    the three most widely used types in commercial products.
    best quality agar is extracted from species in the genera   Kappa carrageenan (extracted chiey from Chondrus cris-
    Pterocladia and Gelidium, which are harvested by hand     pus and Eucheuma cottonii) forms a rm, brittle gel and
    from natural stands in Spain, Portugal, Morocco, the     iota (extracted chiey from Eucheuma spinosum) yields
    Azores, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Chile,   a exible and dry gel. Lambda carrageenan (extracted
    Korea and Japan. For Pterocladia species, agar quality    chiey from Chondrus crispus and Gigartina species) does
    is low in the colder months and high in the summer.      not gel. Blending of these in different ratios produces
                                   different products. Kappa and iota carrageenans are espe-
                                   cially important for use in milk products such as chocolate



      California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                       December 2001
286
milk, ice cream, evaporated milk, infant formulas, pud-     export of rened agar. Gelidium robustum is very slow




                                                               Agarophytes and Carrageenophytes
dings, whipped cream toppings and eggnog, because of      growing in nature and even slower in mariculture, thus
their thickening and suspension properties. For these      making it unlikely as a major resource. Several other spe-
uses, concentrations range from about 0.01 to 0.2 percent.   cies, including G. coulteri, show much faster growth in
For water-based food products (jellies, jams, salad dress-   nature and in tank culture, providing an acceptable quality
ings, syrups, dessert gels, meat products and pet foods),    agar. Unfortunately, the cost of these culture systems in
carrageenan concentrations are somewhat higher (0.2-0.5     California is too high for competition with either wild
percent). Industrial products incorporating carrageenans    stock harvest or cultivation in other countries. Gracilaria
are air freshener gels, cleaners, etc. Pharmaceutical and    and Gracilariopsis species in California and elsewhere
medical applications are similar to those of agar.       offer considerable potential, because of their fast growth
                                and yield of agar. Several species are extensively culti-
                                vated in Chile, China and Thailand, for example, contribut-
Status of Biological Knowledge                 ing 50 percent of worldwide agar production; several
                                countries (e.g., South Africa and New Zealand) are study-
Agar and carrageenan are phycocolloids derived from
                                ing the possibility of mariculture. The best candidate for
galactan polysaccharides, the major polysaccharide con-
                                large-scale culture in California is Gracilariopsis lemane-
stituents of the cell walls of most marine red algae. The
                                formis. Although extensively cultivated in open bays of
types and quantity vary from species to species; this is an
                                other countries, it is unlikely that such cultivation could
important character in biosystematics. The amount pres-
                                occur in California, because of government restrictions.
ent also varies with ecological factors such as light, nutri-

                                T  he carrageenan weeds common in California are mem-
ents, wave exposure, and temperature. Polysaccharides
                                  bers of the genera Mazzaella, Mastocarpus, Rhodoglos-
have an important role in the biology of these algae,
                                sum and Sarcodiotheca. Several California species can be
including protection from wave action, physical support of
                                grown successfully in mariculture, but the low value of
cells, ion exchange, water binding for protection from des-
                                carrageenan makes both wild harvest and culture eco-
iccation. The galactans have a common backbone which
                                nomically unrealistic. Compared to agars, carrageenans
consists of galactose units linked alternately by ∂(1-3)
                                generally are more plentiful and less costly, because the
and ß(1-4). The alpha (∂) unit is linked to either D- or
                                carrageenan weeds are widely available from harvest of
L-galactose whereas the beta (ß) unit is always linked to
                                wild stocks and extensive cultivated stocks in Canada
D-galactose. In agar the ∂-linkages are all with L-galactose
                                and the tropics. Genetic manipulation and cell culture
and in carrageenan they are all with D-galactose. (For pic-
                                of Chondrus crispus are being explored to produce novel
tures of these structures, see www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/
                                carrageenans to stimulate the possibility of mariculture on
biologie/b_online/e26/26d.htm) The chemistry of these
                                the East Coast of the United States.
polymers is complex.


                                John West
Status of the Beds                       University of California, Berkeley


T  here are many genera of red algae in California that    Revised by:
   yield agars and carrageenans. The most common and     Kathy Ann Miller
abundant agar weeds in California are species in the      University of Southern California
genera Gelidium and Pterocladia (family Gelidiaceae) and
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis (family Gracilariaceae). Of
                                References
the six species of Gelidium in California, only G. robustum
is available in sufcient wild stocks to warrant limited
                                Abbott, I.A. & G.J. Hollenberg. 1976. Marine Algae of
harvest for agar production. Before and during World War
                                California. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
II and until American Agar and Chemical Company in San
                                Craigie, J.S. 1990. Cell Walls. In K.M. Cole & R.G. Sheath
Diego closed in about 1986, G. robustum was collected
                                (eds.) Biology of the Red Algae, pp. 221-257. Cambridge
by divers along the southern California coast. Resource
                                University Press. New York.
management of wild stock of G. robustum was investi-
gated carefully to establish control of season, amount and   Lewis, J.G., N.F. Stanley & G.G. Guist. 1988. Commercial
method of harvesting, but it proved difcult to enforce     production and application of algal hydrocolloids. In C.A.
regulations. Today, there is no harvest of wild stocks for   Lembi & J.R. Waaland (eds.) Algae and human affairs. pp.
commercial agar production in California, but wild stocks    205-236. Cambridge University Press. New York.
are still harvested in Baja California, Mexico, by local
sherman for processing in Ensenada and a subsequent


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                 287
                     Commercial Landings -
                     Nearshore Plants
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Plants




                                                   Kelp1
                          Kelp1                Year     Tons
                     Year   Tons
                                            1980   147,636
                     1916  134,537                 1981   73,064
                     1917  394,974                 1982   86,503
                     1918  395,098                 1983    5,271
                     1919   16,673                1984   46,479
                     1920  25,464                 1985   87,300
                     1921    ----                1986   56,832
                     1922    ----                1987   93,264
                     1923    ----                1988   90,615
                     1924    ----                1989   132,761
                     1925    ----                1990   151,439
                     1926    ----                1991   127,505
                     1927    ----                1992   91,247
                     1928    ----                1993   92,940
                     1929    ----                1994   81,006
                     1930    ----                1995   77,753
                     1931    260                1996   78,461
                     1932   10,315                1997   73,165
                     1933   21,622                1998   25,313
                     1934   15,880                1999   42,211
                     1935  30,602
                     1936   49,317                - - - - Landings data not available
                     1937   43,954
                                            1
                     1938   47,697                  Kelp landings consist primarily of giant kelp.
                     1939  56,736
                     1940   59,004
                     1941   55,717
                     1942   61,898
                     1943   47,958
                     1944  53,030
                     1945   59,181
                     1946   91,069
                     1947   74,237
                     1948   78,641
                     1949  83,346
                     1950  100,602
                     1951  114,760
                     1952  110,158
                     1953  126,649
                     1954  106,215
                     1955  124,063
                     1956  117,815
                     1957  94,207
                     1958  114,062
                     1959   89,599
                     1960  120,300
                     1961  129,256
                     1962  140,233
                     1963  121,032
                     1964  127,254
                     1965  135,129
                     1966  119,464
                     1967  131,495
                     1968  134,853
                     1969  131,239
                     1970  127,039
                     1971  155,559
                     1972  162,511
                     1973  153,080
                     1974  170,181
                     1975  171,597
                     1976  158,371
                     1977  130,597
                     1978  169,029
                     1979  171,020



                        California’s Living Marine Resources:    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                December 2001
 288
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       289
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
290
California’s Offshore
Ecosystem                           marine species like sardines and rocksh for several gen-




                                                               California’s Offshore Ecosystem
                                erations and result in substantial changes in abundance


F
                                over time.
   ar from the coast, California’s offshore ecosystem con-
   sists of the open ocean environments over the deeper   The offshore ecosystem is home to groundsh species
parts of the continental shelf, the continental slope,    (shelf and slope rocksh, atsh, sablesh, and Pacic
and ocean basins. This ecosystem is most often character-   whiting); coastal pelagic species (sardines, anchovy,
ized by a deep luminous blue color, due to scattered     mackerel, and squid); salmon during the ocean phase of
light encountering fewer particles and dissolved sub-     their life-cycle; highly migratory species (tuna, billshes,
stances than are found in rich coastal waters, where sus-   and pelagic sharks); marine mammals (such as whales
pended sediment, marine organisms, and other material     and dolphins), pelagic seabirds (including albatross and
can absorb light and cause greenish or brownish colors.    shearwaters); phytoplankton; and zooplankton (including
                                euphausids, copepods, salps, and occasionally red crabs).
California’s offshore waters are dominated by the Califor-
                                These species respond to the environmental variability in
nia Current, a relatively shallow, broad (approximately
                                the California Current in different ways. The abundance
300 km), and slow moving current. This current generally
                                and landings of coastal pelagic sh stocks such as sardines
moves from north to south along the West Coast of North
                                vary considerably due to environmental uctuations, par-
America, transporting cooler water toward the equator.
                                ticularly temperature. Such highly fecund and fast growing
Along our state, the California Current hugs the coast
                                species undertake extensive migrations as far north as
north of Point Conception during most of the year, except
                                British Columbia, when their population is large, to feed
in winter when southeast winds force it farther offshore,
                                in upwelling areas and they tend to concentrate spawning
producing the Davidson Current that ows north near the
                                in areas like the Southern California Bight, perhaps to help
coast. In some years, this counter current is stronger than
                                retain larvae in coastal habitats where they are less likely
normal and is forced as far north as British Columbia,
                                to be swept offshore by the strong offshore transport con-
Canada. South of Point Conception, in the Southern Cali-
                                ditions of major upwelling centers. Highly migratory spe-
fornia Bight, the coast bends sharply to the east. There
                                cies like albacore make long trans-Pacic migrations and
the California Current breaks away from the coast and
                                actively seek productive areas and avoid unfavorable con-
ows offshore along the continental edge until it
                                ditions. Long-lived, slow growing and moderately fecund
swings back toward the mainland south of San Diego.
                                species such as rocksh persist by maintaining many
In the Southern California Bight, the usual surface
                                reproductive age classes through periods of unfavorable
ow, called the California Countercurrent, moves north
                                environmental conditions.
along the coast resulting in a counterclockwise gyre
that mixes offshore and nearshore surface waters off     The most signicant challenge to effective management of
southern California.                     sheries for these species is the lack of understanding of
                                the interactions among environmental variability, recruit-
Off California, prevailing winds, most often from the north
                                ment uctuations, and shing pressure. The current man-
or northwest, blow surface waters away from the coast
                                agement strategy for sardines, a species that has recov-
and nutrient laden subsurface waters are drawn up to
                                ered over the last 20 years from extraordinarily low levels
replace them in a process called upwelling. California
                                in the 1950s through the 1970s, now takes temperature
is in one of the major coastal upwelling regions of the
                                into account because of its effect on sardine productivity.
world, with the most intense upwelling occurring during
                                In the last two years, seven species of groundsh have
the summer near Cape Medocino in northern California.
                                been designated as overshed and will require many years
Productivity of marine plants is high along coasts with
                                and special management efforts to recover. In retrospect,
these features, and some of the largest sh populations
                                this occurred primarily as a result of our poor understand-
are associated with productive coastal upwelling systems.
                                ing of the relatively low productivity of these species,
Although the offshore environment is generally less vari-
                                particularly low recruitment for many of these species
able than nearshore and estuarine ecosystems, the Cali-
                                over the last three decades, and resulting harvest levels
fornia Current is a dynamic system with considerable
                                that were inadvertently set too high.
inter-annual variation. Relatively short-term, dramatic
                                Populations of many sh species in the offshore ecosystem
events like El Niño (warmer water) and La Niña (cooler
                                extend along the entire or a major portion of the west
water) cause larger temperature changes, variation in
                                coast, and so their sheries cross state and sometimes
productivity, and occurrences of organisms beyond their
                                national boundaries. To ensure coordination and more
usual ranges. Long-term temperature regimes, periods
                                effective coast-wide management, coastal pelagic spe-
of slightly warmer or cooler conditions that persist for
                                cies, groundsh, highly migratory species, and ocean
decades, can affect reproduction and recruitment of
                                salmon are regulated by the Pacic Fishery Management



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  291
                 Council, a regional body of states (California, Oregon,
California’s Offshore Ecosystem



                 Washington, and Idaho), tribal representatives, and fed-
                 eral agencies that has authority for West Coast sheries in
                 offshore waters. For those species we share with Mexico
                 (coastal pelagic species and some highly migratory spe-
                 cies), no formal bilateral management agreement exists.


                 Patricia Wolf
                 California Department of Fish and Game




                   California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                         A Status Report                       December 2001
292
Coastal Pelagic
Species: Overview                         late 1940s. Biomass estimates for market squid are dif-




                                                                Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview
                                 cult, if not impossible, to obtain using normal assess-
                                 ment methods, and future management of the squid

C  oastal pelagic resources are small to medium sized,     resource will likely depend upon real-time estimates of
   schooling species, that migrate in coastal waters often   spawning escapement.
near the ocean surface. California’s major coastal pelagic
                                 CPS management has varied widely and prior to the 1970s,
species include Pacic sardine (Sardinops sagax), Pacic
                                 management was minimal. When sardine and Pacic mack-
mackerel (Scomber japonicus), jack mackerel (Trachurus
                                 erel biomasses were declining (in the mid-1960s), the
symmetricus), northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), and
                                 commercial shing industry proposed an anchovy reduc-
market squid (Loligo opalescens). Coastal pelagic species
                                 tion shery. By the late 1960s, this reduction shery was
(CPS) collectively comprise one of the largest marine
                                 authorized by the California Fish and Game Commission,
sheries in California with respect to biomass, landed
                                 complete with quota, season, area, and size restrictions.
volume, and revenue. Historically, commercial utilization
                                 Legislation followed in the early 1970s that established
of each species in this group has, for varying periods
                                 moratoria on the commercial take of Pacic mackerel
of time, been primarily canning for human consumption.
                                 and sardines. The resurgence of Pacic mackerel, and the
Much of the CPS catch is now frozen for bait or export,
                                 transition to federal management (Pacic Fishery Manage-
but some is still canned for human consumption.
                                 ment Council) for anchovy in 1978, were accompanied by
One characteristic common to coastal pelagic species       strict management regimes that included requirements for
is the highly dynamic nature of their populations with      annual quotas and assessments of anchovy biomass.
respect to movement, biomass, and availability to the
                                 Pacic sardine showed early signs of an abundance resur-
shery. “Boom or bust” population cycles of coastal
                                 gence in the early 1980s, and by the mid-1980s the State
pelagic stocks have been attributed to a number of
                                 of California managed this species as required by Fish
key factors, including relatively short life-cycles, variable
                                 and Game Code with biomass assessments and annual
recruitment, and annual and longer-cycle variation in
                                 quotas. In 1998, the sardine population was declared fully
optimal habitats for spawning, larval survival, recruit-
                                 recovered, with sh once again extending from British
ment, and feeding. Large natural uctuations in coastal
                                 Columbia to the Gulf of California, Mexico. With the
pelagic species abundance have been accentuated in the
                                 coast-wide sardine expansion, the State of California rec-
past by human inuence, as exemplied by the Pacic sar-
                                 ognized that it no longer had sufcient resources to effec-
dine during the 1940s and 1950s. Although there are many
                                 tively manage the sardine resource alone and petitioned
similarities in the life histories of these sh species, there
                                 the Pacic Fishery Management Council to consider fed-
also are differences. They are all open-ocean, relatively
                                 eral management of CPS. In 1998, the Council approved
near-shore, schooling sh for most of their life-cycles,
                                 Amendment 8 to the Northern Anchovy Fishery Manage-
but jack mackerel occur as far as 600 miles offshore,
                                 ment Plan, to place Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, jack
and sardine spawn as far as 300 miles offshore. Each sh
                                 mackerel, and market squid in the management unit with
species matures at a relatively young age of one to three
                                 northern anchovy. Amendment 8 was approved by the
years; and while jack mackerel live to be 35 years old,
                                 Secretary of Commerce and modied the anchovy plan to
relatively few individuals of the other species attain half
                                 conform to the recently revised Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
this age. Market squid live up to only 10 months and
                                 Conservation and Management Act and changed the name
are an average of only six months old when captured
                                 to the Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan.
during spawning activities. The eggs and larvae of all the
                                 Implemented in January 2000, Amendment 8 requires
species are common in coastal areas, but beyond 200
                                 a limited entry permit to commercially harvest coastal
miles offshore only jack mackerel eggs and larvae are
                                 pelagic nsh species south of Point Arena, California,
commonly encountered in scientic collections. Anchovy,
                                 with open shing access north of this latitude. Species
Pacic mackerel, and sardine are known to migrate sea-
                                 managed under authority of the plan are divided into
sonally along the coast. Jack mackerel migrate away from
                                 two categories, actively managed (initially Pacic sardine
nearshore banks and islands at a relatively young age (four
                                 and Pacic mackerel) and monitored (initially northern
to six years) and, while they range from at least off Baja
                                 anchovy, jack mackerel, and squid). Actively managed
California, Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska, little is known
                                 species require annual determination of harvest limits
about their migratory habits as older adults. Estimates of
                                 based on current biomass estimates. Harvest strategies
biomass date back to the 1930s for sardines and Pacic
                                 for actively managed species account for all west-coast
mackerel, and to the late-1940s for anchovy. While there
                                 CPS catches including Mexico, natural variability in the
are no time series estimates of jack mackerel biomass,
                                 stocks, and the importance of CPS as forage for other
age and length composition data are available since the
                                 sh, marine mammals, and birds. Monitored species are



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                 293
                  not subject to mandated harvest limits based on current
Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview



                  biomass estimates, although other management measures
                  such as area closures may be employed. The State of Cali-
                  fornia is developing its own management plan for market
                  squid, and has already implemented interim measures
                  which prohibit shing on weekends, restrict the design
                  and intensity of lights used as attracting devices, and
                  place a three-year moratorium on new vessels entering
                  the shery.
                  The outlook for CPS and their sheries will depend
                  upon the forces of nature, economics, and the combined
                  wisdom of resource users and managers. Environmental
                  factors have inherent cycles that can affect each resource
                  in short and long time scales. Fishery scientists are just
                  beginning to understand the mechanisms that determine
                  success or failure of coastal pelagic populations. Hope-
                  fully, resource managers will continue to use the growing
                  knowledge base of how these species respond to the
                  environment, implementing harvest policies accounting
                  for this uncertainty. Future utilization of the west coast
                  CPS will depend not only on resource health and avail-
                  ability, but also upon basic economics and events in world
                  export markets. The anchovy shery’s largest historical
                  commercial utilizations were the reduction sheries in
                  California and Baja California. These sheries have ceased
                  to exist, primarily for economic reasons, and yet anchovy
                  abundance remains high enough to allow continued use
                  as live bait for the recreational shing industry and as
                  a fresh-frozen product for human consumption. Pacic
                  mackerel catches sustained the southern California purse
                  seine eet throughout the 1980s, with record average
                  landings; however, recent biomass assessments indicate
                  that the large population increase documented in the
                  late 1970s has not been followed by further highly success-
                  ful recruitment pulses. The decline in availability to the
                  shery of Pacic and jack mackerel through the 1980s lead
                  to rapid expansion of the market squid and sardine sher-
                  ies in southern California during the 1990s. Fish processors
                  freeze signicant portions of the squid and sardine catch
                  for export to Europe, Asia, and Australia where it is
                  utilized for human consumption, bait, or aquaculture feed.


                  Kevin T. Hill and Richard Klingbeil
                  California Department of Fish and Game




                    California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                          A Status Report                       December 2001
294
California
Market Squid                           frozen product begins to accumulate in cold storage facili-




                                                                    California Market Squid
                                 ties. Consequently, there is often less incentive for sher-
                                 men to sh later in the season, and as a result, declines
History of the Fishery                     in landings for springtime months may not just reect a


D
                                 reduction in the availability of squid, but also a lack of
   istinguished by its volatility, success of the California
                                 effort to sh for it. Additionally, many vessels participat-
   market squid (Loligo opalescens) shery uctuates as
                                 ing in summer salmon sheries will return to other ports
a consequence of El Niño conditions and rapid changes in
                                 during spring months.
the export market. With signicant expansion of shing
activity in southern California waters during the 1980s and   California markets also play a role in determining the
1990s, the market squid shery has emerged as one of      composition of the market squid eet. Although there
the most important in the state. During the 1990s, squid    are many California vessels which have historically partici-
ranked as the largest California commercial shery by      pated in the shery that are still active, there is an
volume in six years of the decade and ranked three       increasing proportion of shery participants from Alaska,
times as the state’s most valuable shery resource in      Washington and Oregon, reecting a willingness of the
value of the catch. Among U.S. exports of edible shery     markets to employ these vessels. During peak seasons,
products in 1999, market squid ranked sixth by volume      approximately 75 round haul vessels have produced about
and sixteenth in value, higher than any other California    95 percent of the California squid catch
commercial shery.
                                 Since 1961, the California squid shery has experienced
The vast majority of squid is frozen for human consump-     a major change. Prior to 1961, the shery had been cen-
tion. Much of this is exported to China, Japan and Europe.   tered mainly in the Monterey Bay area, while a much
Other uses include fresh and canned squid for human       smaller shery existed off southern California. Central and
consumption, and fresh or frozen squid for bait. The role    southern California have distinctly different sheries for
of international buyers in the temporal success of the Cali-  market squid. Starting in 1961, the southern California
fornia market squid shery is substantial. After decades of   squid shery began to expand with a dramatic rise in
generally low catches, volume increased during the 1990s    landings in Santa Barbara area ports. Since 1985, the
because of new (primarily Asian and European) markets      southern California shery has dominated statewide land-
and higher prices paid for California squid. However, land-   ings while shing areas have expanded, particularly in the
ings and ex-vessel revenue declined during the 1997-1998    Channel Islands. In recent years 90 percent of landings
El Niño when squid became harder to catch and as over-     have occurred south of Point Conception, in sandy near-
seas markets collapsed due to poor economic conditions     shore areas, when spawning activity is predominantly
in Asia. Currently, there has been some recovery of the     during winter months. Conversely, squid taken in the cen-
Asian market, although demand is affected greatly by      tral California shery, still centered in Monterey Bay, tend
performance of other worldwide sheries, particularly the    to aggregate and spawn during summer months.
Falklands Loligo shery. In 1999 and 2000, California squid
                                 Vessels shing squid target schools that are aggregated in
processors generally limited the daily catch from indi-
                                 shallow water areas (from 50 to 150 feet deep) to spawn.
vidual vessels to 30 tons per load, as supply of California
                                 Unlike other squid sheries worldwide, the California eet
squid could have exceeded international demand.
                                 utilizes two vessels in shing operations; a light vessel is
Although the volume of squid produced by California       used to locate and concentrate a school of squid using
markets is dependent on the international market, the      strong lights to attract squid to the surface. There they
price paid to shermen can inuence both effort exerted     are caught using round haul nets deployed by a second
toward shing operations and overall volume of catch.      vessel. A small fraction of squid sold commercially is
Additionally, price paid to shermen for their catch      caught by light vessels using brail gear. Additionally, a
depends not only on market demand but availability of the    small volume of squid is taken by the live bait industry
resource. When volume of catch is low, the price paid per
ton is high, exceeding $500 per ton during some months
of the 1997-1998 El Niño when squid were scarce. When
volume is high, as in the year 2000, the price is driven
down and has been recorded at $100 per ton paid to some
vessels bringing in full loads. Price paid for squid taken by
brail and for squid purchased in low volumes by smaller
local dealers tends to be signicantly higher. Often times,
the price of sh will start high at the beginning of the
                                 using brail, lampara, or drum seine gear. Squid, Loligo opalescens
                                                California Market
southern California season in November and decline as
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                    295
California Market Squid



                                           250




                             millions of pounds landed
                                           200


                                Market Squid     150


                                           100
               Commercial Landings
                                           50
             1916-1999, Market Squid
                Data Source: DFG Catch
               Bulletins and commercial                  0
                                              1916 1920     1930      1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990  1999
                   landing receipts.




              While attracting lights have been used in the southern                          tion on vessels shing commercially for squid, limiting
              California shery for many years, in the central California                       both light boats and round haul vessels shing squid to a
              shery a regulation was enacted which prohibited their                          maximum of 30,000 watts. Additionally, the Commission
              use between 1959 and 1988. Fishermen sponsored the ban                          required these vessels to shield their lights to prevent
              for protection from dealers who used lights in conjunction                        emission of light onto shore.
              with dip nets on their piers and on oating unloading                          Starting in 1989, shermen were allowed to use all types
              platforms. In this manner, they had effectively eliminated                        of round haul gear (purse seine, drum seine, etc.) in
              the need for many shing boats. Some shermen also                            the southern bight of Monterey Bay, which previously had
              believed that attracting lights disrupted squid spawning                         been restricted to lampara nets for squid. By the end of
              activity, but no studies to date have addressed that issue.                       1990, nearly the entire eet had switched over to purse
              In 1988, shermen were allowed to use attracting lights in                        seine or drum seine gear and the use of lampara nets had
              the Monterey Bay area, except in the southern portion of                         virtually ceased in Monterey Bay.
              the bay. The following year, attracting lights were permit-
                                                                  The market squid shery was an unregulated, open access
              ted throughout the area.
                                                                  shery prior to April 1, 1998. In order to assure sustain-
              In 1999, the National Park Service brought to the atten-                         ability of the resource, new legislation placed a three-
              tion of the Department of Fish and Game an apparent                           year moratorium on the number of vessels in the shery.
              increase in nest abandonment and chick predation among                          This legislation required the purchase of a $2,500 per
              shorebirds at the Channel Islands. The park service ques-                        year permit for three years to land more than two short
              tioned whether the abundance of vessels lighting for squid                        tons per trip or to attract squid by light for commercial
              near these islands during the nesting season in 1999 could                        harvest. In addition, participants must have purchased a
              be responsible. As an interim measure, the California Fish                        permit the previous year. For the 2000-2001 squid shing
              and Game Commission placed a statewide wattage restric-                         season (April 1 to March 31), 197 market squid vessel
                                                                  permits and 50 light boat permits were sold, down from
                                                                  originally 248 vessel permits and 54 light boat permits
                                                                  sold during the rst season of the moratorium. The sale
                                                                  of market squid permits provided funds for scientic
                                                                  research and biological assessments of the resource for
                                                                  development of recommendations for a market squid con-
                                                                  servation and management plan.
                                                                  The same legislation provides for two committees, the
                                                                  Squid Fishery Advisory Committee and the Squid Research
                                                                  and Scientic Committee, established in 1998. These advi-
                                                                  sory groups serve to provide recommendations to the
                                                                  Director on squid research and monitoring, as well as
                                                                  to provide management recommendations for the shery.
                                                                  In addition to the lighting restrictions, management mea-
                                                       Squid under lights
                                                                  sures recommended by either of the committees and
                                                  Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG


                 California’s Living Marine Resources:                               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                                           December 2001
296
approved by the Fish and Game Commission during 1999     surveys for relative abundance estimates; 3) culturing




                                                                    California Market Squid
included mandatory logbooks for squid vessels and light   eggs and paralarvae to determine lowest viable tempera-
boats and statewide weekend closures for the shery to    ture to resolve spawning range constraints; and 4) analysis
allow for uninterrupted spawning activity.          of satellite data to track growth of the market squid
                               shery since 1992. Preliminary port sample data indicate
                               that the average squid taken in the commercial shery has
Status of Biological Knowledge                a length of 5.2 inches and is approximately 185 days old.


T  he California market squid (Loligo opalescens) ranges
                               Status of the Population
  from southeastern Alaska to Bahia Asunción, Baja
California, Mexico. This pelagic mollusk attains a length

                               L
of 12 inches, including its eight arms and two feeding      ittle is known about the present size, structure or
tentacles. Several other squid species occur off the Cal-    status of the population, but historical evidence from
ifornia coast, but these are normally associated with    research cruises, as well as recent catch data, indicate the
deeper offshore waters.                   biomass is large. The California eet shes only spawning
                               populations and in limited geographic areas, mostly in
Spawning market squid tend to congregate in semi-pro-
                               central and southern California. Other shable concentra-
tected bays, usually over a sand bottom with rocky out-
                               tions of squid have been found occasionally along the
croppings. Mass spawning starts around April in central
                               coast from central California to British Columbia and
California waters and ends about November. In southern
                               southeastern Alaska, and short-term sheries sometimes
California waters, mass spawning starts around October
                               have developed in these areas.
and ends about April or May. During some years, however,
squid spawning, and landings, may occur throughout most   Historically, the squid resource was considered by some
of the year.                         to be underutilized; recently demand has sometimes
                               exceeded the catch. Until more objective estimates
During spawning activity, the male transfers a bundle of
                               of abundance are available, the true status of the popula-
spermatophores with a specialized left ventral arm into
                               tion will remain unknown. Past work, and work else-
the female’s mantle cavity near the oviduct. The eggs
                               where, has included acoustic surveys and various collec-
are laid within elongated, cigar-shaped capsules, each of
                               tion techniques. Acoustical assessment of squid has been
which may contain as many as 300 eggs embedded in
                               attempted off the central Oregon coast. However, with
a gelatinous matrix. Each female produces from 20 to
                               the scientic research program initiated in 1998, efforts
30 egg capsules, attaching one end of each capsule to
                               to model the population began which may eventually give
the sea oor or other suitable site. Females are visually
                               rise to thorough and detailed stock assessments similar
stimulated to lay their eggs by the presence of other egg
                               to those undertaken for other coastal pelagic species.
masses, resulting in egg capsule clusters covering vast
                               It is hoped the preliminary modeling work, shery-inde-
areas, appearing to carpet the sandy substrate. Small
                               pendent surveys and information from scientic research
red polychaete worms have been observed boring in the
                               will allow for development of an effective management
capsules’ gelatinous substance, but apparently do not feed
                               strategy for the resource by the year 2002.
on the developing embryos. Bat stars and sea urchins,
however, prey upon the eggs.
Depending on the ambient water temperature, squid eggs
hatch in two to ve weeks, with newly hatched paralarvae
already resembling miniature adults. Squid feed predomi-
nantly on euphausiids and copepods, as well as other
small crustaceans, gastropods, polychaete worms, small
shes and smaller squid. Squid are an important prey item
for many shes, birds and marine mammals, and studies
indicate the market squid plays an important role in the
food web of many organisms along California’s coast.
Since 1998, research objectives being conducted by the
department for market squid include: 1) collecting shery
and biological data through port sampling efforts; 2)
conducting shery independent surveys (i) utilizing a
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to characterize spawning
habitats and measure egg density and (ii) midwater trawl                   Hauling a lampara net in Monterey Bay
                                                      Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                           A Status Report                      297
             The market squid shery is often subject to extreme uc-
California Market Squid



             tuations in availability due to El Niño events or other envi-
             ronmental conditions, and demand is largely dependent
             on international market forces. However, as typically seen
             in short-lived, highly fecund animals, the squid population
             seems to have the ability to recover fully in a relatively
             short period of time. Consequently, squid can probably be
             more intensively harvested than longer-lived marine sh.


             Marci Yaremko
             California Department of Fish and Game



             References
             CalCOFI Rep. Vol. 39, 1998. Symposium of the CalCOFI
             Conference, 1997. Market Squid: What we know and what
             we need to know for effective management. 240 pp.
             Cailliet, G.M. and D.L. Vaughan. 1983. A review of
             the methods and problems of quantitative assessment
             of Loligo opalescens. Biological Oceanography 2:2-3-4
             (379-400).
             Fields, W.G. 1965. The structure, development, food rela-
             tions, and life history of the squid Loligo opalescens Berry.
             Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 131. 108 p.
             Kato, S. and J.E. Hardwick. 1975. The California squid
             shery.Pages 107-127 in Expert consultation on shing for
                                                        Packing squid in the Monterey Bay area
             squid. FAO Fish. Rep. 170, Suppl. 1.
                                                              Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
             Recksiek, C.W. and H.W. Frey. (eds.) 1978. Biological,
             oceanographic, and acoustic aspects of the market squid,
             Loligo opalescens Berry. Calif. Dept. Fish. and Game, Fish
             Bull. 169. 185 p.




               California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                        December 2001
298
Pacific Sardine
History of the Fishery                     Most sardines from this source were canned for pet food,




                                                                     Pacific Sardine
                                with a lesser amount canned for human consumption. A

A  sustained shery for Pacic sardines (Sardinops sagax)   small directed shery for sardines limited to 1,000 tons
   rst developed in response to the demand for food     per year was permitted annually 1986 through 1990. The
during World War I. Demand grew, and shing effort and     quota (excluding bait sheries) was increased to 8,150
landings increased from 1916 to 1936, when the catch      tons in 1991.
peaked at over 700,000 tons. Pacic sardine supported     At the present time, sardines landed in the directed sher-
the largest shery in the Western Hemisphere during the    ies in southern and central California are primarily pro-
1930s and 1940s, with landings occurring in British Colum-   cessed for human consumption (fresh or canned), pet
bia, Washington, Oregon, and California. The shery col-    food, or export. The majority of frozen exports are used
lapsed beginning in the late 1940s and declined, with     as animal feed in Australian bluen tuna aquaculture facil-
short-term reversals, to less than 1,000 tons-per-year in   ities. Small quantities are harvested for dead bait and
the late 1960s. There was a southward shift in the catch    live bait. With the exception of 1,217 tons reported in the
as the shery decreased, with landings ceasing in the     PacFIN database for 1996, no reduction of sardines, other
northwest in the 1947-1948 season and in San Francisco in   than waste produced from other processing operations, is
1951-1952. Through the 1945-1946 season, most California    taking place in California. Total annual landings of sardines
landings were at Monterey and San Francisco, but San      have increased, from less than 100 tons in the 1970s, to
Pedro accounted for most subsequent landings.         an average of 13,400 tons per year through the 1980s,
Sardines were used primarily for reduction to shmeal     and 30,400 tons per year through the 1990s. Total sardine
and oil, and canned for human consumption, with small     landings in California in 1999 were 62,600 tons.
quantities taken for live bait. Although most sh landed    Landings of sardines in Mexico increased from an annual
north of California were reduced, California processors    average of 1,600 tons during the 1980s, to an average
began as canners, and expanded to reduction as a lucra-    of nearly 42,000 tons per year through the 1990s. The
tive supplement. Reduction was often more protable,      total and average annual harvests by Mexico exceeded
and for many years reduction tonnage exceeded tonnage     those for California over the period 1980 through 1999.
canned. An extremely lucrative dead bait market for sar-    Mexican landings of Pacic sardines, mackerels and her-
dines developed in central California in the 1960s, and    rings, are primarily used for reduction into shmeal, with
was primarily responsible for continued shing on the     approximately 20 percent used for human consumption.
depleted resource.
                                A federal shery management plan (FMP) for coastal
Prior to 1967, management of the sardine resource in      pelagic species in U.S. waters off the West Coast, includ-
California was mostly limited to: 1) control of tonnage of   ing sardines, was implemented by the Pacic Fishery Man-
whole sh used for reduction; 2) case pack requirements    agement Council (PFMC) in January 2000, which trans-
(specied number of cases of canned sh per ton of whole    ferred management authority from the California Depart-
sh); and 3) restriction of the shing season. The rst two  ment of Fish and Game (DFG) to the National Marine
controls were intended to lower the quantity of sardines    Fisheries Service (NMFS) through the PFMC. To calculate
used for reduction, since this was regarded as a less desir-  the 2000 harvest guideline, a formula selected by the
able use and demand for reduction products was high.      PFMC in the federal management plan was used. Based on
The third control was designed to limit canning to periods   the 1999 estimate of total biomass, the 2000 sardine sh-
when sardines were in prime condition and to improve the    ery opened January 1, with a harvest guideline of 205,902
market for canned products. The total catch, however,
was not regulated. From 1967 to 1973, California landings
of sardines were limited to an incidental take of 15 per-
cent sardines by weight mixed with other sh. Liberal
provisions for use of incidental catch, and later a 250-ton
dead bait quota still supplied the demand for bait. In 1974,
a moratorium on shing sardines was established, which
restricted landings to the 15 percent incidental limit and
eliminated the use of sardines for dead bait. This legisla-
tion also established the state’s intent to rehabilitate the
resource. Through 1981, sardine landings were less than
50 tons per year.
In the early 1980s, sardines were taken incidentally in
                                                   Pacific Sardine, Sardinops sagax
the southern California Pacic and jack mackerel shery.
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     299
Pacific Sardine



                                         1.6
                                         1.4



                           billions of pounds landed
                                         1.2
                              Pacific Sardine    1.0
                                         0.8
             Commercial Landings
                                         0.6
         1916-1999, Pacific Sardine
             Data Source: DFG Catch
                                         0.4
         Bulletins and commercial land-
                                         0.2
          ing receipts. Data includes sar-
         dines caught for reduction fish-                0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
           ery between 1916 and 1969.




           tons for the California shery, a 65 percent increase over                  Historically, the northern subpopulation of sardines made
           the 1999 DFG quota.                                     extensive migrations, moving north as far as British
                                                         Columbia in the summer months and returning south to
           The price of sardines landed incidentally with mackerel
                                                         southern California and northern Baja California in the
           decreased from about $190 per ton in the mid-1980s to
                                                         fall. Northward movement was greater with increased age.
           about $150 per ton in 1991. The price for sardines landed
                                                         The migration was complex, and the timing and extent
           in the directed shery and canned for human consumption
                                                         of movement were affected to some degree by oceano-
           ranged from $80 to $100 per ton in the late 1990s. Only
                                                         graphic conditions. At present, the population is currently
           limited markets exist for canned products currently being
                                                         expanding, found primarily off central and southern Cali-
           produced. It remains to be seen whether new markets
                                                         fornia and Baja California, but extends as far north as
           will develop to utilize the fully recovered population of
                                                         Vancouver, British Columbia. Contraction and expansion
           Pacic sardines.
                                                         of range and spawning area has been associated with
                                                         changes in sardine population size around the world.
           Status of Biological Knowledge                                Estimates of sardine abundance from AD 280 to 1970
                                                         have been derived from the deposition of sh scales in

           S ardines are small pelagic sh and members of the her-
                                                         sediment cores from the Santa Barbara basin. Signicant
            ring family, Clupeidae. The genus Sardinops occupies
                                                         sardine populations existed throughout the time period
           the coastal areas of warm temperate zones of nearly all
                                                         and varied widely in size, typically over periods of roughly
           ocean basins. The genus is considered monotypic, and
                                                         60 years. Population declines and recoveries averaged
           Sardinops sagax is the correct scientic name for sardine
                                                         about 36 and 30 years, respectively. Scale data indicate
           populations in the Alguhas, Benquela, California, Kuroshio,
                                                         that sardine populations were much more variable than
           and Peru currents, and for populations off New Zealand
                                                         anchovy populations. Studies of deposits of otoliths have
           and Australia. In the northeast Pacic Ocean, as in most
                                                         shown that, while the anchovy has been present for a
           other areas, the Pacic sardine occurs with anchovy, hake,
                                                         million years or more, no trace of sardines has been found
           and mackerel. It is generally accepted that the Pacic
                                                         that is more than seven thousand years old. The tendency
           sardine population consists of three subpopulations or
                                                         for tremendous variations in sardine biomass may be a
           stocks: a Gulf of California subpopulation, a southern sub-
                                                         characteristic of a species that has only recently occupied
           population off Baja California, and the principal northern
                                                         its habitat.
           subpopulation ranging from northern Baja California to
                                                         Pacic sardines reach about 16 inches and live as long as
           Alaska. These stocks were distinguished on the basis of
                                                         13 years but are usually less than 12 inches and eight years
           serological techniques. A fourth, far northern subpopula-
                                                         old. Most sardines in the historical and recent commercial
           tion was also postulated. Recent electrophoretic studies
                                                         catch were ve years and younger. There is a good deal
           and examination of morphological variation showed no
                                                         of regional variation in growth rate, with average size
           genetic variation among sardines from central and south-
                                                         attained at a given age increasing from south to north.
           ern California, the Pacic coast of Baja California and the
                                                         Sardine size and age at maturity may decline with a
           Gulf of California.
                                                         decrease in sardine biomass, although latitudinal and tem-
                                                         perature effects may also play a part. At low biomass


              California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                     December 2001
300
levels, sardines appear to be fully mature at age two,    eggs, larvae, and juvenile stages of copepods, as well as




                                                              Pacific Sardine
while at high biomass levels, only some of the two-year-   other zooplankton and phytoplankton.
olds are mature.                       Through all life stages, sardines are eaten by a variety
Sardines age three and older were nearly fully vulnerable   of predators. Eggs and larvae are consumed by an
to the historical shery until 1953, but two and three year  assortment of invertebrate and vertebrate planktivores.
old sh became less available as the population declined   Although it has not been demonstrated in the eld,
and fewer southern sh moved northward. Recent catch     anchovy predation on sardine eggs and larvae has been
data indicate sardines begin to become available to the    postulated as a possible mechanism for increased larval
shery at age zero, and are fully vulnerable by age three.  sardine mortality during the 1950s and 1960s. Juvenile
Sardines probably become vulnerable to the live bait sh-   and adult sardines are consumed by other sh, including
ery, which is located close to shore, at a younger age.    yellowtail, barracuda, bonito, tunas, marlin, mackerel,
                               hake, and sharks; sea birds, such as pelicans, gulls, and
Spawning occurs in loosely aggregated schools in the
                               cormorants; and marine mammals, including sea lions,
upper 165 feet of the water column, probably year-round,
                               seals, porpoises, and whales. It is likely that sardines
with peaks from April to August from Point Conception
                               will become more important as prey for numerous spe-
to Magdalena Bay, and from January to April in the Gulf
                               cies, including species such as the state and federally
of California. The main spawning area for the northern
                               listed California brown pelican, as the sardine resource
subpopulation is between San Francisco and San Diego,
                               continues to increase.
out to about 150 miles offshore, with evidence of spawn-
ing as far as 350 miles offshore. Sporadic occurrences    The Pacic sardine and other closely related species
of spawning have been observed off Oregon and British     undergo similar interannual changes in abundance in sev-
Columbia in recent years.                   eral other temperate coastal regions of the world. Scien-
                               tists in several countries have conducted joint studies of
Most spawning occurs between 55° and 63° F, with an
                               recruitment and biomass of these coastal pelagic stocks
apparent optimum between 59° and 61° F, and a minimum
                               under the Sardine-Anchovy Recruitment Program. Knowl-
threshold temperature of 55° F. The spatial and temporal
                               edge of the population dynamics and variability of these
distribution of spawning is inuenced by temperature; the
                               clupeoid shes may eventually contribute to the detection
center of sardine spawning shifts northward and continues
                               of the oceanographic effects of global climate change.
over a longer period of time during warm water condi-
tions. Pacic sardines are serial spawners and spawn sev-
eral times each season, although the number of spawnings
                               Status of the Population
is not known. Eggs and larvae are found near the surface.


                               S
The eggs are spheroid, have a distinct, large perivitelline    pawning biomass of the Pacic sardine averaged
space, and require about three days to hatch at 59° F.      3,881,000 tons from 1932 to 1934, and uctuated from
Recruitment of Pacic sardines is highly variable. Analyses  3,136,000 to 1,324,000 tons from 1935 to 1944. The popu-
of the stock-recruitment relationship have been incon-    lation then declined steeply over the next two decades,
clusive and controversial, with some studies showing a    with some short reversals following periods of particularly
density-dependent relationship and others nding no rela-   successful recruitment, to less than 100,000 tons in the
tionship whatsoever. From 1932 to 1965, mean recruitment   early 1960s. During the 1970s, spawning biomass levels
only slightly exceeded potential replacement of spawners   were thought to be as low as 5,000 tons. Since the early
at all levels of abundance, indicating little resilience to  1980s, the sardine population has increased, and the total
shing. Recruitment occurs in strings, with several years   age-one-plus biomass was estimated to be greater than 1.7
of successful recruitment followed by similar periods of   million tons in 1998 and 1999.
poor recruitment. The timing and duration of these strings  Maximum sustained yield of Pacic sardine in the histori-
has a large effect on population growth.           cal northern subpopulation was estimated to be 250,000
A signicant relationship exists among sardine reproduc-   tons or about 22 percent per year, far less than the catch
tive success, spawning biomass and average sea surface    of sardines during the height of the shery. Although
temperature (SST). Recruitment, as well as predicted     combined landings in the U.S. and Mexico are still well
equilibrium biomass and maximum sustainable yield (MSY)    below this level, landings have increased substantially in
are lower when temperatures are cooler.            recent years. In the absence of a bilateral management
                               agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, combined U.S.
Sardines are lter feeders and prey on crustaceans, mostly
                               and Mexican catches of Pacic sardine have the potential
copepods, and other plankton, including sh larvae and
                               for accelerating the next population decline.
phytoplankton. Larval sardines feed extensively on the




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               301
                                        References
         Disagreement over whether the decrease in the sardine
Pacific Sardine



         population was due to overshing or to natural changes
                                        Ahlstrom, E.H. and J. Radovich. 1970. Management of the
         in the environment has persisted for many years. It is
                                        Pacic sardine. In: A century of sheries in North America,
         now apparent that both factors are important. Following
                                        N.G. Benson, ed. Special Publication No. 7, American Fish-
         the cessation of shing and with the development of favor-
                                        eries Society, Wash. D.C., pp. 183-193.
         able environmental conditions, the sardine resource is
         now recovered.                        Barnes, J.T., L.D. Jacobson, A.D. MacCall, and P. Wolf.
                                        1992. Recent population trends and abundance estimates
                                        for the Pacic sardine (Sardinops sagax). Calif. Coop. Oce-
         Patricia Wolf
                                        anic Fish. Invest. Rep. 33:60-72.
         California Department of Fish and Game
                                        Baumgarter, T., A. Soutar, and V. Ferreira-Bartrina. 1992.
         Paul E. Smith
                                        Reconstruction of the history of Pacic sardine and north-
         National Marine Fisheries Service
                                        ern anchovy populations over the past two millennia from
         Revised by:
                                        sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California. Calif.
         Darrin R. Bergen
                                        Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 33:24-40.
         California Department of Fish and Game
                                        Hill, K.T., N.C.H. Lo, and D.R. Bergen. 2000. In prep. Stock
                                        assessment and management recommendations for Pacic
                                        sardine (Sardinops sagax). Calif. Dept. Fish. Game Marine
                                        Region Admin Rept. 00-XX. In prep.
                                        MacCall, A.D. 1979. Population estimates for the waning
                                        years of the Pacic sardine shery. Calif. Coop. Oceanic
                                        Fish. Invest. Rep. 20:72-82.
                                        Murphy, G.I. 1966. Population biology of the Pacic sar-
                                        dine (Sardinops caerulea). Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. Fourth
                                        Series 34(1):1084.
                                        Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1998. Amendment
                                        8 (To the Northern Anchovy Fishery Management Plan)
                                        incorporating a name change to: The Coastal Pelagic
                                        Species Fishery Management Plan.




           California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                       December 2001
302
Northern Anchovy
History of the Fishery                     fornia Code of Regulations, currently provides a process




                                                                    Northern Anchovy
                                for the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG)

T  hree separate sheries in both California and Mexico   to issue permits for reduction shing, decreased prices
   exploit northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax). Anchovy   of shmeal and the low prices offered to shermen have
landed by the reduction shery are converted to meal,     deterred any signicant reduction shing in recent years.
oil, and soluble protein. These products are sold mainly    The non-reduction live-bait eet in recent years has con-
as protein supplements for poultry food, and also as feed   sisted of about 18 boats that are distributed mostly along
for farmed sh and other animals. Meal obtained from      the southern California coast to serve the principal sport
anchovy is about 65 percent protein compared to about     shing markets. Live bait boats sh for a variety of spe-
50-55 percent for meal from other shes.            cies, but anchovies comprised approximately 85 percent
Anchovy harvested by the live bait shery are not landed    of the catch prior to 1991. Pacic sardines became avail-
but kept alive for sale to anglers as bait. Transactions    able to the live bait shery again in 1992, and the compo-
between buyers and sellers of live bait take place at     sition of live bait catches shifted from primarily anchovy
sea or at bait wells tied up at docks. Live bait dealers    to primarily sardine. From 1996 through 1999, sardines
generally supply bait to commercial passenger shing ves-   constituted approximately 72 percent of the live bait
sels (CPFVs) on a contract basis and receive a percentage   catch. Historically, the anchovy live bait catch ranged
of the fees paid by passengers. Bait is also sold by the    from 4,000 to 8,000 tons per year and averaged approxi-
“scoop” to anglers in private vessels. Anchovy landed by    mately 4,500 tons annually between 1974 and 1991. This
the non-reduction (other than live bait) shery are used    average dropped to slightly over 2,500 tons between 1992
as dead frozen bait, fresh sh for human consumption,     and 1994. Current estimates of the live bait catch are
canned sh for human consumption, animal food, and       available from the DFG Pelagic Fisheries Assessment Unit
anchovy paste.                         in La Jolla, California. Non-reduction (other than for live
                                bait) landings averaged slightly over 2,200 tons per year
Reliable records of California landings of northern anchovy
                                from 1965 to 1994, and increased to an average of about
date from 1916. Landings were small until the scarcity of
                                4,122 tons per year between 1995 and 1999.
Pacic sardines caused processors to begin canning ancho-
vies in quantity during 1947, when landings increased to    Anchovy landed in Mexico, other than a small amount used
9,464 tons in 1947 from 960 tons in 1946. To limit the     for bait, have been used primarily for reduction. Mexico’s
quantity of anchovies being reduced to shmeal, the Cali-   harvesting and processing capacity increased signicantly
fornia Fish and Game Commission required each processor    in the late 1970s when several large seiners were added
to can a large proportion of the harvest (40-60 percent    to the shing eet and a large reduction plant was con-
depending on can size). Anchovy landings declined with     structed in Ensenada. Mexican anchovy landings averaged
the temporary resurgence of sardine landings around 1951.   approximately 85,500 tons from 1962 to 1989, with a high
Following the collapse of the sardine shery in 1952,     of over 285,000 tons in 1981. Northern anchovy catch
anchovy landings increased to nearly 43,000 tons in 1953,   decreased sharply in 1990, and despite landing 19,600 tons
but subsequently declined due to low consumer demand      in 1995, average annual Mexican landings from 1990 to
for canned anchovy and increased sardine landings. Land-    1999 were only 3.600 tons.
ings remained low through 1964. During the early years     The U.S. northern anchovy central subpopulation sheries
(1916 through 1964), anchovy were harvested almost       have been managed by the Pacic Fishery Management
exclusively by California shermen. Mexico did not begin    Council since 1978, and the central and northern subpopu-
harvesting anchovy until 1962.
Beginning in 1965, the California Fish and Game Commis-
sion managed anchovy on the basis of a reduction quota.
This quota had been taken by a eet of approximately 40
small purse seine vessels operating off southern California
known collectively as the “wetsh” eet, which shes for
other species in addition to anchovy. In 1965, only 171 tons
of anchovy were landed for reduction, which increased to
an average of over 64,000 tons per year between 1965 and
1982. After 1982, reduction landings decreased dramati-
cally to an average of only 923 tons per year from 1983
to 1991, and fell to zero in 1992 through 1994. During
                                lations since 1998. The shery management plan has been
the period 1995 to 1999, only four tons were reported as
                                                  Northern Anchovy, Engraulis mordax
reduction landings. Although Section 147 of Title 14, Cali-
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    303
                                          Status of Biological Knowledge
          amended to include all four species of nsh collectively
Northern Anchovy



          known as coastal pelagic species (CPS); Pacic sardine,

                                          N  orthern anchovy are distributed from the Queen Char-
          Pacic mackerel, jack mackerel, in addition to northern
                                            lotte Islands, British Columbia to Magdalena Bay, Baja
          anchovy, and has been renamed as the Coastal Pelagic
                                          California. The population is divided into northern, cen-
          Species Fishery Management Plan. Regulations described
                                          tral, and southern subpopulations or stocks. The central
          in the shery management plan designate the northern
                                          subpopulation ranges from approximately San Francisco,
          anchovy shery as not actively managed due to low shery
                                          California to Punta Baja, Baja California, with the bulk
          demand and high stock size. If conditions change, and
                                          being located in the Southern California Bight.
          active management is required, then provisions in the
          shery management plan require calculation of an Allow-     Northern anchovies are small, short-lived sh typically
          able Biological Catch (ABC) for northern anchovy sheries    found in schools near the surface. They rarely exceed
          in U.S. waters. As of May 31, 2000, there were 63 vessels    four years of age and seven inches total length, although
          licensed to sh CPS nsh under the NMFS limited entry     individuals as old as seven years and nine inches have
          program, which is in effect south of 39° N. latitude (Pt.    been recorded. There is a great deal of regional variation
          Arena, California). North of this area, there is open access  in age composition (number of sh in each age group)
          to the shery.                         and size at age with older sh and larger sh found at
                                          relatively offshore and northerly locations. In warm years,
          Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for northern anchovy in
                                          relatively old and large sh are found farther north than
          the central subpopulation is estimated to be 135,600 tons
                                          during cool years. These patterns are probably due to
          per year at a total biomass level of about 808,000 tons.
                                          northern and offshore migration of large sh, regional dif-
          At present, northern anchovy are not actively managed,
                                          ferences in growth rate, and water temperatures. North-
          but a recommended default MSY control rule gives an ABC
                                          ern anchovies in the central subpopulation are typically
          for the entire stock equal to 25 percent of the MSY catch,
                                          found in waters that range from 54° to 71° F.
          or just over 34,000 tons. An estimated 82 percent of
          the stock is resident in U.S. waters. ABC in U.S. waters    Information about changes in anchovy abundance during
          is, therefor, 82 percent of 34,000 tons or 27,600 tons.     1780 to 1970 is available from scales counted in sediment
          Under federal management, there is no longer a separate     cores from the Santa Barbara basin. These data indicate
          quota for reduction landings of anchovy. Although sher-    signicant anchovy populations existed throughout the
          ies in Mexican as well as U.S. waters harvest the northern   time period and that biomass levels during the late 1960s
          anchovy, there is no bilateral management agreement       were modest relative to those during most of the 19th and
          with Mexico. The Mexican shery is managed indepen-       early 20th centuries.
          dently and is not restricted by a quota.
                                          The age at which northern anchovy become vulnerable
          Economics explain a great deal about the current dynam-     to California sheries depends on the location of the
          ics of anchovy sheries in California, because the sheries   shery and type of shery. Fish become vulnerable to
          are more limited by prices and markets than by biological    the inshore live bait shery at an earlier age than they
          constraints. The price paid to sherman for anchovy       become vulnerable to the reduction shery. However,
          landed as live bait in southern California was about $440    substantial numbers of zero and one-year-old sh are
          per ton in 1999, slightly less than the $480 per ton paid for  taken by both sheries in most years.
          sardines as live bait. Although prices and revenues for live
                                          Anchovy are all sexually mature at age two. The fraction
          bait tend to be surprisingly high, annual catches have been
                                          of one-year-olds that is sexually mature in a given year
          modest due to market limitations.
                                          depends on water temperature and has been observed to
          During 1981 to 1999, the price paid for anchovy landed     range from 47 to 100 percent. They spawn during every
          for non-reduction purposes other than live bait averaged    month of the year, but spawning increases during late
          about $330 per ton. As with live bait, market limitations    winter and early spring and peaks during February to
          have resulted in modest annual catches despite relatively    April. Spawning has been observed over a temperature
          high prices paid to shermen.                  range of 54° to 71° F. Individual females spawn batches
                                          of eggs throughout the spawning season at intervals as
          The average price for anchovy landed by the U.S. reduc-
                                          short as seven to 10 days. The eggs are found near the
          tion shery during 1981 to 1999 was about $80 per ton,
                                          surface, and require two to four days to hatch, depending
          but the price paid during 1997 was only $40 per ton.
                                          on water temperatures. Eggs and larvae are both found
          Low prices, as well as market problems have prevented a
                                          near the surface.
          signicant U.S. reduction shery in recent years.
                                          Northern anchovy are subject to intense predation
                                          throughout all life stages. Anchovy eggs and larvae fall
                                          prey to an assortment of invertebrate and vertebrate


            California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                        December 2001
304
                                                                                    Northern Anchovy
                 350
millions of pounds landed

                 300
   Northern Anchovy




                 250

                 200

                 150
                                                                      Commercial Landings
                                                                      1916-1999,
                 100
                                                                      Northern Anchovy
                 50                                                    Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                                      Bulletins and commercial
                  0
                    1916 1920   1930     1940     1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999    landing receipts.




                                                  Total anchovy harvests and exploitation rates since 1983
              14
                                                  have been below the theoretical levels for maximum sus-
millions of pounds landed




              12
  Anchovy Bait Catch




                                                  tained yield, and stock biomass estimates are unavailable
              10
                                                  for recent years but, based on abundance index data, the
               8
                                                  stock is thought to be stable at a modest biomass level.
               6
                                                  The size of the anchovy resource is now being determined
               4
                                                  mostly by natural inuences, such as ocean temperature.
               2
               0  1974     1979     1985     1989     1994


Live Bait landings of anchovy in CA, 1974-1994                           Darrin R. Bergen
Data source: DFG Database                                     California Department of Fish and Game
                                                  Lawrence D. Jacobson
planktivores. As juveniles in nearshore areas, anchovies
                                                  National Marine Fisheries Service
are vulnerable to a variety of predators, including birds
and some recreationally and commercially important spe-
cies of sh. As adults offshore, anchovies are fed upon by
                                                  References
numerous marine shes (some of which have recreational
and commercial value), mammals, and birds, including                        Conrad, J. M. 1991. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
the state and federally listed California brown pelican. A                     1998. Amendment 8 (To the Northern Anchovy Fishery
link between brown pelican breeding success and anchovy                      Management Plan) incorporating a name change to: The
abundance has been documented.                                   Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan.
Northern anchovy eat plankton either by lter feeding or                      Jacobson, L.D., N.C.H. Lo, J.T. Barnes. 1994. A biomass
biting, depending on size of the food. Adult anchovy are                      based assessment model for northern anchovy, Engraulis
known to lter anchovy eggs and it is possible that this                      mordax. Fish. Bull. 92:711-724.
type of cannibalism is an important factor in regulating
                                                  Methot, R.D. 1989. Synthetic estimates of historical abun-
population size.
                                                  dance and mortality for northern anchovy. In: E. Vetter
                                                  and B. Megrey (eds.). Mathematical analysis of sh stock
                                                  dynamics: reviews, evaluations and current applications.
Status of the Population                                      Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. Series No. 6. Am. Fish. Soc., Beth-

E
                                                  hesda, MD.
   stimates of the biomass of northern anchovy in the
   central subpopulation averaged 359,000 tons from 1963                     Parrish, R.H., D.L. Mallicoate, and K.F. Mais. 1985.
through 1972, increased rapidly to over 1.7 million tons                      Regional variations in the growth and age composition
in 1974 and then declined to 359,000 tons in 1978.                         of northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax. Fish. Bull.
Since 1978, biomass levels have tended to decline slowly,                     83:483-495.
falling to an average of 289,000 tons from 1986 through
1994. Anchovy biomass during 1994 was estimated to be
432,000 tons.



    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                               California’s Living Marine Resources:
           December 2001                                           A Status Report                  305
   Pacific Mackerel
    History of the Fishery                          recovery, the market for canned mackerel has uctuated
                                         due to availability and economic conditions. At present,

    P  acic mackerel (Scomber japonicus), also called chub         most Pacic mackerel is used for human consumption,
      mackerel or blue mackerel, are harvested by three           canned, or used for pet food, with a small but increasing
    separate sheries – the California commercial shery, a          amount sold as fresh sh. Minor amounts of Pacic mack-
    sport shery based primarily in southern California, and         erel are used by anglers for live and dead bait. Mackerel
    the Mexican commercial shery. In the commercial sher-          prices increased from $45 per ton in 1956 to $315 in
    ies, Pacic mackerel are landed by the same boats that          1981, but have declined to $120 per ton in 1999. Domestic
    catch jack mackerel, Pacic sardine, and market squid.          demand for canned Pacic mackerel appears to have
                                         decreased in recent years. During the early shery, Pacic
    Pacic mackerel supported one of California’s major sh-
                                         mackerel were taken by lampara boats, which were
    eries during the 1930s and 1940s and again in the 1980s.
                                         replaced in the 1930s by the same purse seine eet that
    The canning of Pacic mackerel began in the late 1920s
                                         shed for sardines. The purse seiners shed for Pacic
    and increased as greater processing capacities and more
                                         mackerel until the moratorium in 1970, and were able
    marketable packs were developed. Landings decreased in
                                         to sh for jack mackerel, northern anchovy, and other
    the early 1930s, due to the economic depression and a
                                         species until the shery reopened in 1977. Fishing orig-
    decline in demand, and then rose to a peak of 73,214 tons
                                         inally occurred near port, but by the late 1930s it
    in 1935. During this period, Pacic mackerel was second
                                         extended along the entire coast from San Diego to Santa
    only to Pacic sardine in annual landings. The mackerel
                                         Barbara, and included the Channel Islands. Beginning in
    shery then experienced a long, uctuating decline. A
                                         the 1952-1953 season, shing extended to Tanner and
    moratorium was placed on the shery in 1970 after the
                                         Cortez Banks.
    stock had collapsed.
                                         Until the mid-1950s, there was a seasonal pattern to the
    In 1972, legislation was enacted which imposed a landing
                                         shery. Pacic mackerel were mostly unavailable from
    quota based on the age one-plus biomass. A series of suc-
                                         January through May, then increased in availability until
    cessful year classes in the late 1970s initiated a recovery,
                                         late fall. Most of the catch was taken by purse seiners
    and the shery was reopened under a quota system in
                                         until September, when the sardine shery began. During
    1977. During the recovery period from 1977 to 1985, vari-
                                         the declining years of the shery, catches became more
    ous adjustments were made to quotas for directed take
                                         sporadic, with no apparent seasonal patterns.
    of Pacic mackerel and to incidental catch limits. These
    measures were intended to lessen the impact of the            At present the purse seine eet shes the Southern Cali-
    recovering population on the jack mackerel shery, and          fornia Bight, including the Channel Islands and offshore
    to accommodate the development of the Pacic mackerel           banks. A small portion of the catch (approximately 10
    shery as the population increased. From 1990 through           percent in recent years) is taken in the Monterey Bay
    1999, Pacic mackerel accounted for 87 percent of total          area. The purse seine eet shes year-round. Landings are
    mackerel landings in California. Pacic mackerel ranked          typically slow during April and May, increase beginning
    third in volume of California nsh landings throughout          in June, peak during the third quarter of the year, and
    the 1990s.                                decrease after September. As of June 2000, 63 purse sein-
                                         ers hold permits to participate in the NMFS limited entry
    Before 1928, when canning began, Pacic mackerel were
                                         shery for coastal pelagic species, which is in effect
    landed incidentally in the sardine shery and used primar-
                                         south of 39° N. latitude (Pt. Arena, California). North
    ily as fresh sh. For many years, demand for canned
                                         of this area, there is open access to the shery. These
    mackerel was steady and exceeded supply. Following the
                                         vessels participate not only in the Pacic mackerel shery,
                                         but also take jack mackerel, Pacic sardine, northern
                                         anchovy, and market squid. Other types of gear take
                                         Pacic mackerel incidentally.
                                         Pacic mackerel sheries in California were managed
                                         by the state through 1999, and a shery management
                                         plan (FMP) for coastal pelagic species, including Pacic
                                         mackerel, was implemented by the Pacic Fishery Man-
                                         agement Council (PFMC) in January 2000. State regula-
                                         tions, enacted in 1985, had imposed a moratorium on
                                         directed shing when the total biomass was less than
                                         20,000 tons, and limited the incidental catch of Pacic
                      Pacific Mackerel, Scomber japonicus
                                         mackerel to 18 percent during a moratorium. The shing
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
306
season for Pacic mackerel was set to extend from July 1    mackerel usually occur within 20 miles of shore, but have




                                                              Pacific Mackerel
to June 30 of the following year. A seasonal quota, equal   been taken as far offshore as 250 miles.
to 30 percent of the total biomass in excess of 20,000     Adults are found in water temperatures ranging from 50.0°
tons had been allowed when the biomass was between       to 72.0° F and larvae in 57.2° to 70.0° F. Adults occur
20,000 and 150,000 tons, and there was no quota when      from the surface to 1,000 feet deep. Sub-adult and adult
the total biomass was 150,000 tons or greater. From      Pacic mackerel in the northeastern Pacic move north-
1985 to 1991, the biomass exceeded 150,000 tons and no     ward along the coast during the summer. The most north-
quota restrictions were in effect. The quotas from the     erly records occur during El Niño events. There is an
period 1992 through 2000 averaged 24,445 tons, with a     inshore-offshore migration off California, with increased
high at 47,200 tons set by the PFMC for the 1999-2000     abundance inshore from July to November and increased
shing season.                         abundance offshore from March to May. Pacic mackerel
Pacic mackerel have ranked among the top 11 most       are typically found near shallow banks, and juveniles are
important sportsh caught in southern California waters,    commonly found off sandy beaches, around kelp beds, and
primarily because they are abundant rather than desir-     in open bays.
able. The recreational catch of Pacic mackerel averaged    The largest recorded Pacic mackerel was 24.8 inches
1,500 tons per year from 1977 through 1991, and 700      and weighed 6.4 pounds, although commercially harvested
tons per year from 1993 through 1999. During the com-     Pacic mackerel seldom exceed 16 inches and two pounds.
mercial shing moratorium, the sport shery became the     Growth is believed to be density-dependent, as sh reach
largest exploiter of Pacic mackerel in California. The rec-  much higher weights-at-age when the population size is
reational catch increased during the late 1970s and early   small. The oldest recorded age, determined by otolith
1980s, with more than one million sh per year caught     reading, was 12 years, but most Pacic mackerel in the
from 1979 through 1981. Recent estimates of annual recre-   commercial catch are less than four years old. Some
ational catches indicate a steady decline since 1981 to    Pacic mackerel mature as one-year olds, although most
about 200 tons of Pacic mackerel in southern California    are not sexually mature until age two or three. Pacic
in 1999. The catches from commercial passenger shing     mackerel become available to the commercial shery in
vessels (CPFVs) have declined from a peak in 1980 of      their rst year of life and are not fully recruited to the
over 1.31 million Pacic mackerel, and an average of over   shery until age four. However, substantial numbers of
700,000 sh per year during the 1980s, to an average of    younger sh are taken by the commercial shery and
slightly over 330,000 sh per year through the 1990s. The   make up the bulk of the catch.
reported CPFV catch in 1998 totaled only 136,614 sh.
                                Recruitment of Pacic mackerel is variable and loosely
Demand for Pacic mackerel in Baja California, Mexico     linked to the size of the spawning biomass. Reproductive
increased after World War II. Mexican landings remained    success is somewhat cyclical, with periods of roughly
stable for several years, rose to 8,000 tons in 1963, then   three to seven years. The annual rate of natural mortality
declined to a low of 100 tons in 1968. Catches remained    is thought to be approximately 40 percent in the absence
insignicant until the mid-1970s. During the period 1990    of shing.
to 1999, annual landings of Pacic mackerel in Ensenada
                                There are three spawning stocks in the northeastern
peaked twice, rst in 1990 at 39,426 tons, and again
                                Pacic – one in the Gulf of California, one near Cape San
in 1998 at 55,916 tons. The average for Baja California
                                Lucas, and one along the Pacic coast north of Punta
annual landings during the 1990s was 20,108 tons per year.
                                Abreojos, Baja California. Spawning occurs from Eureka,
Mexican landings of Pacic and jack mackerels, Pacic sar-
                                California to Cape San Lucas, two to 200 miles offshore,
dines, northern anchovy, and round herrings, are primarily
                                and in the Gulf of California.
used for reduction into shmeal, and approximately 20
                                Off California, spawning occurs from late April to July at
percent used for human consumption.
                                depths to 300 feet. Individual sh may spawn eight times
                                or more per year and release at least 68,000 eggs per
Status of Biological Knowledge                 spawning. Off Baja California, spawning occurs from June
                                through October.

P  acic mackerel occur worldwide in temperate and
                                Pacic mackerel larvae eat copepods and each other.
  subtropical coastal waters. In the eastern Pacic, they
                                Larvae normally begin to feed within 50 hours of hatching.
range from Chile to the Gulf of Alaska, including the
                                Juvenile and adult Pacic mackerel feed primarily on
Gulf of California. They are common from Monterey Bay,
                                small shes, sh larvae, squid, and pelagic crustaceans
California to Cape San Lucas, Baja California, but are most
                                such as euphausiids.
abundant south of Point Conception, California. Pacic




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report              307
Pacific Mackerel



                                                160




                                    millions of pounds landed
                                                140
                                                120
                                       Pacific Mackerel  100
                                                  80
              Commercial Landings
                                                  60
          1916-1999, Pacific Mackerel
          Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                                  40
          and commercial landing receipts.
                                                  20
               Pacific mackerel were
             aggregated as unclassified
                                                    0  1916 1920   1930     1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990  1999
              mackerel prior to 1926.

            Pacic mackerel larvae are subject to predation from                                 was an unusual event that might be expected to occur
            a number of invertebrate and vertebrate planktivores.                                 about once every 60 years.
            Juvenile and adults are eaten by larger shes, marine                                 It is estimated that the maximum long-term yield of
            mammals, and seabirds. Pacic mackerel school as a                                  Pacic mackerel might be 29,000 to 32,000 tons under
            defense against predation, often with other pelagic spe-                               management systems similar to that in current use. It is
            cies, including jack mackerel and Pacic sardine. Principal                              difcult to assess the effects on the catch of recent warm
            predators include porpoises, California sea lions, brown                               temperatures, possible changes in availability of young
            pelicans, striped marlin, black marlin, sailsh, bluen                                sh, and the deteriorating markets. However, it is unlikely
            tuna, white seabass, yellowtail, giant sea bass, and                                 that the recent high harvest levels can be sustained.
            various sharks.
                                                                       Eddy S. Konno and Patricia Wolf
                                                                       California Department of Fish and Game
                                                                       Revised by:
                          1.4

                                                                       Darrin R. Bergen
                          1.2
             millions of fish landed
              Pacific Mackerel




                                                                       California Department of Fish and Game
                          1.0
                          0.8
                          0.6

                                                                       References
                          0.4
                          0.2

                                                                       Fitch, J.E. 1952. The decline of the Pacic mackerel sh-
                          0.0  1947 1950  1960              1970    1980  1990   1999

                                                                       ery. Calif. Fish and Game. 38:381-389.
            Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Pacific Mackerel
                                                                       Hill, K.T., M. Yaremko, and L.D. Jacobson. 1999. Status of
            Data source: DFG commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) logbooks
                                                                       the pacic mackerel resource and shery in 1998. Calif.
            Status of the Population                                               Dept. Fish and Game Marine Region Admin. Rep. 99-3. 57p.


            H
                                                                       Hill, K.T. and D. R. Bergen. 2000. Stock assessment
               istorical estimates of Pacic mackerel biomass along
                                                                       and management recommendations for Pacic mackerel
               the Pacic Coast indicate a decline in total biomass
                                                                       (Scomber japonicus) in 2000. Calif. Dept. Fish. Game
            from 1932 until 1952. After a brief resurgence, the popu-
                                                                       Marine Region Admin. Rept. 00-XX. In prep.
            lation reached a peak in 1962, then declined to less
            than 10,000 tons by 1966, and remained low until the                                 Klingbeil, R.A. 1983. Pacic mackerel: a resurgent
            late 1970s.                                                      resource and shery of the California Current. Calif. Coop.
                                                                       Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:35-45.
            A series of successful year classes beginning in 1976
            brought about a resurgence, and the age one-plus biomass                               MacCall. A.D., R.A. Klingbeil, and R.D. Methot. 1985.
            peaked in 1982, at over one million tons. Since then, it has                             Recent increased abundance and potential productivity of
            precipitously declined. Recent stock assessments indicate                               Pacic mackerel (Scomber japonicus). Calif. Coop. Oceanic
            that biomass in the late 1990s was approximately 120,000                               Fish. Invest. Rep. 26:119-129.
            tons. Information derived from deposits of Pacic mack-
                                                                       Parrish, R.H. and A.D. MacCall. 1978. Climate variation
            erel scales on the sea oor indicates that the prolonged
                                                                       and exploitation in the Pacic mackerel shery. Calif.
            period of high biomass during the late 1970s and 1980s
                                                                       Dept. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 167. 110 p.



                          California’s Living Marine Resources:                            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report                                        December 2001
  308
Jack Mackerel
History of the Fishery                     1983 to 1990 for the shery which occurs north of 39°




                                                                     Jack Mackerel
                                latitude (Point Arena). The shery south of 39° is not

T  he jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), originally    regulated. In 1991, the ABC was raised to 57,990 tons and
   known as horse mackerel, was reported in the com-     the quota to 51,530 tons where it remained throughout
mercial catch as early as 1888, and was a minor compo-     the 1990s.
nent of the coastal pelagic species (CPS) shery until     Since much of the trawl-caught jack mackerel is discarded
1947. The CPS shery uses encircling nets (purse and      at sea, total catch is not available. Estimates of jack
drum seine, and lampara nets) to target market squid,     mackerel caught by Pacic whiting trawlers has ranged
Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, northern anchovy, and     from less than 500 tons to over 2,000 tons in the 1970s
jack mackerel in the waters off California. Much of the    and 1980s. After a US-USSR survey of jack mackerel con-
catch between 1926 and 1946 was taken incidentally with    ducted in 1991, an experimental shery was attempted off
sardine and Pacic mackerel and was sold at fresh sh     California. Large factory trawlers from Alaska came south
markets where it did not spoil as quickly as Pacic mack-   searching for jack mackerel, but found few sh and the
erel. Landings were low, varying between 200 and 15,000    shery never developed.
tons annually and comprising less than three percent of
                                In the early 1990s, southern California shermen and pro-
the CPS landings each year.
                                cessors became concerned over the possible expansion
In 1947, jack mackerel landings increased almost tenfold    of the jack mackerel shery and lobbied heavily for Fed-
to 65,000 tons as the canning industry turned to jack     eral management of the CPS shery. In 1999, the Coastal
mackerel in the face of the collapsing sardine shery. The   Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPS FMP) was
U.S. Food and Drug Administration authorized changing     adopted by the PFMC and jack mackerel was included
the common name from horse mackerel to jack mackerel      in the plan as a monitored species and dropped from
in 1947 to increase consumer appeal. Between 1947 and     the Pacic Coast Groundsh FMP. The CPS FMP sets the
1979, jack mackerel landings ranged from 800 to 73,000     ABC at 52,910 tons with a quota of 34,170 tons based on
tons, comprising six percent to 65 percent of the annual    the portion (65 percent) of the population in US waters.
CPS landings.                         Should the jack mackerel catch exceed the quota for
The recovery of the Pacic mackerel population in the     two consecutive years, the PFMC would have to decide
late 1970s shifted effort away from jack mackerel. The     whether to change the shery to active status, resulting
CPS eet prefers Pacic mackerel, because jack mackerel    in a need for an annual biomass estimate and subsequent
occur farther from port and tend to aggregate over rocky    harvest guideline.
bottom where there is increased chance of damage to the    In addition to the whiting trawl shery, a few adult
encircling nets. The recovery of the Pacic sardine and    jack mackerel are also taken in the northern California
increased demand for squid worldwide have also contrib-    salmon troll shery. Landings from the salmon shery are
uted to the decline in jack mackerel landings in California.  a small portion (less than one percent) of the total jack
Since 1991, jack mackerel has been caught primarily      mackerel landings.
from December through April, with landings low during     Large jack mackerel have occasionally contributed to the
the remainder of the year. Landings have averaged       commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV or partyboat)
less than 2,000 tons each year, comprising only two per-    sport shery. In 1953, a run of large sh was encountered
cent of the CPS landings. Most of the catch occurs in     in southern California, which contributed 13 percent of
southern California.                      the CPFV catch in southern California and 8.6 percent
The CPS eet catches jack mackerel only when the young
sh, less than six-years-old form schools near the surface.
As jack mackerel grow older, their behavior changes, and
they inhabit deeper waters farther offshore. The unpre-
dictable availability of jack mackerel also plays a part in
the erratic catches, since there are times when the eet
cannot nd jack mackerel schools for several months.
Large, adult jack mackerel were taken incidentally in
the Pacic whiting (hake) trawl shery off California in
the 1970s and 1980s. Because of this, jack mackerel was
included in the Pacic Fisheries Management Council’s
(PFMC) Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Management Plan
(FMP). The allowable biological catch (ABC) and equiva-                     Jack Mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus
                                                              Credit: DFG
lent quota for jack mackerel was set at 13,230 tons from


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     309
        statewide. That was an exceptional year and, since then,    (number of eggs per spawning event) changes over time
Jack Mackerel



        jack mackerel have been of minor importance in the CPFV    with females producing almost 104,000 eggs during the
        catch. Smaller jack mackerel are caught at times from     rst spawning event and 73,000 during subsequent events.
        shing piers in southern and central California. Since 1980,  Most (70 percent) female jack mackerel from the southern
        recreational landings have been highly variable, ranging    California shery become mature around their rst birth-
        from an estimated 5,000 sh to over 350,000, based on     day. By their second birthday, 90 percent of the females
        data collected by Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commis-    are spawning. Most of the eggs are spawned in 57° to 61°
        sion samplers. These data are expanded from direct obser-   F water. Eggs are about 0.04 inches in diameter and oat
        vations and information collected from anglers. For minor   free in the ocean for three to ve days before hatching,
        recreational species, such as jack mackerel, these expan-   depending on the water temperature.
        sions may greatly over-estimate the catch. Live bait land-   Larval jack mackerel feed primarily on copepods. Juvenile
        ings of jack mackerel in the 1990s have been negligible    jack mackerel seem to prefer copepods, pteropods, and
        due to a preference for Pacic sardine and northern      euphausiids, although at times they feed almost exclu-
        anchovy as bait by sport anglers.               sively on juvenile squid and anchovies. Food habits of
                                        the older, offshore sh are unknown. Jack mackerel are
                                        preyed upon by large sh like tuna and billsh. Smaller sh
        Status of Biological Knowledge                 and marine birds are unlikely to feed on jack mackerel,


        J
                                        except young-of-the-year and yearlings, because they are
          ack mackerel are actually members of the jack family,
                                        too large to be eaten. A study of the diet of the California
          Carangidae, and are not true mackerel. They are
                                        sea lion in the northern Channel Islands from 1981 to
        widely distributed throughout the northeastern Pacic
                                        1995 found that jack mackerel ranked as the fourth
        Ocean, where young sh (up to six years and 12 inches
                                        most frequently occurring species. The importance of jack
        fork length) are found schooling over shallow rocky reefs,
                                        mackerel in the diet of other marine mammals is not
        generally less than 200 feet deep, and along rocky shore-
                                        well known.
        lines of the coast and islands off southern California and
        Baja California. Large sh (16 years and older and 20
        inches fork length) are found offshore and farther north,
                                        Status of the Population
        east of a line that goes from Cabo San Lucas to the


                                        T
        eastern Aleutian Islands, and includes the Gulf of Alaska.     he most recent estimate of total biomass was made-
        The offshore segment of the population does not form the      more than 17 years ago, in 1983. Total biomass was
        dense, shallow-water schools observed in young sh. The    estimated at 1.63 to 1.99 million tons with spawning bio-
        distribution of jack mackerel between six and 15 years is   mass accounting for 1.50 million tons. These estimates
        not well known. The movement of the larger sh into the    must be viewed as tentative approximations of the popu-
        Gulf of Alaska appears to be related to summer warming     lation because of two factors. First, at the time, the
        of the surface waters. Not all of the large sh migrate    spawning frequency of jack mackerel was not known, and
        north, since some large jack mackerel are caught off      estimates were based on the spawning frequencies of
        southern California and Baja California waters throughout   northern anchovy (15 percent of females spawn each day
        the year.                           during the peak spawning months) which has similar gonad
        Jack mackerel spawn in the offshore waters (60 - 300      morphology and a protracted spawning season like jack
        miles) between Punta Eugenia and Point Conception from     mackerel. Second, estimates were derived from plankton
        March through July. The center of offshore spawning activ-   surveys for eggs and larvae in the Southern California
        ity moves north as the season progresses. There is little   Bight, which did not cover the entire range of the spawn-
        production in the inshore waters (up to 80 miles) of the    ing population, and assumptions were made for the contri-
        Southern California Bight until July, presumably when the   bution of older jack mackerel outside the survey area. A
        young sh begin to spawn. Little is known about the sea-    recent study estimated the spawning frequency for jack
        sonal and geographic limits of the offshore and northern    mackerel at 20 percent of the spawning population. Using
        spawning areas. A 1955 survey found jack mackerel eggs     a spawning frequency of 20 percent would have yielded
        and larvae offshore (100 - 1,000 miles) off Oregon and     a lower biomass estimate in 1983. Although we now have
        Washington in August. A second survey in October 1972     an estimate of spawning frequency, no other biomass
        found an area of spawning jack mackerel 200 to 600 miles    estimates have been produced since 1983.
        off Washington.                        There has been a decrease in the percentage of older sh
        Like anchovy and Pacic mackerel, jack mackerel appear     (three to six years) in the catch since the 1960s, which has
        to be multiple spawners, with females spawning on aver-    caused some concern. It is unclear whether this change
        age every ve days and 25 times per year. Batch fecundity


          California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
310
                                                                           Jack Mackerel
            160
millions of pounds landed

            140
            120
   Jack Mackerel




            100
              80                                          Commercial Landings
              60                                          1916-1999, Jack Mackerel
                                                         Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
              40
                                                         and commercial landing receipts.
              20                                          Jack mackerel were aggregated
                                                         as unclassified
              0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   mackerel prior to 1926.




                                     References
is due to a decrease in the number of older sh or to a
change in the distribution of these sh.
                                     Blunt, C. E., Jr. 1969. The jack mackerel (Trachurus sym-
                                     metricus) resource of the eastern North Pacic. Calif.
Management Considerations                        Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 13:45-52.
                                     MacCall, A. D., H.W. Frey, D.D Huppert, E.H. Knaggs,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                     J.A. McMillan, and G.D. Stauffer. 1980. Biology and eco-
further information.
                                     nomics of the shery for jack mackerel in the northeast-
                                     ern Pacic. NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-4.
Jan Mason
                                     MacCall, A. D., and G.D. Stauffer. 1983. Biology and shery
National Marine Fisheries Service
                                     potential of jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). Calif.
Revised by:                               Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:46-56.
Traci Bishop
                                     Macewicz, B.J., and D.N. Abramenkoff. 1993. Collection of
California Department of Fish and Game
                                     jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus, during 1991 coop-
                                     erative US-USSR cruise. NOAA Admin. Rep. NOAA-NMFS-
                                     SWFSC-LJ-93-07.
                                     MacGregor, J.S. 1966. Synopsis on the biology of the jack
                                     mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). U. S. Fish and Wildl.
                                     Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Fish. 526 1-16.
                                     Mason, J.E. 1991. Variations in the catch of jack mackerel
                                     in the southern California purse seine shery. Calif. Coop.
                                     Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 32:143-151.
                                     Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1998. Draft amend-
                                     ment 8 of the coastal pelagic species shery management
                                     plan. 306 p.
                                     Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1999. Amendment
                                     11 to the Pacic coast groundsh shery management
                                     plan, including nal environmental assessment/regulatory
                                     impact review. October 1998.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                 A Status Report                      311
                     Commercial Landings -
                     Coastal Pelagics
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics




                                         Anchovy       Jack     Pacific  Unclassified
                                                                           Sardine1
                        Market Squid     Anchovy   Live Bait    Mackerel    Mackerel    Mackerel
                     Year     Pounds     Pounds    Pounds     Pounds     Pounds     Pounds       Pounds
                     1916    275,620     531,209     ----      ----      ----    1,113,998    15,648,839
                     1917     439,438    528,753     ----      ----      ----   3,345,563    104,103,331
                     1918     361,714    868,161     ----      ----      ----   4,005,906    157,652,811
                     1919   3,698,242   1,609,548      ----      ----      ----   2,654,596    153,877,179
                     1920     508,199    569,774     ----      ----      ----   2,997,308    118,520,914
                     1921    432,559    1,946,881     ----      ----      ----   2,914,613     59,332,305
                     1922    209,641     652,516     ----      ----      ----   2,466,762     93,399,900
                     1923   1,180,446     307,074     ----      ----      ----   3,553,954    158,159,356
                     1924   6,831,029     346,951     ----      ----      ----   3,227,300    242,685,958
                     1925   1,891,220     93,071     ----      ----      ----   3,506,103    315,294,986
                     1926   3,135,561     60,157     ----     235,151   3,610,098      ----   286,741,250
                     1927    6,014,113    368,201     ----     462,539   4,728,903      ----   342,275,289
                     1928   1,351,992     357,470     ----     538,446  35,251,298       ----   420,269,665
                     1929   4,660,572     382,445     ----     698,290  57,973,952       ----   651,771,904
                     1930  10,969,462     319,561     ----     368,828  16,531,364       ----   502,062,747
                     1931   1,738,621     307,494     ----     563,108  14,254,081       ----   364,351,801
                     1932   4,229,743     299,217     ----     536,409  12,473,746       ----   422,609,716
                     1933    824,543     317,292     ----    1,010,850  69,613,680       ----    626,397,481
                     1934   1,530,450     257,505     ----    1,581,274  113,848,585       ----   1,119,931,099
                     1935     815,944    178,970     ----    9,983,924  146,427,202       ----  1,095,758,548
                     1936    945,439     195,122     ----    4,599,382  100,542,214       ----  1,463,543,700
                     1937     501,662    226,229     ----    6,541,026  60,936,701       ----  1,071,490,525
                     1938   1,599,319     735,144     ----    4,133,918  79,848,015       ----  1,023,389,489
                     1939   1,162,056    2,147,901     ----    3,760,155  80,909,374       ----  1,160,793,581
                     1940   1,800,632    6,317,797     ----    1,432,637  120,504,412       ----   905,973,403
                     1941    1,431,136   4,105,382     ----   2,068,685   78,167,200       ----  1,262,480,393
                     1942    943,783   1,694,290      ----   5,348,501   52,553,663       ----    969,747,099
                     1943   9,164,361   1,570,803      ----   12,698,974   75,214,799       ----    972,269,915
                     1944  10,936,595    3,891,029      ----   12,777,077   83,656,900       ----   1,147,207,882
                     1945  15,225,664    1,616,880     ----    9,032,987  53,716,765       ----   845,062,774
                     1946  38,024,528    1,921,627     ----   15,093,321   53,875,327       ----    510,759,173
                     1947  14,542,649   18,940,521      ----  129,048,507   46,478,362       ----   255,513,948
                     1948  19,255,687   10,835,930      ----   72,898,335   39,385,801       ----   362,037,087
                     1949   6,859,129   3,322,273      ----   51,250,088   49,771,273       ----   633,379,791
                     1950   5,996,335   4,878,687      ----  133,255,752   32,649,969       ----    714,522,761
                     1951  12,382,869    6,954,852      ----   89,838,095   33,518,520       ----   328,900,731
                     1952   3,670,923   55,782,870      ----  146,521,673   20,604,761       ----    14,330,420
                     1953    8,917,114  85,835,478      ----   55,750,855    7,502,181      ----     9,468,892
                     1954    8,155,105  42,410,364      ----   17,333,581   25,392,604       ----   136,504,017
                     1955  14,271,968   44,691,582      ----   35,754,707   23,310,302       ----    145,607,749
                     1956  19,483,984   56,920,585      ----   75,762,110  50,013,009       ----    69,554,345
                     1957   12,449,121   40,547,526      ----   82,011,785   62,043,775       ----    45,862,106
                     1958    7,457,418  11,602,724      ----   22,065,801   27,648,485       ----   207,445,837
                     1959  19,653,013    7,173,739     ----   37,507,227   37,602,134       ----    74,366,856
                     1960   2,561,520   5,058,603      ----   74,945,453   36,808,690       ----    57,532,719
                     1961  10,285,791    7,711,573     ----   97,606,304   44,110,194      ----    43,169,064
                     1962   9,368,149   2,764,003      ----   89,978,933   48,578,820       ----    15,362,952
                     1963  11,560,854    4,570,380      ----   95,442,284   40,242,676       ----     7,131,221
                     1964  16,433,624    4,975,089     ----   89,692,911   26,827,881       ----     13,137,483
                     1965  18,619,893    5,733,024      ----   66,666,380    7,050,059      ----     1,924,219
                     1966  19,025,879   62,280,236      ----   40,862,409    4,629,504      ----      878,359
                     1967  19,601,922   69,609,377      ----   38,180,547    1,166,607      ----      148,766
                     1968  24,932,713    31,076,116     ----   55,667,682    3,133,446      ----      124,088
                     1969  20,779,382   135,277,718      ----   51,921,162   2,357,194      ----      105,273
                     1970  24,590,865   192,485,074      ----   47,746,509     621,919      ----      442,319
                     1971   31,517,408   89,705,068      ----   59,882,985     155,847      ----      297,886
                     1972   20,159,312  138,201,573      ----   51,117,573    108,078      ----      372,230
                     1973  12,061,632   265,271,871      ----   20,615,827     56,848      ----      151,599
                     1974  28,904,678   165,433,480   7,813,185   25,457,593     133,446      ----       14,050
                     1975  23,621,984   317,021,422   7,242,187   36,779,231     287,121      ----        5,300
                     1976  20,306,005   249,838,707   9,451,220   44,893,081     353,729      ----       16,190
                     1977  28,243,779   219,368,803   9,078,638   98,711,993   11,757,254      ----       11,023
                     1978  37,798,628   24,808,622  11,468,450   67,803,179   24,676,345       ----        8,818
                     1979  43,407,642   106,029,137   5,132,363   36,012,516   59,961,335       ----       35,274




                        California’s Living Marine Resources:              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report                          December 2001
 312
Commercial Landings -
Coastal Pelagics, cont’d




                                                                     Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
                            Anchovy      Jack     Pacific   Unclassified
                                                            Sardine1
    Market Squid        Anchovy       Live Bait   Mackerel   Mackerel     Mackerel
Year     Pounds        Pounds        Pounds    Pounds     Pounds      Pounds     Pounds
1980   33,917,646      93,156,343      9,594,520   44,134,347  64,240,508        ----      74,957
1981   51,829,718     113,463,125      10,544,713   30,842,675  84,445,878        ----      61,729
1982   35,953,265      91,238,321      8,428,274   57,284,923  61,544,255        ----     284,396
1983    4,020,353       9,327,760      8,558,347   39,892,652  70,609,664        ----     762,800
1984    1,243,458       6,411,044      8,950,770   23,157,360  91,566,810        ----     509,268
1985   22,652,461      3,527,397       9,310,124  20,304,577  75,074,026        ----    1,285,295
1986   46,908,622       4,142,487      7,963,099   24,025,981  89,542,966        ----    2,524,293
1987   44,056,904       3,139,383      7,879,323   25,690,471  90,303,561        ----    4,543,728
1988   82,080,486       3,183,476      9,235,167   22,392,355  93,035,089        ----    8,210,016
1989   90,152,660       5,313,141     10,128,039   42,939,441  78,369,937        ----    8,476,775
1990   62,714,437       6,957,790     10,674,786   10,745,332  80,944,937        ----    6,106,806
1991   82,426,950       9,224,142     10,718,878   3,675,106   67,150,611       ----   16,810,250
1992   28,902,795       2,477,996      5,670,291   12,958,774  40,939,848        ----   39,564,164
1993   94,185,070      4,307,833      5,557,855   3,558,261   27,317,483       ----   30,518,596
1994  122,345,905       8,113,013      4,239,490   4,746,553  22,134,415        ----   29,586,040
1995  159,480,780       4,146,896         ----   5,820,205   19,107,467       ----   95,790,868
1996  177,255,664       9,742,229         ----   4,376,177  22,676,752        ----   71,767,091
1997   155,174,427      12,606,034         ----   2,559,567  45,448,302        ----   101,844,762
1998    6,381,504       3,212,136         ----   2,138,484  44,253,397        ----   90,513,000
1999  201,762,132       11,417,742         ----   2,123,052  21,003,443        ----   125,105,739

- - - - Landings data not available.
1
    1916 - 1969 sardine data include reduction fishery.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                             California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                        A Status Report             313
                     Recreational Landings -
                     Coastal Pelagics
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics




                              Pacific
                            Mackerel
                            No. of Fish1
                     Year

                     1947      148,041
                     1948      203,012
                     1949       95,158
                     1950       66,969
                     1951       47,188
                     1952       76,568
                     1953       61,467
                     1954      315,037
                     1955      151,018
                     1956       121,136
                     1957      151,960
                     1958      136,607
                     1959       88,952
                     1960       79,370
                     1961      113,988
                     1962      116,738
                     1963      146,560
                     1964      101,219
                     1965      151,896
                     1966      205,090
                     1967      108,366
                     1968       78,933
                     1969      120,036
                     1970      129,770
                     1971      224,223
                     1972      245,882
                     1973      199,104
                     1974      102,619
                     1975      129,944
                     1976       51,441
                     1977      484,722
                     1978      940,204
                     1979     1,272,038
                     1980     1,315,971
                     1981     1,007,198
                     1982      914,238
                     1983      630,006
                     1984      604,324
                     1985      695,708
                     1986      605,716
                     1987       517,166
                     1988      412,924
                     1989      363,700
                     1990      472,006
                     1991      438,979
                     1992      327,747
                     1993      417,640
                     1994      336,655
                     1995      271,150
                     1996      335,240
                     1997      240,977
                     1998      129,747
                     1999       83,634

                     All data based on CPFV logbooks.
                     1
                       All data presented in number of fish.




                        California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                              A Status Report              December 2001
 314
Highly Migratory
Species: Overview                        reduce the catch of marine mammals. The state has fol-




                                                                Highly Migratory Species: Overview
                                 lowed the recommendation of the team and implemented
                                 regulations covering gear, area and seasonal closures to

H  ighly migratory species include the tunas, billshes,   assure few marine mammals are taken. The drift gillnet
   pelagic sharks, and dolphinsh. As a group, they con-   shery also operates under a December 2000 NMFS bio-
tribute to some of the most valuable commercial sheries    logical opinion which closes central California from August
and are also very important in the sport shery, especially   15 through October 31 to protect leatherback turtles, and
in southern California. Currently, the harvest of highly    southern California during August and January of El Niño
migratory species is regulated by the state. However,      years to protect loggerhead turtles.
beginning in 2001, the Pacic Fishery Management Council
                                 The nal gear type is pelagic longline. While the state
has proposed adopting a shery management plan regulat-
                                 does not allow longline vessels to sh in the exclusive eco-
ing the take of highly migratory species within and outside
                                 nomic zone, they may le for offshore shing declarations,
the Exclusive Economic Zone. Upon completion of the
                                 sh outside 200 miles and return to the state with their
shery management plan process, which may take more
                                 catch. Offshore longline vessels usually target swordsh
than two years, jurisdiction over the harvest of these
                                 but will sh for tunas during times of local abundance.
species will pass to the federal government.
                                 Currently there are no longlining restrictions except shing
Currently, ve distinctive gear types are used to take     is not allowed within 200 miles of shore.
highly migratory species commercially. The oldest and
                                 Recreational anglers using hook and line gear target highly
most common is hook and line gear. The gear may be used
                                 migratory species whenever the opportunity arises. Com-
to take any highly migratory species but, traditionally,
                                 mercial passenger shing vessel and private boat anglers
most of the shing has been for tunas. The majority of
                                 pursue these species in U.S. waters and territorial seas of
albacore are taken by trolling vessels with a small portion
                                 Mexico. Oceanic regimes play a major role in determining
of sh landed by pole-and-line shing using live bait.
                                 availability and which species will be harvested. During
Albacore are taken along the West Coast of the U.S. and
                                 1999, highly migratory species accounted for over 9.5
Canada, as well as on the high seas of the north and south
                                 percent of all sh landed by California anglers. During
Pacic Oceans. A very small eet of bait boats continues
                                 eight of the past 10 years, tropical species such as yel-
to target the tropical tunas, yellown and skipjack tuna,
                                 lown tuna, skipjack tuna, and dolphinsh have dominated
off Mexico and Central America. Southern California has
                                 the catch. Temperate tunas (albacore and bluen tuna)
a small harpoon eet (< 50 vessels) pursuing swordsh
                                 have only contributed signicant catches in the years fol-
during the summer months. This is in contrast to the more
                                 lowing a major El Niño event. Catches of sharks and billsh
than 200 vessels shing during the 1950s and 1960s. They
                                 are important to anglers of the state, but constitute a
generally operate within the Channel Islands but occasion-
                                 minor portion of the overall catch. When the highly migra-
ally may venture as far north as Morro Bay. The third type
                                 tory species shery developed at the turn of the century,
gear used to take highly migratory species is the purse
                                 shing activity was conned to southern California with
seine. Two distinct eets exist; a small remnant high seas
                                 most of the effort at Santa Catalina Island. As shing
eet that shes for tropical tunas in the eastern Pacic
                                 vessels developed the capability to go further, sport
and 40 wetsh vessels that occasionally land tuna when
                                 anglers followed the sh to the offshore islands and banks.
they are locally available. The high-sea purse seine eet
                                 San Clemente, Santa Barbara, San Nicholas, the Channel
shes in an area regulated by the Inter-American Tropical
                                 Islands, plus associated banks started to play a greater
Tuna Commission and is subject only to state licensing and
                                 role in the shery. Sport shing for albacore started
landing taxes on sh landed in the state. The wetsh eet
                                 in northern California following World War II but never
targets bluen tuna during the summer but also takes
                                 reached the magnitude of the southern California shery
yellown and skipjack tuna. Occasionally, in some years,
                                 because of the lack of anglers and sh. Trips from San
they may catch signicant amounts of albacore.
                                 Diego to northern Mexico originated in early 1930s, and
California currently allows drift gillnet vessels shing with  expanded to the offshore islands and southern Baja Cali-
large mesh nets to take swordsh, tunas and sharks. They    fornia in the late 1940s. Extended long-range trips off
generally sh off southern California in the summer and     Mexico, greater than 800 miles, started in the late-1950s
move north with the sh in the fall. Access is limited and   and continue to be popular today with both party boat
the vessels are restricted by seasonal and area closures. In  and private boat anglers.
addition, the shery must be in compliance with federal
                                 Currently, the stocks of all highly migratory species are
regulations governing the take of marine mammals and
                                 considered to be healthy although common thresher shark
protected species. To this end, the National Marine Fisher-
                                 may face some reductions in take under the Council’s
ies Service has established a Take Reduction Team to
                                 shery management plan because they were overshed



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                  315
                   in the 1980s. Most of the controversy surrounding the
Highly Migratory Species: Overview



                   take of highly migratory species centers around user
                   conicts, take of state and federally protected species,
                   longlining inside 200 miles, and bycatch. User conicts
                   exist between commercial gear types (harpoon vs. drift
                   gillnets, drift gillnets vs. longline) but a more controver-
                   sial issue is the conict between commercial shers and
                   sport anglers. Area and time closures have helped to
                   eliminate some of the conicts between drift gillnets
                   and sport marlin anglers and prohibiting longlines inside
                   200 miles has also helped to reduce the conict. Some
                   conicts arise over the take of tuna when sport anglers
                   encounter purse seiners shing in areas they are shing.
                   Finally, the environmental community is concerned over
                   the take of marine mammals, protected species, and
                   bycatch in the commercial shery. Their concerns have
                   been alleviated to some extent by implementation of
                   recommendations from the take reduction team for the
                   drift gillnet shery and the recent Biological Opinion on
                   the take of sea turtles in the shery. Bycatch will con-
                   tinue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline sher-
                   ies until effective measures are developed which reduce
                   the catch to close to zero. This is especially true for
                   shark bycatch.


                   Steve Crooke
                   California Department of Fish and Game




                     California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                          A Status Report                        December 2001
316
Albacore
History of the Fishery                     gears, such as longlines, purse seines, and drift gillnets




                                                                    Albacore
                                 have also been used by California shermen, but trolling

A  lbacore (Thunnus alalunga) is a highly migratory spe-    operations have dominated since the early 1980s and
   cies that has been targeted by California’s recreational  now contribute over 90 percent of the annual catch of
anglers and commercial shermen for more than 100        albacore. Generally speaking, troll, pole-and-line, purse
years. Currently, it ranks among the state’s most impor-    seines, and drift gillnet vessels operate in surface sheries
tant marine sh resources, in terms of both economic      that target two to ve-year-old sh (juvenile albacore)
value and sport-related benets. Commercial landings of     in the upper portions of the water column, and longline
albacore at California ports have increased from $4 million   vessels operate in subsurface sheries that harvest ve
to $10 million (ex-vessel dollars) on an annual basis since   to ten year-old sh (adult albacore) from deeper waters.
1996. In recent times, the recreational shery for albacore   California-based troll vessels, or jig boats, can be broadly
has contributed at least $25 million per year to California’s  classied into two groups – relatively small boats (30-50
economy through angling-related expenditures.          feet in length) that typically carry a crew of two or
                                 three shermen, spend one to three weeks at sea, and
The commercial sheries for albacore developed rapidly
                                 target albacore in inshore waters; and larger boats (50-90
following the rst canning operations of this species in
                                 feet in length) that commonly operate with three to ve
1903 in San Pedro Bay, California. The vast majority of
                                 shermen, spend one to two months at sea, and sh
albacore commercially harvested by California shermen
                                 both inshore and offshore waters. Historically, commercial
is processed as canned “white meat” tuna that generally
                                 shing effort for albacore has uctuated over the past
commands premium prices in the marketplace. Through
                                 100 years, based primarily on market and oceanic condi-
the rst quarter of the 20th century, the tuna-canning
                                 tions. For example, from 1916 to 1925, about 300 vessels
industry and its related sheries endeavored to meet
                                 equipped for one-day trips participated in the shery,
increasing demands for seafood, particularly packed prod-
                                 operating exclusively in coastal waters. The commercial
ucts that had a long shelf life. The commercial sheries
                                 eet that shed the central Pacic Ocean, as well as
for albacore continued to expand through the mid-1940s,
                                 inshore waters, grew steadily over the next 25 years,
extending northward to coastal waters off northern Cali-
                                 reaching 3,000 boats in 1950. The number of vessels
fornia, Oregon, and Washington, and westward to the cen-
                                 declined during the 1950s, and by 1960, 1,000 boats were
tral Pacic Ocean, several hundred miles off the California
                                 involved in the shery. During the 1970s, the commercial
coast. The geographic expansion of the sheries slowed
                                 eet began to increase once again to over 2,000 vessels,
during the 1950s through the mid-1960s, but the our-
                                 but by the late 1980s and through the 1990s, fewer than
ishing market continued, with record landings during
                                 500 boats typically landed their commercial catches at
this period that averaged roughly 30 million pounds annu-
                                 California ports.
ally. During the mid-1970s, the commercial shing eet
extended farther into the central Pacic Ocean, with      Albacore are harvested commercially by countries other
some vessels shing north and west of the Hawaiian       than the United States, including Japan, Taiwan and South
Islands, as far as the International Date Line. Since the    and North Korea in the western Pacic Ocean, and
1980s, the albacore sheries of California have typically    Canada and Mexico in the eastern Pacic Ocean. Cur-
operated within roughly 900 miles of the U.S. Pacic      rently, the California troll shery accounts for roughly
coast; the distance largely dependent on the stock’s      10 percent of the total commercial landings of North
migratory route in any given year. California’s commercial   Pacic albacore, with Japan (75 percent) contributing the
shery for albacore has generally concentrated on the      largest amount, followed by Oregon/Washington, Taiwan,
North Pacic albacore stock during the summer and fall     and Canada (about ve percent each). In a typical year,
seasons as the sh move through waters of the northeast-    during the late spring and summer, the Japanese pole-
ern Pacic Ocean during their annual migration. However,    and-line eet will target the juvenile albacore as they
in recent years during the winter months, some vessels
have also targeted the South Pacic albacore stock that
inhabits waters off New Zealand’s east coast between the
International Date Line and 110˚W longitude. Commercial
landings of albacore in California have varied over the last
decade, ranging from a high of 12.3 million pounds in 1999
to a low of 1.8 million pounds in 1995.
During the early years of California’s commercial sheries
for albacore, pole-and-line (live bait shing) and troll
(articial-jig shing) gears were used extensively. Other                        Albacore, Thunnus alalunga
                                                             Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                  317
Albacore



                                  100




                        millions of pounds landed
                                      80

                                      60
                            Albacore
          Commercial Landings
          1916-1999, Albacore
                                      40
          Data Source: DFG Catch
      Bulletins and commercial land-
                                      20
      ing receipts. Data includes ship-
      ments and landings from areas
        north and south of the state                 0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950    1960   1970    1980   1990   1999
          between 1916 and 1969.



       form identiable schools and begin their annual migration                  nia, where less than 200 albacore were landed on CPFV-
       in waters off the east coast of Japan to the central                    related trips. In 1999, the stock took a more southerly
       Pacic Ocean (Emperor Seamount). In the summer and                     route as it neared the U.S. Pacic Coast and spent much
       into the fall, the U.S. and Canada troll eets will follow                 of the summer and fall in inshore waters off southern
       the albacore as they continue their migration to the east-                 California and northern Mexico, where anglers on CPFVs
       ern Pacic Ocean and coastal waters off the U.S. Pacic                   landed a total of 258,448 sh – the highest total on
       Coast.                                           record. The long tradition of albacore sport shing in
                                                     California is not only due to the CPFV industry, but also
       Recreational shing for albacore developed during the
                                                     an increasing number of anglers that sh from privately-
       early 1900s, when vessel owners in southern California
                                                     owned boats. Both represent an enthusiastic sport shery
       rst realized that the angling community was very willing
                                                     that anxiously awaits the arrival of the rst pulse of
       to charter their boats for shing. As the popularity of
                                                     albacore to California’s inshore waters each summer. Sport
       albacore increased, as a food and sport sh, so did the
                                                     shing in California typically peaks during the mid-summer
       partyboat (commercial passenger-carrying shing vessels
                                                     months (July and August) as the bulk of the stock travels
       or CPFV) industry. In the very early years of the sport
                                                     to inshore waters off the U.S. Pacic Coast. However,
       shery, only a few CPFV trips were made, concentrating
                                                     arrival and departure times associated with the stock’s
       in waters around the Channel Islands; however, by the
                                                     migration through U.S. owned shing grounds have varied
       mid 1950s, more than 100 CPFVs carried anglers to other
                                                     substantially over the years, with spring arrivals and
       inshore waters in pursuit of the stock as it conducted its
                                                     winter departures frequently observed.
       annual migration. The CPFV industry continued to grow
       during the 1960s, with increases in shing capacity and                   The actual operations of most sheries, including those
       range, which allowed boats to carry more anglers and                    associated with albacore, are essentially dened in accor-
       venture further from port in years when the albacore                    dance with the biological characteristics and ecological
       remained farther offshore. Over the last 10 years, from                   relations exhibited by the species. This is particularly true
       40 to 60 large CPFVs, that typically accommodate from                    for albacore and its related sheries, given that the migra-
       15 to 60 anglers for one-to three-day trips, have shed                   tion and distribution patterns of this species are highly
       for albacore in California waters, mostly based in southern                 inuenced by the prevailing oceanographic conditions.
       California, with several operations further north in Morro
       Bay and San Francisco. Additionally, from 60 to 90 smaller
                                                     Status of Biological Knowledge
       CPFVs have routinely operated in California since the early
       1990s, with these vessels usually carrying six to 10 anglers

                                                     A  lbacore are members of the Scombridae family, which
       on one-day shing excursions. Catches of albacore on
                                                       includes 40 to 50 species of tuna and mackerel, 23
       CPFV trips have been highly variable over the years, based
                                                     of which are found, for at least a part of their life, in
       largely on the migratory behavior of the stock in any given
                                                     North American waters. Albacore, as well as other species
       year. For example, in 1994, as the stock approached the
                                                     of tuna, have unique biological characteristics that enable
       coast of North America, the bulk of the population trav-
                                                     them to swim continuously at very high speeds and cover
       eled north to waters off Oregon and Washington, resulting
                                                     vast areas during annual migrations. Albacore are literally
       in a poor shing season for recreational anglers in Califor-



           California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                                     December 2001
318
built for speed, with torpedo-shaped (fusiform) bodies,    ing sh are typically bounded by these thermal gradients




                                                                         Albacore
smooth skin, and streamlined ns, and can reach speeds    as they conduct their round-trip travel across the Pacic
of more than 50 miles per hour for short periods of time.   Ocean. Although the bulk of the migrating stock is typi-
Albacore are metallic dark blue along the back, with     cally observed within this SST range, telemetry studies
dusky to silvery white coloration along the sides and on   have shown that this species will spend brief periods
the belly. The pectoral ns are exceptionally long, extend-  of time in much colder water (49˚F). Upwelling, where
ing to nearly half the length of the body, and albacore    nutrient-rich waters from the ocean depths rise to the sur-
are commonly referred to as longn tuna. In addition to    face, is another important phenomenon associated with
these morphological adaptations, albacore possess highly   oceanic fronts and ultimately, an event that highly inu-
specialized physiological functions that allow for rapid   ences the distribution of the migrating albacore. It is likely
movement and sustained endurance. First and foremost,     that the albacore are attracted to upwelling fronts, given
many tuna, including albacore, have a highly evolved cir-   these areas are very productive and contain much forage
culatory system that includes countercurrent exchangers    for predatory sh such as albacore. Although scientists are
that act to reduce the loss of heat generated by increased  quite certain that oceanic fronts dene albacore distribu-
muscular activity, allowing them to regulate their body    tion and thus, vulnerability to sheries, they feel other
temperature and ultimately, increase the efciency of     oceanographic parameters also inuence the migratory
their muscles. Additionally, albacore have higher blood    behavior of the stock, including salinity, ocean color and
pressure and volume than most of the other species of sh.  clarity, and vertical thermal/density structure. In general,
                               catches from the commercial sheries indicate that alba-
Albacore are widely distributed throughout the world’s
                               core are most abundant along the warm side of upwelling
oceans in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate zones. The
                               fronts in clear blue oceanic waters that are associated
North Pacic albacore stock, the population targeted by
                               with salinity gradients between 33 and 35 parts per thou-
both the commercial and recreational sheries of Califor-
                               sand and well dened thermoclines. Recent research indi-
nia, is centered around 35° N latitude in the Pacic Ocean.
                               cates that the sh adjust their behavior to very different
This stock’s distribution extends from the central (west)
                               oceanic conditions when passing through at least four dis-
coast of Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska in the eastern Pacic
                               tinct physical regimes (geographical strata) of the North
Ocean, and from the equator to the north (east) coast of
                               Pacic Ocean. Thus, determining what are the most inu-
Japan in the western Pacic Ocean. The actual boundaries
                               ential environmental parameters depends on where in the
of the stock’s range depend largely on the season of the
                               ocean and what time of year the assessment is conducted.
year and oceanic conditions. Currently, shery researchers
are uncertain whether the population of albacore inhab-    Albacore are top carnivores in the ocean ecosystem and
iting the North Pacic Ocean is strictly a single stock    opportunistically prey on schooling stocks, such as sardine,
or possibly, composed of two (or more) stocks. Results    anchovy, and squid. Albacore are preyed upon by man,
from some tagging experiments indicate that substocks     as well as the larger species of billsh, tuna, and sharks.
of albacore may exist in the North Pacic Ocean, based    Similar size albacore travel together in school groups that
on differences in migratory routes, growth and mortality   contain small aggregations of sh, which collectively, can
rates, and size distributions of the commercial catches.   be up to 19 miles wide. At the onset of the migration,
However, more information concerning albacore biology     during the spring and summer months in the western
and genetics is needed before denitive conclusions can    Pacic Ocean, the young albacore form relatively small,
be drawn regarding the stock structure of the North      loose, and broadly scattered groups. As the seasons prog-
Pacic population of albacore.                ress, the groups become more compact and contain
                               greater numbers of schools. The more sedentary, older
As stated previously, the North Pacic albacore stock, par-
                               albacore typically form more compact schools. Generally
ticularly juveniles, typically complete an expansive annual
migration that begins in the spring and early summer off
Japan, continues throughout the late summer into inshore
                                           300
waters off the U.S. Pacic Coast, and ends late in the
year in the western Pacic Ocean. It is generally believed              250
                               thousands of fish landed




that oceanic conditions strongly inuence both the timing
                                 Albacore Tuna




                                           200

and geographical extent of the albacore’s migration in any              150

given year. Migrating albacore concentrate along thermal               100
discontinuities (oceanic fronts) associated with waters of                50
the Transition Zone in the North Pacic Ocean. The vast                 0  1947 1950  1960  1970  1980  1990   1999
majority of albacore are caught in waters with sea-surface
                               Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Albacore Tuna
temperatures (SSTs) that range from 59˚-67˚F. The migrat-
                               Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                              California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                         A Status Report           319
                                     Status of the Population
      speaking, albacore schools are not as large or as dense
Albacore



      as those of some of the larger schooling tunas, such as

                                     F  ishery researchers generally agree that the North
      yellown and skipjack. Bluen, yellown, and skipjack
                                       Pacic albacore population is currently a relatively
      tunas are occasionally caught along with albacore by the
                                     healthy stock that has responded favorably to rates of
      surface sheries off the U.S. Pacic Coast. Although alba-
                                     exploitation over the last decade or so. Recent assess-
      core spend much of their time in the surface waters of
                                     ments of the entire stock indicated that sustainable
      the ocean, they will also explore deeper waters of the
                                     yields, on a global basis, likely range between 176.4 and
      thermocline in search of prey.
                                     220.5 million pounds, roughly the level of total annual
      North Pacic albacore mature at roughly ve to six years
                                     catch observed during the latter part of the 1990s. For
      of age (approximately 33 inches in length). Peak spawning
                                     example, the combined commercial and recreational land-
      of albacore in the Pacic Ocean is generally believed to
                                     ings in 1999 (U.S. and foreign) was approximately 209.5
      occur in subtropical waters centered around 20˚N and 20˚S
                                     million pounds. Catches and shing effort associated with
      latitude. It is assumed that the North Pacic albacore
                                     U.S. sheries for albacore, both commercial and recre-
      stock spawns from March through July on grounds located
                                     ational, were considerably higher in the latter part of
      in the western and central Pacic Ocean. There is some
                                     the 1990s than during the early and mid 1990s, which is
      information, albeit limited, that albacore may spawn mul-
                                     baseline information that generally indicates the popula-
      tiple times in a year. Albacore are believed to be pelagic
                                     tion has responded relatively well to recent levels of
      spawners that broadcast their gametes in open water,
                                     exploitation. Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) data from the
      often near the surface, with fertilization being external.
                                     U.S. troll shery, a shing statistic often used as an index
      Estimates of female fecundity (number of eggs) range
                                     of population size, has been relatively constant over the
      from 0.8 to 2.6 million eggs per spawning. The early life
                                     last 10 years (30 to 60 sh per day), with the exception of
      history of albacore is not clearly understood, but very
                                     1996 and 1998, when shing success peaked at roughly 100
      young albacore (larvae and juveniles in their rst year of
                                     sh per day. The CPUE statistics from the pole-and-line
      life) are believed to remain relatively close to the spawn-
                                     shery of Japan, which harvests juvenile albacore similar
      ing grounds and eventually, congregate in waters south
                                     to the U.S. troll eet, have been generally consistent
      and east of Japan prior to beginning their rst migration.
                                     since the early 1990s as well, with the trend increasing
      Approximate growth rates for North Pacic albacore are as
                                     noticeably during the late 1990s. The CPUE time series
      follows: age-one sh are 14.2 inches and 2.2 pounds; age-
                                     associated with the Japan longline shery, which targets
      two sh are 20.5 inches and 6.5 pounds; age-three sh are
                                     adult albacore and larger juveniles, indicates a productive
      25.6 inches and 12.7 pounds; age-four sh are 30
                                     stock that has been increasing in size since the early
      inches and 20.3 pounds; age-ve sh are 33.5 inches
                                     1990s. It is more difcult to assess the status of the
      and 28.3 pounds, and age 10-12 sh can reach up to
                                     overall population using CPUE data from the recreational
      55.0 inches and over 100 pounds. Albacore are believed
                                     sheries, given the inuence of oceanic factors on alba-
      to reach a maximum age of roughly 11-12 years, although
                                     core’s migratory behavior. It is likely that catch and shing
      interpretations of age for older sh are typically subject
                                     effort associated with the North Pacic albacore stock
      to increased uncertainty and thus, longevity cannot be
                                     will remain at or slightly above current levels into the
      strictly dened at this time. The sex ratio of juvenile
                                     near future, given favorable oceanographic and market
      albacore is approximately one to one, but males appear
                                     conditions.
      to outnumber females as the sh age, e.g., the sex ratio
                                     Although shing pressure is likely an important factor
      of the catches from the longline sheries, which target
                                     that inuences albacore abundance in the North Pacic
      adult sh, is generally skewed towards higher numbers of
                                     Ocean, it must necessarily be interpreted in the context
      males than females.
                                     of the overall condition of the stock’s environment. That
                                     is, albacore abundance in the North Pacic Ocean has
                                     uctuated considerably over the last several decades,
                                     with strong and weak periods occurring intermittently, based
                                     largely on the ocean’s carrying capacity in any given year.




        California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                       December 2001
320
Management Considerations             References




                                                         Albacore
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for  Bartoo, N., and T.J. Foreman. 1994. A review of the
further information.                biology and sheries for North Pacic albacore (Thunnus
                          alalunga). Pages 173-187 in Interactions of Pacic tuna
                          sheries, Volume 2: papers on biology and sheries, R.S.
P. R. Crone
                          Shomura, J. Majkowski, and S. Langi (editors). FAO Fisher-
National Marine Fisheries Service
                          ies Technical Paper No. 336/2. Rome, FAO.
                          Clemens, H.B. 1961. The migration, age, and growth of
                          Pacic albacore (Thunnus alalunga), 1951-1958. California
                          Department of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 115. 128 p.
                          Clemens, H.B., and W.L. Craig. 1965. An analysis of Califor-
                          nia’s albacore shery. California Department of Fish and
                          Game, Fish Bulletin 128. 301 p.
                          Foreman, T.J. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the
                          albacore tuna, Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788), in
                          the Pacic Ocean. Pages 17-70 in Synopses of biological
                          data on eight species of scombrids, W.H. Bayliff (editor).
                          Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, Special Report
                          No. 2. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla,
                          CA.
                          Laurs, R.M., and R.J. Lynn. 1977. Seasonal migration
                          of North Pacic albacore (Thunnus alalunga) into North
                          American coastal waters: Distribution, relative abun-
                          dance, and association with Transition Zone waters. U.S.
                          Fishery Bulletin 75(4):795-822.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME           California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                      A Status Report               321
   Swordfish
    History of the Fishery                        ing takes of sh swimming just below the surface and not
                                       visible from the vessel. Most harpoon vessels sell their

    S  wordsh (Xiphias gladius) is an important resource sup-      catch fresh daily and achieve a premium price above that
      porting major sheries in all oceans of the world. The      for longline and drift net-caught sh.
    quality of swordsh esh is excellent and is marketed both      The harpoon shery remained the only legal gear until the
    frozen and fresh. Major Pacic shing areas include the        late 1970s when a few drift gillnet vessels began targeting
    waters off Japan, the North Pacic Transition Zone north       common thresher sharks. This rapidly developed into the
    of Hawaii, the west coasts of the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador,       successful drift net shery for swordsh and thresher
    Peru, Chile, and off Australia and New Zealand. Much         sharks, which proved more cost effective in terms of fuel
    of the Pacic catch is taken incidentally in longline sh-      economy and yielded greater catches than was possible
    eries targeting tunas. Reported annual Pacic-wide land-       with harpoon gear.
    ings averaged 26 million pounds per year between 1950
                                       Annual landings of drift net caught swordsh increased
    and 1986. Recent landings peaked in 1992 at 75 million
                                       rapidly peaking in 1984 at 5.2 million pounds valued at
    pounds and now average around 65 million pounds annu-
                                       10.3 million dollars. These vessels use nets up to 6,000
    ally. Japan, Taiwan and the U.S. account for about 70 per-
                                       feet in length with mesh sizes ranging between 14 to
    cent of current reported production, with Mexico, Ecuador
                                       22 inches. The netting is attached to a oatline and a
    and Chile providing the remainder. In the eastern Pacic,
                                       weighted leadline at the bottom allows the webbing to
    swordsh are primarily harvested using longlines, drift
                                       hang as a loose curtain in which the swordsh become
    nets and hand-held harpoons.
                                       entangled. Drift nets are set at sunset and hauled at sun-
    Early coastal and island middens of American Indians         rise. Regulations enacted in 1985 were designed to reduce
    provide the rst evidence of swordsh being utilized         shing effort and landings, limit the number of permits
    as a food source. The California harpoon shery dates         to 150, restrict the season of operation and provide for
    back to the early 1900s and the Tuna Club of Avalon          several time-area closures aimed at reducing bycatch and
    reported the rst record of a recreationally caught sword-      interactions with recreational anglers. Drift net vessels,
    sh in 1909 that weighed 339 pounds. In 1931, the State        which numbered 220 in 1985, have decreased due to those
    Legislature required commercial shing licenses and          regulations and now number about 120 vessels, of which
    allowed only harpoons for the commercial take of           only about 100 are fully active. These shermen ply the
    swordsh. Recreational anglers were allowed to harpoon        waters from the Mexican border to Oregon and offshore
    swordsh until 1935. Participation in the harpoon shery       to 200 miles. Approximately two-thirds of the landings and
    peaked in 1978 with 309 vessels landing 2.6 million pounds      earnings occur in southern California, while one-third are
    before being largely displaced by the more efcient drift       landed in northern California, less than two percent of
    net shery. A small number of harpoon vessels continue to       the landings occur in Oregon and Washington. This shery
    sh swordsh off southern California from May to Decem-        is in a period of steady production with annual yields of
    ber. Primary shing areas are from San Diego to Point         2.6 million pounds worth an estimated $5 million dollars.
    Conception during the early season although these sher-       This level of production, along with imports from Mexico,
    men operate as far north as Oregon during periods of         has been known to saturate local markets, driving down
    warm water. Harpooners require calm waters to see the         ex-vessel prices.
    swordsh nning, or basking, at the surface. When a n-
                                       Hawaii’s longline shery began targeting swordsh in 1988
    ning swordsh is spotted, the sherman guides his vessel
                                       and landings expanded to 13.2 million pounds worth 21
    over the sh and throws the harpoon from the bow plank
                                       million dollars by 1998. These long-range vessels operate
    extending far beyond the vessel bow. Harpooned sh are
                                       over a vast area of the north central Pacic accounting for
    recovered using an attached line, buoys and marker ag.
                                       as much a 36 percent of U.S. production in the Pacic.
    Use of spotter aircraft greatly improved catches by allow-
                                       A small California-based, high seas longline shery, operat-
                                       ing beyond the EEZ, developed in 1991. These vessels
                                       were joined by other vessels from the Gulf Of Mexico in
                                       1993 and numbered 31 by 1994. Most of these vessels
                                       returned home by 1995. Judicial ruling in Hawaii closed
                                       a vast area north of Hawaii to longline shing in 2000.
                                       This resulted in nearly 20 longline vessels departing their
                                       Hawaiian base of operations to operate out of southern
                                       California ports.
                                       In 1983, Mexico restricted the use of longlines along their
                        Swordfish, Xiphias gladius
                                       coast by limiting the catch of billsh within 50 miles of
                               Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                           December 2001
322
                                                                      Swordfish
               6
millions of pounds landed


               5

               4
     Swordfish




               3

               2
                                                         Commercial Landings
                                                         1916-1999, Swordfish
               1
                                                         Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                         Bulletins and commercial
               0
                 1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990  1999   landing receipts.




their coast. A small eet of drift net vessels, based in         north of Hawaii toward the U.S. West Coast. Catch records
Ensenada began shing swordsh in 1986. They operated          from Japanese longliners suggest greatest catches from
from Ensenada moving south along the Baja peninsula and         Baja California, Mexico in the spring and summer, while
generally within 100 miles of the coast. They averaged          catch data from the California drift net shery show
nearly one million pounds of swordsh between 1986 and          swordsh moving through coastal waters from August to
1993. Concerns over bycatch of sport and protected species,       January. Acoustic tracking indicates some diel movement
prompted the Mexican government to issue permits in 2000         from deeper depths during the daytime and moving into
allowing these drift net vessels to convert to longline gear.      the mixed surface water at night. At times, they appear to
                                     follow the deep scattering layer, and small prey, as they
                                     undertake these vertical movements.
Status of Biological Knowledge                      It is generally believed that females grow larger than


B
                                     males, as males over 300 pounds are rare. Females mature
   roadbill swordsh, is the single species within its own
                                     at four to ve years of age in northwest Pacic and males
   family Xiphidae. It is characterized by a long, at
                                     mature rst at about three to four years although there is
bill in contrast to the smooth, round bill of the marlins.
                                     some controversy as to size at rst maturity in different
Swordsh are elongate, round bodied, and lack teeth
                                     areas. In the North Pacic, batch spawning occurs in water
and scales as adults. They have a tall, non-retractable
                                     warmer than 75° F from March to July and year round in
dorsal n, and pelvic ns are lacking. They reach a maxi-
                                     the equatorial Pacic. Reproductive material from nearly
mum size of 14 feet and 1,190 pounds. The International
                                     500 female swordsh, of mature sizes, examined from the
Game Fish Association’s all tackle angling record is for a
                                     California drift net shery contained no mature oocytes
1,182-pound sh taken off Chile in 1953.
                                     indicating swordsh were not reproductively active while
Swordsh are found in all tropical, subtropical, and tem-
                                     vulnerable to that shery.
perate waters, sometimes entering sub-temperate water
                                     Adult swordsh forage from surface waters to the bottom
as well. In the western Pacic, it ranges from 50º N to
                                     in coastal areas and are reported to 1,600 feet in the open
45º S whereas in the eastern Pacic, from 50º N to 35º S.
                                     ocean. Prey includes pelagic sh including small tuna,
Swordsh tend to concentrate where major ocean currents
                                     dorado, barracuda, ying sh, mackerel as well as benthic
meet, and along temperature fronts. They are epi- and
                                     species of hake and rocksh. Squid are also important
meso-pelagic, inhabiting the mixed surface waters where
                                     when available. Swordsh likely have few predators as
temperatures are greater than 55º F but also can move
                                     adults although juveniles are vulnerable to predation by
into water as cool as 41º F for short periods aided by
                                     large pelagic sh.
specially adapted brain and eye heat exchange organs.
Areas of high apparent abundance in the North Pacic are
north of Hawaii along the North Pacic transition zone,
along the west coasts of the U.S. and Mexico and in the
western Pacic, east of Japan. Migration patterns have not
been described although tag release and recapture data
indicate an eastward movement from the central Pacic



  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                A Status Report                 323
      Status of the Population                   Management Considerations
Swordfish




      T  he condition of the swordsh stocks in the Pacic    See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
        Ocean is unclear. Results of assessment studies so    further information.
      far have a large margin of uncertainty, owing in part
      to uncertainty in the stock structure of the population.
                                     David Holts
      Recent genetic studies suggest swordsh off the western
                                     National Marine Fisheries Service
      coast of the Americas mix with swordsh from the central
      and western North Pacic. This result tends to support
      the hypothesis of a single stock in the Pacic with an
                                     References
      uneven distribution that results in areas of high and low
      abundance. Studies of catch rates, on the other hand, sug-  Coan, A.L., M. Vojkovich, and D. Prescott. 1998. The
      gest three or more stocks as demonstrated by high catch   California harpoon shery for swordsh, Xiphias gladius.
      rates persisting in distinct areas that are separated by   Barrett, I., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, and N. Bartoo (eds) Interna-
      areas of low to zero catch rates in between. Also, genetic  tional Symposium of Pacic swordsh, Ensenada, Mexico,
      studies in the western Pacic found signicant differences  11-14, December 1994. U.S Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
      between southern and northern swordsh, indicating little  Rep. NMFS 142. 276 pp.
      mixing. Stock assessment studies using both hypotheses
                                     Fulsom, W.B, D.M. Crory, and K. Brewster-Geisz. 1997.
      have concluded that the stocks appear to be in good
                                     North America Swordsh Fishing. World Swordsh Fish-
      condition and with exploitation at or below estimated
                                     eries: An analysis of swordsh shing operations. Past-
      MSY levels. These studies, however, have not included
                                     Present-Future. Vol. IV. Ofce of Science and Technology
      shery statistics from recent years when some sheries
                                     NMFS, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD,
      expanded signicantly, nor have they taken into account
                                     1997.
      the complex biology, such as sexual dimorphism and diur-
                                     Hanan, D.A., D.B. Holts and A.L. Coan. 1993. The Califor-
      nal behavior, of swordsh indicating a need for more cur-
                                     nia drift gillnet shery for sharks and swordsh, 1981-82
      rent stock assessment.
                                     through 1990-91. Fish Bulletin 175. 95 pp.
      With recent expansion of the sheries and indications that
                                     Holts, D.B. and O. Sosa-Nishizaki. 1998. Swordsh, Xiphias
      the expansion will continue, an up-to-date and accurate
                                     gladius, sheries of the eastern North Pacic Ocean. Bar-
      stock assessment is critically needed. Without such an
                                     rett, I., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, and N. Bartoo (eds) Interna-
      assessment, it is difcult to rationally evaluate shery
                                     tional Symposium of Pacic swordsh, Ensenada, Mexico,
      management options for conservation and for implement-
                                     11-14, December 1994. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
      ing the precautionary approach.
                                     Rep. NMFS 142. 276 pp.
      In September 2000, major shing nations in the Pacic
      agreed to an international convention on the Conservation
      and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks of the
      western and central Pacic Ocean. This convention pro-
      vides a mechanism for comprehensive monitoring and
      collection of data from swordsh sheries, international
      cooperation in performing an up-to-date swordsh stock
      assessment, and implementation of conservation mea-
      sures by all major shing nations. In addition, swordsh
      will soon be covered in the shery management plan for
      the West Coast highly migratory species being developed
      for the Pacic Fishery Management Council. Although
      swordsh is not a species of immediate concern to this
      convention, the convention provides a mechanism for
      comprehensive monitoring and collection of data from
      the swordsh sheries, international cooperation in per-
      forming an up-to-date swordsh stock assessment, and
      implementation by all major shing nations of conservation
      measures, including the use of the precautionary approach.




        California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December 2001
324
Pacific Northern
Bluefin Tuna                          discovered off Isla Guadalupe, Baja California, and about




                                                                       Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
                                40 percent of the catch was made in that area. From
                                1930 through 1947, shing was conducted off California
                                and Baja California, but in most years the majority of
History of the Fishery                    the catch came from off California. From 1948 to the

F
                                present, however, most of the catch has been made off
   ishing for Pacic northern bluen tuna (Thunnus orien-
                                Baja California. The average annual catches made off
   talis) began in California as a sport in 1898. Prior
                                California during the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s have
to World War I, many large sh were taken, particularly
                                been considerably less than the average annual catches
by vessels based at Santa Catalina Island. The largest of
                                made in the same area from 1918 to 1929.
these sh weighed 251 pounds. More recently, the average
size of the sport-caught sh has been roughly 50 pounds,   From January through April, there are typically only light
although large sh are still taken. A large portion of the  and sporadic catches. Most of these are made off the
sport-caught sh is taken by shermen who are directing    coast of Baja California between 24° N and 26° N and
their efforts primarily toward albacore.           in the vicinity of Isla Guadalupe. In May and June, the
                                catches increase, and most of them are made between 24°
The commercial shery for Pacic northern bluen began
                                N and 27° N. In July, the shing area expands to the north
in 1918. Since bluen are rarely caught by the troll, bait
                                and is at its broadest distribution of the year; most of the
boat, or gillnet sheries, the catches by purse seiners
                                catch is made between 25° N and 33° N. In August, there
have far exceeded those by any other type of gear. From
                                are usually only light catches at the southern end of the
1918 until about 1960, most of the vessels were relatively
                                shing area, most of the catch is being made between 28°
small, with sh-carrying capacities less than about 200
                                N and 33° N. In September, most of the catch is made in
short tons. None of them shed exclusively for bluen.
                                the same area as in August, but the amount of catch is
The smaller ones, sometimes referred to as wetsh ves-
                                usually considerably less. In October, the catches continue
sels, shed chiey for sardines, mackerel, and pelagic
                                to decline, and most of them are made north of 30° N.
sh other than tropical tunas, and the larger ones shed
                                In November and December, as in the rst months of the
mostly for yellown and skipjack. During 1959 and 1960,
                                year, the catches are light and sporadic.
most of the larger tuna bait boats were converted to purse
seiners and, during the ensuing years, many new purse     Small amounts of Pacic northern bluen are caught off
seiners were built. During the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and    the California coast by drift gillnets and further offshore
1990s, many of the smaller, older vessels sank or dropped   by longline vessels. Extremely large bluen are caught
out of the shery, and the new vessels that replaced them   in some years off southern California, principally during
tended to be larger. As a result, there are now more large  November and December. Nearly 1,000 such sh were
purse seiners and fewer small ones than there were during   caught during the period between October 31, l988, and
the early 1960s.                       January 3, 1989. Most of these were own to Japan, where
                                they brought high prices.
Bluen are now taken by vessels of all sizes, but the
smaller ones (capacities less than about 400 tons) account  The total annual catches of Pacic northern bluen by
for a proportionally larger share of the catch. The propor-  commercial and sport vessels in the eastern Pacic Ocean,
tion of the bluen catch made by the wetsh eet is      prior to 1918, were negligible. The data for 1918 through
less now than it was during the early years of the shery   1960 include only the catches landed in California, but
because there are now fewer wetsh vessels and because    it is believed that the catches landed elsewhere, prior
many of the sh are intercepted by larger vessels shing
off Baja California before they reach the area where
these vessels normally sh. Most of the sh caught by
purse seiners weigh less than 50 pounds, but larger ones
have sometimes been caught, including one weighing
1,009 pounds.
Most of the information regarding distribution of the
catches of Pacic northern bluen by tuna purse seiners
has been obtained from the logbook records of these
vessels. Bluen are rarely encountered south of Cabo San
Lucas, Baja California, or north of Point Conception, Cali-
fornia. Within this area, a considerable change has taken
place during the 20th century. Until 1930, shing was con-
                                             Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna, Thunnus orientalis
ducted only off California. During that year, bluen were                                  Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                         325
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna



                                                             40



                                             Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
                                                             35



                                              millions of pounds landed
                                                             30
                                                             25
                     Commercial Landings
                           1916-1999,
                                                             20
                Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
                                                             15
                 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                 and commercial landing receipts.
                                                             10
                   Data includes shipments and
                                                              5
                  landings from areas north and
                 south of the state between 1916
                                                              0  1916 1920  1930     1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
                            and 1969.




                   to 1961, were inconsequential. The catches tended to be                                   Most of the sh caught are in their second or third year
                   greater during the 1960s and 1970s than during the previ-                                  of life, but some older, larger sh are also taken. After a
                   ous period, probably because of the conversion during                                    sojourn in the eastern Pacic, which may or may not be
                   1959 and 1960 of most of the tuna bait boats to purse                                    interrupted by temporary visits to the central or western
                   seiners, and the addition of many new purse seiners to                                    Pacic, the survivors return to the western Pacic, where
                   the eet.                                                          they eventually spawn. Spawning probably rst occurs at
                                                                                 about ve or six years of age.
                                                                                 The approximate lengths and weights attained by Pacic
                   Status of Biological Knowledge                                                northern bluen at various ages are: age one, 23 inches


                   S
                                                                                 and 10 pounds; age two, 33 inches and 28 pounds; age
                     pawning of Pacic northern bluen occurs between
                                                                                 three, 43 inches and 60 pounds; age four, 53 inches and
                     Japan and the Philippines in April, May, and June,
                                                                                 109 pounds; and age ve, 63 inches and 177 pounds.
                   off southern Honshu in July, and in the Sea of Japan in
                   August. The larvae, postlarvae, and juveniles produced                                    Pacic northern bluen consume many species of sh and
                   south of Japan are carried northward by the Kuroshio                                     invertebrates in the eastern Pacic, including anchovies,
                   Current toward Japan. Fish in their rst year of life, about                                 red crabs, sauries, squid, and hake. Red crabs are a
                   six to 24 inches in length, are caught in the vicinity of                                  signicant part of the diet only south of 29° N. “Boiling”
                   Japan during the summer, fall, and winter. The results of                                  and jumping schools of sh are much more common north
                   tagging experiments indicate that some of these remain                                    of that latitude, where sh are the principal item of the
                   in the western Pacic Ocean and others depart for the                                    diet. The differences in behavior in the two areas could
                   eastern Pacic during the fall or winter of their rst year                                 be due to differences in the food, i.e., lter feeding
                   of life or the summer, fall, or winter of their second                                    might be employed for feeding on red crabs, while pursuit
                   year of life. The journey from the western to the eastern                                  of individual sh would be required for feeding on sh.
                   Pacic takes as little as two months, or perhaps even less.                                 Japanese scientists have reported that bluen are heavily
                                                                                 dependent upon sardines for food in the western Pacic.
                   The sh that migrate from the western to the eastern
                                                                                 Albacore, yellowtail, barracuda, and mackerel compete
                   Pacic form the basis for the shery in the eastern Pacic.
                                                                                 with bluen for food in the eastern Pacic.
                                   40
                   Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna




                                   35
                    thousands of fish landed




                                                                                 Status of the Population
                                   30
                                   25


                                                                                 T
                                   20                                                he catches of Pacic northern bluen in the eastern
                                   15
                                                                                   Pacic have been less, on average, during the 1980s
                                   10
                                                                                 and 1990s than during the 1960s and 1970s. Catch data,
                                   5
                                                                                 length-frequency data, and data on sh tagged in the
                                   0 1947  1950  1960                1970    1980  1990  1999
                                                                                 western Pacic and recaptured in the eastern Pacic sug-
                   Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna                                 gest that this decline is due to a decrease in the avail-
                   Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) logbooks.


                                   California’s Living Marine Resources:                             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                        A Status Report                                         December 2001
326
ability of bluen in the eastern Pacic (i.e., a decrease




                                                    Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
in the proportion of the population which has migrated to
the eastern Pacic) and a decrease in the number of boats
which direct their effort at bluen.


William H. Bayliff
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission



References
Bayliff, William H. 1993. Growth and age composition
of northern bluen tuna, Thunnus thynnus, caught in the
eastern Pacic Ocean, as estimated from length-frequency
data, with comments on trans-Pacic migrations. Inter-
Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Bull., 20 (9): 501-540.
Bayliff, William H. 1994. A review of the biology and sher-
ies for northern bluen tuna, Thunnus thynnus, in the
Pacic Ocean. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., 336 (2): 244-295.
Bayliff, William H., Yoshio Ishizuka, and Richard B. Deriso.
1991. Growth, movement, and attrition of northern bluen
tuna, Thunnus thynnus, in the Pacic Ocean, as deter-
mined by tagging. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Bull.,
20 (1): 1-94.
Calkins, Thomas P. 1982. Observations on the purse seine
shery for northern bluen tuna (Thunnus thynnus) in
the eastern Pacic Ocean. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm.,
Bull., 18 (2): 121-225.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                        A Status Report          327
   Skipjack Tuna
    History of the Fishery                         sheries. Some sh are also caught in troll, gillnet, and
                                        longline sheries.

    S  kipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) have been har-          Before the 1960s, bait boats supplied the majority of
      vested in the eastern Pacic by commercial bait boats        the commercial skipjack tuna landings in California. The
    since the early 1900s, and later by commercial purse          rst bait boats operated in coastal waters off southern
    seine, gillnet, troll sheries and recreational sheries.        California and Mexico. They could only make short trips
    Skipjack tuna mixed with yellown tuna are frequently          because they used ice to preserve catches and relied
    caught by these sheries. Skipjack tuna are highly migra-        on catching bait close to the coast and offshore islands.
    tory and have been shed by many different countries          In the 1930s, with the development of new refrigeration
    such as the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador, France, and Spain.          techniques and construction of larger vessels, the shery
    Landings from these countries are marketed throughout          expanded to areas farther south and offshore. Bait boats
    the Pacic Rim, Puerto Rico, and the European Commu-          ranged from 30 to 200 tons of carrying capacity. The U.S.
    nity. Fisheries landing skipjack tuna in California operate       eet that operated in the eastern Pacic decreased from
    between 150°W longitude and the coast of the Americas          75 vessels in 1976 to one in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, bait
    and between 40°N and 20°S latitude. California landings         boat landings averaged 12 percent of the total skipjack
    of skipjack tuna are important to both commercial and          tuna landings in California.
    recreational sheries.
                                        Purse seiners started to replace bait boats in the late
    Commercial landings of skipjack tuna in California started       1950s and by 1961 supplied the majority of the commercial
    in 1918, and mainly supplied canneries where skipjack          skipjack tuna landings in California. Purse seiners usually
    tuna were processed as light meat tuna. Small quantities        catch skipjack tuna in sets on free-swimming schools or in
    of skipjack tuna were also sold to local markets. Com-         sets on schools associated with oating objects. Skipjack
    mercial landings of skipjack tuna in California increased        tuna are usually caught mixed with yellown and bigeye
    from three million pounds in 1918 to 156 million pounds         tunas. The carrying capacity of purse seiners ranged from
    in 1954. The landings, while uctuating considerably, then       150 tons to 2000 tons. The U.S. eet operating in the
    decreased to a low of 30 million pounds in 1973 before         eastern Pacic decreased from 141 vessels in 1976 to
    peaking again at its highest level (174 million pounds)         nine in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, purse seine landings
    in 1980. Since 1976, skipjack tuna landings in California        of skipjack tuna accounted for 80 percent of the total
    declined to average 10 million pounds from 1985 to 1999.        commercial skipjack tuna landings in California.
    The decline in commercial landings in California can be
                                        From 1991 to 1999, other commercial sheries, troll,
    attributed to the relocation of cannery operations to
                                        longline, and gillnet, landed less than one percent of
    American Samoa and Puerto Rico and the re-agging of
                                        the annual skipjack tuna landings in California. These
    some vessels. Currently, only one cannery is operating in
                                        sheries catch skipjack tuna incidentally while targeting
    California. Prices paid by the canneries for skipjack tuna
                                        other tunas, sharks or swordsh.
    are based on sh size and market conditions and from
                                        California recreational sheries for skipjack tuna typically
    1990 to 1994 varied from $200 to $1,000 per ton. Based
                                        operate in waters off southern California and Mexico. The
    on a cannery price of $900 per ton, the 1999 California
                                        duration of trips is usually one to seven days. The eet
    landings of skipjack tuna was worth approximately $4 mil-
                                        consists mainly of commercial passenger-carrying shing
    lion. The majority of the commercial skipjack tuna land-
                                        vessels (CPFV) and some private shing vessels. Recre-
    ings in California are from the purse seine and bait boat
                                        ational anglers use rod and reel shing gear. Skipjack tuna
                                        landings from the CPFV shery reached highs of 103,000
                                        sh in 1983, and 52,000 sh in 1990. Since 1990, skipjack
                                        tuna recreational landings have generally decreased to
                                        14,000 sh in 1998.
                                        U.S. commercial vessels that sh for skipjack tuna in the
                                        eastern Pacic must comply with all state and federal reg-
                                        ulations and regulations proposed by the Inter-American
                                        Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and any other interna-
                                        tional regulatory agency to which the U.S. is a member.
                                        These include compliance with the Marine Mammal Pro-
                                        tection Act and a mandatory logbook program under the
                                        High Seas Fishing Compliance Act of 1995 that requires a
                                        license and submission of the IATTC logbook.
                      Skipjack Tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
328
Recreational shermen must carry California state shing   20 to 22 inches. Egg production is estimated between 0.1




                                                              Skipjack Tuna
licenses, comply with state regulations, and purchase Mex-  to 2.0 million eggs per spawning.
ican shing licenses while shing in the Exclusive Eco-    Skipjack tuna can grow to approximately 42.5 inches or 77
nomic Zone (EEZ) of Mexico. Currently, California limits   pounds. They have dark purplish-blue backs and, silvery
the recreational take of skipjack tuna to 10 sh per day.   sides with four to six longitudinal dark bands. They have
                               a strong keel on each side of the caudal n base between
                               two smaller keels. Skipjack tuna enter surface sheries
Status of Biological Knowledge                at approximately 10 inches (0.5 pound) and commonly


S
                               reach lengths up to 31.5 inches (26 pounds). Some longline
  kipjack tuna occur throughout the tropical, subtropical
                               sheries also catch large skipjack tuna. Skipjack tuna
  waters and warm temperate waters of all oceans.
                               growth is rapid and approximate sizes at age are: one
There are two stock structures hypothesized for Pacic
                               year, 12 inches, 1.1 pound; two years, 20 inches, six
skipjack tuna, a single stock with isolated subgroups
                               pounds; three years, 25 inches, 12.8 pounds; four years,
or two or more different stocks. This description
                               20 inches, 19 pounds. Maximum age is probably around
considers skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic east of
                               seven years.
150° W longitude.
                               Skipjack tuna feeding is opportunistic on sh, crustaceans
In the eastern Pacic, skipjack tuna are generally dis-
                               and cephalopods. Stomach samples of skipjack tuna in
tributed between 40°N and 40°S latitude and between
                               the eastern Pacic contained 59 percent pelagic crabs, 37
150°W longitude and the coastlines of the U.S., Mexico,
                               percent sh, and three percent squids. A high percentage
Central and South America. During El Niño events skipjack
                               of stomach samples were empty. Larger sh tended to
tuna may be found as far north as 50°N along the
                               have higher percentages of crustaceans and lower percent-
U.S. West Coast. Fishing concentrations are located in
                               ages of sh in their stomachs. Predators of skipjack tuna
the northeastern Pacic near Baja California, the Revil-
                               include billsh, sharks and other large tunas, including
lagigedo Islands, and Clipperton Island, and in the south-
                               skipjack tuna.
eastern Pacic near Central America, northern South
America, Cocos Island-Brito Bank, and the Galapagos
Islands and offshore south of 10°N. Skipjack tuna migrate
                               Status of the Population
from the equatorial spawning grounds in the eastern


                               I
Pacic in two migrating groups, one migrates to the Baja    n general, the population of skipjack tuna in the eastern
California shing grounds and the other to the Central and   Pacic is underutilized by sheries operating in the area
South American shing grounds. The groups remain on the    and is well above levels that are needed to produce
shing grounds for several months before returning to the   maximum sustainable yield (MSY). The apparent abun-
equatorial spawning grounds                  dance of skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic is highly
Skipjack tuna typically prefer sea surface temperatures    variable. This variability is apparently caused more by
between 59º F and 86° F. Aggregations of skipjack tuna    effects of environmental conditions than by the effects
tend to be associated with convergence zones, boundaries   of the shery. The simplest estimate of abundance can
between cold and warm water masses (i.e., the polar      be obtained from trends in catches. Catches peaked at
front), up welling zones, and other hydro-graphical discon-  186,800 tons in 1978, and decreased to 54,500 tons in
tinuities. Skipjack tuna are found in surface waters and to  1985. During the period from 1986 to 1994, catches varied
depths of 850 feet during the day, but seem to stay closer  between 69,000 and 100,000 tons before increasing to
to the surface at night than during the day. Skipjack tuna  266,000 tons in 1999. Other abundance estimates for skip-
are most frequently found in surface schools aggregated    jack tuna, standardized catch per days shing (CPDF),
around oating objects in the eastern Pacic. The larger   have been developed by the IATTC. However, these esti-
sh are found in free-swimming unassociated schools.     mates are not considered satisfactory and indicate that
Smaller yellown and bigeye tunas (less than 40 inches)    further studies are needed. In general, the estimates show
are frequently found in schools mixed with skipjack tuna.   CPDF in the 1960s, between nine and 15 tons per days
                               shing, and uctuating between two and seven tons per
Skipjack tuna spawn throughout the year in equatorial
                               day shed from 1972 to 1996.
waters of the eastern Pacic, and from spring to early fall
in subtropical waters. The spawning season is abbreviated   The status of skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic is
as distance from the equator increases. Females mature at   monitored annually by the IATTC. They are reasonably
about 16 inches. However, in some areas of the eastern    certain that skipjack tuna stocks in the eastern Pacic
Pacic, the minimum size at maturity has been noted at    are under shed. Traditional age-based analyses and pro-
                               duction models cannot be used to verify this conclusion



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               329
Skipjack Tuna



                                        200




                          millions of pounds landed
                                        150

                             Skipjack Tuna
            Commercial Landings
                                        100
          1916-1999, Skipjack Tuna
             Data Source: DFG Catch
            Bulletins and commercial
                                        50
         landing receipts. Data includes
          shipments and landings from
        areas south of the state between                 0
                                           1916 1920  1930  1940            1950          1960     1970     1980     1990   1999
                 1916 and 1969.




                                                        References
          due to the violation of the unit stock concept. However,
          skipjack tuna catches in the western Pacic are near one
                                                        Forsbergh, Eric 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the
          million tons, and tagging studies there have shown that
                                                        skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758), in
          catches could easily double without adversely affecting
                                                        the Pacic Ocean. In: Synopsis of biological data on
          the stock. Based on this, it seems that further increases in
                                                        eight species of scombrids, William Bayliff editor. Inter-
          the eastern Pacic skipjack tuna catch could be attained.
                                                        American Tropical Tuna Commission specialreport No.2.
          However, caution should be exercised until the exchange
                                                        Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA. p.
          between the eastern and western Pacic is fully under-
                                                        295-360.
          stood. The IATTC also notes that its assessment of skipjack
          tuna in the eastern Pacic could change and studies to                   IATTC 1999. Annual report of the Inter-American Tropical
          learn more about this species and its relationships to the                 Tuna Commission 1997. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com-
          environment are needed.                                   mission, La Jolla, CA. 310 p.
                                                        Wild, Alex and J. Hampton 1994. A review of the biology

          Management Considerations                                  and sheries for skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis, in the
                                                        Pacic Ocean. In: Interactions of Pacic tuna sheries,
                                                        Shomura, Majkowski, Langi editors. FAO Fisheries Techni-
          See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                                        cal Paper 336/Vol. 2. p 51-107.
          further information.
                                                        Wild, Alex 1992. Yellown and skipjack tunas. In: Califor-
                                                        nia’s living marine resources and their utilization, Leet,
          Atilio L. Coan, Jr.
                                                        Dewees, Haugen editors. California Sea Grant Extension
          National Marine Fisheries Service
                                                        Pub. UCSGEP-92-12. p. 140-143.




                                                                    120

                                                                    100
                                                        thousands of fish landed
                                                          Skipjack Tuna




                                                                      80

                                                                      60

                                                                      40

                                                                      20

                                                                      0  1947 1950     1960     1970     1980   1990   1999


                                                        Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Skipjack Tuna
                                                        Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.



              California’s Living Marine Resources:                            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                                        December 2001
330
Yellowfin Tuna
History of the Fishery                     shery, catches and effort from this shery gave way to




                                                                     Yellowfin Tuna
                                 the more efcient purse seine method.

Y  ellown tuna (Thunnus albacares) have been har-       Purse seiners started to replace bait boats in the late
   vested, in the eastern Pacic, by commercial bait boat   1950s, and by 1961, supplied the majority of the com-
sheries since the early 1900s, and later by commercial     mercial yellown tuna landings in California. Purse seine
purse seine, longline, gillnet, troll and recreational sher-  carrying capacity ranged from 150 tons to 2,000 tons.
ies. Yellown tuna, frequently caught in schools mixed     Purse seiners, because of their size and ability to stay
with skipjack and bigeye tuna, are highly migratory and     at sea for long-periods of time, expanded the shery to
have been shed in the eastern Pacic by many different     areas between southern California and Peru and out to
countries. U.S. sheries that land yellown tuna in Cali-    150°W longitude. Historically, three types of sets have
fornia operate between 150° W longitude and the coast      been used to catch yellown tuna: sets on sh associated
of the Americas and between 40° N and 20° S latitude.      with schools of dolphins, sets on sh in free-swimming
California landings of yellown tuna are important to both   schools and sets on sh associated with oating objects.
commercial and recreational sheries.              Until the 1990s, U.S. purse seiners in the eastern Pacic
California landings of commercially caught yellown tuna    primarily caught yellown tuna in sets associated with
date back to 1919. These landings supplied canneries      schools of dolphins. Purse seiners employed a standard
mainly in California, where yellown tuna were processed    purse seine with the exception of a porpoise panel that
as light meat tuna. In recent years, some commercial, yel-   was used to reduce entanglement of dolphins. The purse
lown tuna landings were also purchased by local markets    seines were deployed with a seine skiff and, when shing
and restaurants. Cannery prices paid for yellown tuna     dolphin schools, speedboats were used to herd the dol-
depend on sh size and canned tuna market conditions.      phins into a compact school so that the net could be
During the early 1990s, prices ranged from $200 to $1,100    set around them. Once the schools of tuna and dolphins
per ton. Commercial landings of yellown tuna in Califor-    were surrounded, the net was pursed and a backdown
nia, while uctuating, generally increased from 350,000     procedure was used to free the trapped dolphins. In
pounds in 1919 to 280 million pounds in 1976. Since 1976,    the mid 1970s, marine mammal regulations were enacted
yellown tuna landings declined steadily to three million    to reduce dolphin mortality associated with purse seine
pounds in 1999. Assuming a cannery price of $1,000 per     shing and in the 1990s canneries stopped buying yel-
ton, the estimated value of the 1999 California commer-     lown tuna caught on dolphins. The canneries “dolphin
cial yellown tuna landings was $1.5 million. The decline    safe” policy drove many U.S. purse seiners to the western
in commercial landings in California can be attributed to    Pacic and as a result, the U.S. eet that operated in the
the relocation of cannery operations to American Samoa     eastern Pacic decreased from 141 purse seiners in 1976
and Puerto Rico and the re-agging of some U.S. vessels.    to nine in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, purse seine landings
Currently, only one cannery is operating in California.     averaged 86 percent of the total yellown tuna landings
Purse seine and bait boat sheries supply the bulk of      in California.
the California commercial yellown tuna landings. Some     Longliners, based in California, started shing in the east-
commercial landings are also supplied by longline, troll,    ern Pacic in 1991. These vessels usually targeted bigeye
and gillnet sheries.                      tuna or swordsh outside the California 200-mile Exclusive
Before the 1960s, bait boats supplied the majority of the    Economic Zone (EEZ) and yellown tuna are an incidental
commercial yellown tuna catch. Initially, bait boats oper-   catch in this shery. Longliners usually sh between 30°N
ated in coastal waters of southern California and Mexico.
The vessels could only make short trips because they used
ice to preserve catches and relied on catching bait close
to the coast and offshore islands. In the 1930s, improve-
ments in refrigeration methods and construction of larger
vessels enabled the shery to expand farther south and
offshore. From 1984 to 1999, California bait boat landings
averaged 11 percent of the total landings of yellown tuna
in California. Bait boat carrying capacity ranged from 30
to 200 tons carrying capacity. The U.S. eet that operated
in the eastern Pacic ranged from 75 bait boats in 1976 to
one in 1999. While bait boat sheries dominated landings
in the early days of the eastern Pacic yellown tuna
                                                   Yellowfin Tuna, Thunnus albacares
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                     331
Yellowfin Tuna



                                         300




                           millions of pounds landed
                                         250


                              Yellowfin Tuna
                                         200
             Commercial Landings
                                         150
         1916-1999, Yellowfin Tuna
             Data Source: DFG Catch
                                         100
             Bulletins and commercial
          landing receipts. Data includes                50
           shipments and landings from
         areas south of the state between                 0
                                            1916 1920  1930  1940           1950           1960     1970     1980     1990   1999
                  1916 and 1969.



           and 40°N latitude between Hawaii and the U.S. West Coast                              120

           EEZ. The U.S. longline eet uses standard longline gear                              100


                                                         thousands of fish landed
           with oats and branch lines. The gear is deployed at                      Yellowfin Tuna     80
           various depths, depending on the target species sought,                                60
           and light sticks are used to attract sh. From 1991 to 1999,
                                                                      40
           longline-caught yellown tuna were less than one percent
                                                                      20
           of the total yellown tuna landed in California.
                                                                      0  1947 1950     1960     1970     1980   1990   1999
           From 1984 to 1999, commercial troll and gillnet shing
                                                         Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Yellowfin Tuna
           gears supplied less than three percent of the annual yel-
                                                         Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
           lown tuna landings in California. These gears incidentally
           catch yellown tuna inside the EEZ south of San Francisco.                 High Seas Fishing Compliance Act of 1995, which requires
           Gillnet sheries usually target swordsh and sharks, while                 a license and submission of the IATTC logbook. U.S.
           troll sheries typically target albacore.                          purse seiners shing for yellown tuna associated with
           California recreational sheries for yellown tuna typically                dolphins in the eastern Pacic must also abide by dolphin
           operate in waters off southern California and Mexico.                    quotas stipulated in the Marine Mammal Protection Act,
           The duration of trips is usually from one to seven days.                  and all large purse seiners (greater than 400 tons) must
           The eet consists mainly of commercial passenger-carry-                   carry observers.
           ing shing vessels (CPFV) and some private shing vessels.
           Recreational anglers use rod and reel shing gear. Yel-
                                                         Status of Biological Knowledge
           lown tuna landings from the CPFV shery, reached a
           record high of 120,000 sh in 1983, decreased to 4,000

                                                         Y  ellown tuna in the eastern Pacic are distributed
           sh in 1985, and averaged 81,000 sh from 1995 to 1998.
                                                           throughout areas between 40°N and 40°S latitude and
           Since the recreational catch cannot be sold, the value of
                                                         between 150°W longitude and the coastlines of the U.S.,
           the recreational shery is difcult to determine, but must
                                                         Mexico, Central, and South America. The eastern Pacic
           reach millions of dollars and extend to many sectors of
                                                         stock is generally considered a separate population that
           the business community. Anglers buy equipment, y in
                                                         is not believed to interact appreciably with stocks in
           from various locations and stay in local hotels. Vessel
                                                         the central and western Pacic. Yellown tuna are typi-
           operators collect fares that are based on trip length but
                                                         cally found in sea surface temperatures between 65°F and
           also collect fees for food and equipment rentals. Anglers
                                                         88°F and are usually conned to the upper 330 feet of the
           may catch yellown tuna, but they also catch bluen,
                                                         water column, or between the surface and the thermo-
           skipjack, bigeye and albacore tuna, and other sh.
                                                         cline. Seasonal migrations are primarily along the coast.
           U.S. commercial vessels that sh for yellown tuna in the                  Surface schools of small yellown tuna in the eastern
           eastern Pacic must abide by all federal and state regu-                  Pacic can be found aggregated around oating objects
           lations, including those proposed by the Inter-American                   or in free-swimming unassociated schools, while larger
           Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), and any other interna-                  yellown tuna are usually found in schools associated
           tional regulatory agency in which the U.S. is a member.                   with dolphins. Small yellown tuna (less than 40 inches)
           These include a mandatory logbook program under the


              California’s Living Marine Resources:                            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                        December 2001
332
are frequently found in schools mixed with skipjack and     since then have remained fairly constant at slightly lower




                                                               Yellowfin Tuna
bigeye tuna, whereas larger yellown tuna usually do not    levels than in 1986.
mix with other tunas.                      Stock assessments for yellown tuna in the eastern Pacic
Yellown tuna spawn throughout the year and across their    are conducted annually by the IATTC. The latest assess-
entire range. However, 75°F is probably the lower tem-     ment indicated that the eastern Pacic yellown tuna
perature limit for yellown tuna spawning. Off Mexico      shery could continue to harvest approximately 297,000
and Central America, spawning can occur throughout the     tons annually without further lowering the stock size. In
year, with peak spawning occurring at different times in    accordance with these ndings, the IATTC set the annual
different areas. Spawning is likely abbreviated and more    1998 yellown quota at 231,000 tons, with 16,500 ton
sporadic in coastal areas than in offshore northern equa-    increments added at the discretion of the IATTC. Closure of
torial areas. Most females mature at sizes above 36 inches   the shery based on this quota in 1988 was in November.
and produce from two to seven million eggs per spawn.
Yellown tuna can grow to approximately 83 inches. The
                                Management Considerations
larger sh have very large anal and second dorsal ns
that may extend to over 20 percent of the fork length.     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Approximately 20 broken, nearly vertical lines cross the    further information.
sides of the sh and a yellow coloration are present on the
sides, dorsal and anal ns and nlets. Yellown tuna enter
                                Atilio L. Coan, Jr.
surface sheries at approximately 10 inches and commonly
                                National Marine Fisheries Service
reach lengths up to 60 inches. Growth is rapid at these
approximate sizes at and ages: one year, 19 inches; two
years, 34 inches; three years, 50 inches; four years, 59
                                References
inches; ve years, 68 inches. Maximum age is probably
around 10 years.
                                Cole, Jon S. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the yel-
Yellown tuna are opportunistic feeders and therefore      lown tuna, Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788), in the
have a very diverse diet; however, a few sh, cephalopods    Pacic Ocean. In: Synopsis of biological data on eight spe-
and crustaceans are dominant in stomach samples from      cies of scombrids, William Bayliff editor. Inter-American
sh in the eastern Pacic. The most dominant are bullet     Tropical Tuna Commission special report No.2. Inter-Amer-
tuna and pelagic crabs. Other organisms include sh com-    ican Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA. p. 71-150.
monly found around otsam such as skipjack tuna, black
                                IATTC 1999. Annual report of the Inter-American Tropical
skipjack, ying sh, light sh, and squid. Predators of
                                Tuna Commission 1997. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com-
yellown tuna include sharks, billshes and other large
                                mission, La Jolla, CA. 310 p.
tuna, including yellown tuna.
                                Wild, Alex 1994. A review of the biology and sheries for
                                yellown tuna, Thunnus albacares, in the eastern Pacic
Status of the Population                    Ocean. In: Interactions of Pacic tuna sheries, Shomura,
                                Majkowski, Langi editors. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper

I n general, the population of yellown tuna in the east-    336/Vol. 2. p 51-107.
 ern Pacic is being fully utilized by sheries operating in
the area and is at levels that will produce the maximum
sustainable yield (MSY). The IATTC has recommended an
annual yellown tuna catch quota in the eastern Pacic
since 1966 to maintain the stock at MSY. Catches peaked
at 277,300 tons in 1976, decreased to 111,500 tons in 1983,
peaked again in 1989 at 337,000 tons, and then decreased
to 301,400 tons in 1997. Because of management-imposed
measures, it is difcult to use strictly catch as an indica-
tor of overall population abundance. However, four abun-
dance indices, one based on estimates of standardized
catch-per-days shing, two based on age models, and one
based on a searching-time method, have been developed
and indicate that abundance dropped steeply from the
late 1960s to historically low levels in the early 1980s.
Abundance estimates rebounded substantially in 1986 and


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               333
   Striped Marlin
    History of the Fishery                          In Mexican waters, striped marlin are taken for local mar-
                                        kets and export to other countries. These sheries include

    S  triped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) support important         both artisan, using hand-hauled gillnets and longlines, and
      commercial and recreational sheries in the central         larger drift net vessels targeting swordsh and sharks.
    and eastern Pacic and in the Indian oceans. They were          The water off the southern tip of the Baja California
    directly targeted by high seas sheries in the 1960s and         peninsula to Manzanillo, Mexico, is an area of high striped
    1970s, although today most are taken as incidental catch         marlin abundance, which supports a large recreational
    in tuna longline sheries. Pacic-wide landings currently        shery. Mexican tourist enterprises aggressively advertise
    average near 26.5 million pounds per year and represent         to attract billsh anglers to the area. The striped marlin
    about 86 percent of world landings.                   catch rate is greatly improved off Baja where anglers aver-
                                        age 0.3 to 0.65 striped marlin per day of shing. Estimated
    Striped marlin are seasonal visitors to southern California
                                        recreational catches of striped marlin off Los Cabos, Baja
    waters providing recreational billsh anglers an oppor-
                                        California Sur, averaged 12,000 sh annually between
    tunity to sh for local large gamesh during summer
                                        1992 and 1996, but only averaged 260 sh off Mazatlan.
    and fall. Recreational and commercial shing for striped
                                        The estimated incidental catch from the longline shark
    marlin began off southern California in the early-1900s
                                        shery in Mazatlan averaged 680 striped marlin over the
    using hand-held harpoons or rod-and-reel. The California
                                        same period.
    Legislature banned the use of harpoons to take striped
    marlin in 1935 and further curtailed the sale and            Interest in angler-based tagging and survey programs have
    import of striped marlin in 1937 thus preserving the south-       intensied greatly in recent years. The trend toward
    ern California shery entirely for recreational anglers.         catch and release and tagging of striped marlin has also
    Currently, most striped marlin shing is from privately         increased as anglers became more aware of perceived
    owned boats based in local southern California marinas.         conservation needs. Current estimates of striped marlin
    Generally, sh begin arriving in the coastal and insular         released off southern California have exceeded 80 percent
    waters off southern California in June and remain until         of those captured. Annual marlin tournaments now award
    at least October. The number of sh moving into the           points to anglers for releasing sh and the rst all-tag
    Southern California Bight during any particular year is         and release marlin tournament was held in San Diego in
    associated with water temperatures. Warmer water gener-         September 2000.
    ally means more sh, better catches and higher catch
    rates. The colder water north of Point Conception usually
                                        Status of Biological Knowledge
    limits their northward distribution, although during El
    Niño years they commonly range north to San Francisco

                                        T  he striped marlin (family Istiophoridae) is a large,
    and persist for extended periods. A 31-year-long angler
                                           oceanic sh with a long, round bill, small teeth and
    survey indicates fairly low, but steady, catch rate averag-
                                        tall dorsal n which decreases in height ending just
    ing 0.10 sh per anger shing day but ranging to 1.0 or
                                        before the second dorsal n. The species is widely distrib-
    greater during El Niño periods. The southern California
                                        uted throughout most tropical, sub-tropical and temper-
    catch of striped marlin taken by the commercial passenger
                                        ate waters of the Pacic and Indian oceans but does
    shing vessel (CPFV) eet averages six striped marlin per
                                        not occur in the Atlantic except for occasional strays
    year. Commercial landings in Oregon and Washington are
                                        off western South Africa. Japanese longline data indicate
    legal but rare.
                                        a horseshoe-shaped distribution across the central North
                                        and South Pacic with a continuous distribution along the
                                        west coast of Central America. It is apparently more abun-
                                        dant in eastern and north central Pacic than elsewhere.
                                        Movements tend to be diffusive, as this species does not
                                        under take annual migrations as seen in some tunas.
                                        Striped marlin do not form dense schools but rather occur
                                        singularly or in groups of several sh, usually segregated
                                        by size. Adult sh are found in the north and south central
                                        Pacic where spawning occurs. Larvae are recorded from
                                        North Pacic west of 150° W, in the South Pacic and
                                        more recently have been found off central Mexico. Sub-
                                        adult sh move east toward the coast of Mexico where
                                        they are found in high abundance around the tip of the
                      Striped Marlin, Tetrapturus audax
                                        Baja peninsula. Tag-recapture data indicate movement
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
334
                                        Status of the Population




                                                                       Striped Marlin
          400
          350


                                        T
number of fish landed




                                          he Pacic striped marlin resource appears healthy
          300
  Striped Marlin




                                          regardless of whether a single Pacic-wide stock or
          250
          200
                                        two separate north and southern stocks are assumed.
          150
                                        The relationship between catch and shing effort in the
          100
                                        Japanese longline sheries show sustained catches over a
            50
                                        wide range of shing intensities, suggesting Pacic-wide
            0  1947 1950  1960  1970  1980    1990  1999

                                        catches are below the estimated maximum sustainable
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Striped Marlin
                                        yield of 53 million pounds. Catches are fairly stable
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
                                        at around 25 to 30 million pounds. Angler catch and
                                        effort surveys indicate CPUE off California and Mexico has
from southern California to Baja California Sur but show            changed little since 1985.
little or no movement in the reverse direction. Also, tag-
recapture data reveal movements from off Mexico and
                                        Management Considerations
southern California to near Hawaii, Peru, and the South
Pacic near the Marquises Islands. Striped marlin are
                                        See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
epipelagic, and are commonly bounded by 68° to
                                        further information.
78° F temperature regime during all stages of their life-
cycle. Acoustic telemetry studies indicate they spend
86 percent of their time in the mixed layer above
                                        David Holts
the thermocline and avoid temperature changes greater
                                        National Marine Fisheries Service
than 14° F.
Stock structure in the Pacic is unclear. Current evidence
                                        References
indicates striped marlin are probably a single Pacic-wide
stock because of the continuous distribution throughout
                                        Hunter, John R. and David B. Holts, (eds.) 1999. Pacic
the Pacic, spawning in the south and northwest Pacic
                                        Federal Afliation for Billsh - a NOAA Workshop Report
and eastern Pacic off Mexico, and from tag-recapture
                                        and Research Plan. SWFSC Admin. Rep., LJ-99-11, 34 pp.
studies. The possibility of separate North and South Pacic
stocks does exist and is based on catch-per-unit effort             Squire, J. and D. Au. 1990. Management of striped marlin
(CPUE) analysis, temporal and geographically separate              resources in the northeast Pacic; A case for local deple-
spawning areas, and morphological differences. Genetic             tion and core area management, p67-80. In: Stroud, R.S.
data further indicate some population structuring in the            (ed.) 1989. Planning the future of billshes. Research and
Pacic which implies discrete spawning areas for sh from            management in the 1990s and beyond. Proceedings of
Hawaii, Australia, and the eastern tropical Pacic.               the second International Billsh Symposium, Kailua-Kona,
                                        Hawaii, August 1-5, 1988. Parts 1 and 2.
Striped marlin mature between 55 and 63 inches eye-to-
fork length (EFL) and reach a maximum size of nearly
12 feet and more than 450 pounds. The International
Gamesh Association all-tackle record is for a 494-pound
sh caught near New Zealand in 1986. Most striped marlin
caught in the southern California sport shery are three to
six years old, and weigh 120 to 200 pounds. Examination of
gonad material from the recreational and drift net sher-
ies indicates that striped marlin off southern California are
not reproductively active while in residence.
Striped marlin are opportunistic feeders primarily on epi-
pelagic shes including mackerel, sardine, anchovy, and
will take invertebrates including squid and red crab when
available. Off southern California, they are often seen
feeding at the surface on these small coastal sh. Preda-
tion on adult marlin has not been documented but may
occur from large pelagic sharks or toothed whales.




   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                       California’s Living Marine Resources:
          December 2001                                  A Status Report               335
   Shortfin Mako Shark
    History of the Fishery                           the California Fish and Game Commission established an
                                         experimental shark shery for mako and blue sharks using

    S ince the late 1970s, the shortn mako (Isurus oxyrin-          drift longlines. This gear proved much more efcient than
     chus) has been taken incidentally in the commercial           drift gillnets. By 1990, stringent regulations were imple-
    drift gillnet sheries for thresher shark and swordsh.          mented that included an annual quota, time-area clo-
    Up until 1987, there were no sheries that specically           sures, and a requirement to reduce the bycatch and waste
    sought mako.                                of blue sharks by establishing a market. In 1992, the
                                         commission did not renew the longline permits and the
    There are several reasons why mako sharks took so long
                                         experimental shery ended. This was due to the inability
    to become a primary target of a commercial shery.
                                         of the shermen to establish a market for the bycatch
    Although readily marketable, shortn makos off southern
                                         of blue sharks and a well organized opposition by the
    California averaged only 34 pounds dressed, while thresh-
                                         sport shing industry to a directed commercial shery for
    ers had an average dressed weight of about 150 pounds.
                                         mako sharks.
    As long as threshers were plentiful, shermen paid little
    attention to mako sharks. This situation might have            Currently, mako sharks are taken by drift gillnets and
    changed during the mid-1980s when the thresher popula-           hook-and-line. Most mako sharks, however, are taken in
    tion began to show signs of decline, but the drift gillnet         the drift gillnet shery for thresher sharks and swordsh.
    eet, which pursued the thresher, also took a more valu-          Annual landings have uctuated from over 600,000 pounds
    able species – swordsh. Swordsh had a commercial value          in 1987 to less than 100,000 pounds in 1999.
    of $4 per pound, compared to $1 per pound for most             The shortn mako shark is also taken by the high seas
    sharks, and they averaged nearly 200 pounds dressed. As          shark and swordsh drift longline shery, which developed
    a result, the drift gillnet eet gave little regard to the         between 1991 and 1994. This shery operates outside
    mako shark resource.                            the 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in interna-
    It took the application of an entirely different shing gear        tional waters. A small portion of the catch is landed in
    to create commercial interest in the mako. During 1988,          California ports with annual landings ranging from 128,116
                                         to 9,523 pounds between 1991 and 1999.
                                         Makos have long been esteemed as prized game sh along
                                         the East Coast of the U.S. During the early-1980s, the
                                         mako captured the attention of the southern California
                                         sport shing public. In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates
                                         of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew
                                         ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually. The principal
                                         target of these trips was the shortn mako shark. After
                                         the increase during the 1980s, the sport shery for mako
                                         sharks has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual
                                         landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308
                                         pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both
                                         cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following
                                         the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger shing vessels
                                         run shing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in
                                         southern California.



                                         Status of Biological Knowledge

                                         T  he shortn mako shark is distributed in temperate and
                                           tropical seas worldwide. In the eastern Pacic, it is
                                         distributed from Chile to the Columbia River and can be
                                         found off the U.S. West Coast from southern California
                                         northward to Washington. However, it is most common
                                         off southern California and is seldom caught north of
                                         the Mendocino Escarpment. It is considered an oceanic
                                         species, occurring from the surface to at least 500 feet
                     Shortfin Mako Shark, Isurus oxyrinchus
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
336
                                                                            Shortfin Mako Shark
               700
thousands of pounds landed


               600
  Shortfin Mako Shark




               500

               400
                                                          Commercial Landings
               300
                                                          1916-1999,
                                                          Shortfin Mako Shark
               200
                                                          Data Source: DFG Catch
               100                                          Bulletins and commercial land-
                                                          ing receipts. All shark landings
               0
                  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   were aggregated until 1977.




in depth, and is rarely found in areas where the water           other eggs. It is estimated that females have from four to
temperature falls below 61° F.                       30 pups. The gestation period is estimated to last from
                                      12 to 19 months. At birth, pups are approximately 2.0 to
Evidence from size and mark-recapture data suggest that
                                      2.5 feet TL.
the Southern California Bight, which extends from Point
Conception to the Mexican border, is an important pup-           The shortn mako is a top carnivore in the ocean food
ping and nursery area for the shortn mako shark. High           chain. It is known to prey upon many species of sh
recapture rates for tagged juveniles show that newly born         such as mackerel, sardine, anchovy, tuna, other sharks,
makos remain in these waters for about two years, after          and squid. Other items in the adult diet probably include
which they appear to move offshore or to the south. Many          several marine mammals. The mako, however, is an oppor-
sh tagged in the Southern California Bight have been           tunistic feeder like many of its oceanic relatives. It may
recaptured locally, but others have been caught as far           eat whatever is abundant in its surroundings.
north as Point Arena, northern California; as far south as
Acapulco, Mexico; and as far west as Hawaii in the central
                                      Status of the Population
Pacic. Although some of the tagging data have not been
subjected to formal analyses and no migratory pattern has

                                      T  he present status of the shortn mako shark in state
become obvious, these documented movements suggest
                                        and federal waters off California is not known but is
that the California-Mexico stock is wide-ranging and is not
                                      of concern. Adult mako sharks do not frequent California’s
an isolated population.
                                      coastal waters; therefore, they are not subject to local
There is an ongoing disagreement surrounding the proper          sheries. The real threat to the mako population off
aging of shortn mako sharks, particularly in large size          California and in the eastern Pacic lies in the potential
classes. Results differ among age-growth studies, which          for over-development of sheries within the coastal nurs-
may be due to stock differences, different aging inter-          ery. This threat is particularly insidious, as the effect of
pretations of the periodic deposition of vertebral rings,         overshing would not become apparent until the missing
and the difculty of interpreting growth rings, especially         juveniles were of an age to become the spawning stock.
in older specimens. Young makos appear to grow fairly           Since a sudden population collapse could follow, efforts to
rapidly, reaching nearly ve feet in total length (TL) by         monitor the shortn mako shark are needed.
the age of two. After two years, however, growth rate is
less dened. Males reportedly mature at six feet TL and
                                      Management Considerations
as early as four years old, while females reach maturity
at nine feet TL and not before seven or eight years old.
                                      See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Females either mature at a much later age than males, or
                                      further information.
the sexes grow at greatly differing rates. The maximum
size of a mako shark is reported to be approximately 13
feet and possibly as old as 40 years.
                                      Valerie B. Taylor and Dennis W. Bedford
Like the thresher shark, shortn makos are ovoviviparous.         California Department of Fish and Game
The embryos have no umbilical attachment to the mother
and receive all their intrauterine nourishment by eating


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                      California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                 A Status Report                      337
           References
Shortfin Mako Shark




           Bedford, D. 1992. Mako shark. In W.S.Leet, C.M. Dewees,
           and C.W. Haugen, eds, California’s living marine resources
           and their utilization. pp. 51-53. California Sea Grant Publi-
           cation UCSGEP-92-12.
           California Department of Fish and Game. 1999. Ocean
           sport shing regulations concerning mako shark. State of
           California Natural Resources Agency. 2:1-11.
           California Department of Fish and Game. Shark Tagging
           News. California Department of Fish and Game, Long
           Beach, California. (newsletter series).
           Calliet, G.M. and D.W. Bedford. 1983. The biology of three
           pelagic sharks from California waters, and their emerging
           sheries: a review. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisher-
           ies Investigations Reports. 24:57-69
           Camhi, M. 1999. Sharks on the line II: An analysis of Pacic
           state shark sheries. National Audubon Society, Living
           Oceans Program, Islip, N.Y. pp. 52
           Mollet, H.F., G. Cliff, H.L. Pratt, Jr., and J.D. Stevens.
           In press 1999. Reproductive parameters of female
           shortn mako Isurus oxyrinchu (Ranesque 1809). Fish
           Bulletin, U.S.
           Pratt, H.L. and J.G. Casey. 1983. Age and growth
           of the shortn mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, using four
           methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sci-
           ences. 40:1944-1957.




             California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                        December 2001
  338
Thresher Shark
History of the Fishery                     to central Oregon in waters up to 200 miles offshore




                                                                     Thresher Shark
                                in depths from 30 to 2,000 fathoms over banks, escarp-

T  he common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is the     ments and canyons. Up until recently, because of various
   leading commercial shark in California, although land-   time/area closures and seasonal availability of swordsh,
ings are much less than they were during the rst decade    most of the annual shing effort occurred between
of the drift gillnet shery. In the early years, from 1977   mid-August through January outside of state waters to
through 1989, annual commercial landings averaged 1.1     about 150 miles offshore. In addition to various existing
million pounds dressed weight (dw) per year, ranging from   time/area closures, beginning August 15, 2001, the area
0.1 million pounds in 1977 to a peak of 2.3 million pounds   between Point Conception and 45 degrees north latitude
in 1982. More recently, catches from 1990 through 1998     will be closed to drift gillnet shing through October 31 to
have averaged about 0.4 million pounds with a low of 0.3    reduce interactions with leatherback sea turtles. If an El
million in 1995 and a high of 0.8 million pounds in 1991,   Niño condition is predicted, or is occurring, the area south
remaining at 0.4 million pounds over the past three years.   of Point Conception will be closed to drift gillnet shing
In 1998, the average ex-vessel price was $1.36 per pound.   from August 15 to August 31, and during the month of
Fish are taken primarily by drift gillnets (78 percent)    January, to reduce loggerhead sea turtle impacts through
followed by set gillnets (18 percent), and other assorted   recreational angling for thresher sharks, especially from
gears (4 percent). Two other species of thresher shark,    private boats and skiffs, which have become increasingly
the pelagic (A. pelagicus) and the bigeye thresher (A.     popular in recent decades in coastal waters between San
superciliosus) also occur off California, but these species  Diego and Santa Barbara, California. Currently, there are
are much less common, averaging only about one and nine    about eight shark shing tournaments held annually in
percent, respectively, of the total drift net thresher catch  southern California. Party boat catches, which are thought
in the 1990s.                         to represent a relatively small portion of the total sport
                                catch, have averaged about 55 sh per year, with a peak
The early thresher shark drift net shery began in south-
                                of 163 sh taken in the 1993 El Niño year. Title 14 of the
ern California and expanded rapidly, reaching a peak in
                                California Fish and Game Code limits the take of thresher
1982 when 225 vessels were permitted in the shery. Fish-
                                sharks to two per day, but sport anglers may possess more
ing then expanded northward rst to Morro Bay and then
                                than this limit depending on the length of the shing trip.
to Monterey and San Francisco. By 1987, experimental sh-
                                A one-inch square of skin must be left on each llet, if
ing was being conducted off Oregon and Washington. The
                                lleted at sea.
drift net shery was initially developed to target common
thresher, but emphasis later shifted to broadbill swordsh,
with thresher and shortn mako shark being secondary
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
market species. Also, catches of threshers off California
soon began to decline, and some of the most heavily
                                T  he common thresher shark is a large pelagic shark
exploited size classes were observed to disappear from       with a long scythe-like tail, which makes up nearly
the catches after the mid-1980s. These size/age classes    half of its total body length. Its body is white below and
were thought at the time to be all immature sh approxi-    blue-gray to gray above with a slight wash of bronze. It
mately three to six years old, but more recent maturity    is generally distinguished from other species of thresher
data suggest that many may also have been mature indi-     sharks by the white of the abdomen that extends in a
viduals four to seven years old. Regulatory measures in    splotchy pattern above the base of the pectoral ns;
California, particularly area and season closures imposed
after the mid-1980s, were instituted to address swordsh
user conicts (gill-netters versus harpooners versus rec-
reational anglers), to protect marine mammals, and to
protect thresher shark. In 1990, a California state voter
initiative banned gillnetting within three miles and com-
pletely prohibited drift net shing on threshers during
peak seasons and in nearshore areas. Since January 1996,
the landing of shark ns detached from any carcass
has been prohibited, except for threshers, which can be
landed with the ns and tails removed providing that a
corresponding carcass is also landed.
Currently, the shery is under a non-transferable permit
system and takes place from the Mexican border north                         Thresher Shark, Alopias vulpinus
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     339
Thresher Shark



                                        3.0




                          millions of pounds landed
                                        2.5


                             Thresher Shark
                                        2.0

                                        1.5
            Commercial Landings
                                        1.0
         1916-1999, Thresher Shark
         Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                        0.5
         and commercial landing receipts.
             All shark landings were
                                        0.0  1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
             aggregated until 1977.




           unlike the bigeye and pelagic thresher, which are uni-                  and Oregon and Washington. This migration hypothesis
           formly pigmented blue-gray to gray above the pectoral                   is derived from patterns of early catches in the drift
           ns. The common thresher also does not possess the large                 gillnet shery prior to seasonal and area restrictions, and
           eyes distinctive of the bigeye thresher or the deep lateral                the incidence in the 1980s of thresher sharks taken off
           grooves on the sides of the head.                             California carrying Japanese longline hooks, indicating an
                                                        origin outside the U.S. EEZ. It has been proposed that
           The distribution of the common thresher shark is circum-
                                                        large adult common thresher sharks pass through southern
           global. In the eastern Pacic, it occurs from Goose Bay,
                                                        California waters in early spring of the year, remaining
           British Columbia south to off Baja California, and off
                                                        in offshore waters from one to two months during which
           Panama and Chile. Abundance in the Pacic Ocean is
                                                        time pupping occurs. Pups are then thought to move into
           thought to decrease rapidly beyond 40 miles from the
                                                        shallow coastal waters. The adults then continue to follow
           coast, although catches off California and Oregon do occur
                                                        warming water and perhaps schools of bait northward, and
           as far as 100 miles offshore and sometimes beyond. It
                                                        by late summer, arrive off Oregon and Washington. Sub-
           is found in temperate and warm oceans penetrating into
                                                        adult individuals appear to arrive in southern California
           tropical waters, seeming to prefer areas characterized
                                                        waters in early summer, and as summer progresses they
           by high biological productivity, the presence of strong
                                                        move up the coast as far north as San Francisco. In fall,
           frontal zones separating regions of upwelling and adjacent
                                                        these sub-adults are thought to move south again. Little
           waters, and strong horizontal and vertical mixing of sur-
                                                        is known about the presumed southward migration of the
           face and subsurface waters. Such habitats are conducive
                                                        large adults, which do not appear along the coast until
           to production and maintenance of schooling pelagic prey
                                                        the following spring. Recent satellite pop-up tagging by
           upon which it feeds. Adults, juveniles, and post-partum
                                                        NMFS has conrmed active transboundary migration in this
           pups occur within California waters.
                                                        species. Two common thresher sharks tagged in June off
           After parturition and during their rst few years of life,
                                                        Laguna Beach and Santa Monica Bay, California, were relo-
           the young occur close to shore off beaches and in shallow
                                                        cated off Baja California, Mexico, and 540 miles southwest
           bays, often near the surface of the water. During most
                                                        of La Paz, Mexico, within 120 and 210 days of tagging.
           years, concentrations of young threshers may be found
                                                        Recent genetic analyses of tissue biopsies collected
           within two to three miles off the beaches from Santa
                                                        off the U.S. West Coast and Mexico (with samples
           Monica Bay into Santa Barbara County, and as far north as
                                                        from off Oregon-Washington grouped together and com-
           Monterey Bay and San Francisco Bay during warm water
                                                        pared to samples collected off California and Baja Cali-
           years. One young thresher was tracked in Morro Bay for
                                                        fornia, Mexico) showed no signicant differences in haplo-
           18 hours where it spent 70 percent of the time in shallow
                                                        typic frequencies, indicating a single homogenous West
           water over mudats, increasing its activity at the onset
                                                        Coast population.
           of darkness and during high tide periods. Larger mature
                                                        Reproduction is ovoviviparous; normal brood size appears
           individuals over 10 feet in total length tend to show a
                                                        to be two to four fetuses. Brood sizes of up to seven
           greater range of habitat and more offshore distribution.
                                                        fetuses have been recorded off Spain, indicating there
           Some anecdotal evidence and patterns of observed
                                                        may be some plasticity in this trait. The developing
           catches suggest seasonal north-south migration of this
                                                        fetuses are oophagous. Mating presumably takes place in
           species between San Diego and Baja California, Mexico,


               California’s Living Marine Resources:                        CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                                    December 2001
 340
midsummer along U.S. West Coast EEZ with a gestation      size of sh and in catch-per-unit of effort has been noted




                                                               Thresher Shark
period of about nine months. Parturition is thought to     in the thresher shark catch off Point Conception – an area
occur in the spring months off California, judging from the  that historically has had the most consistent and highest
number of post-partum-sized pups that have been taken in    thresher catches. It is not known, however, to what extent
the catch at this time.                    environmental changes and shifts in distribution might
                                inuence these observations, since this area is but a
Maximum size reported is 20 feet total length, but off
                                small portion of the total coastal range of the species.
California the largest ever recorded was 18 feet long. Size
                                The potential annual rate of population increase for the
at rst maturity has been variously estimated and inter-
                                common thresher shark at the maximum sustainable yield
preted. A re-examination of male and female maturity
                                population level has been estimated at four to seven
data suggests that off the U.S. West Coast, size and age
                                percent per year.
at rst maturity is about 10 feet in total length and about
ve years old.
Size at birth varies considerably, ranging from 45 to 61    Susan E. Smith
inches long, with only slight variation among geographical   National Marine Fisheries Service
regions around the world. The species has been variously    Debbie Aseltine-Neilson
estimated to reach a maximum age of from 19 to 50 years.    California Department of Fish and Game
Feeding is primarily on small to medium-sized schooling
shes and pelagic invertebrates. Prey items include
                                References
anchovy, Pacic sardine, herring, mackerel, Pacic hake,
lancetsh, lanternsh, Pacic salmon, squid, octopus,
                                Bedford, D. 1987. Shark management: A case history – the
pelagic red crab, and shrimp. A recent study of the
                                California pelagic shark and swordsh shery. In S. Cook,
diet of sh taken in the drift gillnet shery found in addi-
                                ed Sharks-An Inquiry into biology, behavior, sheries, and
tion, Pacic and jack mackerel, shortbelly rocksh, louvar,
                                use, p. 161-171. Oregon State Univ. Extension Pub. EM
grunion, white croaker, queensh, and Pacic sanddab.
                                8330.
Thresher sharks have been observed to use their long
                                Cailliet, G. M., and Bedford, D. W. 1983. The biology of
caudal n to bunch up, disorient and stun prey at or near
                                three pelagic sharks from California waters, and their
the surface and are often caught tail-hooked by longlines.
                                emerging sheries: a review. California Cooperative Oce-
Predation on this species, other than by man, has not
                                anic Fisheries Investigations Reports XXIV, 57-69.
been documented.
                                Camhi, M. 1999. Sharks on the line II: An analysis of
                                Pacic state shark sheries. National Audubon Society,
Status of the Population                    Living Oceans Program, Islip, N.Y. 116 p.


I
                                Hanan, D.A., Holts D.B., Coan A.L., Jr. 1993. The Califor-
 n 1990, this species came under the oversight of
                                nia drift gillnet shery for sharks and swordsh, 1981-1982
 the Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, which
                                through 1990-91. Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 175,
has provided a general forum for coordinating thresher
                                95 p.
shark management among the states of California, Oregon
and Washington, guided by an interjurisdictional shery    Holts, D.B., A.Julian, O. Sosa-Nishizaki and N.W. Bartoo.
management plan for thresher shark. No quotas were       1998. Pelagic shark sheries along the West Coast of the
ever established, but the three states did agree to an     United States and Baja California, Mexico. Fish. Res. 39(2):
annual coastwide landings guideline of 750,000 pounds     115-125.
dressed weight of thresher shark, which since 1991 has
                                Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission (PSMFC). 1990.
never been approached. A stock assessment of this spe-
                                Interjurisdictional Fishery Management Plan for thresher
cies is currently underway, and it has been included as
                                shark off the coasts of California, Oregon and Washington
a management unit species within the Pacic Fisheries
                                (Stick,K., G. Fleming, A. Millikan, L. Hreha, and D. Hanson,
Management Council’s shery management plan for highly
                                eds). Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, Portland
migratory species, currently being drafted.
                                Oregon, 28 pp.
There are indications that management actions taken
after the mid-1980s and resulting reduction in shing pres-
sure may have contributed to a rebuilding in the stock
over the last decade. In the early-1990s, some mid-sized
sh were beginning to reappear in wholesale market sam-
ples in California. More recently, an increase in average



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               341
   Blue Shark
    History of the Fishery                        out the 1990s, blue shark harvest continually declined.
                                      This may be due to the fact that most blue sharks

    B  lue sharks (Prionace glauca) are not a major target of      are released alive. Shark shing trips aboard commercial
      California’s recreational or commercial sheries. Urea      passenger shing vessels (CPFVs) are offered from most
    stored in their blood system quickly turns to ammonia        southern California sport shing landings from two to
    when the shark dies, thus rendering the meat unpalatable.      seven nights per week during the summer.
    Development of a quality meat product has been the          The greatest source of shing mortality for southern Cali-
    limiting factor in creating commercial interest. Only two      fornia blue sharks in the past three decades probably
    serious attempts at developing a quality food product in       occurred as a result of their incidental capture during the
    California have occurred. The rst took place in 1979 and      developing years of the drift gillnet shery for swordsh
    1980 when one vessel shed blue sharks experimentally        and thresher sharks. Annual estimated bycatch in the
    with longline gear. Product quality was judged to be good      late 1970s and early 1980s was between 15,000 and
    enough to establish blue shark as a viable alternate sh-      20,000 blue sharks. Changes in season length, eet size,
    ery, and 150,000 pounds dressed meat were sold at about       time-area closures and the use of large mesh nets substan-
    $0.25 per pound. Although market interest developed in        tially reduced blue shark mortality, although there are no
    several western states, a steady demand could not be         reported estimates of current mortality in this shery.
    assured and the shery was discontinued.
    The second attempt at developing a food product began
                                      Status of Biological Knowledge
    in 1988 with an experimental longline shery directed at
    shortn mako and blue shark. Participants in the shery

                                      T  he blue shark is an oceanic-epipelagic and fringe lit-
    were required to develop a market for human consump-
                                        toral species with a circumglobal distribution. It is
    tion with the bycatch of blue sharks, which were not
                                      found in all temperate and tropical oceans and is thought
    released alive. In 1989 and 1990, a total of 54,000 pounds
                                      to be the most wide-ranging shark species. Although this
    of blue shark was sold for making jerky and “sh and
                                      species can be found in oceanic waters between 43˚F
    chips.” It was clear from these attempts, however, that
                                      and 82˚F, it is most commonly found in cooler water
    a quality food product and related market had not been
                                      temperatures between 45 F and 61˚F. In tropical waters,
    achieved. Participants in the shery substantially reduced
                                      blue sharks show submergence and are typically found
    the incidental mortality of blue sharks by developing a
                                      at greater depths. In temperate waters, blue sharks
    hook removal tool, which allowed up to 88 percent of the
                                      are caught within the mixed layer and generally range
    blue shark catch to be released alive. As a result, the
                                      between the surface and the top of the thermocline,
    requirement to develop a wholesale market for blue sharks
                                      but have been documented as deep as 2,145 feet. In the
    was dropped in 1991. Between 1991 and 1999, the com-
                                      Pacic, blue sharks are most predominant between 35˚N
    mercial harvest of blue sharks dropped to 37,500 pounds.
                                      and 45˚N.
    The recreational catch of blue sharks grew tremendously
                                      Age and growth studies of blue sharks indicate that they
    throughout the 1980s. Estimated annual catch increased
                                      may reach maturity in six to seven years, although there
    ten-fold between 1981 and 1988 with over 400,000 angler-
                                      may be regional differences in growth. They are thought
    trips on private boats, which had “sharks” (including
                                      to be opportunistic feeders at all life stages and prey
    mako sharks) as the primary or secondary target species.
                                      primary on small pelagic shes, crustaceans, and ceph-
    Although angler effort for “sharks” remained high through-
                                      alopods. Blue sharks off southern California have also
                                      been shown to exhibit seasonal dietary shifts when
                                      prey such as squid become abundant during their mass
                                      spawning events.
                                      The blue shark is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta.
                                      Litter size is quite variable ranging from four to 135 pups
                                      and may be dependent on the size of the female. In
                                      the Pacic, it is thought that mating occurs during the
                                      summer months in the equatorial region from May through
                                      August. Gestation period is thought to range from nine
                                      to 12 months and may vary depending on location. Off
                                      California, mating occurs in late spring to early winter.
                                      The Southern California Bight is a major birthing area and
                                      is generally considered a nursery area for immature blue
                       Blue Shark, Prionace glauca
                               Credit: DFG



      California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                           December 2001
342
                                                                          Blue Shark
               250
thousands of pounds landed


               200
    Blue Shark




                                                           Commercial Landings
               150
                                                           1916-1999, Blue Shark
                                                           Data Source: DFG Catch
               100                                           Bulletins and commercial
                                                           landing receipts. All shark
                                                           landings were aggregated
               50
                                                           under the market category
                                                           “unspecified shark” until
               0
                  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999    1977.




sharks. Female blue sharks have been shown to exhibit           Most of the larger catches of blue sharks have been made
sperm storage, which may also explain variability in gesta-        in or just south of this zone.
tion period estimates. Late-term pregnant females are           Diel movements of blue sharks acoustically tracked off
found in the northern Pacic in summer months where            southern California and in the North Atlantic indicate that
they give birth to large, well-developed pups averaging 14         adult blue sharks increase their activity at night and make
inches. This suggests that mature females in the Pacic          shallower dives than during the day. Sharks tracked off
may only reproduce every other year.                    southern California ventured inshore at night, presumably
Seasonal migrations are thought to occur in the Atlantic,         to feed on seasonally available spawning squid. The cycli-
Pacic, and Indian Ocean populations with seasonal peri-          cal diving behavior is thought to serve as a hunting,
ods of sexual segregation. A shark tagging program             orientation, and/or thermoregulatory function.
recently initiated by the department may further elu-           Although adult blue sharks are opportunistic feeders and
cidate the migratory movements of blue sharks in the            prey mainly on small pelagic shes, cephalopods, and
eastern Pacic. However, because no blue shark-tag and           crustacean, they have also been observed scavenging on
recapture programs have been initiated in the central           marine mammal carcasses at sea. Unfortunately, there are
Pacic, the extent of blue shark migration in the central         few data on the diet composition of blue sharks in the
Pacic is still unconrmed.                        central Pacic.
Blue sharks appear to aggregate in loose schools and are
generally caught more frequently over depths greater than
                                      Status of the Population
3,300 feet. They exhibit daily diving behavior similar to
that of other pelagic shes and sharks and appear to

                                      T  he size of California’s blue shark stock is unknown.
show a fair degree of niche overlap with swordsh. Blue
                                        Local abundance undergoes major seasonal uctua-
sharks are incidentally caught in pelagic longline tuna
                                      tions with juveniles to three year olds most abundant
and swordsh sheries in the Pacic and can seasonally
                                      in the coastal waters from early spring to early winter.
comprise the largest percentage of the catch in these
                                      Mature adults are uncommon in coastal waters.
sheries. In recent years, there has been an increase in
                                      Fishery-dependent data needed for determining abun-
the number of blue sharks taken in the tuna and swordsh
                                      dance, mortality, etc. are lacking because blue sharks
longline shery in Hawaii, where sharks are “nned” at
                                      are usually discarded at sea and the catch often goes
sea, and the ns are then sold to Asian markets. The
                                      undocumented. Local abundance depends on recruitment
meat is seldom landed and sold at market due its low
                                      of juveniles and immigration of individuals from Mexico
commercial value.
                                      and offshore into California waters. Although there are no
Based on spatial and temporal changes in blue shark
                                      abundance estimates (local or Pacic-wide), some sher-
abundance in the Pacic, it is suspected that the north-
                                      men and eld biologists speculate that there are fewer
south difference in catch rates of blue sharks is mediated
                                      blue sharks than there were 10 to 20 years ago. The
by the transition zone. This is the area of water between
                                      combined mortality from recreational anglers, commercial
the cooler Aleutian Current and the warmer water from
                                      set net and drift net sheries, Mexican sheries and for-
the North Pacic Current. This transition zone shifts from
                                      eign high seas sheries undoubtedly has the potential
31° N and 36° N in the winter to 41° N and 36° N in the fall.


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                 A Status Report                    343
                                     References
       to impact the population and the local blue shark stock
Blue Shark



       to an unknown extent. Currently though, all research
                                     Cailliet G.M. and D.W. Bedford. 1983. The biology of three
       and statistics indicate that blue shark populations within
                                     pelagic sharks from California waters and their emerging
       California waters remain within healthy levels.
                                     sheries: A review. Cal. COFI Rep. 24:57-60.
                                     Carey, F.G. and J.A. Scharold. 1990. Movements of blue
       David B. Holts
                                     sharks in depth and course. Marine Biology, 109: 329-342.
       National Marine Fisheries Service
                                     Harvey, J.T., 1989. Food habits, seasonal abundance, size,
       Carrie Wilson
                                     and sex of the blue shark, Prionace glauca, in Monterey
       California Dept. of Fish and Game
                                     Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 75(1):33-44.
       Christopher G. Lowe
                                     Nakano, H. 1994. Age, reproduction and migration of blue
       Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State University
                                     shark in the North Pacic Ocean. Bull. Nat. Res. Inst. Far
       Long Beach
                                     Seas Fish. 31:141-256.
                                     Pratt, H.L. 1979. Reproduction in the blue shark, Prionace
                                     glauca.. Fish. Bull. US. 77(2): 445-470.
                                     West Coast Fishery Development Foundation. 1981. A
                                     report on the development of the Pacic blue shark
                                     as a commercial shery. NMFS, S-K Contract No:
                                     80-ABH-00052. 255 p.
                                     Strasburg, D.W. 1958. The distribution, abundance, and
                                     habits of blue sharks in the central Pacic Ocean. Bulletin,
                                     Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, 58: 331-365.
                                     Tricas, T.A. 1979. Relationships of the blue shark, Prionace
                                     glauca, to its prey species near Santa Catalina Island.
                                     Fishery Bulletin, 77:175-182.




         California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December 2001
344
Other Mackerel
Sharks                             Basking sharks are presumed to be ovoviviparous, but




                                                                        Other Mackerel Sharks
                                whether they have intrauterine cannibalism like other
                                lamnoids is uncertain. Gravid females have never been
History of the Fishery                    observed in this species. Males mature at about 13 to 16
                                feet, and females at about 27 to 29 feet. The maximum

T  he mackerel sharks (Order Lamniformes) are a small,    size for this species is 36 feet. The smallest recorded
   but diverse group containing seven families, six of    free-living basking shark measured 5.6 feet, but size at
which occur along the California coast. In addition to    birth is unknown. Maturity has been estimated at six to
mako and thresher sharks, there are three additional     seven years, although the aging technique has never been
mackerel shark species that are caught or have been      veried for this species and may underestimate the age
shed along the coast, the basking shark (Cetorhinus     by one-half. These sharks may live for 30 to 50 years or
maximus), white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), and
salmon shark (Lamna ditropis).
The basking shark was the object of a localized harpoon
shery off the central California coast, but the shery was
sporadic due to periodic declines in the stocks. As with
most shark species, the basking shark is slow growing,
long-lived and probably produces relatively few young.
The California basking shark shery began in the 1930s,
and peaked during the 1940s and 1950s. They were shed
for their oil-rich livers, which were used for tanning
leather and as a base for paints and cosmetics. In addi-
tion, they were utilized for food for human consumption,                        Basking Shark, Cetorhinus maximus
                                                                Credit: DFG
and their ns were used as soup stock. Presently, there is
no shery for these sharks in state coastal waters.
Since they are not abundant enough to be of commercial
importance, there has never been a directed shery for
white sharks off California. They are often taken inciden-
tally in commercial catches and by sport anglers. The
meat is of good quality, the ns may be used as soup
stock, and the teeth and jaws as decorations or jewelry.
Although they have not been targeted in California, the
state nevertheless imposed a ban on white shark shing
in 1993. This followed similar bans in Australia and South
Africa where local artisan sheries for this species had
taken place.
Salmon sharks are not very abundant off California and
are mainly taken as a bycatch to other species. The meat
                                         White Sharks circling research boat, Carcharodon carcharias
is of high quality and is readily sold along with the ns,                                   Credit: DFG
which are used for soup stock. Fishermen often consider
salmon sharks an annoyance because they destroy shing
gear used in more commercially important sheries such
as those for salmon.



Status of Biological Knowledge

T  he basking shark is a coastal pelagic species usually
   found in areas where the water temperature is
between 46° and 57° F. They are found close inshore to
well offshore at depths of over 330 feet, but usually over
the continental shelf. A common species from the Gulf of
                                                       Salmon Shark, Lamna ditropis
Alaska to the Gulf of California, although they appear to                                   Credit: DFG
be less abundant south of Point Conception.


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                          345
Other Mackerel Sharks



                                            10




                              millions of pounds landed
                                            8


                                Unspecified Shark    6

                Commercial Landings
                                            4
                      1916-1999,
                  Unspecified Shark
                                            2
                Data Source: DFG Catch
            Bulletins and commercial land-
            ing receipts. All shark landings                0
                                              1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
             were aggregated until 1977.




             more. Basking sharks grow at an estimated rate of about                   ern California, while intermediate sized animals are more
             16 inches per year, but with the onset of maturity this rate                common in northern California waters.
             slows considerably.                                     White sharks are oviphagous, with litters of between three
             The basking shark is one of three gigantic lter-feeding                  and 14 young. The low frequency with which pregnant
             species of shark and feeds almost exclusively on small                   females have been captured suggests that they may segre-
             planktonic organisms that it traps in its gill rakers. The                 gate away from the main population and that only a
             prey items include small copepods, barnacles, crusta-                    small proportion of the population may be gravid at any
             ceans, and sh eggs and larvae. Approximately one-half                   one time. The Channel Islands off southern California
             ton of food material may be present in the stomach of                    seem to be an area where large females and small white
             an individual shark. It has been estimated that an adult                  sharks are occasionally captured, leading to speculation
             basking shark cruising at a constant speed of two knots                   that females may give birth there. Size at maturity is
             passes approximately 2,000 tons of water over its gills per                 somewhat problematic for females since few pregnant
             hour. Adult basking sharks probably have few predators due                 individuals have been captured and accurately measured,
             to their enormous size, young specimens though are preyed                  but 15 to 16.5 feet appears to be a close approximation.
             upon by white sharks, sperm whales, and killer whales.                   Males mature at about 12 feet and grow to about 18 feet.
                                                           The largest reliably measured white shark from California
             Basking sharks are highly migratory, appearing and then
                                                           waters measured 18.8 feet; however, there is an uncon-
             disappearing seasonally at specic localities. These sharks
                                                           rmed record of one individual that measured 33 feet.
             are especially abundant between October and April off
                                                           The size at birth is four to ve feet. The growth rate of
             the California coast but move northward to Washington
                                                           white sharks has been estimated to be around 12 inches
             and British Columbia during late spring and summer. Bask-
                                                           per year, and they may live to a maximum age of 30 years
             ing sharks are very social animals and are often observed
                                                           or more.
             in small groups of three to 10, but at times number up to
             500 or more individuals.                                  The white shark is perhaps the most formidable of large
                                                           marine predators. It has a broad spectrum of prey species
             The white shark has a worldwide distribution from cold
                                                           that includes bony shes, other sharks, rays, and marine
             temperate to tropical waters, though it is most common
                                                           mammals. Sharks over 10 feet long tend to feed on marine
             in temperate waters between 53° and 68° F. In the east-
                                                           mammals while those less than 6.5 feet feed more on bony
             ern North Pacic the white shark occurs from the Gulf
                                                           and cartilaginous shes. White sharks tend to congregate
             of Alaska to the Gulf of California. It is fairly common
                                                           around seal rookeries, especially when these mammals are
             off central California and around the offshore islands of
                                                           breeding. Sub-adult and young non-breeding adult seals
             southern California.
                                                           appear to be most susceptible to predation.
             The white shark occurs along the nearshore waters of
                                                           The salmon shark range in the eastern Pacic Ocean is
             the California coast, including bays and estuaries, but
                                                           from the Bering Sea to central Baja California. It is a
             sometimes may be oceanic since individuals are common
                                                           coastal and oceanic shark of subarctic and temperate
             around the offshore islands. There seems to be some
                                                           waters, most often found in temperatures of less then 64 °
             spatial segregation by size, as young white sharks under
                                                           F and depths less than 1,200 feet. The salmon shark is
             eight and older ones over 16 feet are common off south-



                 California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                                     December 2001
346
                               References
common on continental offshore waters to close inshore,




                                                              Other Mackerel Sharks
but also ranges far from land, over deep oceanic waters.
                               Ainley, D.G., R.H. Henderson, H.R. Huber, R.J. Boekel-
Salmon sharks are oviphagous with litters of two to
                               heide, S.G. Allen, and T.L. McElroy. 1985. Dynamics of
ve young. Birth usually occurs in the spring between
                               white shark/pinniped interactions in the Gulf of the Faral-
March and May after a 12-month gestation. Males mature
                               lones. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Mem. 9: 109-122.
between six and eight feet, and females at 6.25 to 8.25
                               Cailliet, G.M., L.J. Natanson, B.A. Welden, & D.A. Ebert.
feet. The maximum reported size is 10 feet. Size at birth
                               1985. Preliminary studies on the age and growth of
is 25.5 to 31.5 inches. Estimated age at maturity is ve
                               the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, using vertebral
years for males and nine or 10 years for females, with a
                               bands. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Mem. 9: 49-60.
maximum age of between 20 and 30 years.
                               Parker, H.W. and F.C. Stott. 1965. Age, size, and vertebral
The salmon shark feeds mostly on bony shes. They may
                               calcication in the basking shark, Cetorhinus maximus.
follow their main prey, salmon, as they migrate around
                               Zool Meded., 40(34): 305-319.
the North Pacic Ocean basin. Salmon sharks are known
to forage in groups of 30 to 40 individuals using social   Paust, B.C. and R. Smith. 1986. Salmon shark manuel.
facilitation to hunt salmon and other schooling species.   The development of a commercial salmon shark, Lamna
When attacking a school of salmon these sharks usually    ditropis, shery in the North Pacic. Uni. Alaska, Alaska
initiate the attack from below and catch their prey by    Sea Grant Rept. 86-01, May 1986: 1-430.
running it down in a high-speed chase rather than
ambushing it.



Status of the Populations

T  he basking shark has not been commercially shed for
  more than 30 years, and no recent stock assessment
has been made.
Although no demographic studies exist to estimate the
white shark’s population in our area, circumstantial evi-
dence suggests that their numbers may be increasing in
response to the burgeoning marine mammal population.
With California’s increasing human population this may
inevitably lead to more human-shark interactions. One
researcher has estimated that between 10 and 20 white
sharks are caught per year along the California coast.
Unfortunately, more accurate data are unavailable.
There is virtually no information on the salmon shark’s
abundance and stock structure in the eastern North Pacic.


David Ebert
US Abalone




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                           A Status Report                347
   Opah
    History of the Fishery                         Status of Biological Knowledge

    O                                    O
      pah (Lampris guttatus) are taken commercially as             ne of two living species known within the Lampridae
      an incidental catch in the drift gillnet shery (94           family, this species is most commonly referred to by
    percent), but are also captured in the high seas longline        its West African name, opah; however, it may also be
    shery (three percent) beyond the U.S. Exclusive Eco-          called African pompano, giant pompano, Hawaiian moon-
    nomic Zone (200 mile limit) off California. Prior to 1976,       sh, moonsh, mariposa or Jerusalem haddock. The genus
    they were also recorded as incidental catch in the Pacic        Lampris is derived from the Greek lampros meaning radi-
    halibut, sardine, salmon, and albacore sheries.            ant, while the species guttatus is likely derived from
                                        the Latin word for spot, guttat. The opah’s laterally com-
    Between 1976 and 1989, only 1,660,856 pounds of opah
                                        pressed, oval body is an iridescent, silvery-blue with
    were landed in California, with no landings in some years,
                                        round to oval white spots. The snout, lips and ns are a
    and the largest landings following the 1982-1983 El Niño
                                        brilliant red. The bones of the small, toothless mouth are
    (516,126 pounds in 1984). Between 1990 and 1999, approx-
                                        capable of protruding forward, forming an unusual upper
    imately 1,470,653 pounds of opah were landed in Califor-
                                        jaw mechanism employed during feeding. The forked
    nia, with annual landings ranging from 81,669 to 246,530
                                        caudal n and lateral red musculature likely function in
    pounds. The highest landings of the decade occurred in
                                        low-speed swimming, the caudal n and lateral white
    1998; once again associated with a warm water event (the
                                        musculature in acceleration and the moderately long pec-
    1997-1998 El Niño). Although the majority of opah landed
                                        toral ns in maintaining normal cruising speeds. The
    in California since 1990 were landed from San Luis Obispo
                                        modes of locomotion associated with the opah’s muscula-
    County south (about 50 percent from San Diego County
                                        ture are well-suited to its pelagic lifestyle. Many pelagic
    alone), landings were reported as far north as Crescent City.
                                        shes undergo periods of sustained swimming with inter-
    Sport shermen targeting albacore from British Columbia
                                        mittent bursts of speed used during activities such as
    to Baja California occasionally catch opah. Within Califor-
                                        feeding. The opah maintains neutral buoyancy by means
    nia, many sport caught opah are taken from the northern
                                        of a functional air bladder and a skeletal structure of
    Channel Islands south to the Coronado Islands, just below
                                        oil-lled, porous bones.
    the U.S.-Mexico border. Anglers state that opah hit live
                                        Opah occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas. In
    bait or articial lures with considerable fury.
                                        the eastern Pacic, they occur from Chile to the Gulf of
    Opah esh is tasty, can be prepared in a variety of ways,
                                        Alaska. All life stages of this species are pelagic and oce-
    and is excellent when smoked. The salmon-colored esh,
                                        anic, occurring from the sea surface to a depth of 1,680
    darker over the pectoral n, is very fatty just below the
                                        feet. Seasonal movements are not known in the northeast-
    skin but is otherwise rich, dry, rm and delicate.
                                        ern Pacic, but in the northeastern Atlantic opah catch
                                        has been reported in the North Sea and waters off Iceland
                                        solely during the summer.
                                        Little is known about opah reproduction. Spawning loca-
                                        tions and seasons are unknown; however, a mature female
                                        was taken in the spring off California. Neither reproduc-
                                        tive capacity nor the size of eggs is known. Very small
                                        opah, nearly one-half inch long, resemble miniature adults
                                        in body form, and have a complete set of n rays. Fish up
                                        to eight inches in length are referred to as juveniles while
                                        those greater than 41 inches are called adults, although
                                        the exact size and age at maturity is unknown. Opah
                                        are known to grow to at least 54 inches in length, but
                                        have been reported to reach 72 inches. They are known
                                        to reach a weight of at least 160 pounds and have been
                                        reported to reach 500 to 600 pounds. The maximum age
                                        of opah is unknown.
                                        The diet of larvae and juveniles is undetermined. As
                                        adults, opah are midwater predators that eat cephalo-
                                        pods, crustaceans and bony shes such as anchovy, lan-
                                        cetsh, and cutlasssh. Aside from humans, predators of
                          Opah, Lampris guttatus
                            Credit: J.B. Philips  opah have not been documented.



      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
348
                                                                          Opah
             600
thousands of pounds landed


             500

             400
     Opah




             300                                           Commercial Landings
                                                         1916-1999, Opah
             200
                                                         Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                         Bulletins and commercial
             100
                                                         landing receipts. Commercial
                                                         landing data not available for
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   Opah prior to 1976.




Status of the Population                         References

T  he size of the opah population, worldwide or off the        Freeman, K. 1984. Opah the moonsh. Pacic Fishing.
   coast of California is not known. Opah are probably         August: 25-27.
solitary sh as few are encountered at any one time. It         Herald, E. S. 1939. The opah (Lampris regius) and its
is not known whether local subpopulations exist or how          occurrence off the California coast. Calif. Fish Game 25(3):
far individual opah travel. Based upon trends over the          228-232.
last two decades, opah landings in California are likely to
                                     Olney, J.E., G.D. Johnson, and C.C. Baldwin. 1993. Phylog-
increase after El Niño events.
                                     eny of lampridiform shes. Bulletin of Marine Science
                                     52(1): 137-169.
Management Considerations                        Parin, N. V., and N. S. Kukuyev. 1983. Reestablishment
                                     of the validity of Lampris immaculata Gilchrist and the
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for             geographical distribution of the Lampridae. J. Ichthyol.
further information.                           23(1): 1-12.


Sarah D. MacWilliams
California Department of Fish and Game
M. James Allen
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project




   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                               A Status Report                    349
   Louvar
    History of the Fishery                        year but overall have remained relatively stable, with an
                                       average of 10,923 pounds (1986-1989), and 9,584 pounds

    O  ff California, louvar (Luvarus imperialis) tend to be      (1990-1999).
      seasonal transients associated with warm water cur-       Landings off California from 1990 through 1999 had a total
    rents late in the year. When present, they are considered       ex-vessel value of $297,500 with an average of $29,750
    a desirable, but incidental catch species primarily in the      per year. The ex-vessel price per pound ranged from
    shark and swordsh drift gillnet shery. Although primar-       $2.48 in 1992 to $3.71 in 1998, with a mean value of $3.20.
    ily taken in this shery, landings from other gear types       Although landing amounts have remained relatively con-
    such as set gillnet, hook-and-line, harpoon, trawl, and        stant, the average price paid for louvar has increased over
    round haul nets have been recorded. The majority of          three-fold since 1986. Louvar esh is delicate and white
    catches occur off the Southern California Bight, with suc-      with a mild avor, and is considered by many shermen to
    cess being highest in the area encompassing Point Loma,        be among the most delicious of shes. This admiration has
    San Clemente Island, and Cortez Bank. In the drift gillnet      been carried over to the markets where the fresh sh are
    shery, sh tend to be caught at depths of 18 to 78 feet.       sold to the better restaurants.
    Inasmuch as louvar are strongly associated with warmer
    water currents, catches of this species typically increase
                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
    during the late summer through fall and show a dramatic
    rise during strong El Niño events. Louvar occasionally are

                                       L uvarus imperialis, meaning “silver emperor,” is the
    found stranded on the beach or drifting dead at the sea
                                        only member of the family Luvaridae. This streamlined
    surface. There is not a signicant recreational shery
                                       sh has a strongly compressed body and a blunt head with
    for louvar.
                                       a small, terminal, toothless mouth and a horizontal groove
    From 1990 through 1999, a total of 95,844 pounds were
                                       above each eye. The caudal n is lunate with a keel on the
    landed in California; annual landings ranged from 5,190
                                       caudal peduncle. Males have long laments in front of the
    pounds in 1994 to 17,498 pounds in 1992. Annual landings
                                       soft dorsal and anal ns. Adults have frothy pink bodies
    since the mid-1980s have shown uctuations from year-to-
                                       covered with dark spots and crimson ns, although after
                                       death the body turns silvery. Except for the blunt head,
                                       louvar are adapted for rapid swimming, with their lunate
                                       caudal n and keeled caudal peduncle. When swimming
                                       slowly, louvar presumably scull with their caudal n.
                                       Louvar occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas.
                                       In the eastern Pacic they are found from central Wash-
                                       ington to Chile. Although generally uncommon, they are
                                       relatively abundant in southern California. All life stages
                                       of this species are pelagic and oceanic. Adults occur from
                                       the sea surface to a depth of 1,970 feet, but most are
                                       found at depths below 660 feet. The larvae have been
                                       taken at temperatures of 70.9-82.2° F. Spawning occurs
                                       in temperate waters between 40° N and 40° S latitude,
                                       from late spring to summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
                                       A ripe individual was taken off Morro Bay, California in
                                       May. Louvar fecundity is very high, which is typical of non-
                                       schooling, oceanic shes; a female 66.9 inches (5.6 feet)
                                       long had a fecundity of 47.5 million eggs.
                                       Larvae range from 0.14 to 0.42 inches in length. The
                                       larvae and small juveniles look sufciently different from
                                       the adult that they were once thought to be different
                                       species. They have strong, serrated dorsal and anal spines
                                       and a short body. The smallest juveniles have long, deep
                                       ns and dark spots on the body. Larger juveniles (four
                                       to eight inches) are similar to the adult but have longer
                                       dorsal and anal ns.
                        Louvar, Luvarus imperialis
                         Credit: Charles Cranford


      California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                           December 2001
350
                                                                           Louvar
               20
thousands of pounds landed


               16

               12
     Louvar




               8                                           Commercial Landings
                                                          1916-1999, Louvar
               4                                           Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                                          and commercial landing receipts.
                                                          Commercial landing data are not
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   available prior to 1984.


                                     Management Considerations
The size and age of louvar at rst maturity is not known;
however, a 295-pound female was mature. Louvar grow to
                                     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
at least 74 inches and 305 pounds. Because the otoliths
                                     further information.
are tiny and not useful for aging, the maximum age
is unknown.
As midwater browsers, they feed primarily on gelatinous          Michael Dege
zooplankton such as jellysh, ctenophores, and free-           California Department of Fish and Game
swimming tunicates (salps and pyrosomes), but occasion-
                                     M. James Allen
ally eat small sh. Only about 20 percent of the louvar
                                     Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
taken have had food in their stomachs.
The louvar stomach is lined with numerous papillae and
                                     References
the coiled intestine is extremely long. The intestine of
adults is about eight to nine times as long as the sh.
                                     Decamps, P. 1986. Luvaridae. Pages 998-999 In: P. J. P.
These features presumably are adaptations for feeding
                                     Whitehead, M.-L. Bauchot, J-C. Hureau, J. Nielson, and E.
on jellysh.
                                     Tortonese (eds.), Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and
An eight-inch louvar was found in the stomach of a wahoo.
                                     the Mediterranean, Vol. 2. UNESCO, Paris, Fr.
Otherwise, predators other than man are not known. The
                                     Fitch, J.E., and R. J. Lavenberg. 1968. Deep-water Fishes of
gastrointestinal areas of louvar are often parasitized by
                                     California. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, CA. 155 p.
digenean trematodes.
                                     Gotshall, D. W., and J. E. Fitch. 1968. The louvar Luvarus
                                     imperialis in the eastern Pacic, with notes on its life
Status of the Population                         history. Copeia 1968(1):181-183.


T
                                     Nishikawa, Y. 1987. Larval morphology and occurrence of
  he size of the louvar population worldwide or off
                                     the louvar, Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae). Jpn. J. Ichthyol.
  California is not known. Louvar are solitary sh and
                                     34(2):215-221.
few are taken at any one time. Because the population is
worldwide in tropical and temperate seas, the California         Tyler, J. C., G. D. Johnson, I. Nakamura, and B. B. Collette.
shery probably has little impact on the species as a           1989. Morphology of Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae), with a
whole. It is not known whether local subpopulations exist         phylogenetic analysis of the Acanthuroidei (Pisces). Smith-
or how far individual louvar travel. Using recent landings        son. Contrib. Zool. No. 485. 78 p.
as an indicator, the local availability of the species is likely
to become more abundant off California following warm
water periods or El Niño events. Although commercial
landings of louvar are recorded by the California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, the louvar is not presently a
target species and the shery is not actively managed.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                     351
   Dolphin
    History of the Fishery                        is also a species that commonly associates with surface
                                       oating objects, and thus may have evolved avoidance

    T  he dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus), also known as mahi       capabilities that prevent it from becoming entangled in
      mahi, or more commonly in California, as dorado,         drifting materials.
    occurs in the California recreational catch primarily during
    warm water years. Most catches occur in the Southern
                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
    California Bight, especially south of Los Angeles. Before
    1972, the annual California commercial passenger shing

                                       G  rowth in dolphin is extremely rapid. Fish reach matu-
    vessel (CPFV) catches during the July through October
                                         rity in less than a year (at about 14 inches or seven
    shing season seldom exceeded a few hundred sh. There-
                                       months old) and only rarely live beyond three to four
    after over 1,000 were taken in 23 of the next 25 seasons.
                                       years. Actual growth rates vary among regions and are
    A major shift occurred in 1990 when the catch exceeded
                                       sensitive to prevailing water temperatures. In captivity,
    31,000 sh, and averaged 15,602 sh per year between
                                       dolphin grow about 0.05 inches per day at 64˚F, 0.13
    1990 and 1997 (range: 1,000 to 31,548).
                                       inches per day at 77˚F, and 0.23 inches per day at 84˚F.
    In commercial sheries, an estimated average of 1,084         Length/age data from sh taken in the wild show dolphin
    dolphin have been landed and 324 released per year by         have an average growth of about a 0.09 inches per day.
    the high seas longline shery landing in California during      In the western Pacic, dolphin reach a length of 15 inches
    the period August 1,1995, through December 31, 1999. It        the rst year, 27 inches the second year, 35 inches the
    is occasionally taken by albacore bait and troll boats and      third year, and 43 inches the fourth year.
    tuna purse seine vessels. It is rare in the drift gillnet
                                       Larval dolphin feed mainly on crustaceans, particularly
    catch, possibly because its surface-swimming habits take
                                       pontellid copepods, with sh larvae appearing in the diet
    it above the reach of the top of these nets. Judging from
                                       of young juveniles greater than eight inches. Adult dolphin
    the length of net extenders deployed, observed sets have
                                       are mainly piscivorous, with ying sh being the most
    averaged about 35 feet below the surface over the past
                                       important in volume and occurrence. Jacks, mackerels,
    decade. During the summer of 1996, when over 21,000
                                       rabbitshes, squids and portunid crabs are also taken in
    dorado were taken by the CPFV eet, the >68˚ F layer
                                       various parts of their range. Adults can swim faster than
    was observed to be less than 33 feet deep, indicating
                                       33 feet per second, and can feed at low light levels.
    a very shallow suitable habitat zone for dolphin. This
                                       All life stages of dolphin serve as prey for other oceanic
                                       shes, particularly marlin, epipelagic sharks, swordsh,
                                       sailsh, and other dolphin.
                                       There is little information about Pacic Ocean migrations,
                                       but dolphin are thought to migrate relatively long dis-
                                       tances in the western Atlantic and Mediterranean. In the
                                       eastern Pacic, temperature seems to be an important
                                       factor in dening the range and possibly the movements of
                                       this species, the northern barrier being the California Cur-
                                       rent, and in the south, the Peru Current. Various authors
                                       report seasonal patterns in catches, possibly relating to
                                       spawning migrations or seasonal intrusion of preferred
                                       warm water temperatures. Norton noted the dramatic
                                       increase in recreational catches of dolphin off southern
                                       California and northern Mexico over the past 30 years
                                       (especially during the last decade). He suggested that
                                       the habitat of dolphin has been expanding northward
                                       in response to an oceanic and atmospheric regime shift
                                       that has brought periods of warmer water and enhanced
                                       northward current ow to California. It has also brought
                                       less cold water upwelling off northern Mexico, which had
                                       formerly inhibited northward dispersal.
                                       Dolphin are oviparous with pelagic eggs and larvae; fertil-
                                       ization is external. Spawning is thought to occur year
                                       round in waters above 75˚ F, although there may be
                       Dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus
                               Credit: NMFS


      California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                           December 2001
352
                                                                                  Dolphin
                90
 thousands of pounds landed

                80
                70
                60
      Dolphin




                50
                                                                 Commercial Landings
                40
                                                                 1916-1999, Dolphin
                30                                                Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                20                                                and commercial landing
                10                                                receipts. No commercial land-
                                                                 ings are reported for dolphin
                   0  1916 1920   1930  1940  1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999    prior to 1977.




                                            Status of the Population
reproductive peaks with eggs released in batches within
a given reproductive pulse. Fecundity increases sharply

                                            T  he status of the population is unknown. Since Califor-
with size, and assuming three spawns a year, estimated
                                              nia is on the northern range of dolphin, our sheries
total egg production varies from about 240,000 to almost
                                            may be subject to a great deal of variation due to changes
3 million eggs per year for sh. Certain times of the year
                                            in oceanographic patterns and even moderate variations
may be more conducive to larval survival, e.g., in Hawaii
                                            in stock size.
the strongest cohorts are spawned in July. Spawning of
the California-Mexico dolphin population evidently takes
place in waters south of the U.S. West Coast EEZ. In
                                            Management Considerations
CalCOFI larval sh surveys, larvae have been collected
off central and southern Baja California, Mexico, and only
                                            See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
occasionally in warm water years, off southern California,
                                            further information.
with peak abundance in August and September. Age at
                                            Susan Smith
female maturity is 0.6 years with maximum reproductive
                                            National Marine Fisheries Service
age at four.
                                            Stephen J. Crooke
Little is known of stock structure in the Pacic. Because of
                                            California Department of Fish and Game
the dolphin’s brief life-cycle and seasonal catch patterns,
it seems unlikely that the U.S.-Mexico stock is shared
with Hawaii or shing nations in the central and western
                                            References
Pacic, however, stock mixing cannot be ruled out. The
relationship of the Mexico stock to stocks occurring fur-
                                            Lasso, J. and L. Zapata. 1999. Fisheries and biology
ther south along the Pacic coast of Central and South
                                            of Coryphaena hippurus (Pisces: Coryphaenidae) in the
American is not known. Because seasonal migrations in
                                            Pacic Coast of Columbia and Panama. Scientia Marina 63
the North Pacic show a reverse tendency to that in the
                                            (3-4): 387-399.
Southern Hemisphere, there may be at least two stocks in
                                            Massutí, E. and B. Morales-Nin (eds.) 1999. Biology and
the Pacic Ocean separated by the equator.
                                            Fishery of Dorado and Related Species. Scientia Marina
                                            63(3-4):261-266.
              35
                                            Norton, J.G. 1999. Apparent habitat extensions of dorado
              30
thousands of fish landed




                                            (Coryphaena hippurus) in response to climate transients in
              25
    Dolphin




                                            the California Current. Scientia Marina 63(3-4):239-260.
              20
              15
                                            Palko, B.J., G.L. Beardsley, and W.J. Richards. 1982. Syn-
              10
                                            opsis of the biological data on dolphin-shes, Coryphaena
              5
                                            hippurus Linnaeus and Coryphaena equiselis Linnaeus. FAO
              0 1947
                                            Fisheries Synopsis No.
                   1950    1960  1970  1980  1990  1999


Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Dolphin
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.



    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                          California’s Living Marine Resources:
          December 2001                                      A Status Report                     353
                              Commercial Landings -
                              Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks




                                            Tunas                           Sharks
                                    Albacore    Bluefin    Skipjack    Yellowfin    Blue    Shortfin  Thresher  Unspecified
                                      Tuna1     Tuna1      Tuna 2      Tuna 2  Shark3  Mako Shark3   Shark3    Shark3
                              Year    Pounds     Pounds     Pounds      Pounds   Pounds    Pounds   Pounds    Pounds

                              1916  22,899,309       ----      ----      ----   ----      ----    ----    36,247
                              1917  30,556,242       ----      ----      ----   ----      ----    ----    287,872
                              1918   7,265,422      ----   3,022,964       ----   ----      ----    ----   403,093
                              1919  13,630,899   14,990,860    6,892,427     348,081   ----      ----    ----    612,683
                              1920  18,876,647   10,530,272     7,957,277    1,965,024   ----      ----    ----    811,349
                              1921  15,276,727    1,971,813    1,134,993    1,297,451   ----      ----    ----   539,333
                              1922  13,231,823    2,811,283   11,857,833    7,405,279   ----      ----    ----    282,018
                              1923  12,514,833    3,218,090   11,462,522   10,836,925    ----      ----    ----   360,363
                              1924  17,695,362    3,241,110    3,774,058    3,063,398   ----      ----    ----   392,634
                              1925  22,206,923    3,803,677   14,222,453   13,237,898    ----      ----    ----   372,332
                              1926   2,469,921   6,526,533   20,951,348   12,564,986    ----      ----    ----   506,723
                              1927   4,656,959   4,898,465   33,805,960   25,933,966    ----      ----    ----   325,653
                              1928   4,065,729  13,700,870    15,946,910   32,253,206    ----      ----    ----    623,816
                              1929   6,110,330   7,526,857   27,066,588   37,444,924    ----      ----    ----   833,985
                              1930   7,288,685  21,921,282    20,485,587   56,657,768    ----      ----    ----    647,297
                              1931   6,976,401   3,534,030   16,506,761   36,581,376    ----      ----    ----    596,134
                              1932   3,087,215   2,125,001   21,636,577   36,923,410    ----      ----    ----   850,888
                              1933   2,794,452   1,449,828   17,093,041   51,075,630    ----      ----    ----    471,030
                              1934   4,287,296  18,357,828    16,409,439    61,137,102   ----      ----    ----   526,280
                              1935   5,678,793   25,319,614   19,803,954   72,294,127    ----      ----    ----    555,256
                              1936   2,456,004  19,669,935    29,271,030   78,361,272    ----      ----    ----    471,861
                              1937   4,743,709   13,217,984   54,698,995   92,406,606    ----      ----    ----    914,205
                              1938  13,574,635   17,732,359    26,152,974   78,363,005    ----      ----    ----  7,504,329
                              1939  16,423,234   11,835,715    31,186,950   110,417,801    ----      ----    ----  9,227,750
                              1940   7,078,334  19,970,268    56,910,522  113,898,209    ----      ----    ----  7,860,030
                              1941   4,314,508    9,519,012   25,707,064   76,701,820    ----      ----    ----   7,617,334
                              1942  11,091,866   12,844,564    38,735,228    41,466,614   ----      ----    ----  3,551,566
                              1943  21,384,864   10,178,768   28,893,784   49,261,328    ----      ----    ----  3,729,334
                              1944  20,989,479   20,343,550    30,037,236   63,143,891    ----      ----    ----  2,613,431
                              1945  21,333,779   20,594,309    33,347,896   87,331,440    ----      ----    ----  2,438,096
                              1946  18,077,899   22,031,802    41,087,994  127,246,675    ----      ----    ----  1,608,846
                              1947  13,427,281   20,837,673    52,460,168  150,459,384    ----      ----    ----  2,637,926
                              1948  37,609,789    6,696,987   58,771,706  191,723,981    ----      ----    ----  2,480,555
                              1949  44,290,320    4,389,471   78,574,657  185,612,094    ----      ----    ----  1,550,992
                              1950  66,123,624    2,846,841  128,041,078   190,446,466    ----      ----    ----    717,247
                              1951  48,436,233    3,864,530   118,637,672  173,668,653    ----      ----    ----   842,324
                              1952  72,328,772    4,576,685   88,891,667   185,517,690    ----      ----    ----   623,238
                              1953  80,022,721    9,835,062  130,653,919   140,544,952    ----      ----    ----    449,753
                              1954  64,573,673   21,795,967   169,463,946   149,103,693    ----      ----    ----   770,337
                              1955  73,846,973   13,952,523   120,524,989   162,818,007    ----      ----    ----    576,201
                              1956  57,377,986   12,788,843   135,995,434   203,885,507    ----      ----    ----  1,085,314
                              1957  83,089,272   20,637,570   111,436,303   182,041,635    ----      ----    ----   728,900
                              1958  54,673,098   31,477,208   148,158,256   218,075,149    ----      ----    ----    491,713
                              1959  62,482,446   15,797,703   146,194,191  210,992,058    ----      ----    ----    602,191
                              1960   71,452,175   13,416,411   74,798,635  272,648,098    ----      ----    ----    694,191
                              1961  59,414,251   22,155,190   86,747,632  262,310,262    ----      ----    ----    623,972
                              1962  73,354,129   33,119,729   99,059,469   218,148,910    ----      ----    ----    753,177
                              1963  65,804,803   32,701,801   106,284,833   162,326,222    ----      ----    ----   665,367
                              1964  74,720,964   26,831,939    72,554,280  202,855,729    ----      ----    ----   646,569
                              1965  68,025,134   16,734,506    89,919,213  196,435,355    ----      ----    ----   648,265
                              1966  73,908,838   37,939,210   65,225,532  189,844,772    ----      ----    ----   653,790
                              1967   71,747,685  13,735,595   114,958,800   167,251,535    ----      ----    ----   596,898
                              1968  76,099,731   13,016,373    60,673,827  212,238,450    ----      ----    ----    499,947
                              1969  71,055,426   15,607,319   48,680,081  240,746,510    ----      ----    ----   478,235
                              1970  29,931,714    8,655,295   76,480,634  231,956,638    ----      ----    ----    420,318
                              1971  36,116,734   17,250,966   101,377,638   150,941,111    ----      ----    ----    421,335
                              1972  21,001,214   24,877,721    35,944,884  241,704,982    ----      ----    ----    400,769
                              1973   8,640,852  20,187,207    29,809,281  232,793,961    ----      ----    ----    418,694
                              1974  11,806,150   11,605,792    59,975,341   246,110,479    ----      ----    ----    497,359
                              1975  15,412,778   16,360,774    73,810,130  234,252,185    ----      ----    ----   533,954
                              1976   27,759,376  18,789,445   122,694,052   276,064,610    ----      ----    ----   862,204
                              1977  15,904,840    6,939,994   81,620,289  195,596,189    ----     19,911  129,522  1,070,685
                              1978  21,549,428    9,561,343   137,185,991  191,100,304    ----      ----  302,073   1,184,411
                              1979   8,442,098  13,273,516    94,796,032  165,845,675    ----     35,334  735,743   1,157,227


                                  California’s Living Marine Resources:              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                       A Status Report                          December 2001
     354
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks, cont’d




                                                                           Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
                  Tunas                                     Sharks
      Albacore       Bluefin       Skipjack      Yellowfin        Blue      Shortfin  Thresher  Unspecified
        Tuna1        Tuna1        Tuna 2        Tuna 2      Shark3    Mako Shark3   Shark3    Shark3
Year     Pounds        Pounds        Pounds        Pounds       Pounds      Pounds   Pounds    Pounds

1980   11,958,760      5,371,000     174,406,052      190,185,117       192,130     155,336   1,806,007  1,423,633
1981   20,584,321      1,912,748     127,578,862      167,751,112       203,074     277,345   1,974,037   909,596
1982   9,436,938      5,301,256     92,381,839     136,176,299        57,838     533,839   2,397,171   449,024
1983   16,545,410      1,682,296     99,196,795     122,885,366        13,983     330,260   1,726,646   433,410
1984   26,126,747      1,400,998     68,896,983      77,299,186        3,864     242,837   1,659,104   314,251
1985   14,197,002      7,173,299      6,562,190      33,123,315        2,385     226,695   1,540,799   277,951
1986    7,248,173     10,431,044      3,000,340      47,436,173        3,316     473,684    606,595   201,201
1987   3,511,503      1,814,041      12,619,100      51,149,000        3,410     612,020    525,104   167,867
1988   2,669,538      1,771,706     19,539,462      43,033,185        7,147     489,217    536,711    44,236
1989    1,918,914      2,246,118      9,932,415     38,834,297        13,521     388,322    649,984    22,775
1990   1,902,318      2,040,073      4,472,810      18,759,062       43,675     577,128    461,606    18,111
1991   1,493,811       228,896      7,511,801       9,209,749       1,200     322,097    758,266    10,704
1992   2,772,642      2,396,650      5,700,648       7,384,579       2,880     215,876    394,192     6,966
1993   4,027,882      1,163,581     10,006,587       8,254,649         522     185,254    356,059     9,773
1994   6,989,093      2,012,277      4,653,967      11,141,997       24,828     193,782    427,513    12,422
1995   1,833,340      1,567,454     15,428,051       6,685,493       7,360     145,278    342,335    25,076
1996   11,332,004      10,327,599     12,024,568       7,376,529        320     142,013    405,042     9,618
1997    7,398,111      4,958,129     13,381,560      10,524,823         236     210,518    411,487    12,919
1998   5,311,746      4,281,798     12,614,505      12,736,163        1,070     148,331    413,775    11,867
1999   12,294,268       364,508      8,286,038       2,981,179        116      94,646    328,415    13,354

- - - - Landings data not available.
1
   Data includes shipments and landings from areas north and south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
2
   Data includes shipments and landings from areas south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
3
   All shark landings were aggregated until 1977.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                             A Status Report               355
                              Commercial Landings -
                              Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks




                                  Dolphin Fish  Louvar   Opah    Swordfish      Dolphin Fish       Louvar        Opah       Swordfish
                              Year    Pounds   Pounds   Pounds     Pounds  Year    Pounds        Pounds        Pounds       Pounds

                              1916     ----   ----    ----     ----   1980     4,507         ----         ----       1,197,187
                              1917     ----   ----    ----     ----   1981     8,344         ----        2,989      1,142,897
                              1918     ----   ----    ----    18,442   1982     2,424         ----        69,347       1,691,161
                              1919     ----   ----    ----    18,252   1983     1,183         ----       179,914      2,675,218
                              1920     ----   ----    ----    12,513   1984     7,774        18,009       516,126      4,393,278
                              1921     ----   ----    ----    14,803   1985      424         ----       394,873      5,196,685
                              1922     ----   ----    ----    23,256   1986     3,453         ----       218,769      3,845,932
                              1923     ----   ----    ----    11,691   1987      714        11,674        92,493      2,741,015
                              1924     ----   ----    ----    31,833   1988      377        10,917        67,868      2,484,428
                              1925     ----   ----    ----    27,045   1989      828        8,196       116,966      2,861,277
                              1926     ----   ----    ----    45,543   1990     1,510        14,105       103,606      1,871,535
                              1927     ----   ----    ----   130,288   1991      713        6,147        81,678      1,564,946
                              1928     ----   ----    ----   426,001   1992     7,123        17,498       112,785      2,354,831
                              1929     ----   ----    ----   693,081   1993     37,250        15,020       123,614      2,684,569
                              1930     ----   ----    ----   562,729    1994     82,211        5,191       155,811      2,574,758
                              1931     ----   ----    ----   340,769   1995     10,915        5,300       143,473      1,764,736
                              1932     ----   ----    ----   661,470   1996     19,502        9,512       180,340      1,768,544
                              1933     ----   ----    ----   850,699    1997     10,318        6,343       178,147      2,205,694
                              1934     ----   ----    ----   263,958   1998     6,970        10,951       247,586      2,054,089
                              1935     ----   ----    ----   669,283   1999     35,795        8,509       144,947      3,054,630
                              1936     ----   ----    ----   577,402
                              1937     ----   ----    ----   625,307    - - - - Landings data not available.
                                                            1
                              1938     ----   ----    ----   722,478      Data includes shipments and landings from areas north and south of the State between 1916
                              1939     ----   ----    ----   594,360      and 1969.
                                                            2
                              1940     ----   ----    ----   887,168      Data includes shipments and landings from areas south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
                                                            3
                              1941     ----   ----    ----   916,739      All shark landings were aggregated until 1977.
                              1942     ----   ----    ----   445,908
                              1943     ----   ----    ----   336,386
                              1944     ----   ----    ----   751,596
                              1945     ----   ----    ----   363,093
                              1946     ----   ----    ----   863,494
                              1947     ----   ----    ----  1,009,957
                              1948     ----   ----    ----  1,113,808
                              1949     ----   ----    ----   198,361
                              1950     ----   ----    ----    26,494
                              1951     ----   ----    ----   228,034
                              1952     ----   ----    ----   265,690
                              1953     ----   ----    ----   142,831
                              1954     ----   ----    ----    23,055
                              1955     ----   ----    ----   134,659
                              1956     ----   ----    ----   275,174
                              1957     ----   ----    ----   375,986
                              1958     ----   ----    ----   471,775
                              1959     ----   ----    ----   448,220
                              1960     ----   ----    ----   324,754
                              1961     ----   ----    ----   368,855
                              1962     ----   ----    ----    39,057
                              1963     ----   ----    ----    98,074
                              1964     ----   ----    ----   183,023
                              1965     ----   ----    ----   327,174
                              1966     ----   ----    ----   468,772
                              1967     ----   ----    ----   305,067
                              1968     ----   ----    ----   199,398
                              1969     ----   ----    ----  1,031,583
                              1970     ----   ----    ----   944,745
                              1971     ----   ----    ----   154,418
                              1972     ----   ----    ----   265,982
                              1973     ----   ----    ----   613,544
                              1974     ----   ----    ----   649,502
                              1975     ----   ----    ----   865,536
                              1976     ----   ----    2,458    83,623
                              1977    10,646   ----    ----   511,388
                              1978      159   ----    ----  2,604,233
                              1979      694   ----    ----   586,529




                                  California’s Living Marine Resources:         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                       A Status Report                     December 2001
    356
Recreational Catch -
Highly Migratory Finfish




                                                                   Recreational Catch - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
      Albacore        Bluefin    Skipjack   Yellowfin    Striped
         Tuna         Tuna      Tuna      Tuna     Marlin    Dolphin Fish
                 No. of Fish1  No. of Fish1  No. of Fish1  No. of Fish1    No. of Fish1
Year    No. of Fish

1947     11,445         2,194       698      137       37         15
1948     15,414          104       460      18       58        ----
1949     22,692         1,941        9      11       28        ----
1950     118,087          27       31       6      115          1
1951     75,924         7,142       132      56       58        ----
1952     187,267          145       38      34       57          2
1953     23,363         4,276       279     ----       4        ----
1954     20,098          966       50     ----       9         12
1955     78,688         8,179       10       1       6        ----
1956     65,814        34,187       13      78       32          2
1957     41,540         6,428      6,453      325       22        2,805
1958      6,482          884       491      13       84        ----
1959        39        1,330       514       4      349          4
1960     76,075          97       378     2,124       9          1
1961     184,891         2,268       11      21       8          3
1962     229,314         2,453       40       3       2        ----
1963     158,372          737      8,149      80       37         139
1964     112,358          693      3,961      103       48          4
1965     99,771          92      2,142      101       46         341
1966     74,680         1,998      1,012      241       40         48
1967     96,497         3,166      1,656    10,801       81         198
1968     129,710         1,231      4,250     8,499       60         929
1969     48,887         1,470      9,998     4,210       66         170
1970     112,106         1,833     15,561     3,840       52         103
1971     160,361          749       62     6,622       32         188
1972     86,890         1,470       281      849       12         206
1973      9,858        5,347       855     1,783       34        5,941
1974     12,814         5,765      1,345     2,524       29        1,967
1975     81,562         3,348       455     2,556       5         604
1976     84,973         2,040      5,400     4,437       10        6,509
1977     70,274         1,838     21,423     7,689       33        4,300
1978     92,646          479     10,520     6,708       13        2,330
1979     10,196         1,087       487     4,042       34        9,184
1980     21,309          729      3,891    11,217       58        8,840
1981     26,648          542       435     4,559       67        1,281
1982     36,690          665       32     2,035       33        1,099
1983      17,161        1,912    103,040    116,298       65        4,992
1984     211,285         2,834     30,357     8,648      287        6,532
1985     172,493         4,980       238     3,898       68        1,307
1986     27,322          693      2,249     5,505       43        1,866
1987      7,046        1,859      8,181    14,794      168        3,518
1988       559         321      1,898    20,065      134        3,349
1989     29,728         6,519     19,736     19,076       40        2,341
1990      3,816        3,756     16,305     49,118      105       31,548
1991      1,009         5,289      6,319    11,453       11        1,301
1992       380        8,586     52,302     73,739       25       22,727
1993       393        10,535     23,823     37,142       30        8,952
1994       171        2,309     15,327     46,831       42        5,318
1995      1,296        14,648     43,048     87,347       35        5,022
1996      1,873        2,478      6,356    72,449       17       21,939
1997     88,133         7,974     19,170    89,097       24       28,606
1998     155,985        18,985     13,735     75,367       16        6,485
1999     254,983        36,390      2,707    21,215       2        3,633

- - - - Landings data not available.
   All data based on CPFV logbooks.
1
   All data presented in number of fish.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                      A Status Report              357
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
358
Groundfish:
Overview                            improved information about rocksh life history (such




                                                               Groundfish: Overview
                                as age, growth, and reproduction), better stock assess-
                                ments and environmental conditions that generally have

M  ore than 80 species of marine sh are included      not been favorable to rocksh reproduction or survival for
   under the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Manage-     many years. As a result, rocksh cannot support harvest
ment Plan (FMP) that was adopted by the Pacic Fishery    rates as high as previously thought. Management is further
Management Council (PFMC) in 1982. In general, the FMP    complicated because the habitats and ranges of many
provides for management of bottom dwelling nsh spe-     rocksh species overlap, so that it is difcult to catch one
cies (including all rocksh and whiting) that are found in  species without catching other species at the same time.
U.S. EEZ waters off Washington, Oregon and California.    Fishing must be reduced for an entire group of rocksh
Of these, fewer than 20 of the commercially and recre-    in order to realize lower catches that are necessary to
ationally most important have ever been comprehensively    rebuild overshed stocks. For example, although a few
assessed. Each year, stock assessments are conducted on    shelf rocksh species such as chilipepper and yellowtail
ve to 10 species, typically as part of a three-year rota-  appear to be comparatively healthy, their allowable har-
tion. Only Pacic whiting is assessed each year. Species   vest has been set at levels below the potential yield to
and species groups that are actively managed under the    protect the weaker species of shelf rocksh that tend to
FMP are: “Minor rocksh” (which includes most rocksh);    be caught with them, such as bocaccio and canary.
Pacic Ocean perch; sablesh; thornyheads; Dover sole;
                                Prior to 2000, the allowable catch of all rocksh in the
whiting; canary rocksh; widow rocksh; yellowtail rock-
                                PFMC’s southern management area for rocksh (most of
sh; bocaccio; chilipepper rocksh; cowcod; darkblotched
                                California) was combined into a single quota. To better
rocksh; splitnose rocksh; and lingcod.
                                align shing opportunities with the resources that support
Groundsh management is complicated and demanding       them, shery managers have grouped rocksh into three
because sheries for many of the species are inter-      new categories – nearshore, shelf, and slope. In addition,
related, but the various stocks have responded differently  management has been rened by setting individual quotas
to shing pressure. For example, atsh populations such   for a few species, which reduces the aggregate quota
as Dover, Petrale, and English soles have been subjected   for other remaining rocksh species. While this approach
to signicant commercial sheries for decades, yet have    lowers the harvest of overshed rocksh species, such as
not shown the magnitude of declines that have occurred    bocaccio, it also reduces the opportunities for nearshore
in some of the rocksh populations.              species that are no longer grouped with certain deepwater
                                species that are typically under-harvested.
The current status of many rocksh and lingcod off the
west coast is poor, and signicant changes in the ground-   No individual sector is responsible for creating the current
sh shery have been necessary to address this situation.   situation. For example, since 1982 commercial landings
There are over 60 different species of rocksh in Califor-  accounted for about 56 percent of all lingcod and about
nia. Formal assessments of these sh populations are     81 percent of all rocksh catches in California, while the
challenging, due to the number of species and the large    recreational shery took the remainder. In order to return
commitment of time and effort to conduct the necessary    depressed rocksh and lingcod stocks to a healthy condi-
research and analysis. To date, 15 rocksh species have    tion, everyone has been asked to share in the conserva-
been formally assessed, and the results are not encourag-   tion measures needed for recovery. For the recreational
ing. Nearly all of these species are currently below opti-  shery, bag limits have been reduced, gear restrictions
mal abundance levels. Lingcod and six rocksh species,    imposed, seasons closed, and minimum size limits estab-
including four that are important to California anglers and  lished. In the commercial shery, the aggregate rocksh
commercial shermen (bocaccio, canary rocksh, widow     quota for 2001 was reduced by about 57 percent com-
rocksh and cowcod), are at such low levels (estimated    pared to 1997, and the allowable commercial lingcod land-
at or below 25 percent of the pristine population of each   ings were reduced by about 83 percent during the same
species) that they have been declared overshed by the    period. Rocksh rebuilding plans call for decades of ongo-
PFMC. Federal law requires that steps be taken to rebuild   ing special efforts to allow the overshed species to
overshed stocks under strict guidelines that place an    recover, while lingcod is more prolic and is expected to
emphasis on a reasonable likelihood of achieving success   be restored much more quickly, by 2009. Although the
within specied time periods for each species.        lingcod stock seems to be responding favorably to the
                                initial stages of the rebuilding plan, it will be important
Several factors affect the abundance of rocksh and ling-
                                to coordinate lingcod and rocksh management because
cod and the ability to manage them effectively. Recent
                                they are found on the same shing grounds and are often
analyses have shown that rocksh stocks are not as pro-
                                caught together.
ductive as previously thought. This is due in part to



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                359
            A total of about 1,900 businesses in California are directly  recent history. Groundsh production exhibited a long-
Groundfish: Overview



            affected by commercial groundsh catch regulations. Most    term downward trend in landings during the 1990s, with
            of the affected businesses are shing vessels. There are    annual landings reduced by roughly 60 percent during
            approximately 1,580 commercial shing vessels in Califor-   the decade. For the rst time, rocksh became the most
            nia that catch and sell groundsh as part of their opera-   signicant element of the groundsh shery during 1998,
            tions. That eet is comprised of two main elements -- the   when they comprised over 50 percent of the value and
            limited entry eet and the open access eet.          nearly 37 percent of the tons landed. Another tradition-
                                           ally important component was the “DTS Complex” (Dover
            Vessels in the limited entry eet have a federal permit
                                           sole, thornyheads, sablesh), which accounted for most
            that gives greater rights concerning the harvest of ground-
                                           of the remainder of the landings. The number of federal
            sh. Consequently, vessels with limited entry permits gen-
                                           limited entry groundsh permits registered to shermen
            erally rely heavily on groundsh as a major source of
                                           in California continued a slow decline during 1999 for
            income. There are 288 limited entry vessels in California.
                                           all three gear types; at mid-season there were 162
            Vessels that land groundsh under open access provisions
                                           vessels with trawl permits, 113 longline permits, and 13
            may or may not depend on groundsh as a major source
                                           trap permits.
            of income. Many vessels that predominately sh for other
                                           In response to the sharp decline in groundsh landings
            species also may inadvertently catch and land groundsh.
                                           and the generally poor condition of West Coast groundsh
            Although 1,295 open access vessels landed groundsh
                                           stocks, the secretary of commerce formally announced a
            in California during 1997, most landed less than 1,000
                                           disaster determination for the shery in January 2000.
            pounds. A total of 525 open access vessels each landed
                                           The intent of the declaration was to minimize economic
            more than 1,000 pounds of groundsh during the calendar
                                           and social impacts on shing communities while protecting
            year. In addition to the commercial shing eet, there
                                           and rebuilding groundsh stocks. Although, the declara-
            are approximately 325 wholesale sh buying businesses
                                           tion did not include relief funding, it was the rst step
            in California that purchase groundsh from commercial
                                           in the process of securing funds from Congress to assist
            shing vessels.
                                           affected shermen.
            The 1999 California commercial groundsh harvest was
            approximately 34.0 million pounds, with an ex-vessel
            value of $19.7 million. This was a 12-percent decline in    J. Thomas Barnes
            value from 1998 ($22.3 million), and the lowest total in    California Department of Fish and Game




              California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                        December 2001
360
Bocaccio
History of the Fishery                    The number of developing eggs increases from 20,000




                                                                    Bocaccio
                                in a 15-inch sh to about 2.3 million in a sh 30.5

B  ocaccio (Sebastes paucispinis), sometimes called red   inches long.
   snapper, rockcod, grouper, salmon grouper, or tomcod   Off central and northern California, larval release occurs
(as juveniles), was the dominant rocksh in California’s   from January through May, peaking in February. In south-
early longline shery. It was the most abundant rocksh    ern California spawning takes place from October through
in the bottom trawl shery from Morro Bay to Fort Bragg    July, peaking in January. In central California, most larvae
until the mid-1980s. In the late 1980s, two-thirds of the   that survive to the juvenile stage are born in January and
bocaccio landed were taken by trawl, with the remainder    February, but months of successful reproduction can shift
being taken by set net, longline, and the recreational    substantially from year to year. In southern California,
shery. Before 1970, estimated landings by all sheries    some females produce as many as three broods in a
averaged approximately six million pounds per year. Fol-   season, but multiple brooding is uncommon farther north.
lowing 1970, combined landings increased, peaking in 1983
                                Larval bocaccio are initially pelagic and are most common
at over 15 million pounds. Landings have declined steadily
                                within 100 feet of the sea surface, where they feed on
since then, and fell below 0.5 million pounds in 1998. In
                                plankton. Larval bocaccio have been captured in plankton
1978, nearly 40 percent of the sampled trawl landings
                                nets as far as 300 miles from shore. By late May or
contained half or more bocaccio by weight, but this value
                                early June, they settle to the bottom at lengths of 1.5
has declined to a very small percentage of landings in
                                to 2.5 inches, often in kelp beds. Before completing their
recent years.
                                rst year of life, these fast growing young-of-the-year
Recreational catches of bocaccio are generally made on    start eating the young of other rockshes, surfperch,
rocky reefs by party boat shermen at depths of 250 to    jack mackerel, and various small inshore shes. Adults
750 feet. In some years, however, juveniles concentrate    are found from depths of 60 to 1550 feet. They feed
in shallow sandy areas near piers off central and southern  on smaller rockshes, sablesh, anchovies, lanternsh,
California, where they are easily taken on small baited    and squid.
hooks. Estimated catches for the recreational shery are
available from 1980 onward and averaged 15 percent of
                                Status of the Population
the total landings in recent years. Recreational catches
since 1984 have shown the same decline as the trawl shery.

                                D  uring the past two decades bocaccio landings have
                                  been dominated by the 1977, 1984, and 1986 year
Status of Biological Knowledge                classes. A long string of recruitment failures occurred
                                from 1989 to 1998, which under intense shing led to a

B  ocaccio range from central Baja California to Kodiak   severely depleted population. By 1999, abundance had
   Island, Alaska, and are common from northern Baja     fallen to about three percent of the level seen in 1969,
California to the Washington-British Columbia border.     and the Pacic Fishery Management Council declared the
Genetic studies indicate partial separation between the    population as “overshed.” Evidence from entrainment of
bocaccio population off the Pacic Northwest and that off   young sh at the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station
California.                          indicates that the 1999 year class is large.
Among rockshes, bocaccio are noted for their relatively
rapid growth, large adult size, and high variation in year-
class strength. They are known to attain a length of 36
inches, a weight of 15 pounds, and a maximum age of
about 50 years. Some fast growing individuals are caught
with trawl gear at age one, and substantial numbers are
landed by age two at lengths of about 16 inches.
Bocaccio are live-bearing sh. At extrusion (release),
larvae are about 0.25 inch in length and absorb yolk from
the egg stage during the rst eight to 12 days. They grow
rapidly to about seven inches by the end of their rst
year. A few mature when they are three years old, about
14 inches long and one pound. Fifty percent are mature
at 16.5 inches and four years. Males mature at a slightly
smaller size than females. By the time they are 10 years                       Bocaccio, Sebastes paucispinis
                                                             Credit: DFG
old, they average over 24 inches and weigh ve pounds.


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    361
            Commercial Landings
Bocaccio



                                        14
                 1916-1999,
              Bocaccio Rockfish




                          millions of pounds landed
                                        12
      Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative


                            Bocaccio Rockfish
                                        10
      survey with input from Pacific Fish-
      eries Information Network (PacFin),
                                        8
        National Marine Fishery Service
      (NMFS), and California Department
                                        6
         of Fish and Game (DFG). Data
                                        4
       are derived from DFG commercial
        landing receipts with expansions
                                        2
       based on port samples collected by
      PacFin samplers. Expansion data not
                                        0  1916 1920  1930   1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
       available for years prior to 1978.




          Management Considerations                                  References
          See the Management Considerations Appendix A for                       MacCall, A. D., S. Ralston, D. Pearson and E. Williams.
          further information.                                     1999. Status of bocaccio off California in 1999 and outlook
                                                        for the next millennium. In Status of the Pacic Coast
                                                        groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended accept-
          David H. Thomas
                                                        able biological catches for 2000. Pacic Fishery Manage-
          California Department of Fish and Game
                                                        ment Council, 2130 SW Fifth Ave., Suite 224, Portland, OR
          Revised by:                                         97201.
          Alec D. MacCall
                                                        Moser, H.G. 1967. Reproduction and development of
          National Marine Fisheries Service
                                                        Sebastodes paucispinis and comparison with other rock-
                                                        shes off southern California. Copeia. 1967:773-797.
                                                        Wilkins, M.E. 1980. Size composition, age composition, and
                                                        growth of chilipepper, Sebastes goodei, and bocaccio, S.
                                                        paucispinis, from the 1977 rocksh survey. Mar. Fish. Rev.
                                                        42:48-58.




            Historic photo of a catch of boccaccio and chilipepper being unloaded from a trawler.
                                                Credit: DFG


             California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                                     December 2001
362
Cowcod
History of the Fishery                     such as Sebastes were sought in order to maintain




                                                                   Cowcod
                                angler satisfaction.

C  owcod (Sebastes levis) are important to commercial     Although highly sought in recent decades, cowcod have
   and recreational sheries in California. Estimated total  consistently composed a very small fraction of the rec-
catch peaked in 1976 at 213 tons, and then trended down-    reational rocksh catch. Cowcod were estimated to com-
ward to 14 tons in 1999. Recreational catch of cowcod     prise greater than one percent of the CPFV rocksh catch
exceeded commercial landings between 1959 and 1980       in 1961, 0.4 percent of total rocksh during the 1970s,
but commercial catch has been larger since. Recreational    and only 0.3 percent from 1985 through 1987. Cowcod
landings peaked in 1976 at 154 tons, and then declined to   seasonal catch in the sport shery tends to peak in late
less than two tons from 1997 through 1999. Commercial     autumn through early spring, which is the time of year when
landings reached a record 155 tons in 1984. Fishing      southern California CPFVs normally target bottom shes.
grounds nearest to major ports have been progressively
                                Historically, commercial landings were highest in the
exploited. Most of the remaining productive cowcod sh-
                                Southern California Bight but landings in the Monterey
ing grounds in the Southern California Bight are found well
                                area have been larger during most recent years. Hook-
offshore, out-of-range for many private skiffs.
                                and-line and set net gear shed in deep water on rocky
Cowcod reach the largest size of any rocksh in central    bottom accounts for the bulk of historical landings in
and southern California, and are a highly prized trophy    the commercial shery. Set net catches declined after
in the recreational shery. The ofcial California record   1989, but hook-and-line has remained important. Trawling
for sport caught cowcod is 21 pounds 14 ounces, but the    accounts for most cowcod landings in northern areas.
recreational shery has produced conrmed specimens as     Trawls tend to take cowcod that are smaller and more
large as 34 pounds in recent years.              often immature than sh taken by hook-and-line. Prior to
Cowcod are caught along with other species of rocksh     2000, discard of cowcod in commercial and recreational
by the recreational shery. Recreational effort is directed  sheries was probably insignicant. Beginning in 2000,
at cowcod from private shing boats and commercial pas-    new regulations limited commercial landings to one sh
senger shing vessels (CPFVs). CPFVs include both charter   per trip, which may have resulted in increased discards.
boats (carrying a prearranged or closed group of anglers),   Fourteen species of rocksh have been landed in the
and party boats (generally open to the general public,     cowcod market category; of these, the bronzespotted
without prior reservation). The CPFV industry began in     rocksh is the most common. Species associated with
southern California around 1919, and by 1939 the eet con-   cowcod vary by gear type. In the trawl shery, which
sisted of over 200 boats. CPFV operators targeted numer-    is primarily in the Monterey management area, the main
ous species prior to 1950, such as tuna, giant sea bass,    species taken with cowcod are chilipepper, bocaccio, and
marlin, swordsh, mackerel, California halibut, kelp and    widow rocksh. In the hook-and-line and set net shery,
sand bass, bonito, barracuda, and yellowtail. However,     which is primarily in the Conception management area,
early reports do not list rocksh as a CPFV target group    bronzespotted rocksh, bocaccio, and vermilion rocksh
during the rst half of the century.              are most important.
Following World War II, there was a notable expansion of    Cowcod are valuable in the commercial shery. Fishermen
the CPFV eet, and in 1953 it totaled about 590 boats.     received $1.37 per pound for cowcod in 1998, more than
By 1963, the statewide CPFV eet had declined to 476
vessels, 450 of which operated out of central and southern
California ports. The majority of the 1963 CPFV eet (256
vessels) was based in the Southern California Bight. Spe-
cies of preference for the southern California CPFV eet
in 1963 did not include Sebastes, although rocksh were
listed as an important part of the catch. As recently as
1969, there were reports that “some [CPFV] shermen
would rather sh for yellowtail, and catch little or noth-
ing, than to take home a sack of rocksh. Those who
prefer rocksh to yellowtail are in a minority.” However,
by 1974 attitudes of the typical CPFV sherman had
changed, and there was increased effort directed toward
rocksh. With the decline in availability of “traditional”
                                double the price for unspecied rocksh. In general,
sportsh in the 1960-1970s, less lively “food” sh
                                                      Cowcod, Sebastes levis
                                                           Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  363
           Commercial Landings
Cowcod



                                      400
            1916-1999, Cowcod




                         thousands of pounds landed
      Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative               350
      survey with input from Pacific Fish-
                                      300
     eries Information Network (PacFin),
                                      250
        National Marine Fishery Service
                              Cowcod
      (NMFS), and California Department
                                      200
      of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
                                      150
      derived from DFG commercial land-
      ing receipts with expansions based               100
      on port samples collected by PacFin
                                        50
     samplers. Cowcod landings expansion
                                        0
     data not available for 1979 and years
                                          1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960    1970    1980    1990  1999
                 prior to 1978.




         cowcod landed by hook-and-line command higher prices                    with some larvae present from November through August.
         than those landed by set net or by trawl.                          Larvae spend about 100 days in the plankton and settle
                                                       to the bottom as juveniles at about two to 2.4 inches in
         Prior to 2000, the Pacic Fishery Management Council
                                                       length. In Monterey Bay, juveniles recruit to ne sand and
         managed cowcod under regulations established annually
                                                       clay sediments at depths of 130 to 330 feet during the
         for commercial groundsh, the Sebastes complex and
                                                       months of March through September. Adults are found at
         remaining rocksh. Remaining rocksh were managed as
                                                       depths of 300 to 1,680 feet usually on high relief rocky
         a group without specic allowable biological catch or
                                                       bottom. Cowcod reach 37 inches FL and 33 pounds.
         optimum yield levels for individual species. During those
         years, Sebastes complex cumulative trip limits were high                  Cowcod have been aged by counting annuli in sectioned
         relative to landings of cowcod, and it is unlikely that the                 and polished otoliths. Although age determinations have
         regulations had affected commercial shing for cowcod.                   not been validated, there was good agreement among
         Specic regulations to limit the commercial and recre-                   independent readers. Based on a sample of 259 specimens
         ational take of cowcod were rst established in 2000.                    collected in the 1970s and 1980s, the youngest sh in
         In order to achieve an optimum yield of 5.5 tons for                    the landings was age seven, and the oldest was age 55.
         recreational and commercial landings combined, the rec-                   Cowcod are thought to become fully recruited to recre-
         reational bag limit in 2000 was reduced to one cowcod                    ational and commercial sheries at age 17, which is similar
         (with a maximum of two cowcod per boat), and com-                      to the age at which all females become mature.
         mercial regulations allowed only one cowcod to be landed                  The approximate length (inches) and age of rst, 50 per-
         per shing trip.                                      cent and 100 percent maturity is as follows:


         Status of Biological Knowledge                                          Male          Female
                                                       Maturity  Length (in)    Age   Length (in)   Age
         C  owcod range from central Oregon to central Baja Cali-
                                                       First     13.5      8      16.5    11
           fornia, and offshore to Guadalupe Island. The geo-
         graphic center of distribution is the southern California                  50%      17.5      12     17     11
         Bight. They are uncommon off Oregon and northern Cali-
                                                       100%      19       14     20     16
         fornia. Adult cowcod habitat is primarily rocky reefs from
         165 to 1,000 feet, most of which are found in the vicinity
         of offshore banks and islands in the Southern California
         Bight. Smaller sh generally occur at the shallower end of
         the depth range.
                                                       Status of the Population
         As with other species of Sebastes, fertilization is internal
         and females give birth to rst-feeding stage planktonic
                                                       C  owcod were reported to be abundant off southern
         larvae during the winter. Gonad-somatic indices of
                                                         California in the 1890s. However, the rst formal stock
         females are highest from November through April. Peak
                                                       assessment of cowcod was in 1999. Results of the assess-
         abundance of cowcod larvae is January through April,
                                                       ment suggest that spawning biomass in 1916 was near the


             California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                                     December 2001
364
                                 References
virgin level and it remained stable through a rather long




                                                                Cowcod
historical period (1916-1950). Biomass began to decline
                                 Butler, J. L., L. D. Jacobson, J.T. Barnes, H.G. Moser and
slowly in the 1950s and accelerated through the 1970s.
                                 R. Collins. 1999. Stock assessment of cowcod. In: Pacic
Recruitment declined dramatically and biomass continued
                                 Fishery Management Council. 1999. Appendix: Status
to decline after the early 1980s. The best estimate of
                                 of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery through 1999 and
cowcod spawning biomass in the Southern California Bight
                                 recommended biological catches for 2000: Stock assess-
during 1998 is 262 tons, which is about seven percent of
                                 ment and shery evaluation.
the estimated unshed stock size.
                                 Karpov, K.A., D.P.Albin and W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995. The
Based on the results of the 1999 stock assessment,
                                 marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
cowcod were formally declared overshed by the National
                                 fornia; A historical comparison (1958-86), a status of the
Marine Fisheries Service in 2000. A rebuilding plan will
                                 stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
be adopted to provide assurance that abundance will be
                                 current. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.(176): 192 p.
restored to 40 percent of the unshed stock size in a
minimal length of time. However, due to the unproductive     Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle, and W. V. Buskirk. 1998. A
nature of the stock, it is likely that rebuilding will require  severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
many decades.                          rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the Southern California
                                 Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Rep. 39: 180-195.
                                 Young, P.H. 1969. The California partyboat shery
J. Thomas Barnes
                                 1947-1967. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
California Department of Fish and Game
                                 145. 91 p.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report              365
   Chilipepper
    History of the Fishery                         Status of Biological Knowledge

    T                                   C
      he chilipepper (Sebastes goodei) is one of California’s        hilipepper range from Queen Charlotte Sound, British
      most important rocksh species; it is a major con-           Columbia to Magdalena Bay, Baja California. Adults are
    tributor to commercial and sport landings. In fact, from        found on deep rocky reefs, as well as on sand and mud
    1996 through 1998 chilipepper was ranked rst in state-        bottoms, from 150 to 1,400 feet; juveniles school and are
    wide commercial rocksh landings, with an annual aver-         frequently found in shallow nearshore waters, particularly
    age of over 3.8 million pounds. Important ports of landing       in kelp beds. Spawning occurs from September to April
    are throughout central and much of northern California,        with a peak occurring in December and January. About
    including Fort Bragg, Bodega Bay, San Francisco, Princ-        50 percent of female chilipepper are sexually mature at
    eton, Monterey, Moss Landing, and Morro Bay. Chilipepper        four years when they are between 11 and 12 inches, while
    also contribute to southern California rocksh landings,        males mature at two years and between eight and nine
    although not so heavily.                        inches. Chilipepper attain a maximum age of 35 years
                                       and a size of up to 23 inches, with females growing
    In the late 1800s, chilipepper and most other rocksh
                                       substantially larger than males.
    were caught by Portuguese longline shermen who shed
    Monterey Bay from small two or three-person vessels.          Adults feed on krill and other small crustaceans, squid,
    Longlines provided most, if not all, rocksh landings until      and a variety of small shes. Probable predators of chili-
    the mid-1940s. Improvements in otter trawl technology         pepper include marine birds and mammals, king salmon,
    subsequently led to trawl gear replacing longlines as the       lingcod, Pacic hake, sablesh, and other rocksh.
    primary gear used to catch rocksh. Trawl gear enabled
    shermen to make much larger landings with larger ves-
                                       Status of the Population
    sels. Trawlers have since accounted for the great majority
    of chilipepper landings, followed by set gill net and hook-

                                       T  he last stock assessment of chilipepper, conducted in
    and-line gears. During the 1990s, gill net landings have
                                          1998, indicated that unlike most other rocksh popula-
    declined to very low levels, whereas hook-and-line gears
                                       tions, the stock was in quite good condition. At that time,
    have comprised a relatively higher portion of the catch.
                                       the population size was determined to be 35,000 tons,
    Historically, chilipepper was not considered an important       which is about 50 percent of the unexploited level. The
    component of the party boat angler’s catch in central         healthy status of the chilipepper stock has been due to
    and northern California due to its deep offshore distribu-       a very strong 1984 year-class that supported the shery
    tion. In the early 1980s, Monterey and Santa Cruz party        throughout the 1990s, although recent recruitments have
    boat skippers began shing chilipepper schools in the         been lower and the stock is slowly but steadily declining.
    vicinity of the Monterey underwater canyon in late spring       Based on the assessment, the Pacic Fishery Management
    through summer. In contrast, southern California chilipep-       Council set the acceptable biological catch at 4,100 tons,
    per partyboat landings peak during the winter months.         although the Council lowered the total allowable catch
    Chilipepper was ranked third among rockshes taken           (TAC) to 2,000 tons out of concern for bocaccio bycatch in
    off central and northern California in 1989-1990, but its       chilipepper sheries. Even with the lower TAC, the various
    relative importance in the recreational shery has dwin-        sheries have not been catching the quota.
    dled throughout the 1990s. Since 1995, sport landings
    have comprised less than two percent of the total
                                       Stephen Ralston
    chilipepper catch.
                                       National Marine Fisheries Service
                                       Kenneth T. Oda
                                       California Department of Fish and Game




                        Chilipepper, Sebastes goodei
                                Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
366
                                                                              Chilipepper
                 7
  millions of pounds landed

                 6
   Chilipepper Rockfish




                 5
                                                            Commercial Landings
                 4                                           1916-1999,
                                                            Chilipepper Rockfish
                 3
                                                            Data Source: CalCom Database
                 2                                           utilizing DFG commercial land-
                                                            ing receipts. Expansions of port
                 1                                           samples are conducted by Pacific
                                                            States Fishery Management
                 0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999    Council with input from DFG.



                 12
Bocaccio/Chilipepper Rockfish
  millions of pounds landed




                 10
                                                            Commercial Landings
                 8                                           1916-1999,
                                                            Bocaccio/Chilipepper
                 6                                           Rockfish
                                                            Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                 4
                                                            and commercial landing receipts.
                                                            The market category Bocaccio/
                 2
                                                            Chilipeper Rockfish were aggre-
                                                            gated within the market
                 0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
                                                            category Rockfish prior to 1979.



References
Lenarz, W. H. 1987. A history of California rocksh sher-          S. paucispinis, from the 1977 rocksh survey. Mar. Fish.
ies, pp. 35-41. In: B. R. Melteff (ed.), Proceedings of the          Rev. (Mar-Apr): 48-53.
International Rocksh Symposium, University of Alaska,            Wyllie-Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of Califor-
Alaska Sea Grant Report No. 87-2.                       nia rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.            Fish. Bull. (U. S.) 85: 229-250.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California Bight. NOAA Tech.
Rept. NMFS 87. 38 p.
Phillips, J. B. 1964. Life history studies on ten species of
rocksh (Genus Sebastodes). Calif. Dept. Fish and game,
Fish Bull. 126. 70 p.
Ralston, S., D. E. Pearson, and J. A. Reynolds. 1998. Status
of the chilipepper rocksh stock in 1998. In: Appendix to
the Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through
1998 and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for
1999, Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 99 p.
Wilkins, M. E. 1980. Size composition, age composition,
and growth of chilipepper, Sebastes goodei, and bocaccio,




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                       California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                   A Status Report                      367
   Blackgill Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                           2,520 feet, usually deeper than 660 feet, and are most
                                          abundant from 825 to 1,980 feet. Juveniles live in the

    U  ntil the 1970s, the relative abundance of shallow-           shallower part of the depth range.
      water rockshes precluded substantial commercial            Pelagic juveniles settle out of the plankton at a minimum
    exploitation of blackgill rocksh (Sebastes melanostomus).         of about one inch long, generally in waters greater than
    Beginning in the mid-1970s, a shery developed in deep           about 660 feet. Small immature individuals are taken
    waters off southern California and spread northward. Most          in bottom trawls on at substrates, but seldom over
    blackgills are taken in central and southern California.          rocks. They are also found on shell mounds of some
    The shery was rst conducted with vertical longlines            deeper-water oil platforms. Adults live on deep high relief
    and then with longlines and gill nets. Currently, most           rock outcrops in areas with extensive caves and crevices.
    blackgills in southern California are taken with horizontal         Although they are often seen hiding in crevices or closely
    setlines, while trawls take the majority of sh further           associated with rocky substrates, shermen have reported
    north. Statewide landings increased dramatically, peaking          taken them in midwater above reefs.
    in 1983, then declined to about one-third in the late
                                          Blackgills live to at least 87 years, although the largest
    1990s. From a recent stock analysis, it appears that the
                                          specimens have not been aged. However, no age valida-
    blackgill population has been substantially reduced on
                                          tion has been done on this species. Females reach a
    particular reefs. Blackgills are a very important rocksh
                                          larger size and probably live longer. By the middle of their
    species in the Asian sh markets of southern California.
                                          life span, females tend to be larger at any given age.
    In 1998, the California commercial catch of about 336,000
                                          Males reach maximum lengths earlier than females. Off
    pounds was worth $231,000. In recent years, as the rock-
                                          northern and central California, males appear to mature
    sh recreational shery moved to deep banks, blackgills
                                          at a smaller length than females; this is not the case off
    have become an occasional catch in southern California.
                                          southern California. Based on two California studies, the
                                          smallest mature sh are 12 inches, 50 percent are mature
    Status of Biological Knowledge                       at 14 inches and all are mature at 16 inches. Off Oregon,
                                          50 percent maturity for males is 15 inches and for females

    T  his is a spiny and heavy-bodied species. Juveniles are         is 16 inches. Blackgills appear to mature at a very late
      reddish with distinct brown saddles and a dark blotch          age. One percent of females is mature at about 13 years,
    on the gill cover. Adults are dark red or dark pink with or         50 percent at 20 years, and 99 percent at about 26 years.
    without dark saddles and have a black edge on the rear of          Similarly, one percent of males is mature at about 13
    the gill cover. Blackgills reach two feet in length.            years, 50 percent at about 19 years, and 95 percent at
                                          about 24 years. Off southern California, females release
    Blackgills are found from at least central Vancouver Island
                                          larvae from January to June, off northern and central
    (British Columbia), and perhaps to northern Vancouver
                                          California from February to April (both with February
    Island, to Isla Cedros, (central Baja California). Pelagic
                                          peaks) and off Oregon in April. Females produce between
    juveniles have been taken as far south as Punta Abreojos
                                          about 152,000 and 769,000 eggs per season in one brood.
    (southern Baja California), strongly implying that adults
                                          Blackgills feed primarily on shes, including lanternshes.
    live in southern Baja California. Blackgills are relatively
    uncommon from Oregon northward. It appears that some
    records from north of Washington probably refer to rough-
                                          Status of the Population
    eye and shortraker rockshes. Adults are found in 288 to


                                          T  he rst stock assessment of this species, completed
                                            in 1998, estimated that the current shable/mature
                                          biomass was at between 40 and 54 percent of the
                                          virgin level.


                                          Milton Love
                                          University of California, Santa Barbara
                                          John Butler
                                          National Marine Fisheries Service



                   Blackgill Rockfish, Sebastes melanostomus
                                   Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
368
                                                   Commercial Landings




                                                                       Blackgill Rockfish
            3.5                                      1916-1999,
                                                   Blackgill Rockfish
millions of pounds landed


            3.0                                      Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
  Blackgill Rockfish




            2.5                                      survey with input from Pacific Fish-
                                                   eries Information Network (PacFin),
            2.0                                      National Marine Fishery Service
                                                   (NMFS), and California Department
            1.5
                                                   of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
            1.0                                      derived from DFG commercial land-
                                                   ing receipts with expansions based
            0.5                                      on port samples collected by PacFin
                                                   samplers. Expansion data not avail-
            0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970   1980  1990  1999  able for years prior to 1978.



References
Barss, W. H. 1989. Maturity and reproductive cycle for 35
species from the family Scorpaenidae found off Oregon.
Butler, J. L., L. D. Jacobson and J. T. Barnes. 1998.
Stock assessment for blackgill rocksh. Appendix to the
Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery through 1998
and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for 1999.
Pacic Fishery Management Council.
Moser, H. G. and E. H. Ahlstrom. 1978. Larvae and pelagic
juveniles of blackgill rocksh, Sebastes melanostomus,
taken in midwater trawls off southern California and Baja
California. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 35(7):981-996.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California Bight. NOAA Tech.
Rep. NMFS 87, 38 p.
Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: Maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish.
Bull. 85:229.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                             A Status Report                     369
   Widow Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                         Status of Biological Knowledge

    W                                    W
       idow rocksh (Sebastes entomelas) is one of the top           idow rocksh are found from Todos Santos Bay, Baja
       three rocksh species in California commercial land-           California, to Kodiak Island, Alaska. Peak abundance
    ings, although it is a minor constituent in the recreational      is off northern Oregon and southern Washington, with sig-
    shery. During the 1970s, there were occasional reports of       nicant aggregations occurring south to central California.
    large trawl catches of “brownies” made incidental to the        While many commercial catches occur at bottom depths
    harvest of other rocksh, but commercial landings were         between 450 and 750 feet, young sh occur near the sur-
    small until markets improved in 1979 and the midwater          face in shallow waters, and adults have been caught over
    trawl shery exploded. At that time, shermen began           bottom depths to 1,200 feet. Widow rocksh often form
    targeting widow rocksh and annual California landings         midwater schools, usually at night, over bottom features
    exceeded 10,000 tons by 1982. Since 1983, however,           such as ridges or large mounds near the shelf break. The
    strict regulations have limited the commercial harvest and       schooling behavior of widow rocksh is quite dynamic and
    recent landings in California have been in the vicinity of       probably related to feeding and oceanographic conditions.
    1,000 tons. Along the entire U. S. Pacic Coast, annual         There appears to be some seasonal movement of sh
    landings are restrained by a quota imposed by the Pacic        among adjacent grounds, and there is evidence that sh
    Fishery Management Council that applies to the sheries         move from area to area as they age, with sh of the same
    of California, Oregon and Washington. Trip landings and         size tending to stay together.
    frequency are adjusted in order to maintain a year-round        The maximum recorded age for widow rocksh is 59 years,
    shing season.                             but sh older than 20 years are now uncommon. Most are
    Over 50 percent of the widow rocksh commercial catch          less than 21 inches long, corresponding to a weight of
    is landed in the most northern portion of the state (i.e.,       just under ve pounds. The maximum size is 24 inches or
    Eureka and Crescent City), while San Francisco and Bodega        about 7.3 pounds. At rst, growth is fairly rapid and by age
    Bay have also been historically important, accounting for        ve widow rocksh average 13.5 inches. By age 15, growth
    about 30 percent of all landings. Although a small amount        slows greatly, when the average size is about 19 inches for
    of catch is landed at Fort Bragg and Monterey, very little       females and 17.5 inches for males. Widow rocksh do not
    appears further south. When processed, widow rocksh          become reproductive until years after birth. For example,
    are typically lleted and marketed as Pacic red snapper        only 50 percent are mature by age ve, but almost all
    or rockcod, with the ex-vessel landed value generally          are mature by age eight when they are 16.5 inches long.
    in the vicinity of $1,000,000 annually. Widow rocksh          Off California, fecundity ranged from 55,600 eggs for a
    are almost exclusively caught by trawlers, which have          12.8-inch female to 915,200 eggs for an 18.8-inch sh.
    accounted for over 80 percent of the catch each year.          The release of larvae by widow rocksh peaks in January-
    Before the advent of restrictive trip landing limits, most       February and appears to occur in the same areas where
    of the sh were caught with very large midwater trawls,         they are caught during that season. The larvae are about
    and during the early days of the shery, it was often          0.2 inch when released. The young sh lead a pelagic
    difcult to avoid capturing more widow rocksh in one          existence until they are about ve months old. During the
    tow with a midwater trawl than trip limits allowed. As a        latter part of the pelagic stage, the two-inch sh feed
    consequence, many vessels now use less efcient bottom         mostly on copepods and small stages of euphausiids. Adult
    trawls. Widow rocksh are also taken in the gill net and        widow rocksh feed on midwater prey such as lantern sh,
    longline sheries, although the gill net catch has declined       small Pacic whiting euphausiids, sergestid (deep-water)
    from its peak in 1987, when it accounted for 21 percent         shrimp, and salps. Juvenile rocksh, including widow rock-
    of landings.                              sh, are important prey items for sea birds and chinook
                                        salmon in May and June. Little is known about predation
                                        of adult widow rocksh.




                     Widow Rockfish, Sebastes entomelas
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
370
                                                          Commercial Landings




                                                                             Widow Rockfish
               30                                          1916-1999,
                                                          Widow Rockfish
millions of pounds landed


               25                                          Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
   Widow Rockfish




                                                          survey with input from Pacific Fish-
               20                                          eries Information Network (PacFin),
                                                          National Marine Fishery Service
               15                                          (NMFS), and California Department
                                                          of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
               10                                          derived from DFG commercial land-
                                                          ing receipts with expansions based
               5                                           on port samples collected by PacFin
                                                          samplers. Expansion data not avail-
               0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   able for years prior to 1978.




Status of the Population                         References

T  he population was virtually unshed prior to 1979.         Boehlert, G. W., W. H. Barss, and P. B. Lamberson. 1982.
   By 1982, it became obvious that the population was         Fecundity of the widow rocksh, Sebastes entomelas, off
being rapidly depleted and would soon be overshed,           the coast of Oregon. Fish. Bull., U. S. 80:881-884.
if catches were not restricted. The shery was placed          Gunderson, D. R. 1984. The great widow rocksh hunt of
under stringent regulations in 1983. Even so, the stock         1980-82. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 4:465-468.
was recently declared overshed by the Pacic Fishery
                                     Lenarz, W. H., and D. R. Gunderson (editors). 1987. Widow
Management Council because spawning potential was
                                     rocksh: Proceedings of a workshop, Tiburon, California,
reduced to below 25 percent of the unshed condition.
                                     December 10-11, 1980. U. S. Dept. Commer., NOAA Tech.
In response, a rebuilding plan for the stock will be imple-
                                     Rep. NMFS 48.
mented in 2002 that will reduce catches to less than 1,000
                                     Ralston, S., and D. Pearson. 1997. Status of the widow
tons per year. With a harvest rate of less than three
                                     rocksh stock in 1997. In: Appendix to the Status of the
percent the stock should rebuild in about 35 to 40 years
                                     Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 1997 and Recom-
to the productive shery it once was, with yields in excess
                                     mended Acceptable Biological Catches for 1998; Stock
of 3,000 tons per year.
                                     Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 54 p.
                                     Williams, E., A.D. MacCall, S.V. Ralston, and D.E. Pearson.
Management Considerations                        2000. Status of the widow rocksh resource in Y2K. In:
                                     Appendix to the Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
                                     Fishery Through 2000 and Recommended Acceptable Bio-
further information.
                                     logical Catches for 2001; Stock Assessment and Fishery
                                     Evaluation. 122 p.
Stephen Ralston
National Marine Fisheries Service
William H. Lenarz
College of Marin, Kenteld




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                      California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                 A Status Report                        371
   Yellowtail Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                           86 percent of the catch has come from northern California
                                         waters. There are, however, differences in the types of

    Y  ellowtail rocksh (Sebastes avidus), frequently called        commercial shing conducted at each port. For example,
      “greenies” by commercial shermen, are a major com-          from Fort Bragg north, trawling has been the primary
    ponent of the groundsh shery. Over the period from            method of harvesting yellowtail. In contrast, commercial
    1983 to 1998, yellowtail rocksh accounted for 13 percent         sheries in San Francisco, Bodega Bay, and Monterey have
    of all rocksh landed on the U.S. West Coast and six            relied more heavily on hook-and-line and setnet xed
    percent of all groundsh, exclusive of Pacic whiting.           gear to capture this species. In recent years, the setnet
    Among the rocksh/rockcod, only widow rocksh have             shery has declined to negligible quantities, but from 1983
    supported a greater West Coast harvest. The center of           to1986 large quantities of yellowtail rocksh were taken in
    yellowtail rocksh population abundance is off the states         the gill net shery that operated between Monterey and
    of Oregon and Washington, with lower abundance off             San Francisco.
    California. Even so, from 1980 to 1998, the total combined
    landings among all yellowtail rocksh sheries in the state
                                         Status of Biological Knowledge
    have ranged from 370 to 2,460 tons per year, with an
    average catch over that period of 1,080 tons per year.

                                         Y  ellowtail rocksh are found from Kodiak Island, Alaska
    Catches exceeded 2,200 tons per year during 1982 and
                                            to San Diego, although they are rare south of Point
    1983, declined to 550 tons per year through 1988, rose to
                                         Conception. They are wide-ranging and are reported to
    levels above 1,100 tons per year from 1989 through 1992,
                                         occur from the surface to 1,800 feet and are known to
    and then declined to about 550 tons per year thereafter.
                                         form large schools, either alone or in association with
    After bocaccio and blue rocksh, yellowtail rocksh was
                                         other rocksh, including widow rocksh, canary rocksh,
    the third most abundant rocksh taken in the California
                                         redstripe rocksh, and silvergray rocksh. They are pri-
    recreational shery for several years.
                                         marily distributed over deep reefs on the continental
    Over the last two decades, the recreational shery has           shelf, especially near the shelf break, where they feed on
    been responsible for a substantial portion of the yel-           krill and other micronekton.
    lowtail rocksh catch in California, accounting for over
                                         There is some controversy about the existence of distinct
    one-third of all landings. Among the commercial sheries,
                                         stocks of this species. Some allozyme and parasitological
    trawl shing has produced the greatest catch (28 percent
                                         evidence supports the view that multiple stocks exist,
    of total landings), but hook-and-line and setnet sheries
                                         whereas other genetic data indicate one single coastal
    have also been important, accounting for 24 percent and
                                         stock. Within U.S. waters, the species is currently man-
    13 percent, respectively. Thus, yellowtail rocksh have
                                         aged as two stocks, with a separation at Cape Mendocino,
    been harvested in signicant quantities by all groundsh
                                         although that boundary is purely based on human consid-
    sheries in the state, perhaps more so than any other
                                         erations, including differences in shing patterns and data
    species, with the exception of bocaccio.
                                         availability.
    The northern distribution of the yellowtail rocksh stock
                                         Like many other species of rocksh, yellowtail are long-
    is distinctly evident in the commercial landings statistics
                                         lived. The age distribution of sh sampled in commercial
    compiled from each port of landing within the state. Of
                                         sheries off Oregon and Washington can span six decades,
    the combined “greenie” catch, 94 percent has been taken
                                         with the oldest known specimen a 64-year-old male. They
    from Monterey north. Similarly, in the recreational shery
                                         typically reach their maximum size at about 15 years of
                                         age and the largest recorded specimen was a 28-inch
                                         female. Females begin to mature at 10 to 15 inches, with
                                         half reaching maturity by a size of 15 to 18 inches; males
                                         do not grow quite as large as females.




                     Yellowtail Rockfish, Sebastes flavidus
                              Credit: J. Mello DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
372
                                                        Commercial Landings




                                                                           Yellowtail Rockfish
            2.8                                          1916-1999,
                                                        Yellowtail Rockfish
millions of pounds landed

            2.4
                                                        Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
  Yellowtail Rockfish




            2.0                                          survey with input from Pacific Fish-
                                                        eries Information Network (PacFin),
            1.6                                          National Marine Fishery Service
                                                        (NMFS), and California Department
            1.2
                                                        of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
            0.8                                          derived from DFG commercial land-
                                                        ing receipts with expansions based
            0.4                                          on port samples collected by PacFin
                                                        samplers. Expansion data not avail-
            0.0 1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980    1990   1999    able for years prior to 1978.




Status of the Population                      References

A  recent assessment of the northern portion of the        Eschmeyer, W. N. 1983. A Field Guide to Pacic Coast
  population indicates that unlike many of our rocksh      Fishes of North America From the Gulf of Alaska to Baja
stocks, the resource is very healthy. Based on a wide        California. Houghton Mifin Co., Boston, 336 p.
variety of information collected over the last 30 years       Tagart, J. V., F. R. Wallace, and J. N. Ianelli. 2000. Status
or more, population abundance is currently believed to       of the yellowtail rocksh resource in 2000. In: Status
be about 77,000 tons, down to 60 percent of the virgin       of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 2000 and
population size, but still well above the target population     Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for 2001;
size, which is 40 percent of the unexploited level.         Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 125 p.


Stephen Ralston
National Marine Fisheries Service




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                             A Status Report                          373
   Thornyheads
    History of the Fishery                           Increased landings during the 1980s were the result of
                                          higher prices and demand for thornyheads, primarily as

    L  ongspine (Sebastolobus altivelis) and shortspine ( S.          a headed and gutted product exported to Japan. As
      alascanus) thornyheads are both important to commer-          markets for thornyhead matured, minimum marketable
    cial sheries in California, Oregon, Washington, Canada           size decreased and smaller longspine thornyheads became
    and Alaska, but are insignicant in recreational sheries.         valuable. During the 1980s, most processors began accept-
    In California, Oregon and Washington, thornyheads are            ing sh as small as 10 inches, the shery expanded
    taken in the deepwater commercial shery for Dover sole,          into deeper waters, and landings of longspine thornyhead
    thornyheads, and sablesh, known as the DTS complex.            increased. By the 1990s, a two-tier price structure (higher
    In terms of landed weight and ex-vessel value, the DTS           prices for large sh) replaced the minimum size limits that
    complex is the most important element in the California           had been previously imposed by the buyers.
    groundsh shery.                              Market factors and shery regulations effect discard rates,
    Fishing for thornyheads is typically by bottom trawl and          particularly for small sh. Discard rates have changed over
    longline gear on sand or ne sediment, and in relatively          time but have often been substantial. During the late
    deep water (1,800 to 3,000 feet, although some shing            1990s, trip limits imposed by shery managers caused
    grounds are as shallow as 600 feet). Fishermen report            additional discarding of shortspine thornyhead because
    that there are areas where both thornyhead species are           shortspine trip limits were reached before the limits for
    found together and other areas where one or the other            longspine. In 1999, managers assumed a 30 percent discard
    is prevalent. Most of the thornyheads landed in California         rate for shortspine thornyheads, and a ve percent discard
    are taken in the Eureka, Fort Bragg, and Morro Bay areas.          rate for longspine thornyheads.
    Few thornyheads are taken south of Point Conception.            California landings of thornyheads are consistently the
    Although there are physical differences between the two           largest on the West Coast. During most years, the Califor-
    species and shortspine thornyheads grow to larger size,           nia shery accounted for over one-half of the combined
    distinguishing between them can be difcult under eld           California, Oregon and Washington landings. From 1953
    conditions. Landings and other data for each species may,          to 1969, annual thornyhead landings in California were
    therefore, be less reliable than data for thornyheads as          below 440 tons. Thornyheads became more common in
    a group. It is likely that thornyhead landings were mostly         landings when California trawlers began shing intensively
    shortspine during the early years when the shery oper-           for Dover sole in the early 1970s. Landings averaged 1,540
    ated in relatively shallow water. Longspine thornyheads           tons annually from 1970 to 1979, increased throughout the
    were not landed in large quantities until later when the          1980s, and reached a record high of 7,800 tons in 1992.
    shery expanded into deeper water. The long-term trend           Following the record high, landings during the remainder
    is toward a lower proportion of shortspine in landings.           of the 1990s trended sharply downward due to harvest
    During the 1980s, thornyhead landings were about 75             restrictions, to a low of 1,628 tons in 1999.
    percent shortspine, which decreased to only 25 percent           As export markets developed in the 1980s, nominal prices
    shortspine thornyheads in the 1990s.                    paid to shermen increased by more than 60 percent,
    The west coast shery for thornyheads rst developed in           from $0.23 in 1983 to $0.38 per pound by the end of
    northern California during the 1960s, when large thorny-          the decade. Gross revenues for thornyheads landed in
    heads (primarily shortspine, minimum size 12-14 inches)           California rose from $728,000 in 1980 to $5,971,000 in
    were marketed as rocksh llets in domestic markets.            1990 (dollar amounts not adjusted for ination) as the
                                          result of increased prices and landings. The relative value
                                          of thornyheads in the groundsh shery also increased
                                          during that time. Revenues from thornyheads were only
                                          12 percent of total revenues for the deepwater shery
                                          (DTS complex) during 1980, but increased to 39 percent by
                                          1990. The value of California thornyhead landings trended
                                          upwards through the mid-1990s, and reached a high of
                                          $8,292,000 in 1995, which coincided with record high ex-
                                          vessel prices (excluding live sh) of $1.05 per pound.
                                          Annual thornyhead revenues declined after 1995 due the
                                          decreased tons landed and slightly lower prices (excluding
                                          live sh). Annual revenues from landings totaled about
                                          $3,286,000 during both 1998 and 1999.
                  Longspine Thornyhead, Sebastolobus altivelis
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
374
                                                                  Commercial Landings




                                                                                     Thornyheads
              14                                                   1916-1999, Thornyheads
                                                                  Data for total thornyhead includes
millions of pounds landed

              12
                                                                  landings for lonspined thornyhead,
              10                                                   shortspined thornyhead, and
   Thornyheads




                                                                  unspecified thornyhead. Expansion
              8                                                   data not available for years
                                                                  prior to 1978. Landings data
              6
                                                                  for lonspined thornyhead, short-
              4                                                   spined thornyhead, and unspeci-
                                                                  fied thornyhead are presented in
               2                                                   the landings tables at the end of
                                                                  Groundfish Chapter. Data Source:
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970     1980     1990     1999     CalCom, a cooperative survey with
                                                                  input from Pacific Fisheries Infor-
An important specialty market has developed for live           mation Network (PacFin), National Marine Fishery Service (NMFS), and California Department
thornyheads since 1993, which takes advantage of their          of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are derived from DFG commercial landing receipts with
lack of a swim bladder and ability to survive after capture       expansions based on port samples collected by PacFin samplers.
at depth, and ex-vessel prices that are several times
higher than for dead sh. Landings of live thornyhead
                                     Status of Biological Knowledge
increased from two tons in 1993 to an estimated 107
tons in 1999. Despite steady growth, the live shery has

                                     T  hornyheads (genus Sebastolobus) belong to the same
remained a minor part of the total tons of thornyheads
                                       family (Scorpaenidae) as the rockshes (Sebastes spp.)
landed. However, due to the high ex-vessel prices, live
                                     but are distinguished from them in having more dorsal
sh accounted for a signicant fraction (18.8 percent,
                                     and head spines, in losing their swim bladder at the time
or $619,000) of the total value of thornyhead landings
                                     they settle to the bottom, and in spawning gelatinous
in 1999.
                                     egg masses. Shortspine thornyheads grow to larger size
With the 4.5-inch mesh cod ends currently used in the          and when small are found in shallower water than long-
commercial trawl shery, thornyheads become vulnerable          spine thornyheads. Population dynamics of the two spe-
to bottom trawls at about ve to seven inches in length         cies differ. Shortspine thornyheads have longer life span,
and at an age of about eight to nine years. Thornyheads         lower natural mortality, and smaller biomass than long-
are seldom taken by gill nets or in the recreational shery       spine thornyheads. Consequently, shortspine thornyheads
because of the depths at which they live.                are less productive than longspine thornyheads with
                                     respect to shery yields.
Thornyheads are managed by the Pacic Fishery Manage-
ment Council under the Groundsh Management Plan.            Shortspine thornyheads tend to migrate toward deep
Shortspine and longspine thornyheads were rst regulated         water as they grow, and larger shortspine thornyheads
in 1990. Annual quotas and associated shing regulations         may be found in deeper water with longspine thorny-
were established for thornyheads as a group during            heads. Longspine thornyheads, in contrast, spend their
1990-1994 because of difculties in separating the two          entire lives in a more narrow range of depth. The adults
species in the landings. Beginning in 1995, individual          of both species are major components of the assemblage
quotas and trip limits were adopted and enforced for           of shes on the continental slope. Both species have
each species. The separate trip limits for each species         special enzymatic adaptations that allow metabolic activ-
resulted in a requirement that catches be sorted by spe-         ity despite the high pressure, low oxygen, and low tem-
cies prior to weighing. Shortspine trip limits have been         perature at the depths where they live. Peak spawning
about 75 percent smaller than limits for longspine in          biomass for both species is in the deep “oxygen minimum
recent years, which has likely caused some discards of          zone” at 1,200 to 3,000 feet, where concentrations of
shortspine because vessels could continue shing for long-        dissolved oxygen may be less than 0.5 parts per thousand.
spine after the shortspine limits were reached. During          Longspine thornyheads have been described as “oxygen
2000, the total West Coast optimum yield for shortspine         minimum zone specialists.”
thornyheads was 1,250 tons of landed catch, and for
                                     Estimates of ages for both species are based on counts of
longspine thornyhead it was 4,980 tons.
                                     growth rings in thin-sectioned otoliths. Shortspine thorny-
                                     heads can grow to 30 inches and may be quite long-lived.
                                     Radiochemical analysis of otoliths from shortspine thorny-


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                      California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                  A Status Report                              375
                                       Status of the Population
       heads suggest larger size-at-age than were obtained by
Thornyheads



       annuli counts. It is particularly difcult to determine the

                                       S  tock assessments are carried out for both longspine
       age of older individuals, but recent estimates indicate
                                         and shortspine thornyheads. Results are used by sh-
       that the maximum age of shortspine thornyheads off Cali-
                                       ery managers to determine allowable shing mortality
       fornia may be in excess of 100 years. Longspine thorny-
                                       each year. Shortspine thornyheads along the west coast
       heads grow to a maximum length of 15 inches. Their
                                       of the U.S. were assessed in 1998 by two independent
       maximum age is probably at least 45 years.
                                       analyses. Both assessments used data from the shery and
       Shortspine thornyhead are found at depths of about 100
                                       data from scientic trawl surveys. Based on the combined
       to over 5,000 feet along the west coast of North America
                                       results, the stock in 1999 had declined to 32 percent
       from northern Baja California to the Bering Sea and across
                                       of unshed abundance. The best estimate of spawning
       the North Pacic to the coast of Japan. It is not known
                                       biomass from central California to the U.S./Canada bound-
       if separate stocks exist. Off California, shortspine thorny-
                                       ary in 1998 was 32,365 tons, compared to an estimated
       head spawn during late winter and early spring. Males off
                                       unshed stock size of 95,755 tons. Maximum surplus pro-
       Alaska may spawn at about 6.5 inches in length (estimated
                                       duction and yield for thornyheads probably occurs at bio-
       age ve). About half of all females off California are sexu-
                                       mass levels greater than 40 percent of unshed stock size.
       ally mature at 8.25 inches in length (estimated age 13) and
                                       Consequently, current abundance of shortspine thorny-
       almost all are sexually mature at 13.5 inches (estimated
                                       head is less than desired, and recent shing quotas have
       age 28). A female may release as many as 400,000 eggs
                                       been set at levels to allow some growth in stock size.
       annually in gelatinous egg masses that oat to the surface.
                                       The most recent assessment of longspine thornyheads
       Larvae free themselves from the egg when about 0.25 inch
                                       was done in 1997, using shery and survey data to esti-
       in length and transform to juvenile sh at about 0.75 inch.
                                       mate changes in abundance and associated uncertainty.
       Larvae and young juveniles are pelagic for 14 to 15 months
                                       The assessment covered the portion of the stock found
       and settle to the bottom when about one inch long during
                                       from central California to the U.S./Canada international
       January to June of the year after they hatch. Juveniles
                                       boundary. Results indicate that spawning biomass steadily
       settle in shallow water along the upper boundary of
                                       declined in recent decades, from a high of 36,958 tons
       their habitat and move to deeper water as they grow.
                                       in 1964 to 20,203 tons in 1996. The degree to which
       They spend the rest of their lives closely associated with
                                       longspine thornyheads have been shed down is generally
       the bottom. Shortspine thornyheads in Alaska are known
                                       thought to be appropriate for attaining maximum shery
       to eat crustaceans, crabs, worms, clams, octopus, sea
                                       yields from the stock, based on biological characteristics
       cucumbers, and sh. Longspine thornyheads feed primar-
                                       and population dynamics of the species.
       ily on polychaetes and small crustaceans.
       Longspine thornyheads are found from Cape San Lucas,
       Baja California to the Aleutian Islands in water from     J. Thomas Barnes and Sandra L. Owen
       about 1,000 to over 5,000 feet deep. It is not known      California Department of Fish and Game
       if separate stocks exist. Like shortspine thornyheads, long-
                                       Lawrence D. Jacobson
       spine thornyheads spawn in the late winter and early
                                       National Marine Fisheries Service
       spring. Half of the females are sexually mature at about
       7.5 inches (estimated age 14) and most are mature at
       8.75 inches (estimated age 18). A female may produce as
       many as 100,000 eggs annually, which, like the eggs of
       the shortspine thornyhead, are released in gelatinous egg
       masses that oat to the surface. Two to four batches of
       eggs may be spawned each year. Larval sh are pelagic
       after hatching and transform into juveniles during July
       to December. Young juveniles are pelagic for as long
       as 20 months and begin settling to the ocean bottom
       when about two inches long. Settlement starts during the
       summer of the year after they hatch. Juvenile longspine
       thornyheads settle in deeper water than do shortspine
       thornyheads, with newly settled juveniles occupying the
       same depth range as adults. There does not appear to be
       a tendency for individuals to move deeper as they grow.




         California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                        December 2001
376
References




                                                   Thornyheads
Jacobson, L.D., and R.D. Vetter. 1996. Bathymetric demog-
raphy and niche seperation of thornyhead rocksh: Sebas-
tolobus alascanus and Sebastolobus altivelis. Can. J. Fish.
Aquat. Sci. 53: 600-609 (1996).
Moser, H.G. 1974. Development and distribution of larvae
and juveniles of Sebastolobus (Pisces: family Scorpaeni-
dae). Fish. Bull. 72: 491-494.
Rogers, J., T. Builder, P. Crone, J. Brodziak, R. Methot,
R. Conser, and R. Lauth. 1998. Status of the thornyhead
resource in 1998. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
1998. Appendix: Status of the Pacic coast groundsh sh-
ery through 1998 and recommended acceptable biological
catches for 1999, Stock assessment and shery evaluation.
Rogers, J.B., L.D. Jacobson, R. Lauth, J.N. Ianelli, and
M. Wilkins. 1997. Status of the thornyhead resource
in 1997. Appendix to: Status of the Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1997 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 1998, Stock assessment and
shery evaluation.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report        377
   Bank Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                         Juveniles and sub-adults tend to be found in shallower
                                       waters than adults are.

    M   ost bank rocksh (Sebastes rufus) are taken commer-       Demersal juveniles and adults often are found over high
       cially by trawls, although gill nets were also impor-      relief boulder elds or steep cliff faces with plenty of
    tant early in the shery. Most of the catch occurs off         crevices and caves. They also are found over cobblestones
    California, although substantial landings are occasionally       or on mixed mud-rock bottoms, where they shelter near
    made off southern Oregon. Until the 1980s, bank rocksh        or beneath the hard substrate. Small numbers have been
    were a relatively minor part of the commercial catch.         observed around the bottom of deeper offshore oil plat-
    However, as shing effort off California expanded into         forms. Banks usually are found either alone or in small
    deeper waters, landings of this species sharply increased.       groups of up to 30 individuals, often hiding in, or very
    From 1981 to 1992, banks ranked among the top 10 rock-         close to, sheltering sites. It is also possible that this
    sh species taken in California, averaging 1,115 tons annu-      species previously formed large schools before it was sub-
    ally, and ranked among the top three rocksh species          jected to intense shing pressure. In southern California,
    landed at Monterey and Morro Bay. In general, catches         banks are often found with blackgill rocksh.
    after 1992, though variable, have remained somewhat
                                       Bank rocksh live to at least 53 years. They are among
    steady. Since the 1970s, there has been a decrease in
                                       the slowest growing of the rockshes. Females grow larger
    both age and length of individuals in the shery. In 1998,
                                       than males and, at least among older sh, appear to be
    about 450,000 pounds of bank rocksh were caught in
                                       larger at a given age. Males reach maximum length at a
    the California commercial shery; these were valued at
                                       slightly faster rate than females and mature at a smaller
    about $207,000.
                                       size than females. A few males are mature at 11 inches
    While bank rocksh are rarely caught in the recreational        and 10 years, and all are mature at 14.8 inches and
    shery north of Pt. Conception, California, they are a         20 years. Off California, banks release larvae from Decem-
    frequent catch of recreational anglers in deep waters off       ber to May (peaking in January and February) and from
    southern California.                          January to April off Oregon. Individual females produce
                                       between about 65,000 and 608,000 eggs. Off southern
                                       California, females release larvae in several batches per
    Status of Biological Knowledge                     season, although this is not the case further north. Little


    B
                                       is known of their food habits, although krill and gelatinous
      ank rocksh are oval-shaped sh with small head
                                       zooplankton have been found in their stomachs.
      spines. They are dusky red or red-brown, often with a
    clear pinkish-orange zone along the lateral line and black
    spotting on the body and spinous portion of the dorsal
                                       Status of the Population
    n. However, some individuals may not have spots. This
    species reaches a maximum length of 21.7 inches.
                                       I n 2000, a partial stock assessment was made on bank
    Bank rocksh are found from Queen Charlotte Sound,            rocksh. This assessment implied that there has been
    British Columbia to central Baja California and Isla Guadal-      a substantial decrease in the bank rocksh population,
    upe (off central Baja California). They are abundant from       particularly in the 1990s.
    the southern Oregon-northern California area to at least
    southern California. They live in depths between 100 and
                                       Milton Love
    1,500 feet, but most commonly between 300 and 800 feet.
                                       University of California, Santa Barbara
                                       Diana Watters
                                       California Department of Fish and Game




                       Bank Rockfish, Sebastes rufus
                                Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
378
                                                     Commercial Landings




                                                                         Bank Rockfish
               5                                      1916-1999,
                                                     Bank Rockfish
millions of pounds landed


               4                                      Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
                                                     survey with input from Pacific Fish-
    Bank Rockfish




                                                     eries Information Network (PacFin),
               3
                                                     National Marine Fishery Service
                                                     (NMFS), and California Department
               2                                      of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
                                                     derived from DFG commercial land-
               1                                      ing receipts with expansions based on
                                                     port samples collected by PacFin sam-
                                                     plers. Expansion data not available
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970   1980  1990  1999  for years prior to 1978.




References
Barss, W. H. 1989. Maturity and reproductive cycle for 35
species from the family Scorpaenidae found off Oregon.
Ore. Dep. Fish Wildl., Inf. Rep. 89-7.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California bight. NOAA Tech.
Rep. NMFS 87.
Pearson, D. E. 2000. Data availability, landings, and length
trend of California’s rocksh. NMFS, SWFSC Adm. Rep.
SC-00-01.
Watters, D. 1993. Age determination and conrmation
from otoliths of the bank rocksh, Sebastes rufus (Scor-
paenidae). M.S. thesis, San Jose State Univ.
Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish.
Bull. 85:229-250.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                A Status Report                     379
   Shortbelly Rockfish
    History of the Fishery                           The quota for catches off California, Oregon and Washing-
                                         ton in 2000 is 13,900 tons. Applications by joint venture

    T  he shortbelly rocksh (Sebastes jordani) is the most         companies to sh for shortbelly rocksh submitted in
      abundant rocksh off California but has been shed          the early 1990’s were not approved. Those companies
    very little. A directed shery occurred in 1982, when a          intended to use the catch for surimi (articial crab).
    joint venture with the USSR caught 700 tons off central          There has been little current interest in development
    California. Otherwise, a few shortbelly rocksh occasion-         of a shery. Bocaccio is one of the most common
    ally appear with other rocksh landed in California ports.         bycatch species. Since bocaccio has been declared an
    There is no domestic market for shortbelly rocksh at           overshed species, it is unlikely that a commercial shery
    present. If a market develops, special shing permits will         for shortbelly rocksh will be allowed to develop in the
    be required, because shing with legal mesh sizes is not          foreseeable future.
    practical for this small species. Large catches of shortbelly
    rocksh can be made using midwater or bottom trawls
                                         Status of Biological Knowledge
    with ne mesh cod ends. Research has shown, however,
    that while directed shing for shortbelly rocksh results

                                         S hortbelly rocksh are found from Punta Baja, Baja
    in low incidental catches of other species when midwater
                                           California, to La Perouse Bank, British Columbia. Larg-
    trawls are used, high incidental catches can occur when
                                         est numbers are found between the Farallon Islands and
    bottom trawls are used. Because of the concern that
                                         Santa Cruz, and off the Channel Islands. Young-of-the-year
    bottom trawls would take unacceptably high numbers
                                         shortbelly rocksh have been observed in the surf line,
    of small sh of other important species, scientists have
                                         and adults have been reported as deep as 930 feet. The
    recommended against the use of bottom trawls for
                                         peak abundance of adults is over bottom depths of 400 to
    shortbelly rocksh.
                                         700 feet. Adults commonly form very large schools over
    The potential shery for shortbelly rocksh is contro-           smooth bottom near the shelf break. Schools are often
    versial. Some shermen express concern that signicant           near or on the bottom during the day and tend to be less
    amounts of salmon may be caught incidentally to shing           dense and higher in the water column at night. The size of
    for shortbelly rocksh, but scientists have not observed          shortbelly rocksh tends to increase with bottom depth.
    incidental salmon catches on numerous research cruises
                                         The maximum reported age for shortbelly rocksh is 32
    and believe that a shery for shortbelly rocksh is
                                         years, but sh older than 10 years are uncommon. Most
    likely to be offshore from concentrations of salmon. Fish-
                                         are less than 11.5 inches in length, which corresponds to a
    ermen and environmental groups also express concern
                                         weight of 0.5 pound. The largest measured specimen was
    because young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are forage
                                         13.4 inches, about 0.7 pound. Early growth is fairly rapid,
    for salmon, sea birds and marine mammals. Scientists
                                         and by age three the average size is 7.8 inches for males
    have recommended quotas that are thought to be suf-
                                         and 8.3 inches for females. Growth slows by age eight,
    ciently low so as not to impact either the recruitment or
                                         when the average size is 9.7 inches for males and 10.3
    the availability of young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh for
                                         inches for females. About 50 percent of female shortbelly
    forage. Scientists have also recommended close monitor-
                                         rocksh are mature by age three, and almost all are
    ing of shing for shortbelly rocksh to verify that high
                                         mature by age four. Fecundity ranges from 6,200 eggs for
    incidental catches of this species and/or depletion of
                                         a 6.8-inch sh to 50,000 eggs for a 12.0-inch sh.
    forage do not occur.
                                         Plankton surveys during the January-April parturition
                                         season indicate that larvae are released in the same areas
                                         inhabited in the summer and fall by large aggregations of
                                         adults. However, the sh may be more dispersed during
                                         late winter because aggregations of adults have been dif-
                                         cult to locate then. Larvae are about 0.2 inch when
                                         released. The young sh lead a pelagic existence until
                                         June, when they are about ve months old, after which
                                         they settle out to lead a semi-pelagic existence. In June,
                                         the young shortbelly rocksh begin to take on the behav-
                                         ior of adults. Divers have occasionally observed them in
                                         large, compact schools in fairly shallow water. Large num-
                                         bers of moribund young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are
                                         sometimes found on beaches after periods of wind pat-
                     Shortbelly Rockfish, Sebastes jordani
                                         terns that are thought to cause currents, which carry
                            Credit: David Ono, DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
380
                                                          Commercial Landings




                                                                             Shortbelly Rockfish
            160                                            1916-1999,
thousands of pounds landed

                                                          Shortbelly Rockfish
            140
                                                          Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
  Shortbelly Rockfish




            120                                            survey with input from Pacific Fish-
            100                                            eries Information Network (PacFin),
                                                          National Marine Fishery Service
               80                                          (NMFS), and California Department
               60                                          of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
                                                          derived from DFG commercial land-
               40                                          ing receipts with expansions based
               20                                          on port samples collected by PacFin
                                                          samplers. Expansion data not avail-
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970    1980   1990   1999   able for years prior to 1978.




                                     References
them into shallow waters. These sh did not appear to be
either starved or diseased. They appear to be maladapted
                                     Chess, J. R., S. E. Smith, and P. C. Fisher. 1988. Trophic
to contact with the abrasive bottom when in the near-
                                     relationships of the shortbelly rocksh, Sebastes jordani,
shore environment.
                                     off central California. CalCOFI Rep. 29:129-136.
During the latter part of the juvenile pelagic stage, the
                                     Kato, S. 1981. Checking out shortbelly rocksh - Colintino
two to three-inch shortbelly rocksh feed mostly on cope-
                                     Rose II’s mission accomplished. Pacic Fishing (November,
pods and young stages of euphausiids. Adults feed pri-
                                     1981):96-100.
marily on euphausiids but also consume some copepods.
Young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are important prey          Lenarz, W. H. 1980. Shortbelly rocksh, Sebastes jordani:
for salmon and sea birds. They have also been found in          a large unshed resource in waters off California. Mar.
the diet of lingcod and northern fur seals. Adult shortbelly       Fish. Rev. (March-April):34-40.
rocksh are occasionally found in the diet of large sh
                                     Pearson, D. E., J. E. Hightower, and J. T. H. Chan. 1991.
such as lingcod.
                                     Age, growth, and potential yield for shortbelly rocksh
                                     (Sebastes jordani). Fish. Bull. 89:403-409.

Status of the Population

T  he population is at the unshed level. Biomass esti-
  mates have been attempted on four hydroacoustic
surveys from Santa Cruz to the Farallon Islands in 1977,
1983, 1986, and 1989. Large aggregations needed for the
hydroacoustic technique were found only on two of the
four surveys. The two estimates of biomass were 168,000
tons and 325,000 tons. It was estimated that the biomass
in this area could support annual catches of at least
14,800 tons without reducing the spawning stock below
levels thought to be needed to maintain good recruit-
ment. Recent larval abundance surveys have suggested
that recruitment is low which may be related to unfavor-
able oceanographic conditions.


William H. Lenarz
College of Marin
Revised by:
Donald E. Pearson
National Marine Fisheries Service




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                 A Status Report                         381
   Dover Sole
    History of the Fishery                         Council (PFMC) as a trip limit on the aggregate poundage
                                        of Dover sole, thornyheads, and sablesh (the DTS com-

    T  he stature of Dover sole (Microstomus pacicus) has         plex). Prior to that time, market demand and gear regula-
      evolved from that of an undesirable by-product of          tions controlled statewide Dover sole landings. The intent
    bottom trawling prior to the 1940s, to the most abundant        of this regulation was to reduce the harvest of sablesh
    groundsh in statewide landings. This phenomenal rise          by restricting effort for the DTS complex. While reduced
    was the result of market demand during and following          quotas and increasingly restrictive trip limits were placed
    World War II and technological advances in sh handling         on the DTS complex coast-wide during the 1990s, the
    and processing.                             major reason for the decline in California Dover sole land-
                                        ings was a reduction in market demand. The port of
    At the advent of trawling in the 1870s, Dover sole were
                                        Eureka has historically supported the largest Dover sole
    inadvertently caught by lateen sailboats using paranzella
                                        shery and was strongly impacted by the loss of a major
    nets. California’s Dover sole shery expanded from its
                                        Army contract. Fort Bragg, Crescent City, San Francisco,
    beginning in San Francisco Bay to its present scope
                                        Monterey, and Morro Bay are other ports with signicant
    extending from Santa Barbara to the Oregon border. The
                                        Dover sole landings.
    developing trawl shery experienced major changes in
    vessels and netting. Sailboats were replaced by steam,         Sport utilization of Dover sole is practically nonexistent.
    gasoline, then diesel-powered vessels. The original paran-       The depth distribution of Dover sole normally places
    zella trawl net was supplanted by the more efcient otter        them beyond most sport shing activity, and Dover sole,
    trawl in the 1920s. By the 1980s, some trawl shermen          because of their feeding habits, are not vulnerable to
    began to use roller or bobbin trawls to capture Dover          hook-and-line shing.
    sole and other deep-slope groundsh instead of more
    conventional trawls with rubber mudlines between the
                                        Status of Biological Knowledge
    trawl doors and footrope to create a sh-herding mud
    cloud. A quick-freezing method, developed during World

                                        D  over sole occur from the Bering Sea to northern Baja
    War II, hardened the soft esh of the Dover sole to
                                          California on mud bottoms at depths from 180 to
    produce marketable llets. This advance and the wartime
                                        4,800 feet. Although early tagging experiments off Oregon
    demand for sh allowed trawlers to turn their attention to
                                        and California suggested Dover sole move inshore in the
    the large north coast population of Dover sole.
                                        summer, a more recent California Department of Fish and
    The directed Dover sole shery began in 1943 when            Game (DFG) tagging study discovered that not all Dover
    28 tons were landed. Between 1944 and 1947, landings          sole participate in the summer inshore movement. Most of
    ranged from 62 tons to 1,400 tons. The shery expanded         the mature sh tagged and released in deep water were
    to 3,600 tons in 1948, at which time Dover sole landing         recovered in deep water regardless of season. The DFG
    records were separated from nominal or unspecied sole         tagging data indicate that two substocks may exist – one
    landings, and rose further to 5,850 tons by 1952. Annual        that migrates and one that does not. Juvenile Dover sole
    landings then remained stable at approximately 4,000 tons        settle on the continental shelf and gradually move down
    until 1969. From 1969 through 1989, landings averaged          the slope over their lifetime, reaching the oxygen-mini-
    10,200 tons and from 1990 through 1999, average landings        mum zone as they become sexually mature.
    dropped to 5,892 tons.
                                        Growth is rapid during the early years of life but decreases
    Commercial Dover sole landing limits were imposed coast-        with age. Five-year-old Dover sole grow 0.7 inch per year,
    wide in 1989 and 1990 by the Pacic Fishery Management         but by 10 years of age, growth slows to 0.4 inch annually.
                                        Dover sole may attain an age of over 50 years and reach
                                        30 inches in length. Fifty percent of Dover sole females
                                        12 inches long are mature. The youngest mature Dover
                                        sole in 1987-1988 studies was six years old, whereas earlier
                                        studies reported mature ve-year-old females.
                                        Dover sole may spawn nine batches to release all eggs in
                                        a spawning season. Egg production is correlated with size.
                                        Fish of 0.6 pound produce 33,000 eggs, while 2.4-pound
                                        sh produce 54,000 eggs on average. Incubation time for
                                        the buoyant eggs may vary from 10 days to one month
                                        depending on the ambient water temperature. Larvae
                                        are unusually large (one to two inches long) and have a
                      Dover Sole, Microstomus pacificus
                                Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
382
                                                                            Dover Sole
              30
millions of pounds landed


              25
                                                         Commercial Landings
              20
    Dover Sole




                                                         1916-1999,
                                                         Dover Sole
              15                                          Prior to 1931, all soles were com-
                                                         bined as one group; individual
              10                                          species were tabulated separately
                                                         when they became sufficiently
              5
                                                         important. Data Source: DFG
                                                         Catch Bulletins and commercial
               0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   landing receipts.




prolonged pelagic life of at least one year before settling       Francis D. Henry
to the bottom. Larvae have been found along the entire          California Department of Fish and Game
California coast, as far as 60 miles south of the U.S.-         N. Chyan-huei Lo
Mexico border and up to 280 miles offshore.               National Marine Fisheries Service
Dover sole feed commonly on polychaete worms, pelecy-          Revised by:
pod and scaphopod mollusks, shrimp, and brittle stars.          David Thomas
Only Pacic sleeper sharks and spiny dogsh are known to         California Department of Fish and Game
prey on Dover sole.


                                     References
Status of the Population
                                     Brodziak, J., L. Jacobson. R. Lauth, and M. Wilkins.

I n 1987 and 1988, the National Marine Fisheries Service         1998. Assessment of the Dover Sole Stocks for 1997. In:
 (NMFS) conducted two surveys to assess the adult bio-         Status of the Pacic coast groundsh shery through 1997
mass of Dover sole in the area from Point Conception           and recommended acceptable biological catches for 1998.
to Monterey Bay. The surveys found that 98 percent of          Pacic Fishery Management Council, Portland Oregon.
the spawning biomass of Dover sole in central California
                                     Hagerman, F.B. 1952. The biology of the Dover sole
waters live on the continental slope between 2,100 and
                                     (Microstomus pacicus) (Lockington). Calif. Dept. Fish and
3,300 feet deep, an area characterized by low oxygen
                                     Game, Fish Bull. 85. 48 p.
concentrations and very cold temperatures. A 1991 assess-
                                     Hunter, J.R., B.J. Macewicz, N.C.H. Lo, and C.A. Kimbrell.
ment using 1990 NMFS bottom trawl survey data provided
                                     1992. Fecundity, spawning, and maturity of female Dover
estimates of biomass and yields for the area from Cape
                                     sole, Microstomus pacicus, with an evaluation of assump-
Mendocino, California to Cape Blanco, Oregon (Eureka
                                     tions and precision. Fish. Bull., U.S. 90: 101-128.
area). Another assessment, conducted in 1992, included
the Eureka area and the Columbia area and another            Turnock, J. and R. Methot. 1992. Status of west coast
completed in 1995 included the northern Monterey area as         Dover sole in 1992. In: Status of the Pacic coast ground-
well as the US Vancouver area.                      sh shery through 1992 and recommended acceptable
                                     biological catches for 1993. Pacic Fishery Management
The last Dover assessment, conducted in 1997, treated the
                                     Council, Portland, Oregon.
entire population in the Monterey area through the U.S.
Vancouver area as a single stock based on research on the        Turnock, J., M. Wilkins, M. Saelens, and R. Lauth. 1995.
genetic structure of the population. The Point Conception        Status of west coast Dover sole in The US Vancouver and
area population has yet to be fully assessed. Using yield        Northern Monterey Areas in 1995. In: Status of the Pacic
recommendations presented in the 1997 assessment, the          coast groundsh shery through 1995 and recommended
PFMC set a coastwide landed catch limit of 8,955 tons.          acceptable biological catches for 1996. Pacic Fishery
This stock is believed to be in equilibrium and near the         Management Council, Portland, Oregon.
target biomass level that would provide maximum sustain-
able yield.



  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                       383
   English Sole
    History of the Fishery                           Status of Biological Knowledge

    E                                     E
      nglish sole (Pleuronectes vetulus) has been commer-            nglish sole range from San Cristobal Bay, Baja Califor-
      cially important since the introduction of the rst            nia to northwest Alaska in water as deep as 1,800 feet.
    trawl net, the paranzella, in San Francisco in 1876. The          Fish tend to move to deeper water in the winter and
    use of trawl nets made the catch of “sole” species one           shallower water in the summer, and shing effort follows
    of the leading categories of sh landed in California, and         these movements. Tagging studies in California, Oregon,
    English sole was the leading atsh in that group until          Washington, and British Columbia show that, although
    Dover sole took rst place in 1949. Since then, English          there is little overall migration, small seasonal north-
    sole has been second in pounds landed except for 1970           south movements probably occur, and some sh have been
    through 1972, when petrale sole was second. The peak            found to move in excess of 200 miles. Analysis of tag
    year for English sole was 1929, when 8.7 million pounds          returns also suggest that four separate stocks are found in
    were caught off central California and at new shing areas         California: south of Point Conception, Point Conception to
    off Fort Bragg and Eureka. Annual landings in California          Bodega Bay, Monterey to Eureka, and Eureka to southern
    averaged 2.8 million pounds during the 10 years from 1980         Oregon. The overlap in areas is a result of apparent north-
    to 1989 and dropped to an average 1.3 million pounds            south movement of the stocks. Some seasonal intermin-
    between 1990 and 1999. The majority of recent California          gling between stocks probably also occurs.
    landings were made by trawlers shing on the grounds            Three-year-old female English sole, on average, are only
    off Eureka and San Francisco. Little is taken commercially         about eight inches, while 10-year-old females are about
    south of Point Conception.                         14 inches. Fifty percent of female English sole are usually
    English sole are shed primarily by trawling in water 120         mature at ve years and nine inches. Spawning generally
    to 900 feet deep on sandy bottoms. Because of the shal-          occurs over sand and mud-sand bottoms at depths of 200
    low water in which this species is found, relatively small         to 360 feet from September to April. In California, peak
    vessels can participate in the shery. A very small portion        spawning occurs from December through February, with
    of the catch is taken by commercial hook-and-line or by          annual variations in timing apparently related to water
    gill net, and it is not an important species for recreational       temperature. Each sh probably spawns only once per
    shing. Female sh greater that 11 inches comprise the           year. Egg diameter is approximately 0.04 inch. Fertilized
    majority of landings because females tend to be longer           eggs are buoyant when rst released, but shortly before
    and heavier than males, and markets request sh of at           hatching they begin to sink into the water column.
    least 11 inches in order to produce reasonable size llets.        When the eggs hatch, in four to 12 days, the larvae are
    While English sole llets are desirable for the market and         approximately 0.1 inch long. Typically the larvae are in the
    restaurant trade, demand is affected by the abundance of          midwater column but sink deeper as they approach meta-
    other atsh and roundsh as well as the availability and         morphosis. During development, the larvae may be car-
    price of imported sh products.                      ried toward shore on lower-level water currents. Spawning
                                         and development during times of rapid plankton growth
                                         may result in good recruitment. During their pelagic phase
                                         of six to 10 weeks, the larvae grow to about 0.75 inch,
                                         then settle to the bottom and metamorphose to the adult
                                         benthic body form.
                                         After metamorphosis, and for the rst year of life, juvenile
                                         English sole are found in shallow bays and estuaries and
                                         feed all the way up to the intertidal zone. Juveniles are
                                         found in sand, mud, and eelgrass habitats. The population
                                         density of juvenile English sole in estuaries is several
                                         times higher than on the open coast; however, it is not
                                         known how important estuaries are to survival of juvenile
                                         English sole. In southern California, the shallow open coast
                                         may be more important as juvenile habitat than it is
                                         further north. As the sh grow they tend to move to
                                         deeper water. While in the estuary and nearshore shallow-
                                         water environment, juveniles feed on copepods, the palps
                                         of segmented worms, siphons of small clams, brittle stars,
                       English Sole, Pleuronectes vetulus  and other small invertebrates. At the end of their rst
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                              December 2001
384
                                                                          English Sole
              9
              8
millions of pounds landed


              7
              6
    English Sole




                                                         Commercial Landings
              5                                           1916-1999, English Sole
              4                                           Prior to 1931, all soles were
                                                         combined as one group; indi-
              3
                                                         vidual species were tabulated
              2                                           separately when they became
              1                                           sufficiently important. Data
                                                         Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
              0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970    1980   1990   1999   commercial landing receipts.

year of life (about ve inches), most juveniles have moved       Donald E. Pearson
to offshore waters.                           National Marine Fisheries Service
Adult sh are seldom found in estuaries. They are oppor-        Sandra L. Owen
tunistic feeders eating shallowly burrowed or surface-         California Department of Fish and Game
active prey such as worms, small crustaceans, clams, and        Revised by:
occasionally small sh, crabs, and shrimp. Adults can also       Dave Thomas
dig into the sediment to reach deeper prey. The largest         California Department of Fish and Game
recorded English sole, from British Columbia, was 22.5
inches, and 21-inch sh have been taken in California.
                                    References
The oldest recorded age is 22 years. English sole are
aged by counting the annual rings on the interopercular
                                    Jow, T. 1969. Results of English sole tagging off California.
bone. The English sole is capable of interbreeding with the
                                    Pac. Mar. Fish. Commis. Bull. 7:15-33.
starry ounder producing an inter-generic hybrid called
the hybrid or forkline sole or ounder.                 Kruse, G.H. and A.V.Tyler. 1989. Exploratory simulation of
                                    English sole recruitment mechanisms. Transactions of the
                                    AFS 118:101-118.
Status of the Population                        Krygier, E.E. and W.G. Pearcy. 1986. The role of estuarine

L
                                    and offshore nursery areas for young English sole, Paroph-
  ittle information is available to estimate the status of
                                    rys vetulus Girard, of Oregon. Fish. Bull., U.S. 84:119-132.
  the English sole stock in California. Catch-per-unit-of-
effort data exist but are complicated by the multiple spe-       Lassuy, D.R. 1989. Species proles: life histories and envi-
cies aspect of trawl shing. In 1993, an assessment using        ronmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
data collected from 1977 through 1992, was conducted for        brates (Pacic northwest)–English sole. U.S. Fish Wildl.
the English sole stocks off Oregon and Washington. Results       Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.101). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
indicate that the biomass increased steadily during the         TR EL-82-4. 17 p.
assessment period, which was attributed to high recruit-
                                    Rosenberg, A.A. 1982. Growth of juvenile English sole,
ment. The author concluded that English sole stocks can
                                    Parophrys vetulus, in estuarine and open coastal nursery
sustain a high exploitation rate because a large portion
                                    grounds. Fish. Bull., U.S. 80:245-252.
of the spawning stock is comprised of small females
                                    Sampson , D. B. and Al-Jufaily, S.M. 1999. Geographic
that are not caught by the shery due to the small
                                    variation in the maturity and growth schedules of English
size-at-maturity.
                                    sole along the U.S. west coast. J. Fish Bio. 54:1-17.
The California shery is currently managed by the Pacic
                                    Toole, C.L. 1980. Intertidal recruitment and feeding in
Fishery Management Council through gear regulations such
                                    relation to optimal utilization of nursery areas by juvenile
as trawl net mesh size and a recommended Acceptable
                                    English sole (Parophrys vetulus: Pleuronectidae). Env.
Biological Catch (1,100 metric tons at present). Landings
                                    Biol. Fish. 5:383-390.
are monitored and populations continually assessed for
signs of biological stress.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                               A Status Report                     385
   Petrale Sole
    History of the Fishery                          Tagging studies in Washington, Oregon, and California indi-
                                         cate that petrale sole concentrate for spawning in deep

    T  he California shery for petrale sole (Eopsetta jordani)       water during winter and, shortly after spawning, disperse
      began in the San Francisco Bay area during the late         inshore and northward through the spring and summer
    1880s. Petrale were then, as they are now, a highly desir-        months. During fall and winter, they show an offshore and
    able atsh. Most are lleted for the fresh market, with         southerly movement again concentrating on local deep
    the remainder being cleaned and smoked or dried. The           water spawning grounds. Seasonal landing distributions
    majority of the petrale sole landed are taken commer-           show the same pattern. During winter, a targeted shery
    cially with bottom trawls, along with various other at-         occurs in deep water and large catches and landings of
    shes and rockshes, although some are caught by long-          petrale are made, while during summer, they are caught
    line or entangling nets. The sport shery is negligible,         in association with many other groundsh and individual
    with only a few thousand pounds being landed annually.          petrale landings are relatively small. Within California,
    The principal sport catch is made by partyboats shing for        four spawning populations of petrale sole have been delin-
    bottomsh species such as rockshes.                   eated by tagging experiments and by locating spawning
                                         sh. These are in the Cape Mendocino, Point Delgado,
    In 1924, there were 66,000 pounds of petrale sole landed.
                                         Point Montara, and Point Sal areas.
    From 1924 through 1933, annual landings averaged about
    250,000 pounds, with over 1.4 million pounds landed in          Age and growth studies on petrale sole in California have
    1931. The trawler eet increased greatly in size and           been very limited. However, growth appears to be rapid
    efciency following World War II. New gear technology           during the rst few years for both male and female sh,
    allowed trawling on new grounds at greater depths, result-        after which the growth rate becomes disproportionate,
    ing in larger landings. Also contributing to increased pro-        with females growing more rapidly than males. The maxi-
    duction was the discovery of winter spawning grounds at          mum recorded sizes and ages of California petrale sole are
    depths of 900 to 1,200 feet. Concentrations here were           19.5 inches and 21 years for males and 25.2 inches and 25
    very dense and catches increased accordingly. Over ve          years for females. Petrale sole enter the shery at about
    million pounds were landed in 1948. Between 1982 and           three years of age, but most of the petrale catch consists
    1991, landings averaged 1.7 million pounds. From 1992 to         of females between ve and seven years old and about 14
    1999 landings averaged 1.3 million pounds.                to 17 inches long.
                                         Petrale sole reproduce in water between 900 and 1,200
                                         feet deep from November through March, with peak
    Status of Biological Knowledge                      spawning during January and February. Males reach rst


    P
                                         maturity at three years of age and 11.7 inches long, and
      etrale sole are found from the Bering Sea to northern
                                         females at four years and 12.5 inches. About 50 percent of
      Baja California on sandy bottoms at depths ranging
                                         the males are mature at seven years and 16 inches. The
    from 60 to 1,500 feet. These sh have been known to
                                         largest immature male recorded was 15.2 inches and eight
    move great distances; tagged sh released off Eureka,
                                         years; the largest immature female, about 18.5 inches and
    California have been recovered in British Columbia. Never-
                                         nine years. Eggs are pelagic and hatch in about 8.5 days
    theless, most tagged petrale sole are recovered within
                                         at 44.6 F.
    short distances of the release point.
                                         Petrale sole are among the largest California atsh. They
                                         feed on euphausiids, shrimp, anchovies, herring, juvenile
                                         hake, small rocksh, and other atsh.



                                         Status of Population

                                         A  1999 stock assessment, which focused on petrale
                                           stocks off Oregon and Washington did not estimate
                                         absolute
                                         biomass or offer a harvest projection for California.
                                         However, the authors did examine some limited data
                                         from California including a set of shelf survey indices of
                                         biomass and noted that this index has been steadily

                        Pertrale Sole, Eopsetta jordani
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
386
                                                                          Petrale Sole
              6
millions of pounds landed

              5

              4
    Petrale Sole




                                                        Commercial Landings
                                                        1916-1999, Petrale Sole
              3
                                                        Prior to 1931, all soles were
                                                        combined as one group;
              2
                                                        individual species were tabulated
                                                        separately when they became
              1
                                                        sufficiently important. Data
                                                        Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
              0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990  1999   commercial landing receipts.




                                    References
increasing since 1980. This assessment suggests recent
California catches are sustainable, prompting the PFMC
                                    Best, O.A. 1963. Movement of Petrale sole, Eopsetta jor-
to retain a statewide acceptable biological catch of 3.3
                                    dani (Lexington) tagged off California. Pac. Mar. Fish.
million pounds.
                                    Comm. Bull. 6:24-38.
                                    Memory, R.L. 1987. Progress report on the status of
David H. Thomas
                                    petrale sole in the INPFC Columbia-Vancouver areas in
California Department of Fish and Game
                                    1987. Appendix E in Status of the Pacic coast groundsh
                                    shery through 1985 and recommended acceptable biolog-
                                    ical catches for 1986. Pacic Fishery Management Council,
                                    Portland, Oregon.
                                    Forrester, C.R. 1969. Life history information on some
                                    groundsh species. Fish. Bd. Canada, Tech. Rept. 105:1-17.
                                    Ketchen, K.S. and C.R. Forrester. 1966. Population dynam-
                                    ics of the Petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani, in waters off
                                    western Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 153:1-195.
                                    Sampson, D.B. and Lee, Y.W. 1999. An Assessment of
                                    the Stocks of Petrale Sole Off Washington, Oregon, and
                                    California in 1998. Appendix in Status of Pacic coast
                                    groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended accept-
                                    able biological catches for 2000.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                A Status Report                     387
   Rex Sole
    History of the Fishery                         compressed head, a small mouth, and a nearly straight
                                       lateral line that lacks an accessory branch.

    T  he rex sole (Errex zachirus, formerly Glyptocephalus        Rex sole rst appear in the trawl catch when they are
      zachirus) is taken commercially by bottom trawl nets        about 12 inches long and 10.5 years of age. They can
    from southern California to the Bering Sea at depths of        attain a length of 23.25 inches and an age of 24 years.
    300 to 1,200 feet. Despite its wide-distribution, this spe-      Male rex sole rst spawn in their second year when about
    cies does not lend itself to a high-production targeted        ve inches long. Females rst spawn at age three and
    shery, because it rarely aggregates in any one location        about eight inches. Rex sole become fully mature at age
    at any certain time of year. It is rarely taken by           four and about nine inches in length. After 3.5 years of
    sport shermen.                            age, females grow somewhat faster than males; they also
    The commercial shery for rex sole in California had been       tend to live longer.
    steady and stable between 1970 and 1989, with most           Although rex sole in spawning condition have been col-
    catches made incidentally to other groundsh species.         lected throughout the year, peak spawning activity is from
    Annual California landings of rex sole from 1970 to 1989        February through March off San Francisco and during the
    averaged 1.6 million pounds, with a range of 1.3 to 2.0 mil-      summer off Eureka. Spawning rex sole are most abundant
    lion pounds. However, during the 1990s landings declined        at depths of 300 to 900 feet.
    along with landings of other groundsh. By the end of
                                       The number of eggs produced by a single female rex sole
    the 1990s, landings were down to approximately 630,000
                                       increases with size. A 9.5-inch female will produce about
    pounds worth $243,772 to shermen. Prices have been
                                       3,900 eggs, while a 23.25-inch female can have as many
    steady at $.35 to $.40 per pound for the past decade.
                                       as 238,000 eggs. Rex sole eggs average about 0.10 inch in
    Traditionally, the majority of the landings in California
                                       diameter, are fertilized near the sea bed, become pelagic,
    have come from the Eureka-Crescent City area. Since
                                       and probably require a few weeks to hatch.
    1985, rex sole landings from other ports as far south as
                                       Rex sole eggs hatch to produce pelagic larvae that are
    Morro Bay have grown relative to landings in the Eureka-
                                       about 0.25 inch in length. Larvae have been collected
    Crescent City area.
                                       from nearshore to 200 miles offshore during California
    Rex sole is primarily processed for the fresh food market,
                                       Cooperative Oceanic Fishery Investigations (CalCOFI) sur-
    where it is held in high esteem by seafood connoisseurs
                                       veys and are most abundant from April to July. The larvae
    because of its bright, white esh and its sweet, distinctive
                                       retain an extended pelagic existence for about a year
    taste. Most rex sole are marketed in a dressed form
                                       before settling out to the bottom as two-inch-long juve-
    (eviscerated with the head off), which gives processors a
                                       niles. The long pelagic phase may make rex sole larvae
    35 to 45 percent yield by weight. Rex sole is generally not
                                       more susceptible to dispersal and drift by currents, a
    lleted because its thin, slight body does not allow for
                                       factor that might affect survival and subsequent year-class
    efcient recovery.
                                       strength. Juveniles are common on the outer edge of the
                                       continental shelf, which is possibly used as a nursery area,
    Status of Biological Knowledge                     at depths of 490 to 660 feet.
                                       Little is known about rex sole movements and migrations.

    T  he rex sole belongs to the family Pleuronectidae,         They are found from shallow water (60 feet usually deeper
      the right-eyed ounders. It is distinguished by a long       than 200 feet) to depths of 2,100 feet. They show a prefer-
    narrow pectoral n on the eyed side of the body, a short        ence for a muddy-sandy bottom but also frequent both
                                       sand and mud bottoms.
                                       Stomach analyses show that rex sole feed primarily on
                                       amphipods and polychaetes; shrimp are also eaten. Rex
                                       sole are preyed upon by sharks, skates, rays, lingcod, and
                                       some rocksh.




                          Rex Sole, Errex zachirus
                                Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
388
                                                                             Rex Sole
              2.5
millions of pounds landed


              2.0

                                                          Commercial Landings
     Rex Sole




              1.5
                                                          1916-1999, Rex Sole
                                                          Prior to 1931, all soles were
              1.0                                          combined as one group;
                                                          individual species were tabulated
              0.5                                          separately when they became
                                                          sufficiently important. Data Source:
                                                          DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial
              0.0  1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   landing receipts.




Status of the Population                         References

T  he rex sole is listed under the “other atsh” category        Hosie, M. J. 1976. The rex sole. Oregon Department of Fish
  in the Pacic Coast groundsh plan. It is believed          and Wildlife Information Report 76-2:1-5.
to be adequately protected by trawl mesh-size regula-           Hosie, M.J. and H.F. Horton. 1977. Biology of the rex sole,
tions, which result in the retention of only the larger          Glyptocephalus zachirus, in waters off Oregon. Fish. Bull.,
sh. Yet, insufcient information is available to determine        U.S. 75:51-60.
possible trends in stock abundance. Increased restrictions
                                     Pearcy, W. G. 1978. Distribution and abundance of small
on trawling effort may be partially responsible for recent
                                     atshes and other demersal shes in a region of diverse
reductions in landings.
                                     sediments and bathymetry off Oregon. Fish. Bull., U.S.
                                     76:629-640.
Lawrence F. Quirollo                           Pearcy, W.G. , M.J. Hosie, S.L. Richardson 1977. Distribu-
California Department of Fish and Game                  tion and duration of pelagic life of larvae of Dover sole,
Revised by:                                Microstomus pacicus; rex sole, Glyptocephalus zachirus;
Christopher M. Dewees                           and petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani, in waters off Oregon.
University of California, Davis                      Fish. Bull. U.S. 75: 173-184.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                       389
   Sablefish
    History of the Fishery                         worth $3.63 million, ranked fourth in ex-vessel value
                                       among groundsh species. Between 1990 and 1999, Cali-

    T  he sablesh (Anoplopoma mbria) resource off Califor-       fornia landings had an average ex-vessel value of 5.1 mil-
      nia has a lengthy history of commercial exploitation.       lion dollars. Sablesh are marketed commonly as “black
    Prior to 1935, landings averaged about 500 tons annually.       cod” and smaller sh are often lleted and sold as “but-
    By 1935, annual landings had risen to 1,400 tons at a         tersh.” The high oil content of the esh produces an
    time when sablesh livers, because of their high vitamin A       excellent smoked product, and most of the large indi-
    content, commanded a higher price than the edible parts        viduals are sold domestically in this form. Sablesh are
    of the sh. Landings increased to over 3,000 tons in 1945       typically exported in frozen, dressed (headed-and-gutted)
    due to strong wartime market demand, then varied from         form. There is a large price difference with size.
    approximately 770 to 2,200 tons per year until 1972.          Sport utilization of sablesh is negligible, with rare
    More intensive exploitation of sablesh began in 1972         instances of large catches when schools of small sablesh
    with the development and widespread use of sablesh          concentrate around public piers. The depth distribution
    traps, which proved highly effective. Foreign shing eets       of sablesh normally places them beyond most sport
    from the U.S.S.R, Japan, and the Republic of Korea shed        shing activity.
    for sablesh off California from 1967 to 1979, catching
                                       Sablesh are captured commercially with longline, trap,
    relatively minor quantities in most years. However, in
                                       bottom trawl, and gill net gears. Before 1943, sablesh
    1976 the Republic of Korea reported a catch of 9,500
                                       were landed principally by small two- to three-man long-
    tons off California. The establishment of the U.S. 200-mile
                                       line boats shing deep for large sablesh for the smoked
    shery conservation zone in 1977 phased out foreign sh-
                                       sh market. Catches by trawlers became signicant in
    ing in those waters; consequently Japan, the principal
                                       1944. The distribution of landings among gear types has
    foreign market for sablesh, became increasingly reliant
                                       varied considerably over time, but bottom trawlers have
    on imports of U.S.-caught sablesh. Japanese demand for
                                       accounted for about 70 percent of annual California land-
    sablesh helped drive California landings to a record high
                                       ings in recent years. In recent years, a small number of
    of 14,287 tons in 1979, followed by a market collapse the
                                       sablesh have been caught in the recently developed live-
    next year to just 5,141 tons.
                                       sh shery.
    The rst commercial sablesh landing limits were imposed
                                       Trawls and gill nets capture sablesh in mixed-species
    coastwide in 1982 by the Pacic Fishery Management
                                       catches with a variety of other groundshes, whereas
    Council. Prior to that time, market demand, not resource
                                       longline and trap gears target on sablesh. Off California,
    availability or quotas, was the dominant force controlling
                                       most trawl-caught sablesh are taken in association with
    statewide sablesh landings. From 1982 to 1989, regula-
                                       Dover sole and thornyheads in deep (1,200-4,200 feet)
    tions constrained statewide sablesh landings to an aver-
                                       water. Longlines and traps are also shed at such depths
    age of approximately 6,175 tons. Annual coastwide landing
                                       for sablesh, but gill net-caught sablesh commonly are
    quotas remained at 19,183 tons from 1982 to 1984, then
                                       captured with rocksh at depths less than 900 feet.
    gradually declined to 9,800 tons in 1990 as the stock was
                                       Because of the immense shing power of the West Coast
    shed down to the recommended long-term target level.
                                       groundsh eet and a robust market demand, rather
    Between 1990 and 2000, the Allowable Biological Catch
                                       intensive management of sablesh became necessary in
    (ABC) was reduced slightly to 10,661 tons.
                                       the 1980s to prevent overexploitation and to accomplish
    The economic importance of sablesh to California has
                                       other management goals. Trip landing and frequency
    increased considerably in recent years. In 1989, sablesh,
                                       limits, a 22-inch minimum size limit, user-group alloca-
                                       tions, as well as more commonly used quotas and gear
                                       restrictions, have been applied to the commercial sable-
                                       sh shery by the PFMC. Trip landing and frequency
                                       limits prevent early quota attainment, thereby reducing
                                       the discard of sablesh by-catch in non-directed sheries
                                       and providing year-round availability of fresh sablesh
                                       to domestic consumers. The minimum size limit, imple-
                                       mented in 1983, prevents the excessive harvest of juvenile
                                       sablesh. Quota allocation distributes the harvest among
                                       user groups to achieve social and economic goals. Quotas
                                       and gear restrictions are designed to ensure the optimal
                                       long-term harvest of sablesh.
                       Sablefish, Anonlopoma fimbra
                                Credit: DFG

      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
390
                                                                       Sablefish
              35
millions of pounds landed


              30

              25
     Sablefish




              20

              15

                                                          Commercial Landings
              10
                                                          1916-1999, Sablefish
              5                                           Data Source: DFG Catch
                                                          Bulletins and commercial
              0
                 1916 1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980    1990   1999   landing receipts.


The sablesh resource is unique among West Coast             Approximately 50 percent of female sablesh reach matu-
groundshes, for the annual commercial catch quota has          rity at 23.6 inches long and six years of age off California.
been allocated between trawl and non-trawl gears since          Females grow faster than males from age two and attain a
1986. Trawl/non-trawl allocations, based on historical          larger maximum size. Sablesh may attain an age of over
shares and incidental catch requirements, have ranged          50 years and reach a size of 47 inches and 126 pounds but
from 58:42 to 52:48 during 1986 to 2000. Separate alloca-        are usually less than 30 inches and 25 pounds. Sablesh
tions are needed because trawl-landing restrictions put         enter the trawl shery as early as one year of age but are
trawlers at a disadvantage with non-trawl shermen when         fully selected by trawl and nontrawl sheries at ages four
both groups compete for a joint quota. Most non-trawl          to six. Large, older sh are most selected by the trap and
shermen land only sablesh; thus an unrestricted open          longline sheries.
shery followed by a closure is acceptable to them. Quota        Sablesh are conventionally aged using the broken and
allocation allows each group to use their optimal harvest        burnt otolith method. There is very poor agreement
strategy within regulatory constraints.                 among agers and therefore the estimated ages are ques-
                                     tionable. This is in spite of a considerable amount of
                                     research on the problem.
Status of Biological Knowledge

T  he geographic distribution of sablesh extends from
                                     Status of Population
  the Asiatic coast of the Bering Sea to northern Baja


                                     F
California. Tagging studies by the National Marine Fisher-          or management purposes, a unit stock is assumed to
ies Service (NMFS), Department of Fisheries and Oceans-           exist in waters off California to the Canadian border.
Canada, and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game            Considerable progress has been made in the 1980s towards
indicated that adult sablesh are relatively sedentary,         understanding the dynamics, structure, and size of this
as most sh were recaptured within 50 nautical miles           stock. Two types of sheries-independent surveys were
of release sites. However, some sablesh, particularly          conducted by the NMFS, triennial groundsh trawl surveys
those tagged in southern California, have moved in excess        (initiated in 1977) from Monterey Bay to the Canadian
of 1,000 nautical miles. Adult sablesh are found from          border and biennial sablesh trap surveys in the INPFC
less than 300 to more than 4,800 feet deep, but peak           Conception to Eureka areas (Mexican border to 43° 00’ N
abundance off California is at about 1,200 to 1,800 feet.        latitude). In 1991, the biennial trap survey was discontin-
Length and age generally increase with depth.              ued due to a lack of funding. In addition, a systematic
The spawning season extends from October through Feb-          landings sampling program and trawl logbook data pro-
ruary. A central California study determined that spawn-         vided insight into catch-per-effort, and age- and length-
ing occurs at depths greater than 2,700 feet. Initially,         composition trends. In general, these disparate data sets
larval sablesh inhabit surface waters offshore; later they       presented a somewhat equivocal picture of stock status in
move into nearshore nursery areas. Juveniles aggregate in        California waters.
water depths of continental slope and abyssal areas. The         Fisheries-independent and dependent studies have had
diet of juvenile sablesh includes copepods, amphipods,         conicting results. Stock assessments have been hampered
euphausiids, sh eggs, and sh larvae. Adults eat euphau-        by the lack of reliable age data. In 1998, two independent
siids, tunicates, and sh.                        stock assessments were performed which resulted in bio-


  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                A Status Report                  391
                                   References
      mass estimates ranging between 33,000 and 319,000 tons.
Sablefish



      Given the highly uncertain status of the population, it
                                   Hastie, J.D. 1988. Catch and revenue characteristics
      is unclear whether management has been too liberal or
                                   of vessels harvesting sablesh off the west coast of
      too conservative.
                                   the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
                                   F/NWC-144.
      Francis D. Henry
                                   Hunter, J.R, B.J. Macewicz, and C.A. Kimbrell. 1989.
      California Department of Fish and Game
                                   Fecundity and other aspects of the reproduction of sable-
      Revised by:
                                   sh, Anoplopoma mbria, in central California waters.
      Donald E. Pearson
                                   Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 30:61-72.
      National Marine Fisheries Service
                                   Melteff, B.R. 1983. Editor. Proceedings of the International
                                   Sablesh Symposium. Alaska Sea Grant Report 83-8. Alaska
                                   Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska-Fairbanks.
                                   Methot, R.D., P.Crone, R.J. Conser, J. Brodziak, T. Builder,
                                   D. Kamikawa. 1998. Status of the sablesh resource of the
                                   U.S. pacic coast in 1998. In Status of the Pacic coast
                                   groundsh shery through 1998 and recommended accept-
                                   able biological catches for 1999. Pacic Fishery Manage-
                                   ment Council, Portland, Oregon.
                                   Parks, N.B. and F.R. Shaw. 1989. Relative abundance
                                   and size composition of sablesh (Anoplopoma mbria)
                                   in the coastal waters of California and southern
                                   Oregon, 1984-1988. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
                                   F/NWC-167.




        California’s Living Marine Resources:         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                     December 2001
392
Pacific Hake
History of the Fishery                    In 1964, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)




                                                                    Pacific Hake
                                demonstrated that large catches of hake (to 60,000

T  he Pacic hake (Merluccius productus), also known     pounds per half-hour haul) could be achieved off coastal
   as Pacic whiting, makes up more than 50 percent     Washington and Oregon using newly developed depth
of the potential annual harvest of West Coast groundsh    telemetry systems on midwater trawlers. This shery grew
off Washington, Oregon, and California and is the largest   from 484 tons in 1964 to 15,883 tons in 1967.
groundsh resource managed under the Pacic Fishery      Knowledge of the large hake resource off the West Coast
Council’s Groundsh Management Plan. Pacic hake was     attracted a large eet of Soviet trawlers and accompa-
considered an underutilized domestic species until 1991,   nying support vessels in 1966. Between 1973 and 1976,
the rst year the entire harvest was captured and pro-    Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany),
cessed by the U.S. seafood industry.             the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), and
A member of the cod family, Pacic hake is a delicate     Bulgaria entered the shery. Japan also participated in
sh that requires careful handling to achieve a marketable  the shery before 1977; their peak harvest was 9,104 tons
product. The sh must be chilled, processed, and frozen    in 1974. The estimated catches of Pacic hake during this
soon after the harvest. Also, Pacic hake are infected with  period of expansion ranged from 130,000 tons to 262,000
a myxosporidian parasite that can appear as black spots    tons. Catches peaked in 1976 and were subsequently
within the esh. Protease enzymes associated with the     reduced due to restrictions on foreign effort imposed by
parasite can cause degradation of the esh if the sh are   the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act
not handled properly.                     (MFCMA) of 1976.
The Pacic hake shery is a high-volume, low-value sh-    Two types of shing operations involving foreign vessels
ery (ex-vessel prices have ranged from $0.025-$0.08 per    were conducted off Washington, Oregon, and northern
pound). Its product contains, on average, about 15 percent  California after the implementation of the MFCMA in 1977.
protein and three percent fat. Domestic production had    In one shery (the foreign trawl shery or “directed sh-
been primarily geared towards the frozen headed and      ery”), sh were caught and processed by foreign vessels.
gutted market, shipped in high volume on a penny-a-      In a second shery, known as the joint venture (JV) sh-
pound margin. However, with the growth of the domestic    ery, U.S. trawl vessels deliver their catch to foreign pro-
shery in the 1990s, there has been signicant growth     cessing vessels at sea.
in the production of surimi (sh paste), Individual      The joint venture shery for Pacic hake started in
Quick Frozen (IQF) llets, and frozen blocks. Today      1978 between foreign nations and the United States and
60 to 80 percent of production is surimi, 10 to 20      Canada. Consistent with the intent of the MFCMA to
percent headed and gutted, 10 to 20 percent llets. A     encourage development of domestic sheries, landings of
signicant proportion of the waste products is processed   hake declined in the foreign directed shery while increas-
into shmeal and fertilizers including hydrolosate and    ing in the JV shery. In 1978, the foreign catch amounted
compost-based products.                    to 98 percent of the total hake catch in the U.S. manage-
Economic contributions to the Pacic Coast states of hake   ment zone. The foreign catch declined to 11 percent of
harvesting/processing vary according to product form and   the total by 1988, and in 1989 there was no foreign catch.
harvest/processing mode. Each pound harvested and pro-    U.S. shermen harvested the entire annual hake quota in
cessed in headed-and-gutted form contributes about $0.38   1989, eliminating the foreign directed shery, and in 1991
per round pound. For surimi, the state contribution is
between $0.27 and $0.32 per round pound. In 1999, the
hake shery generated an estimated cumulative economic
impact to West Coast states of between $134 and $185
million dollars.
The shery has been multi-national in character, having
been exploited commercially since before 1900 by the U.S.
shing industry and since 1966 by foreign eets. A small
domestic shery has existed for coastal hake since at least
1879. Most catches prior to 1960 were made incidental
to the pursuit of more valuable trawl-caught species and
were either discarded or delivered to reduction plants
producing animal food and shmeal. The average annual
California catch from 1959 to 1966 was 248 tons.                         Pacific Hake, Merluccius productus
                                                             Credit: DFG



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    393
        domestic processors were able to process the entire catch   allocation agreement was approved by the PFMC, shing
Pacific Hake



        thereby eliminating the JV shery.              companies with factory trawler permits established the
                                       Pacic Whiting Conservation Cooperative (PWCC). The pri-
        The phase out of foreign sheries opened development to
                                       mary role of the PWCC is to allocate the factor trawler
        domestic sheries. This took the form of domestic factory
                                       quota between its members. Benets of the PWCC include
        trawlers, which catch and process their catch, mother-
                                       more efcient allocation of resources by shing compa-
        ships which take sh at sea from catcher vessels, and the
                                       nies, improvements in processing efciency and product
        development of shoreside processing plants. Development
                                       quality, and a reduction in waste and bycatch rates rela-
        was accelerated by the discovery of enzyme inhibitors
                                       tive to the former “derby” shery in which all vessels
        that made it possible to utilize hake for surimi.
                                       competed for a eet-wide quota.
        The domestic at-sea and shore-based sheries grew
                                       The rapid development that took place in the 1990s
        through the 1990s with the at-sea sector harvest increas-
                                       has resulted in full utilization of the combined U.S. and
        ing from 4,700 tons in 1990 to 197,000 in 1991. The Pacic
                                       Canadian hake catch. The 1994 combined catch reached
        Fisheries Management Council (PFMC) reduced the at sea
                                       359,000 tons, the largest yield since the inception of the
        harvest in following years to allow growth in the shoreside
                                       shery. Since 1994, the total hake harvest has declined
        sector. Prior to 1991, shore-based deliveries of Pacic
                                       slightly, as biomass declined from high levels, and aver-
        hake were relatively small with an annual harvest of less
                                       aged 312,000 tons from 1996 to 1999.
        than 10,000 tons. Between 1985-1991, the shore-based
        shery concentrated off northern California with process-
        ing plants at Eureka and Crescent City. As the domestic
                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
        shoreside shery grew, additional processing plants were


                                       P
        opened in Oregon and Washington. Shoreside deliveries       acic hake are distributed from the Gulf of Alaska to
        increased from 8,115 tons in 1990 to 87,862 in 1998. In      the Gulf of California. Four major stocks have been
        California, landings have increased from 41 tons in 1980 to  identied within this area. The most abundant and widely
        about 11,000 tons in 1999.                  distributed stock (which is the subject of this report)
        In the early 1990s, shing seasons began April 15. Since   spawns between central California and northern Baja Cali-
        1998, PFMC has used a season-ending, forward-counting     fornia and is referred to as the “coastal stock.” Two
        protocol to estimate the season opening for the shore-    of these stocks are generally referred to as the “inside
        based sector only (the offshore sector still opens May 15).  stocks;” they live and spawn in Puget Sound and the Strait
        Using October 15 as the season ending date, the PFMC     of Georgia. A fourth major stock occurs off the west coast
        estimates daily harvesting and processing capacity and    of southern Baja California.
        shore-based quotas to determine the season opening date.   The hake that spawn in Puget Sound and Strait of Georgia
        The greater the quota or the lower the daily capacity,    are considered a separate genetic stock from oceanic
        the earlier the season opening. Before 1995, the season    coastal hake. These hake spawn and live their lives
        opened April 15, between 1995 and 1998 the season       entirely within Puget Sound, are small in size (14 to 18
        opened May 15, (mostly to avoid salmon bycatch), and     inches total length), and lack the specic myxosporidian
        since 1998 the season has opened June 15. The shift      parasite that causes rapid postmortem esh decomposi-
        in season opening date has had a signicant effect on     tion in coastal stocks. The differences in parasitization
        improving economic benets (recovery, quality, price,     between inside and offshore stocks indicate the absence
        and growth).                         of interchange between populations.
        In 1996, the Makah Tribe in Washington requested an      The oceanic coastal stock of adult Pacic hake is migra-
        allocation of hake as part of its treaty entitlement. NMFS  tory and inhabits the continental slope and shelf within
        allocated 15,000 tons of the domestic TAC to the Makahs,   the California Current system from Baja California to Brit-
        increasing it to 25,000 in 1997 and 1998, and to 32,000 in  ish Columbia. It is often classied as a demersal species
        1999. The sh are harvested by Makah trawl vessels and    (living on or near the sea bed), but its distribution and
        delivered to a oating processor mothership. The shery    behavior suggests a pelagic existence. It exhibits extreme
        is limited to the Makah’s “usual and accustomed” shing    night and day movement during spring and summer feed-
        grounds off the northern Washington coast.          ing migrations as it feeds on a variety of pelagic shes
        In 1997, the PFMC adopted a sector allocation formula     or zooplankton. It is commonly found at depths of 160
        dividing U.S. non-tribal hake harvest guideline between    to 1,500 feet but has been found from the surface to
        factory trawlers (34 percent), vessels delivering to at-sea  2,600 feet.
        processors (24 percent), and vessels delivering to shore-   Coastal Pacic hake are pelagic spawners that appear to
        based processing plants (42 percent). Shortly after this   spawn from January to March. The location of spawning



          California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                       December 2001
 394
appears to center on the Southern California Bight, but    increased predation from cannibalism and to increased




                                                                      Pacific Hake
spawning may take place within an area from San Fran-     vulnerability to shing mortality.
cisco to Baja California at depths of 660 to 1,600 feet and  When northward-migrating hake inhabit waters overlying
as far as 300 miles offshore. Active spawners aggregate in   the continental shelf and slope, they form schools, which
loose, stationary bands that can be up to 150 feet thick.   may be characterized as long, narrow bands whose axis
Coastal stock females mature at 16 inches total length     is usually oriented parallel to the depth contours. Excep-
or larger, and at weights greater than 0.9 pounds. These    tions to this generality are those schools that align per-
minimum sizes are achieved by some three-year-old sh     pendicular to the edge of the continental shelf and extend
and most four-year-old sh. Fecundity estimates range     offshore at a uniform depth, such that they are high-off
from 80,000 to 500,000 eggs per female, depending on      the bottom over the continental slope. School sizes may
body size. The pelagic eggs drift with the ocean currents   vary in length from several hundred feet to 12 miles. The
and hatch in about three days. Larval hake are abundant    widths of schools have reached 7.5 miles at times. Most
from December through April within 25 miles of the coast    schools usually have a vertical height of 20 to 70 feet.
from central California to northern Baja California. Peak   During the summer, when feeding adults are distributed
occurrences of eggs and small larvae pinpoint January and   over the continental shelf, schools exhibit pronounced
February as the chief spawning months. The majority of     movement into midwater associated with nighttime feed-
eggs and larvae are found over the areas of the continental  ing activities. Hake feed during the evening on euphausi-
slope where bottom depths ranged from 430 to 1,640 feet.    ids, shrimp, and pelagic shes. Vertical movement away
Hake reach about 70 to 75 percent of their maximum       from the sea bed occurs at nightfall and descent back
length and about 50 percent of their maximum weight by     towards the bottom occurs near dawn. At dawn, coastal
age 4.3 years. As hake get older, differential growth is    hake descend and begin to regroup into schools near the
observed between the sexes with females attaining larger    sea bed (seven to 70 feet above the ocean oor), usually
lengths and weight at age than males. Average maximum     in the same area where they were the day before. The
sizes are 22 inches fork length (FL) and 2.25 pounds for    degree to which hake congregate during the day appears
males, and 24 inches FL and three pounds for females.     to be related to the type of food that was available
The largest female hake measured off California was 34     during the feeding period. Schools are more dispersed
inches FL.                           when feeding on sh and other mobile nekton, but more
                                compact when feeding on euphausiids.
In late winter, following spawning, adult hake migrate
north in deep water overlying the continental slope to the   The southward spawning migrations of the adults appears
summer feeding grounds off northern California, Oregon,    to occur in November and December, just prior to the
Washington, and Vancouver Island. The peak period of      spawning period. Availability of Pacic hake to bottom and
northward migration appears to be in March and April. The   midwater trawls off Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver
migration behavior of hake is strongly age dependent, and   Island drops sharply in November and is practically nil
inuenced by oceanographic conditions. In warm years, a    during winter.
signicant portion (up to 50 percent) of the stock may     Hake are a favorite prey for a great many creatures,
move into Canadian waters off Vancouver Island. Large     especially marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, por-
adults may travel up to 1,100 miles, while newly mature    poises, and small whales. Hake have also been found
hake may travel a maximum of 900 miles from southern
California spawning grounds during the summer feeding
period. Hake caught from Oregon to Vancouver Island
range from 16 to 18 inches FL and are four to 10 years
old. Young-of-the-year are usually concentrated off central
and northern California, and one year old hake are found in
nearshore waters from central California to northern Oregon.
Range extensions to the north occur during El Niños, as
evidenced by reports of whiting from southeast Alaska
during warm water years. During the warm periods expe-
rienced in 1990s, there have been changes in typical pat-
terns of distribution. Spawning activity has been recorded
north of California, and frequent reports of unusual num-
bers of juveniles from Oregon to British Columbia suggest
that juvenile settlement patterns have also shifted north-                  A catch of Pacific Hake is brought aboard
ward. Because of this, juveniles may be subjected to                                     Credit: DFG


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                     395
Pacific Hake



                                          18
              Commercial Landings




                            millions of pounds landed
                                          15
            1916-1999, Pacific Hake
         Data reflects commercial landings

                                Pacific Hake
                                          12
        that occurred at California ports, but
         not foreign vessel catches landed
                                          9
        outside of California. The reduction
          in commercial landings of Pacific
                                          6
          Hake in 1960 is due to a change
         in the recording method for hake
                                          3
              landed for animal feed.
          Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
                                          0
                                             1916 1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980   1990   1999
         and commercial landing receipts.




            in the stomachs of swordsh, lingcod, soupn sharks,                    In the 1990s, hake recruitment averaged lower but was
            Pacic halibut, electric rays, and an assortment of other                  less variable than in the 1980s. If this pattern continues,
            piscivorous shes.                                     the stock will continue to decline gradually. The most
                                                          recent hake assessment projected a moderate decline in
                                                          catches in 2001 as the 1994 year class, the most recent
            Status of the Population                                  strong-year class, passes out of the population and is
                                                          replaced by smaller sized year classes. However, the

            T  he coastal Pacic hake stock is at moderate abun-
                                                          dependence of the hake population on occasional large
              dance. Stock biomass increased to a historical high
                                                          year classes makes these projections highly uncertain.
            of 5.7 million tons in 1987 due to exceptionally large
                                                          Widespread changes in California current ecosystem con-
            1980 and 1984 year classes, then declined as these year
                                                          tribute to that uncertainty. A coastwide U.S.-Canada
            classes passed through the population and were replaced
                                                          acoustic survey of the hake resource is planned for
            by more moderate year classes. The stock has uctuated
                                                          summer of 2001.
            throughout its history from the irregular occurrences of
            strong year classes, which appear about every three or
                                                          Management Considerations
            four years and remain in the shery for about ve to seven
            years. Recruitment is highly variable and appears to be
            strongly inuenced by oceanic environmental conditions,                   See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
            especially water temperature at the time of spawning.                    further information.
            Over the past four years, stock size has been stable at
            1.7 to 1.8 million tons. The mature female biomass in                    Lawrence F. Quirollo
            1998 is estimated to be 37 percent of an unshed stock.                   California Department of Fish and Game
            Although 1998 stock size is near a historical low, it is close
                                                          Revised by:
            to average stock size under current harvest policies. The
                                                          Vidar G. Wespestad
            exploitation rate was below 10 percent prior to 1993, then
                                                          Pacic Whiting Conservation Cooperative
            increased to 17 percent during 1994-1998. Total U.S. and
                                                          Martin W. Dorn
            Canadian catches have exceeded the ABC by an average
                                                          National Marine Fisheries Service
            of 12 percent since 1993 due to disagreement on the
            allocation between U.S. and Canadian sheries.
            The prospects for the Pacic hake resource in the imme-
            diate future are for stable to slightly declining yields,
            depending on the timing of the next strong year class. An
            assessment survey conducted by the National Marine Fish-
            eries Service in 1998 estimated the population biomass at
            1.1 million tons, a decline of 15 percent from estimates
            made during a previous survey in 1995.




               California’s Living Marine Resources:                         CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                                     December 2001
 396
References




                                                    Pacific Hake
Bailey, K.M. 1982. The early life history of the Pacic
hake, Merluccius productus, Fish. Bull., U.S. 80:589-598.
Bailey, K.M., R. Francis, and P. Stevens. 1982. The life
history and shery of Pacic hake, Merluccius productus.
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 23:81-92.
Dark, T.A. 1975. Age and growth of Pacic hake, Merluc-
cius productus. Fish. Bull., U.S. 73:336-355.
Dark, T.A. (ed.). 1985. Pacic whiting: the resource, indus-
try, and management history. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(2):1-98.
Dorn, M.W. and R. D. Methot. 1990. Status of the
coastal Pacic whiting resource in 1991. In: Pacic Fishery
Management Council, Status of the Pacic Coast ground-
sh shery through 1991 and recommended acceptable
catches in 1992, p. A1-A44.
Dorn, M.W. 1995. The effects of age composition
and oceanographic conditions on the annual migration
of Pacic whiting, Merluccius productus. CalCOFI Rep.
36:97-105.
Dorn, M.W., M.W. Saunders, C.D. Wilson, M.A. Guttormsen,
K.Cooke, R.Kieser, and M.E. Wilkins. 1999. Status of the
coastal pacic hake/whiting stock in U.S. and Canada in
1998 In: Pacic Fishery Management Council, Status of the
Pacic Coast groundsh shery through 1998 and recom-
mended acceptable catches in 1999.
Larkin, S. and G. Sylvia. 1999. Intrinsic sh characteristics
and intraseason production efciency: A management
level bioeconomic analysis of a commercial shery.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81:29-43.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                        A Status Report        397
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Groundfish and Flatfish
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish




                                             Bocaccio/
                              Bank 5  Blackgill 2; 5  Chilipepper 3  Bocaccio 4; 5  Chilipepper 5  Shortbelly 5   Widow 5: 6  Yellowtail 5 Unspecified
                             Rockfish  Rockfish      Rockfish   Rockfish      Rockfish   Rockfish    Rockfish    Rockfish   Rockfish
                        Year    Pounds   Pounds        Pounds    Pounds       Pounds    Pounds     Pounds     Pounds     Pounds

                        1916     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,918,952
                        1917     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   7,774,026
                        1918     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   8,242,754
                        1919     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   5,398,109
                        1920     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   5,633,077
                        1921     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,761,658
                        1922     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,312,014
                        1923     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   5,096,622
                        1924     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,742,885
                        1925     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   5,488,621
                        1926     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   7,540,969
                        1927     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   6,390,604
                        1928     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   6,419,909
                        1929     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   6,036,409
                        1930     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   7,225,424
                        1931     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   7,277,688
                        1932     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   5,636,319
                        1933     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,787,744
                        1934     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,603,536
                        1935     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----    4,831,174
                        1936     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,603,904
                        1937     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   4,291,214
                        1938     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   3,637,137
                        1939     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   3,333,126
                        1940     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   3,570,636
                        1941     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   3,405,622
                        1942     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   1,423,440
                        1943     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   2,762,192
                        1944     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   6,422,230
                        1945     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  13,286,076
                        1946     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   11,161,222
                        1947     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   8,498,584
                        1948     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   6,507,205
                        1949     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   5,962,267
                        1950     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----    8,115,102
                        1951     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  10,993,502
                        1952     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  10,727,521
                        1953     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  12,228,663
                        1954     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  12,640,729
                        1955     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  12,681,697
                        1956     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  14,943,515
                        1957     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  16,091,279
                        1958     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   17,842,163
                        1959     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  15,281,282
                        1960     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  13,713,886
                        1961     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  10,830,762
                        1962     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   9,834,393
                        1963     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   11,749,460
                        1964     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----    8,117,912
                        1965     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   9,392,424
                        1966     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  10,063,592
                        1967     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   9,798,951
                        1968     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   9,444,493
                        1969     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   9,227,451
                        1970     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  10,686,844
                        1971     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----   11,168,746
                        1972     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  16,421,252
                        1973     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  22,052,455
                        1974     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  21,498,984
                        1975     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  23,624,150
                        1976     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  24,603,179
                        1977     ----    ----        ----      ----       ----      ----      ----     ----  20,900,305
                        1978   832,144  232,341        ----    6,611,589    2,613,559      7,195    1,167,141   805,076  20,510,364
                        1979   121,041   11,798     8,935,837    3,766,632    2,701,208     10,000    4,833,977    656,505  19,632,482


                            California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                           December 2001
 398
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d




                                                                                            Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
                           Bocaccio/
       Bank 5       Blackgill 2; 5  Chilipepper 3      Bocaccio 4; 5   Chilipepper 5     Shortbelly 5      Widow 5: 6     Yellowtail 5 Unspecified
      Rockfish       Rockfish      Rockfish       Rockfish       Rockfish      Rockfish       Rockfish       Rockfish   Rockfish
Year     Pounds        Pounds        Pounds       Pounds        Pounds       Pounds        Pounds        Pounds     Pounds

1980     158,725      976,735      10,115,735      9,111,594     6,248,294        6,567      11,780,969        595,152  25,692,416
1981   2,202,588      2,104,908       7,831,367      9,816,582      5,087,316         609      11,071,879       862,289  27,295,022
1982   2,210,769      2,924,400      10,604,864      11,774,442      4,131,231       14,416      23,856,732      1,632,561  19,827,921
1983   2,613,466      2,023,211       9,841,652     11,118,007      4,639,861        7,654      8,781,700      1,956,643  19,599,497
1984   4,046,635      1,187,141      7,196,636      8,296,616      5,489,532        5,092      6,565,481       1,931,196  18,181,423
1985   2,760,142      1,420,096       6,299,317      4,799,757      5,669,493        62,749       7,101,038      1,381,153  14,383,905
1986   3,940,317      1,973,521       6,766,491      4,630,024      4,829,518        42,601      5,499,235      1,335,237  13,815,096
1987   2,922,307      1,736,977       5,029,313      5,420,165      3,759,112        1,811      5,655,481       834,014  15,816,720
1988   2,361,829      2,336,632       4,023,966      4,143,162      4,608,400         567      4,051,348       490,820  13,090,228
1989   1,585,979      1,133,985       4,110,006      5,166,105      6,437,291        4,215      4,828,775      1,978,450  15,358,303
1990   1,598,223      1,358,878       3,853,439      4,415,613     5,678,528        13,873      4,929,551      1,985,856  16,036,264
1991   1,595,339       827,030       4,122,938      2,997,035      6,502,562        7,427      2,928,155      1,412,624  11,326,256
1992    1,165,990     1,785,896         ----      3,237,769      5,626,573        1,568      2,525,230      1,604,573   8,613,030
1993     758,709      883,202         ----      3,031,592      5,135,472        5,299      2,655,014       645,218    7,177,482
1994     728,970      855,640         ----      2,168,035      4,043,163        10,619      2,031,959       723,745   4,329,766
1995     957,140      772,323         ----      1,604,367      4,406,698        25,169      3,853,755       684,933   4,329,467
1996   1,245,261       815,583         ----      1,050,403      3,951,518        70,953      3,023,829       596,949   3,851,420
1997     937,738      595,059         ----       707,066      4,468,794       134,178      2,959,535       925,866   3,859,850
1998   1,231,818       503,921         ----       339,060      3,115,112       39,962      2,018,093        969,512   3,019,099
1999     72,213      120,773         ----       160,987      2,082,043        17,683      1,390,413        210,986    639,655

- - - - Landing data not available.
1
   Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
   Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
   Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
   Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
   Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
   Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
   Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
   The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
   Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
   Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
   Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.




  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                                             A Status Report                                399
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish




                               Sole 6                              Sole 6
                               Dover    English   Petrale     Rex          Dover         English      Petrale         Rex
                               Sole     Sole     Sole    Sole           Sole          Sole        Sole        Sole
                        Year    Pounds    Pounds    Pounds    Pounds  Year      Pounds         Pounds      Pounds        Pounds

                        1916      ----     ----     ----     ----  1980   18,046,924       4,573,524      2,350,525      1,899,609
                        1917      ----     ----     ----     ----  1981   20,418,283       3,773,262      1,775,054      1,727,754
                        1918      ----     ----     ----     ----  1982   22,089,490       3,221,471      1,741,721      1,466,411
                        1919      ----     ----     ----     ----  1983   18,913,890       2,607,636      1,287,287      1,410,762
                        1920      ----     ----     ----     ----  1984   21,563,452       2,098,964      1,301,912      1,252,976
                        1921      ----     ----     ----     ----  1985   26,499,393       2,341,942      1,888,394      1,979,244
                        1922      ----     ----     ----     ----  1986   24,365,419       2,385,989      1,600,400      1,856,179
                        1923      ----     ----     ----     ----  1987   23,723,648       2,914,768      1,815,856      1,818,777
                        1924      ----     ----     ----     ----  1988   18,071,140       2,351,350      1,752,940      1,854,324
                        1925      ----     ----     ----     ----  1989   17,027,320       2,321,586      1,853,165      1,651,684
                        1926      ----     ----     ----     ----  1990   13,933,132       1,967,050      1,495,680      1,226,691
                        1927      ----     ----     ----     ----  1991   17,021,228       1,789,777      1,619,211      1,369,558
                        1928      ----     ----     ----     ----  1992   19,054,146       1,268,119     1,172,949       970,859
                        1929      ----     ----     ----     ----  1993    14,426,111      1,044,544      1,021,859      1,007,925
                        1930      ----     ----     ----     ----  1994    9,888,498      1,019,307      1,211,845      1,256,861
                        1931      ----     ----  1,375,535    831,240  1995    13,417,995       1,101,103     1,305,154       1,517,177
                        1932      ----     ----  1,227,223    555,558  1996    14,107,539      1,281,212      1,803,549      1,097,983
                        1933      ----     ----   953,424   559,743  1997   11,693,676       1,430,131      1,830,750      1,000,369
                        1934      ----  5,280,154  2,456,989    715,498  1998    7,874,411        941,187     1,042,029       637,697
                        1935      ----  6,035,966  1,988,325    631,432  1999    8,417,498       849,836      1,249,628       629,453
                        1936      ----  6,286,867  1,126,527    515,648
                        1937      ----  5,750,060  1,802,721    451,497  - - - - Landing data not available.
                        1938      ----  4,953,934  2,026,166    515,254
                                                       1
                        1939      ----  6,270,424  2,558,461    667,496    Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category
                        1940      ----  5,056,535  1,575,489   593,359     landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
                                                       2
                        1941      ----  3,278,638   893,426    371,130    Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
                                                       3
                        1942      ----  2,020,562    611,580   387,545    Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
                                                       4
                        1943      ----  3,092,170    918,925   495,672    Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
                                                       5
                        1944      ----  3,066,865  1,123,986    413,286    Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts.
                        1945      ----  5,857,240  1,232,801    442,179    Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin,
                        1946      ----  7,176,727  2,666,285    570,418    NMFS, and DFG.
                                                       6
                        1947      ----  8,379,502   2,947,177   842,968     Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
                                                       7
                        1948   7,234,438  8,171,645  5,089,684   893,248     Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabu-
                        1949   7,890,073  5,713,258  4,952,156   982,307     lated separately when they became sufficiently important.
                                                       9
                        1950   9,548,379  8,080,693  4,366,598  1,068,456     Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.10 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
                                                       10
                        1951   8,621,238  5,631,659  2,726,304  1,013,890     Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
                        1952   11,748,215   4,911,468  2,893,619   1,185,451
                        1953   8,904,367  4,099,106  3,350,163  1,020,877
                        1954   9,930,438  3,748,245   4,171,901  1,183,538
                        1955   8,185,501  4,134,779  3,619,530  1,094,437
                        1956   8,268,424  3,826,297  2,830,158   1,147,523
                        1957    7,932,137  4,819,872  3,456,819  1,234,494
                        1958   8,053,040  5,150,234   3,157,678  1,422,891
                        1959   7,327,420   4,617,491  2,632,451  1,443,005
                        1960   9,184,814  2,375,383  2,475,661   1,107,372
                        1961   7,826,617  3,645,918  3,390,739  1,208,829
                        1962   8,581,091  4,206,048  3,041,164  1,408,245
                        1963   9,781,732  4,254,545  3,317,948  1,565,672
                        1964   9,265,238  4,592,752  2,697,670  1,410,647
                        1965  10,759,963   4,892,391  2,662,257  1,490,475
                        1966  10,311,633   4,844,868   2,927,190  1,635,399
                        1967   7,215,037  5,821,909  2,768,537  1,766,038
                        1968   8,535,521  5,811,438  2,946,605  1,930,583
                        1969  12,918,982   3,804,047  2,867,064  2,259,165
                        1970  15,160,886   3,282,316  3,415,708   1,741,479
                        1971  14,248,719   2,964,015  3,704,384  1,467,875
                        1972  22,081,697   3,001,965  3,575,245   1,661,610
                        1973  22,485,725   3,209,733  2,876,989  1,584,734
                        1974   19,087,485  3,813,499  3,430,685  1,381,737
                        1975  22,688,520   4,314,262  3,269,998  1,646,421
                        1976  22,756,812   4,282,998  2,977,557  2,012,820
                        1977  21,923,851   3,403,057  2,200,713  1,548,006
                        1978  20,770,086   3,974,782  2,634,044  1,537,347
                        1979  23,394,091   5,006,960  3,061,810  1,914,805

                            California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                        December 2001
 400
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d




                                                             Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
           Pacific                    Longspine    Shortspine  Unspecified
    Cowcod 5    Hake 7         All Thornyhead 5  Thornyhead 5   Thornyhead 5  Thornyhead 5
                 Sablefish
Year  Pounds    Pounds     Pounds       Pounds     Pounds      Pounds     Pounds

1916   ----    189,219     83,623      ----      ----        ----      ----
1917   ----    254,331     909,846       ----      ----        ----      ----
1918   ----    193,018    498,937       ----      ----        ----      ----
1919   ----    133,181    334,950       ----      ----        ----      ----
1920   ----    141,981    781,032       ----      ----        ----      ----
1921   ----     90,218   1,022,642       ----      ----        ----      ----
1922   ----     74,516    268,554       ----      ----        ----      ----
1923   ----     78,969    538,292       ----      ----        ----      ----
1924   ----     60,780    933,310       ----      ----        ----      ----
1925   ----     22,017    722,472       ----      ----        ----      ----
1926   ----     58,335    175,642       ----      ----        ----      ----
1927   ----     84,553    992,654       ----      ----        ----      ----
1928   ----    108,648     916,955      ----      ----        ----      ----
1929   ----    145,669   1,439,408       ----      ----        ----      ----
1930   ----     56,088   1,359,147       ----      ----        ----      ----
1931   ----     12,501   1,021,215       ----      ----        ----      ----
1932   ----     29,001    975,373       ----      ----        ----      ----
1933   ----     37,539   1,332,573       ----      ----        ----      ----
1934   ----     56,901    2,117,048      ----      ----        ----      ----
1935   ----     73,843   2,848,672       ----      ----        ----      ----
1936   ----     50,791   1,035,530       ----      ----        ----      ----
1937   ----     63,454    733,499       ----      ----        ----      ----
1938   ----     36,428    415,836       ----      ----        ----      ----
1939   ----     13,661     767,044      ----      ----        ----      ----
1940   ----     18,049    573,785       ----      ----        ----      ----
1941   ----     15,044    536,540       ----      ----        ----      ----
1942   ----     41,981   1,972,522       ----      ----        ----      ----
1943   ----     10,505   3,205,374       ----      ----        ----      ----
1944   ----     4,751    4,116,451      ----      ----        ----      ----
1945   ----     2,415   6,264,397       ----      ----        ----      ----
1946   ----      550   2,656,873       ----      ----        ----      ----
1947   ----      876     902,110      ----      ----        ----      ----
1948   ----     4,600   2,068,439       ----      ----        ----      ----
1949   ----     1,535   1,743,372       ----      ----        ----      ----
1950   ----      500   1,584,301       ----      ----        ----      ----
1951   ----     24,972   2,585,513       ----      ----        ----      ----
1952   ----     6,145   1,343,867       ----      ----        ----      ----
1953   ----    103,926    1,655,653       ----      ----        ----      ----
1954   ----    611,522   2,357,531       ----      ----        ----      ----
1955   ----    956,545    2,065,737       ----      ----        ----      ----
1956   ----   1,376,217    2,868,407       ----      ----        ----      ----
1957   ----   1,150,006    2,199,782       ----      ----        ----      ----
1958   ----   1,135,138   1,732,992       ----      ----        ----      ----
1959   ----   1,097,069    1,938,356       ----      ----        ----      ----
1960   ----    325,088    2,419,024       ----      ----        ----      ----
1961   ----     3,275   1,616,528       ----      ----        ----      ----
1962   ----     78,530   2,015,237       ----      ----        ----      ----
1963   ----    139,699   1,809,349       ----      ----        ----      ----
1964   ----    111,529   2,463,452       ----      ----        ----      ----
1965   ----    119,255   2,863,550       ----      ----        ----      ----
1966   ----     69,002   3,215,939       ----      ----        ----      ----
1967   ----     14,430   3,798,493       ----      ----        ----      ----
1968   ----     6,494   3,219,455       ----      ----        ----      ----
1969   ----     27,047   4,156,846       ----      ----        ----      ----
1970   ----     9,775   4,428,077       ----      ----        ----      ----
1971   ----     34,685   4,424,463       ----      ----        ----      ----
1972   ----     10,525   8,395,714       ----      ----        ----      ----
1973   ----     34,175   8,550,071       ----      ----        ----      ----
1974   ----     32,210  12,038,542       ----      ----        ----      ----
1975   ----     38,508   14,131,964       ----      ----        ----      ----
1976   ----     28,521  13,331,261       ----      ----        ----      ----
1977   ----     86,813  13,315,975               ----        ----      ----
1978  24,653    747,709   17,715,724    2,668,993    432,833     2,229,418     6,742
1979   ----   1,836,264   28,573,600     4,095,918    310,877     3,755,624     29,417



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                A Status Report              401
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish




                                          Pacific                          Longspine      Shortspine     Unspecified
                               Cowcod 5        Hake 7             All Thornyhead 5    Thornyhead 5     Thornyhead 5    Thornyhead 5
                                                   Sablefish
                        Year     Pounds        Pounds        Pounds       Pounds       Pounds        Pounds       Pounds

                        1980     32,435      1,527,992     10,284,930       3,411,449      699,083      2,339,704       372,662
                        1981    190,424      1,467,276     14,727,481      3,805,719       238,829      3,542,348        24,542
                        1982    141,863      2,251,253      20,996,253      4,506,242       842,307      3,651,959        11,976
                        1983    166,142      2,160,904     14,613,392      3,596,221       436,599       3,124,112       35,510
                        1984    352,869       5,147,912     10,633,321      4,695,974       589,932      4,089,042        17,000
                        1985    294,987      6,604,729      11,305,795      6,485,049      1,140,992      5,315,642        28,415
                        1986    339,676      6,574,845      13,585,936      6,501,347      1,306,111      5,138,999        56,237
                        1987    198,967      9,959,960      9,585,601      6,438,777      1,790,910      2,872,981      1,774,886
                        1988    209,633     14,401,883      8,360,454      10,008,902      5,587,483      4,310,853       110,566
                        1989     96,880     16,088,904      8,715,410      11,906,498      4,911,249      6,905,965        89,284
                        1990     74,945     12,166,681      8,042,899      11,898,501      7,600,557      4,243,813        54,131
                        1991     48,244     15,196,946      7,300,661      6,329,277      4,085,076      2,192,086        52,115
                        1992    153,820     10,868,278      8,078,145      9,654,483      6,344,552      3,228,425        81,506
                        1993    110,041      6,834,597      5,676,270      9,182,924      5,637,099      3,471,866        73,959
                        1994     76,102      7,964,783      4,784,967      7,289,241      4,503,103      2,629,627       156,511
                        1995    145,648      9,018,285      6,185,954      8,016,679      5,681,269      2,122,323       213,087
                        1996    105,483      6,395,184      6,998,149       7,309,101     5,353,926      1,713,345       241,830
                        1997     117,747     14,028,191      6,481,886      6,194,508      4,415,693      1,531,749       247,066
                        1998     34,188     12,617,919      3,155,536      4,173,425      2,667,011      1,399,066       107,348
                        1999     27,157     2,883,014      4,342,086      3,296,044      2,255,859       952,219        87,966

                         - - - - Landing data not available.
                        1
                           Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
                        2
                           Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
                        3
                           Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
                        4
                           Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
                        5
                           Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
                        6
                           Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
                        7
                           Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
                        8
                           The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
                        9
                           Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
                        10
                           Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
                        11
                           Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.




                            California’s Living Marine Resources:                          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                                      December 2001
 402
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d




                                                           Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
    Rockfish1
     Group    Group   Group    Group    Group      Group     Group   Group Canary/
     Bolina 3   Deep 9  Gopher 10   Red 3  Rosefish 9     Small 3  Black/Blue 11    Vermilion 11
Year  Pounds   Pounds   Pounds   Pounds   Pounds      Pounds     Pounds       Pounds

1916   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1917   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1918   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1919   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1920   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1921   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1922   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1923   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1924   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1925   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1926   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1927   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1928   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1929   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1930   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1931   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1932   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1933   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1934   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1935   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1936   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1937   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1938   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1939   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1940   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1941   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1942   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1943   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1944   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1945   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1946   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1947   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1948   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1949   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1950   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1951   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1952   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1953   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1954   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1955   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1956   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1957   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1958   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1959   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1960   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1961   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1962   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1963   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1964   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1965   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1966   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1967   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1968   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1969   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1970   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1971   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1972   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1973   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1974   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1975   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1976   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1977   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1978   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----
1979   ----    ----    ----    ----    ----       ----      ----        ----


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME              California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                         A Status Report                    403
                        Commercial Landings -
                        Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish




                              Rockfish1
                               Group        Group        Group        Group        Group        Group        Group    Group Canary/
                               Bolina 3       Deep 9      Gopher 10        Red 3      Rosefish 9      Small 3     Black/Blue 11    Vermilion 11
                        Year     Pounds        Pounds       Pounds        Pounds        Pounds       Pounds        Pounds       Pounds

                        1980     39,213         ----         ----       263,829         ----       35,608         ----         ----
                        1981      ----         ----         ----         208         ----        ----         ----         ----
                        1982     58,421        36,025         ----       250,750       361,583        3,487         ----         ----
                        1983     94,343          50          53      2,203,793      1,077,155       86,560         ----         ----
                        1984     84,585         405        26,103      3,834,957      1,343,759       356,287         ----         ----
                        1985     84,095        40,430        43,811       243,999      1,593,975       549,829         ----         ----
                        1986     95,834         681        72,714      2,090,707      1,359,133       560,443         ----         ----
                        1987     96,714        1,876        95,702      1,670,231      1,143,584       620,535         ----         ----
                        1988    163,983         ----       156,017      2,045,468       911,889      1,016,713         ----         ----
                        1989    168,133         ----       158,110      2,623,254       803,828       687,511         ----         ----
                        1990    135,187         578       147,435      2,804,469      1,028,221      1,030,960         ----         ----
                        1991    203,945         257       183,231      2,326,611       910,364       808,536         ----         ----
                        1992    162,071        1,063       172,256       168,459       854,455       497,502         ----         ----
                        1993    102,927         500       170,079      1,274,651       756,903       774,437         ----         ----
                        1994     73,732        2,368       147,069      1,354,763       549,425      1,099,405        10,309         147
                        1995     56,230        36,572       167,911      1,044,059       650,930       924,333         384         227
                        1996     97,338        6,138       221,345      1,225,811       594,180      1,210,981        2,226          33
                        1997    126,021        4,332       141,643       850,384       773,483      1,487,399        8,192          58
                        1998    125,799         379       135,196       710,134      2,761,055      1,236,840        2,695         ----
                        1999    108,878         ----       28,375       242,840       409,839       288,096         487         164

                         - - - - Landing data not available.
                        1
                           Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
                        2
                           Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
                        3
                           Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
                        4
                           Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
                        5
                           Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
                        6
                           Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
                        7
                           Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
                        8
                           The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
                        9
                           Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
                        10
                           Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
                        11
                           Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.




                            California’s Living Marine Resources:                          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                 A Status Report                                      December 2001
 404
Salmonids:
Overview                           coastal coho (threatened), southern Oregon/northern Cali-




                                                                  Salmonids: Overview
                               fornia coho (threatened), southern California steelhead
                               (endangered), northern California steelhead (threatened),

C  alifornia’s salmonid populations were a vital compo-   and Central Valley, central California, and south-central
   nent of American Indian society long before European   California steelhead (threatened). In addition, three ESUs
settlers arrived, and they still play a signicant role in  are also listed under the California Endangered Species
today’s coastal communities. Salmon provide a living for   Act (CESA): Sacramento River winter chinook (endan-
commercial shermen, generate recreational marine and    gered), Central Valley spring chinook (threatened), and
freshwater angling opportunities, support tourism within   central California coastal coho (endangered).
our coastal and riverside communities, fulll Native Amer-
                               California’s main salmon conservation management objec-
ican cultural and economic needs, and are important
                               tives are as follows:
elements of California’s highly diverse marine and
                               •  Klamath River fall chinook: a minimum adult natural
freshwater ecosystems.
                                 escapement rate of 33-34 percent, with a minimum
There are seven salmonid species in California. The Cali-
                                 spawner escapement of 35,000 adults in natural areas
fornia sheries primarily harvest chinook or king salmon
                                 is required.
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), which is the salmonid most
                               •  Sacramento River fall chinook: an escapement goal of
often encountered by shermen. Coho or silver salmon
                                 122,000 to 180,000 hatchery and natural adult sh
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) are observed in small numbers
                               •  Sacramento River winter chinook: the ESA jeopardy
but are presently under a no-retention catch policy. Occa-
                                 standard is a 31 percent increase in the adult spawner
sionally in odd-numbered years, pink salmon (Oncorhyn-
                                 replacement rate relative to the observed mean rate
chus gorbuscha) are landed. No sheries exist for
                                 for 1989 to 1993.
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and chum salmon
(Oncorhynchus keta) due to their limited numbers in     •  Central Valley spring chinook: the Central Valley
California waters. Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are      spring chinook population is under an NMFS nding of
caught recreationally in streams and rivers from the       “no jeopardy,” and it also benets from Sacramento
Central Valley basin north to the California/Oregon       River winter chinook conservation measures.
border. Small numbers of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus
                               •  Coastal California chinook: the ESA jeopardy standard
clarkii) are found in northern coastal streams, lagoons,
                                 limits the ocean harvest rate for age-four Klamath
and estuaries.
                                 River fall chinook to 17 percent.
Several government agencies are involved in the manage-
                               •  California coastal coho: the ESA objective requires no
ment of California salmon. The Pacic Fishery Manage-
                                 retention of coho in any California shery and limits
ment Council (PFMC) manages sport and commercial sh-
                                 marine shery impacts to no more than 13 percent,
eries in the Exclusive Economic Zone (three to 200 miles
                                 as measured by projected impacts on Rogue/Klamath
offshore), the California Fish and Game Commission (FGC)
                                 hatchery coho.
manages inland sport and ocean sport sheries in state
                               •  Steelhead: shing regulations were revamped to
waters (to 3 miles offshore), and the California Depart-
                                 enact time and area closures, catch and release sh-
ment Fish and Game (DFG) manages commercial sheries
                                 ing, or retention of hatchery steelhead only (marked
in state waters via a delegation from the California Leg-
                                 with an adipose n clip).
islature. California continues to have productive commer-
cial and recreational sheries due to the various con-
servation measures enacted by the PFMC, FGC, and
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). These measures
allow for reduced harvest levels on Central Valley and
Klamath River fall chinook stocks, while safeguarding
the recovery of endangered or threatened chinook and
coho populations.
While Central Valley and Klamath River fall chinook
stocks continue to be healthy, three salmonid species
and ten distinct populations, or Evolutionary Signicant
Units (ESU), are listed under the federal Endangered Spe-
cies Act (ESA): Sacramento River winter chinook (endan-
gered), Central Valley spring chinook (threatened), Cal-
                                                Coho Salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch
ifornia coastal chinook (threatened), central California
                                                           Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                    405
           The annual economic value of California’s commercial     Traditional approaches for identifying and solving envi-
Salmonids: Overview



           salmon shery from 1996 to 2000 ranged from 7.7 to      ronmental issues, while still important, must evolve to
           20.9 million dollars to the state’s economy, as assessed   be effective with today’s complex problems. California’s
           by the PFMC’S Fishery Economic Assessment Model. The     salmon sheries have been increasingly regulated to
           PFMC’s economic estimate for California’s recreational    rebuild threatened or endangered populations, to equita-
           ocean salmon shery ranged from 13.9 to 22.5 million     bly allocate available sh among stakeholders, and to
           dollars for the same period. A 1985 economic analysis     achieve natural and hatchery spawning escapement goals.
           estimated that steelhead shing in the Sacramento River    Freshwater habitat restoration and revised water man-
           and tributaries directly generated around 7.2 million dol-  agement policies are necessary to return natural salmon
           lars. Using the above estimates, all salmon sheries gener-  production to former levels. A collaborative combination
           ate approximately 28.8 to 50.6 million dollars annually to  of marine and freshwater measures is needed to ensure
           the California economy. The indirect economic benets     that salmonid populations will thrive and provide shing
           are difcult to separate and quantify, but it is clear    opportunities, economic benets, and ecological value for
           that California’s salmonid stocks are a signicant revenue  all Californians, now and in the future.
           source for the state.
           As the population of California continues to increase,    Scott Barrow and Marc Heisdorf
           our relationships with our natural resources also change.   California Department of Fish and Game




             California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                       December 2001
406
Pacific Salmon
C  alifornia’s salmon resources are many things to the    was stimulated by the canning industry; the rst salmon




                                                                     Pacific Salmon
   people of California. They are a source of highly nutri-  cannery on the Pacic coast started operations on the
tious food for the general population and an important     Sacramento River in 1864. By 1880, there were 20 can-
source of income for commercial shermen. Recreational     neries operating in the Sacramento-San Joaquin river
anglers value them for their excellent sporting qualities   system and intensied shing efforts provided them with
and American Indians celebrate them in annual events      an ample supply of salmon for processing. The shery
welcoming the returning adults. Salmon play a key role,    reached its peak in 1882 when about 12 million pounds
and occupy a unique niche, within the State’s highly      were landed. Shortly thereafter, the shery collapsed due
diverse marine and inland ecosystems. They are a high     to a sudden decline in salmon stocks caused primarily
level predator, but also contribute to the sustenance of    by the pollution and degradation of rivers by mining, agri-
other high level predators. In addition, their spawned-out   culture, and timber operations combined with increased
carcasses enhance the nutrient base of their ancestral     landings. By 1919, the last cannery had shut down and
spawning streams. Like other anadromous species, their     one by one, the rivers were closed to commercial shing.
survival depends on the quantity and quality of fresh     Legislation closed the Mad River shery in 1919, the Eel
water spawning and rearing habitat available to them.     River shery in 1922, and sheries (including tribal) on
The destruction of that habitat over the past 150 years    the Smith and Klamath rivers in 1933. In 1957, the last
has resulted in many naturally spawning populations of     inland commercial shing area open to the general citi-
salmon becoming so diminished that, in some cases, they    zens of California (Sacramento-San Joaquin rivers) was
face biological extinction. We provide a brief overview of   permanently closed.
the importance and role of salmon in the management of     The commercial ocean troll shery began in Monterey Bay
California’s living marine shery resources.          during the 1880s. These early shers trolled for salmon
                                using small sailboats that supported two hand rods, one
                                over each side with one hook and leader attached to
History of the Fishery                     each line. The leader was approximately 30 feet long


O
                                and carried a lead sinker midway between the main line
   f the ve species of Pacic salmon found on the
                                and the lure. Circa 1908, several Sacramento River sher-
   West Coast, chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and
                                men transported their powered gillnet boats to Monterey
coho (O. kisutch) are most frequently encountered off
                                Bay and began trolling for salmon. These boats were
California. Small numbers of pink salmon (O. gorbuscha)
                                a great improvement over the sailboats, but were still
are landed on occasion, mainly in odd-numbered years.
                                small compared to present standards. The shery grew to
Chum salmon (O. keta) and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) are
                                approximately 200 boats and by 1916, had expanded north
rarely seen in California.
                                to Fort Bragg, Eureka, and Crescent City.
Salmon sheries existed in California long before European
                                During the 1920s and 1930s, a typical salmon troller shed
settlers made their rst appearance in the state circa
                                four to nine lines that each carried ve or more hooks
1775. Harvests of Central Valley salmon by American Indi-
                                with up to 30 pounds of lead attached to keep the line at
ans may have exceeded 8.5 million pounds annually. In
                                the proper depth. Pulling weights, lines, and salmon onto
northern coastal areas, native peoples subsisted primarily
                                a moving boat by hand was a backbreaking job. Power
on salmon. Not only did salmon form the bulk of their
                                gurdies were soon developed to pull the lines and, by
diet – a family might eat up to 2,000 pounds of sh in a
                                the late 1940s, most of the professional salmon trollers
year – but it was also used as barter with other tribes.
Salmon was consumed fresh or dried and smoked for later
use throughout the year. The sh were of such signicance
to these early shers that ceremonies and rituals honoring
their existence and importance were created. Traditional
shing methods included the use of gill and dip nets,
shing spears, and communal sh dams.
Commercial salmon shing in California began in the early
1850s, coincidental with the massive inow of miners into
the gold country. By 1860, these gillnet salmon sheries
were well established in Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay, and
the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The shery
                                were using them. The shery changed little until the mid-
gradually spread to include rivers north of San Francisco,
although the Sacramento-San Joaquin shery
                                               Chinook Salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
remained the largest. Growth of this shery                                        Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     407
             Commercial Landings
Pacific Salmon



                                                       16
            1916-1999, All Salmon
                                                       14
            Catch Data includes salmon



                                         Total Commercial Salmon
                                         millions of pounds landed
          taken in the ocean, and coastal
                                                       12
         rivers including the Sacramento
                                                       10
         and Klamath. The Klamath River
         commercial fishery closed after
                                                        8
            1933; and the Sacramento
                                                        6
         commercial fishery closed after
            1959. Coho were no longer
                                                        4
          permitted for take after 1992.
                                                        2
              Data Source: DFG Catch
             Bulletins and commercial
                                                        0  1916 1920      1930     1940           1950                1960      1970      1980     1990     1999
                  landing receipts.




                            16                                                                    450




                                                                               Recfreational Landings By Species
                            14
           millions of pounds landed




                                                                                                 400



                                                                                  number of fish landed
                            12                                                                    350
             River and Ocean




                                                                                                 300
                            10
                                                                                                 250
                             8
                                                                                                 200
                             6
                                                                                                 150
                             4
                                                                                                 100
                             2
                                                                                                 50
                             0
                               1916 1920  1930   1940         1950    1960  1970  1980   1990  1999                      0 1960         1970         1980      1990        1999
                                                                     River Salmon                                                          Coho Salmon
                                                                     Ocean Salmon                                                          Chinook Salmon

           Commercial Catch 1947-1999 , River and Ocean                                              Recreational Catch 1960-1999 , By Species
           Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts. Catch Data                              Data Source: DFG, Ocean Salmon Project. Differentiation by salmon species (chinook
           includes salmon taken in the ocean, and coastal rivers including the Sacramento                             or coho) was not reported prior to 1962. Coho were no longer permitted for take
           and Klamath. The Klamath River commercial fishery closed after 1933; and the                              after 1992.
           Sacramento commercial fishery closed after 1959. Coho were no longer permitted for
           take after 1992.

                            1400
                                                                                                 450
           Commercial Landings By Species




                                                                                                 400
                            1200
                                                                               thousands of fish landed
             number of fish landed




                                                                                                 350
                            1000
                                                                                                 300
                                                                                  All Salmon




                            800
                                                                                                 250
                                                                                                 200
                            600

                                                                                                 150
                            400
                                                                                                 100
                            200
                                                                                                 50
                             0 1960                                                                  0
                                         1970               1980     1990        1999                        1947 1950     1960      1970      1980   1990      1999
                                                                     Coho Salmon
                                                                     Chinook Salmon
                                                                               Recreational Catch 1960-1999 , All Salmon
           Commercial Catch 1960-1999 , By Salmon Species
                                                                               Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
           Data Source: DFG Ocean Salmon Project. Coho were no longer permitted for take
           after 1992.

           1940s. After the end of World War II, a signicant increase                                       adequate ocean-going boats, but most used small sport-
           in shing effort occurred in conjunction with improved                                         type boats that could be conveniently towed on a trailer.
           transportation and a rebound in salmon populations. In                                         Today’s salmon troller still uses the basic shing tech-
           1935, an estimated 570 trollers were active in the shery;                                       niques developed during the 1940s, including powered
           by 1947 the eet had nearly doubled to 1,100 vessels.                                          gurdies and four to six main trolling lines. Now, however,
           During the 1970s, the salmon eet grew to almost 5,000                                         the vessels are also equipped with various electronic
           vessels and included many summer shers who had other                                          devices that greatly aid in nding and staying on the sh.
           jobs during the remainder of the year. Some of these                                          Radio communications are possible among several vessels
           shers were serious about commercial shing and had                                           simultaneously over large distances. Highly sensitive sonar


                            California’s Living Marine Resources:                                      CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                  A Status Report                                                  December 2001
408
equipment aids the troller in nding the salmon or baitsh  Between 1947 and 1990, the sport industry contributed




                                                               Pacific Salmon
schools and in pinpointing the depth at which to position   about 17 percent to the total salmon catch annually in Cal-
lures. Precise vessel positioning is made possible through  ifornia. During the last decade, however, the sport shery
the use of global positioning systems. It is easy today    has accounted for about 31 percent of the total landings
to replicate a troll path or “tack” within a few feet of   due to increased regulation of the commercial shery.
a previous or suggested path. Collectively, these instru-   The catch has also been more evenly distributed between
ments have probably more than doubled the efciency of    CPFVs and private skiff anglers. Before the 1990s, CPFVs
the modern troller compared to 70 years ago.         accounted for more than 65 percent of the salmon
                               catch; during the 1990s, CPFVs landed 51 percent of the
Estimates of commercial salmon catches are available in
                               total sport catch. The highest sport landings occurred
one form or another for years as early as 1874. In 1952,
                               in 1995 when sport anglers landed a record 397,200 chi-
DFG began a systematic sampling of commercial ocean
                               nook salmon; the lowest landings during the last 30
salmon landings. During the 1960s and 1970s, the industry
                               years occurred in 1983, following the extreme 1982-1983
enjoyed relatively high and consistent harvests, mainly of
                               El Niño event.
chinook, averaging about seven million pounds dressed
weight. The following two decades produced much        During the 1990s, a shing technique known as mooching
more variable catches. The largest commercial landings    gained popularity among salmon sport anglers in Califor-
observed in California occurred in 1988 when more than    nia. Mooching is generally used when salmon are feeding
1.3 million chinook (14.4 million pounds) and 51,000     on forage sh such as anchovies or herring in fairly shal-
coho (319,000 pounds) were landed. The lowest landings    low, nearshore areas. Mooching differs from trolling in that
occurred in 1992, an El Niño year, when only 163,400     the bait is drifted to resemble dead or wounded prey
chinook (1.6 million pounds) and 2,500 coho (11,300      instead of being pulled through the water to simulate live
pounds) were taken in the commercial shery. Although     swimming prey. When trolling, the hook generally sets
oceanic and in-river conditions play a major role in salmon  itself as the salmon attacks the moving prey whereas
catches, variation among years can also be attributed to   during mooching, line is fed out to the salmon when it
changes in shery regulations; since 1988, progressively   strikes to encourage the salmon to swallow the bait and
more restrictive regulations have been placed on the sh-   hook. Thus more salmon are gut-hooked when caught by
ery to protect salmon stocks of special concern.       mooching. Onboard observations conducted by the depart-
                               ment’s Ocean Salmon Project (OSP) on commercial pas-
The state’s jurisdiction over tribal commercial shing in
                               senger shing vessels during 1993-1995 found that 60 per-
the Klamath Basin was challenged in 1969 when a Yurok
                               cent of the sublegal salmon (<20 inches total length)
sherman had his gillnets conscated for shing on the
                               caught via mooching were hooked in the guts or gills.
lower Klamath River. After years in the lower courts, the
                               Since studies have found that 80 to 90 percent of sublegal
First District Court of Appeals decided the issue in 1975
                               salmon hooked in the gut or gills die, there was concern
and found that the right of a tribal member to sh on a
                               that this new shing technique could seriously impact
reservation was created by presidential executive order,
                               stocks of special concern. Beginning in September 1997,
which was derived from statute and thus not subject to
                               all sport anglers mooching with bait were required to
state regulation. In 1977, the Bureau of Indian Affairs
                               use circle hooks to reduce the hooking mortality on all
(BIA) took over the management of tribal reservation
                               released salmon. Studies conducted by OSP during 1995
sheries in the Klamath Basin and the lower 20 miles
                               through 1997 found that the use of circle hooks signi-
of the Klamath River was opened to tribal gillnet shing
                               cantly reduced the hooking mortality on sublegal salmon.
for subsistence and commercial harvest; however in 1978,
the BIA closed the shery. The so-called conservation
moratorium remained in effect until 1987 when the BIA
                               Salmon Management History
reopened commercial shing by American Indians on the


                               I
lower Klamath River. In 1993, the Department of the Inte-    n 1948, the Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission (PMFC)
rior determined that the Yurok and Hoopa Valley Indian     was formed by the states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon,
tribes possessed a federally reserved right to harvest    Idaho and California. A primary objective of the compact
50 percent of the total available harvest of Klamath     was to make better use of the marine resources shared by
Basin salmon.                         the member states. Prior to that time, there was minimal
Ocean sport shing for salmon became popular with       coordination of marine shing regulations between the
the development of the commercial passenger shing      states. For example, in 1947 California had a 25-inch
vessel (CPFV) industry after World War II. In 1962, the    minimum size limit and an April 1 to September 15 season
department expanded its dockside monitoring to include    for both chinook and coho. Washington and Oregon both
recreational landings (private skiffs and charterboats).   had a 27-inch limit and year-round season for chinook and



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                409
         a July 1 to November 15 season for coho. Washington had    salmon shery. This was done to increase prots of indi-
Pacific Salmon



         an 18-inch limit for coho, while Oregon had no size limit   vidual shermen and to reduce overall shery impacts
         for the species. The rst commercial salmon recommen-     on the resource. In 1983, a limited-entry program was
         dation of the PMFC was a 26-inch total length minimum     implemented that capped the shery at just over 4,600
         size and March 15 to October 31 maximum season length     commercial salmon vessels.
         for chinook. For coho the recommended season was June     In 1989, Sacramento River winter-run chinook was listed
         15 to October 31 except that California could open May     under the California and federal endangered species acts.
         1 provided it retained its 25-inch minimum size limit for   This, and subsequent listings, added another dimension to
         the species. For many years the states uniformly adopted    salmon management. The ESA requires that NMFS assess
         the 26-inch standard and an April 15 opening date for     the impacts of ocean sheries on listed salmon popula-
         commercial chinook shing with a general September 30     tions and develop standards that avoid the likelihood of
         closing date. The coho season opening was June 15 in both   jeopardizing their continued existence. As more salmon
         Oregon and Washington with no, or a very low, minimum     populations have become listed, the ESA “jeopardy
         size limit. California retained its 25-inch coho standard   standards” have become a dominant factor in shaping
         until about 1970 when it was dropped to 22 inches and the   ocean sheries.
         season opening date delayed until May 15.
                                        NMFS has concluded that the harvest of the relatively
         In 1976, the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Man-      abundant Central Valley fall chinook stocks could continue
         agement Act (Act) established the Exclusive Economic      at reduced levels without jeopardizing the recovery of
         Zone and the authority of the Secretary of Commerce      listed chinook and coho populations. The California Fish
         to manage sheries covered under federal shery manage-    and Game Commission, PFMC and NMFS have implemented
         ment plans from 3 to 200 miles offshore. The Act created    various protective regulations to reduce shery impacts
         regional shery management councils to develop shery     on California populations of Central Valley winter and
         management plans (FMPs) and recommend shing regula-      spring chinook, and coastal chinook and coho, all of which
         tions to the states, tribes, and the National Marine Fisher-  are listed. The PFMC began in 1992 to severely curtail
         ies Service (NMFS). It also created the Pacic Fishery     the ocean harvest of coho salmon in California due to the
         Management Council (PFMC) that had management author-     depressed condition of most coastal stocks. Following the
         ity over the federal sheries off the coasts of Washington,  federal listing of California coho stocks in 1996 and 1997,
         Oregon and California. Representation on the PFMC cur-     NMFS extended the protective measures to a complete
         rently includes the chief shery ofcials of California,    prohibition of coho retention off California.
         Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, the NMFS, a Tribal repre-
                                        Although not listed under the ESA, Klamath River fall chi-
         sentative, and eight knowledgeable private citizens. The
                                        nook salmon have continued to play an important role in
         PFMC receives advice from a Salmon Technical Team and
                                        shaping ocean shing seasons. Ocean harvests of chinook
         an advisory panel of various industry, tribal, and envi-
                                        must be constrained to meet the spawning escapement
         ronmental representatives. The PFMC’s salmon plan was
                                        goal of the Klamath River fall chinook and to provide
         developed in 1977 and was the rst FMP developed by the
                                        for the federally reserved shing rights of the Yurok and
         organization. The PFMC annually develops management
                                        Hoopa Valley Indian tribes.
         measures that establish shing areas, seasons, quotas,
         legal gear, possession and landing restrictions, and mini-
         mum lengths for salmon taken in federal waters off Wash-
                                        Status of Biological Knowledge
         ington, Oregon, and California. The management mea-


                                        P
         sures are intended to prevent overshing and to allocate      acic salmon are anadromous (they migrate from
         the ocean harvest equitably among ocean commercial and       the ocean to the freshwater streams to spawn) and
         recreational sheries. The measures must meet the goals    semelparous (die after spawning). Both chinook and coho
         of the FMP that address spawning escapement needs and     salmon have similar spawning requirements and habits.
         allow for fresh water sheries. The needs of salmon spe-    Successful spawning requires water temperatures less than
         cies listed under the federal Endangered Species Act      56˚ F, clear water, suitable gravel rifes, and a stream
         (ESA) must also be met as part of the process. The mea-    velocity sufcient to permit excavation of nests (redds)
         sures recommended by the PFMC must be approved and       and provide high subgravel ow to the deposited, fertil-
         implemented by the U.S. Department of Commerce.        ized eggs. The female digs the nest, lays the eggs, and
                                        covers them after the male fertilizes them. After a period
         During the 1980s, California ocean salmon sheries were
                                        of time, depending primarily on water temperature (usu-
         increasingly regulated under quotas and area closures.
                                        ally 50 to 60 days in California), the eggs hatch into
         In 1980, a moratorium was placed on the issuance of
                                        yolk sac larvae (alevins), which remain buried in the
         permits to new participants in the ocean commercial



           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
410
gravel until the yolk sac is absorbed. The young salmon    Chinook spend two to ve years at sea before returning




                                                                   Pacific Salmon
(fry) wriggle up out of the gravel and begin feeding on    to spawn in their natal streams. The small percentage of
microscopic organisms.                     chinook that mature at age two are predominately males
                                and are commonly referred to as “grilse,” or “jacks.” The
When the salmon are about two inches long, their backs
                                older age classes of chinook are composed of about equal
become brown and their bellies a light silver so that they
                                proportions of males and females.
blend inconspicuously with their background. Referred to
as ngerlings, the length of stream-residency by these     The state record for a sport-caught chinook is 88 pounds,
juveniles varies according to species and race. Following   landed by an angler on the Sacramento River in 1979. The
a period of rapid growth, the salmon begin changing physi-   largest chinook on record is a 127-pounder taken from
ologically in preparation for life in the ocean. A young    a trap in Alaska. Ocean sheries can have a signicant
salmon that has undergone the anatomical and physiologi-    impact on the average age of spawning chinook because
cal changes that allow it to live in the ocean is called    ocean-shing gear often selects for larger, older sh. In
a smolt. Following an instinctive internal cue, the smolts   addition, minimum size limits allow for the harvest of
begin migrating in schools downstream towards the ocean.    chinook in the sport shery starting at age two (20-inch
Many of the sh pause in estuaries, remaining there until   minimum) and in the commercial shery at age three
the smoltication process is completed. The salmon then    (26-inch minimum). As ocean harvest rates increase, the
enter the sea where they begin a period of rapid growth.    average age of adult spawners declines. Fish destined to
After spending two to six years in the ocean, depending on   mature at age ve must survive two more years of ocean
species, the sexually mature salmon begin their arduous    sheries than sh destined to mature at age three. It has
journey upriver.                        not been documented that the selectivity of the ocean
                                sheries for older maturing sh has adversely affected the
Chinook salmon                         genetics of the populations, but it has probably reduced
                                the utilization of spawning habitats that are best suited
Chinook are the largest of the salmon species. Historically,
                                for larger, older sh. Larger sh, for example, are prob-
juvenile chinook have been reported in coastal streams as
                                ably better able to utilize the larger gravel found in the
far south as the Ventura River in southern California. Cur-
                                main stems of most river systems. High rates of ocean har-
rently, they spawn in suitable rivers from the Sacramento-
                                vest in recent decades have led to the virtual disappear-
San Joaquin system northward. Spawning migrations can
                                ance of ve-year-olds in chinook salmon runs throughout
require minimal effort, with spawning occurring within a
                                the state.
few hundred feet of the ocean, or it can be a major
undertaking, with spawning occurring hundreds of miles     All Pacic salmon exhibit a strong tendency to return at
upstream. In addition, dams and other diversion structures   a specic time each year to spawn in their natal streams.
can seriously impede the upstream passage of adults by     This has resulted in the development of distinct stocks,
creating physical barriers and confounding migration cues   or populations, within each species that are, to varying
due to changes in river ow and water temperatures.      degrees, both reproductively and behaviorally isolated.
                                Stocks are often grouped into “runs” based on the time of
The female chinook selects a nesting site that has good
                                the year during which their upstream spawning migration
subgravel ows to ensure adequate oxygenation. Since
                                occurs. There are four distinct chinook runs in California
chinook eggs are larger and have a smaller surface-to-
                                - fall, late-fall, winter, and spring. In a river where all
volume ratio, they are also more sensitive to reduced
                                four runs of chinook spawn, adults migrate upstream and
oxygen levels than eggs of other Pacic salmon. Female
                                juveniles migrate downstream during all months of the
chinook will defend their redds once spawning has begun
                                year. The timing of chinook spawning is often inuenced
and will stay on the nests from four days to two weeks,
                                by stream ow and water temperature, and therefore
depending on the time in the spawning period. Spawning
adults can be easily chased off redds by minor distur-
bances which may result in unsuccessful spawning. At the
time of emergence, fry generally swim or are displaced
downstream, although some fry are able to maintain their
residency at the spawning site. As they grow older, the
ngerlings tend to move away from shore into midstream
and higher velocity areas. Once smoltication is complete,
the young chinook migrate to the ocean, where they tend
to be distributed deeper in the water column than other
Pacic salmon species.
                                                   Steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss
                                                            Credit: DFG


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                    411
         varies somewhat from river to river, and even within      migrate seaward from early July though the following
Pacific Salmon



         river systems.                         March, but the bulk of the juveniles move seaward in
                                        September. Winter-run smolts enter the ocean between
         All four runs use the Central Valley (Sacramento River-San
                                        December and May. The adults mature and spawn as
         Joaquin River) basin with the fall run being the most
                                        three-year-olds, unlike the other races, which include
         numerous. Historical runs of winter and spring chinook in
                                        many four-year-old sh. Because of winter chinook’s
         the upper Sacramento drainage were signicantly reduced
                                        unique life history, ocean sheries, which are structured
         by the construction of Shasta Dam in 1945. Spring chinook
                                        to harvest the more abundant fall chinook runs during
         also formed a major run in the San Joaquin River, but the
                                        spring and summer months, have less of an impact on
         completion of Friant Dam in 1942 contributed to the run’s
                                        winter chinook than on other runs.
         subsequent extinction.
                                        Spring run. Spring chinook salmon arrive in the spawning
         On the coast, the Klamath, Eel, Mad and Smith rivers
                                        areas between March and June, with the peak time of
         have fall and late fall runs. Spring chinook are also pres-
                                        arrival usually occurring in May or June, depending upon
         ent in several streams within the Klamath River basin
                                        ows. They rest in the deep, cooler pools during the
         and occasionally appear in the Eel and Smith rivers. In
                                        summer and then move onto the gravel rifes and spawn
         the Klamath Basin, the abundance of spring and fall chi-
                                        between late August and early October. Emergence of fry
         nook are believed to have been comparable prior to the
                                        varies among drainages with fry emerging in some tribu-
         completion of barrier dams in upper river areas in the late
                                        taries as early as November, while fry in other areas wait
         1800s. Smaller coastal rivers have only fall chinook.
                                        until late March to appear. Juveniles either exit their natal
         Fall run. Fall chinook salmon are the most numerous
                                        tributaries soon after emergence or remain throughout
         salmon in California today. They arrive in spawning areas
                                        the summer, exiting the following fall as yearlings, usually
         between September and December, depending upon the
                                        with the onset of storms starting in October. Yearling
         river system, but peak arrival time is usually during Octo-
                                        emigration from the tributaries may continue through the
         ber and November. Under current ocean harvest rates,
                                        following March, with peak movement usually occurring in
         the fall chinook runs are dominated by three-year-old sh
                                        November and December. Juvenile emigration alternates
         followed by jacks and four-year-olds. Five-year-old sh are
                                        between active movement, resting and feeding. Juvenile
         rare. Spawning occurs in the main stem of rivers, as well
                                        salmon may rear for up to several months within the
         as in tributaries, from early October through December. In
                                        Delta before ocean entry. Spring chinook runs tend to
         general, there is a large outmigration of fry and ngerlings
                                        be dominated by three-year-old sh followed by four-year-
         from the spawning areas between January and March. An
                                        olds and jacks.
         additional outmigration from the spawning areas, consist-
                                        Ocean distribution. The development and widespread use
         ing primarily of smolts, occurs from April through June.
                                        of the coded wire tag since the mid-1970s have provided
         The juveniles enter the ocean as smolts between April
                                        extensive data on the ocean distributions of Pacic coast
         and July.
                                        salmon stocks. Tagging studies in California, particularly
         Late fall run. In California, late fall chinook salmon are
                                        on Central Valley and Klamath River fall chinook salmon
         found primarily in the Sacramento River system, but have
                                        stocks, have provided better denition of the coastal
         been reported from the Eel River as well. They arrive
                                        areas used by these stocks, as well as the mix of stocks
         in upper-river spawning areas between October and mid-
                                        in a particular ocean area. Although Central Valley fall
         April. The runs of late-fall chinook tend to consist of
                                        chinook are distributed primarily off of California and
         equal numbers of three and four-year-old sh. Spawning
                                        Oregon, some sh have ventured as far north as Alaska.
         occurs from January through mid-April, primarily in the
                                        Klamath River fall chinook are more narrowly distributed
         main stem of the Sacramento River. Some of the juveniles
                                        between Point Arena in northern California and Cape
         start migrating seaward as fry during May, but the bulk
                                        Falcon in Oregon. Ocean conditions have been found to
         of the juveniles leave the upper river between October
                                        affect the ocean distribution patterns of these and other
         and February. Late fall smolts enter the ocean between
                                        Pacic coast salmon stocks.
         November and April.
                                        Coho salmon
         Winter run. Winter chinook salmon are unique to the
         Sacramento River system. Adults arrive in the upper Sac-    Coho salmon are smaller than chinook salmon; the average
         ramento River spawning area from mid-December through     size of a mature coho is seven to 12 pounds. The California
         early August, with a peak in March. Spawning occurs      record for a sport-caught coho salmon is 22 pounds, taken
         primarily in the main stem of the upper Sacramento River    on Paper Mill Creek (Marin County) in 1959. The world
         below Shasta Dam between late-April and mid-August.      record is a 33-pound sport-caught coho landed in British
         May and June are peak spawning months. The juveniles      Columbia.



           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
412
In California, coho spawn in suitable streams from north-     Coded wire tagging of California hatchery coho stocks has




                                                                                Pacific Salmon
ern Monterey Bay northward, but they rarely enter the       indicated that nearly all are harvested in ocean sheries in
Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Coho enter many        their third year of life. Some are caught as far north as the
small coastal streams that are not utilized by chinook,      central Washington coast, but most are caught within 100
but they also spawn in some larger river systems where       miles of the stream from which they entered the ocean.
chinook occur. Compared to chinook salmon, there are
relatively few coho in California today. Most California
                                  Status of Spawning Populations
streams utilized by coho salmon are short in length, but
some coho do make relatively long migrations, particularly
                                  Central Valley Fall Chinook - Fall chinook are the most
into the Eel River system. Many smaller coastal rivers have
                                  abundant of the four races of Central Valley salmon,
runs of coho salmon that enter during brief periods after
the rst heavy fall rains and move upstream.
Within California river systems, coho salmon populations
include only one race, or run, which is generally consistent
as to spawning area used and time of spawning. Most
spawning occurs between December and February. The
juveniles usually spend a little more than a year in fresh
water before migrating to the ocean; a few spend two
years. Most coho mature at the end of their third year
of life. Coho salmon older than three years are relatively
rare. A few males, or grilse, mature at age two.
Genetic analysis of California coho populations has indi-
cated a wide degree of mixing of the stocks in the past,
probably reecting past stocking and transplantation prac-
tices involving hatchery sh.                                      Baird Station, first Pacific Coast salmon hatchery.
                                                        Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.




                                        Members of the Wintu tribe drying salmon on the McCloud River, circa 1882.
                                Credit: Thomas Houseworth, U.S. Fish Commission. Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                A Status Report                            413
         spawning predominately in the Sacramento River basin.      Klamath Basin - The recovery and analysis of coded
Pacific Salmon



         The run is heavily supplemented by production at ve      wire tagged sh produced at the two hatcheries in the
         hatcheries. The spawning populations of fall chinook in     Klamath Basin allow estimates of ocean abundance. Pre-
         the Sacramento and San Joaquin river drainages averaged     shing season abundance of fall chinook during the 1980s
         about 340,000 between 1953 and 1963; 209,300 from 1970     averaged 395,000 sh; during the 1990s, the average
         to 1979; 249,800 from 1980 to 1989; 166,600 from 1990 to    decreased to 164,000 and included very low abundance in
         1995; and 365,700 from 1996 to 2000. The recent increases    1991 and 1992. In 2000-2001, the pre-shing season abun-
         in spawning runs, as well as commercial and recreational    dance of fall chinook averaged 400,000. Spring chinook in
         harvests, suggest a reversal in the decline of fall chinook,  the Trinity and Salmon rivers in the Klamath Basin have
         which hopefully will be sustained through the various      been at very low levels in recent years.
         restoration efforts to rebuild salmon stocks in the Central   Many salmon anglers are attracted to rivers north of Mon-
         Valley. In addition, since fall chinook is one of the primary  terey County. Historically, almost half of the effort was
         stocks harvested by ocean sheries in California, the      in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Most of this
         more restrictive regulations applied on these sheries     activity occurs upstream from the city of Sacramento. The
         in recent years appears to have also improved their       main stem of the Sacramento River is the most important
         freshwater returns.                       Central Valley stream, followed by the Feather and Ameri-
         Central Valley Spring Chinook - Spring chinook, which      can rivers. Of the coastal streams, the Klamath system
         were historically the second most abundant run, now       receives by far the most effort, followed by the Smith and
         spawn in relatively small numbers in streams in the       Eel systems. Much of the shing in coastal river systems
         northern Sacramento River basin. Spawning populations      occurs in estuaries. The Klamath and Smith River mouths
         increased during the late 1990s, particularly the Deer and   draw large numbers of anglers from great distances and
         Butte Creek stocks. Spring chinook are listed as threat-    concentrate them in a small area. The term “madhouse”
         ened under the ESA (1999) and CESA (1999).           is appropriate during the peak of a good run. The catch in
                                         both of these rivers consists of chinook salmon.
         Central Valley Late-fall Chinook - Late-fall chinook spawn
         primarily in the main stem of the Sacramento River. The     Past over-harvest has undoubtedly contributed to the cur-
         run, which was not identied until the construction of     rent plight of salmon. However, harvest constraints, which
         a dam and sh ladder at Red Bluff enabled monthly        are easily and quickly implemented, have no effect on the
         counts of spawners, averaged about 25,000 from 1967 to     root causes of the decline of wild salmon. Reasons for the
         1976, 9,500 from 1977 to 1986 and 10,400 from 1987 to      decline in California’s salmon populations vary somewhat
         1994. More recent estimates of run size have been made     from river to river, but there are two major causes: (1)
         difcult by changes in the operation of the Red Bluff      destruction or loss of habitat, and (2) water diversion.
         Diversion Dam.                         In the Central Valley, a multitude of factors has con-
         Sacramento River Winter Chinook - Winter chinook was      tributed to the decline. These include several hundred
         the rst anadromous sh to receive protection under the     unscreened irrigation diversions in the Sacramento Valley,
         ESA (1989), following its listing under CESA (1989). Winter   1,800 unscreened diversions in the Delta and about 150
         chinook no longer exist in any of its original spawning hab-  unscreened diversions in the San Joaquin Valley; poor
         itat above Shasta Dam and the run persists only because     or lost gravel deposition in salmon spawning and rearing
         of the new habitat created by cold water releases from     areas; pollution; aberrant river ow uctuations caused
         the dam into the mainstem Sacramento River. The spawn-     by alternating water-release schedules from dams to meet
         ing populations below Shasta declined from the 20,000 to    downstream water-quality standards and water diversion
         80,000 sh observed in the 1970s to a few hundred in the    contracts; elevated water temperatures stemming from
         early 1990s. Spawning populations between 1998 and 2000     power generation operations and reduction in cold water
         numbered between 1,400 and 3,200 sh.              storage as reservoirs are emptied to meet agricultural
                                         contracts; and impediments to migration such as dams
         Coastal Populations - Coastal California streams support
                                         or diversions. The massive export of water from the south-
         small populations of coho and chinook salmon. Habitat
                                         ern Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta has probably been the
         blockages, logging, agriculture, urbanization and water
                                         greatest cause of decline in Central Valley salmon.
         withdrawals have resulted in widespread declines of both
         species. All coastal coho populations in California are     Red Bluff Diversion Dam on the upper Sacramento River
         listed as threatened under the ESA and coho south of San    continues to be an impediment to adult upstream migra-
         Francisco are listed as threatened under CESA. Coastal     tion, a major point of diversion and loss of downstream
         chinook south of the Klamath River are listed as threat-    migrating juveniles, and a haven for predatory Sacramento
         ened under the ESA (1999).                   pikeminnow. Lifting of the gates at this facility has been
                                         implemented in the fall through spring to protect all races


           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
414
of chinook; alternative diversion facilities are being evalu-  any of them from reaching the ocean, even if adequate




                                                                        Pacific Salmon
ated that would allow the dam to be removed.          sh screens are in place to keep them from entering the
                                irrigation canals. Reducing stream ows or shade may
Declines in coastal river chinook and coho salmon popula-
                                result in a stream becoming too warm for salmon. Siltation
tions have been caused by many of the same factors. But,
                                from logging or road construction can smother salmon
in addition, these areas have been affected by past and, in
                                eggs and suppress production of aquatic invertebrates
some instances, present timber harvest practices. These
                                upon which the young sh depend for food.
practices have reduced stream shading, resulting in high
temperatures, and have accelerated erosion and lling      Substantial efforts have been made during the past
of pools.                            decade to ensure that the ecological requirements of
                                anadromous sh receive equal consideration with all the
Although many of California’s naturally spawning popula-
                                other economic and social demands placed on the state’s
tions are listed as threatened or endangered, the produc-
                                water resources. The Central Valley Improvement Act of
tion of large numbers of salmon by state and federal
                                1992 required a program designed to double natural pro-
hatcheries has continued. The trucking of sh from state
                                duction of anadromous sh in Central Valley streams.
hatcheries in the Central Valley for release in the lower
                                In 1995, the federal government and California initiated
Delta began in the late 1970s. The program was started
                                the CALFED Bay-Delta program to address environmental
with the intent of bypassing the many hazards that were
                                and water management problems associated with the
known to exist for juvenile salmon in the lower river
                                Bay-Delta system. The primary mission is to develop a
and Delta areas. Tagging studies have shown that survival
                                long-term comprehensive plan that will restore ecological
of trucked sh is much higher than sh released at the
                                health and improve water management for the benecial
hatchery and the program has continued to this day. The
                                uses of the Bay-Delta system.
average annual escapement of fall chinook to the Central
Valley between 1995 and 2000 was almost 85 percent       Although the listing of salmon populations under the ESA
greater than the average observed during the previous 25    has meant new restrictions on recreational and commer-
years (1970-1994) and was due primarily to the restrictive   cial shing, it has also provided a mechanism for address-
regulations placed on ocean salmon sheries in recent      ing the effects of dams, irrigation diversion, logging, road
years. When salmon return to the Central Valley in       construction, etc. on aquatic environments. Species man-
near record numbers, the public understandably has dif-     agement under provisions of the ESA requires that existing
culty appreciating the need for harvest constraints to     and proposed federal actions and permitted activities
protect endangered salmon. Commercial and sport sher-     be conducted in a manner that will not jeopardize the
men expect shing regulations that permit harvest of      continued existence of the animal or result in the destruc-
the hatchery “surplus.” Full utilization of hatchery produc-  tion or adverse modication of habitat essential to the
tion subjects naturally spawning sh, which cannot sustain   continuation of the species. Federal agencies must consult
nearly as high a rate of harvest as hatchery stocks, to     with NMFS when they propose to authorize, fund, or
over-harvest. Responsible hatchery management means       carry out an action which could potentially adversely
not only producing a healthy and robust sh, but also edu-   affect listed salmon or steelhead. Likewise, state-spon-
cating sport and commercial shermen on the importance     sored activities that might affect state-listed species must
of managing the sheries for natural production while      be reviewed under the provisions of CESA.
accepting a surplus of hatchery adults.



Salmon: Discussion
Challenges to Inland Salmon Management
Maintaining salmon runs in California depends on the res-
toration and preservation of the state’s rivers and streams
as living systems. A poor law or regulation affecting shing
can be changed long before the damage it causes becomes
permanent, but a stream that is blocked near its mouth by
an impassable dam will produce no more salmon. A stream
kept dry through the spawning season by diversion is no
better, but may prove salvageable if water can eventually
be provided. Diverting all the water from a stream during
                                                      Typical commercial salmon troller
the downstream migration period of juveniles will prevent               Credit: Chris Dewees, CA Sea Grant Extension Program


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                        415
         Hatchery sh have been important to maintaining ocean     ter habitats, and changes in ocean productivity or precipi-
Pacific Salmon



         and in-river sheries, but have incorrectly been perceived   tation. An incremental approach to harvest reductions
         as a viable alternative to maintenance of natural spawning   seems to have produced encouraging results with respect
         populations. Unfortunately, a successful hatchery program   to winter chinook. At the time of listing, spawning popula-
         can mask the decline in the natural run due to straying    tions were estimated at less than 200 sh and by the end
         of the returning adults, and this appears to be the case    of the 1990s had increased to several thousand.
         for chinook in many areas of the Central Valley and the    In recent years, test sheries have been conducted off
         Klamath River basin. Hatchery adults spawning in the      California, which apply the methods of genetic stock iden-
         wild can compete with naturally produced sh for adult     tication (GSI) to estimate the contribution of various
         spawning and juvenile sh rearing areas. Interaction of    stocks of chinook to catches. GSI detects the presence of
         hatchery and naturally produced salmon is most acute in    certain proteins that are characteristic of various popula-
         the close vicinity of the rearing facilities. Battle Creek   tions, both hatchery and naturally produced. The tech-
         below Coleman Hatchery and Bogus Creek adjacent to       nique can be used to verify the coded wire tag data
         Iron Gate Hatchery typically are overloaded with spawning   associated with hatchery stocks as well as to estimate the
         sh each fall due to straying of hatchery adults. Trucking   catch of relatively small numbers of naturally produced
         operations in the Central Valley have greatly increased    sh, which would not normally be available for marking
         hatchery sh survival by reducing in-stream losses of sh   with coded wire tags. The test sheries were initially
         to diversions and predators but have also increased the    undertaken with the hope of identifying previously unrec-
         rate of straying of returning adults, possibly to the detri-  ognized distributional differences between Central Valley
         ment of the naturally produced sh.              fall chinook and Klamath River fall chinook. As more popu-
                                        lations of salmon have been listed under the ESA and
         Challenges to Ocean Management
                                        included in the GSI baseline, the search for times and
         Ocean salmon sheries harvest a mixture of stocks that     areas in which contact with stocks of concern is minimal
         can differ greatly in their respective abundance and pro-   has been made increasingly difcult. Listed species are
         ductivity. It has long been recognized that the manage-    at extremely low abundance and comprise a very small
         ment of mixed stock salmon sheries is difcult and com-    fraction of ocean catches; even GSI methods are unlikely
         plex; sheries supported by hatcheries can deplete less    to produce accurate estimates of ocean impacts on threat-
         productive, naturally produced stocks unless programs are   ened and listed populations. When faced with the difcul-
         in place to monitor and evaluate their status and make     ties of estimating ocean distribution and the presence of
         necessary adjustments in harvest. Ideally, some differ-    salmon from such populations, it seems safest to reduce
         ences in distribution of “strong” and “weak” stocks exist   ocean harvest rates to levels sufciently low that ocean
         that allow managers to develop measures that selectively    impacts are unlikely to extinguish these weak ESA popula-
         protect stocks of concern.                   tions of salmon.
         NMFS has concluded that the harvest of the relatively     Ocean salmon managers must continually be prepared to
         abundant Central Valley fall chinook stocks may continue    respond to changes in the sheries. The advent of mooch-
         at reduced levels without jeopardizing the recovery of     ing in central California led to different resource impacts.
         listed California chinook populations. The California Fish   Likewise, the ocean environment continues to change,
         and Game Commission, PFMC and NMFS have implemented      physically as well as biologically. Relative to the salmon
         various protective regulations to reduce shery impacts    resource, coastal water quality needs to be monitored and
         on California populations of Central Valley winter and     protected. There also appear to be increasing conicts
         spring chinook, and coastal chinook and coho, all of which   between ocean shermen, both recreational and com-
         are listed. In 1992, the PFMC began to severely curtail    mercial, and marine mammals, in particular harbor seals
         the ocean harvest of coho salmon in California due to the   and sea lions. Federal legislation aimed at protecting
         depressed condition of most coastal stocks. Following the   these animals has been very effective in increasing
         federal listing of California coho stocks in 1996 and 1997,  their numbers and has led to increased depredation on
         NMFS extended the protective measures to a complete      sport and commercially hooked salmon. Most of the prob-
         prohibition of coho retention off California.         lems have been in the marine area, particularly in the
                                        Monterey-San Francisco region, but problems have also
         Ocean abundance estimates are not available for any of
                                        occurred in some lower river areas, such as the Klamath
         California’s listed salmon and harvest rates are subject to
                                        River estuary where American Indian and sport anglers
         speculation. Determining levels of harvest that are appro-
                                        annually seek to harvest salmon.
         priate for recovery is challenging. Without age-specic
         mortality estimates it is difcult to assess the relative
         effects of reductions in harvest, improvements in freshwa-



           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
 416
Management Considerations                   Kope, R.G. 1987. Separable virtual population analysis




                                                               Pacific Salmon
                                of Pacic salmon with application to marked chinook
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for        salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, from California’s Cen-
further information.                      tral Valley. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 44(6):1213-1220.
                                Lufkin, A. 1991. California’s Salmon and Steelhead: The
                                Struggle to Restore an Imperiled Resource. University of
LB Boydstun
                                California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles. 305 p.
Department of Fish and Game
                                Nehlsen, W., J.E. Williams, and J.A. Lichatowich. 1991.
Melodie Palmer-Zwahlen
                                Pacic salmon at the crossroads: stocks at risk from
Department of Fish and Game
                                California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington. Fisheries,
Dan Viele
                                16(2):4-21.
National Marine Fisheries Service
                                Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission. 1948. Coordinated
                                Plans for the Management of the Fisheries of the Pacic
References                           Coast. Bulletin 1, Portland, OR. 64 p.
                                Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC). 1984. Final
                                framework amendment for managing the ocean salmon
Bartley, D., B. Bentley, P. G. Olin, and G.A.E. Gall. 1992.  sheries off the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and Cali-
Population genetic structure of coho salmon (Oncorhyn-     fornia commencing in 1985. Pacic. Fish. Mgmt. Council,
chus kisutch) in California. Calif. Fish and Game. Vol 78.   Portland. Eight sections plus appendices.
No.3 p.88-100.
                                PFMC. 1999. Review of 1999 Ocean Salmon Fisheries.
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead     Pacic. Fish. Mgmt. Council, Portland. Four sections plus
Trout. 1988. Restoring the balance. 1988 annual report.    appendices.
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Sacramento. 84 p.
                                _____ . 1999. Preseason report I, stock abundance
California Department of Fish and Game. 1998. A status     analysis for 2000 ocean salmon sheries. Pacic Fish.
review of the spring-run chinook (Oncorhynchus Tshawyts-    Mgmt. Council, Portland. Three sections plus appendices.
cha) in the Sacramento river drainage. Report to the Fish
                                Pierce, Ronnie M. 1998. Klamath Salmon: Understanding
and Game Commission. Candidate Species Status Report
                                Allocation. Klamath Riv. Basin Fish. Task Force, Yreka CA.
98-01. June 1998.
                                32 p.
Campbell, E.A. and P.B. Moyle. 1990. Historical and
                                Yoshiyama, R.M., Fisher, F.W., and Moyle, P.B. 1998 His-
recent population sizes of spring-run chinook salmon in
                                torical abundance and decline of chinook salmon in the
California. Pages 155-216. In Proceedings, 1990 Northeast
                                central valley region of California. N. Am. J. Fisheries
Pacic Chinook and Coho Salmon Workshop. Humboldt
                                Management. 18:487-521.
Chapter, American Fisheries Society.
Feinberg, L. and M. Morgan. 1979. California’s Salmon
Resource: Its Biology, Use and Management. Sea Grant
Report Series No. 3, California Sea Grant College Program,
CSGCP No. 72. 37p.
Gall, G.A.E., B. Bentley, C. Panattoni, E. Childs, C. Qi, S.
Fox, M. Mangel, J. Brodziak, and R. Gomulkiewicz. 1989.
Chinook mixed shery project, 1986-89. Prepared under
contract for the Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Sacramento.
192 p.
Hankin, D.G., and M.C. Healey. 1986. Dependence of
exploitation rate for maximum yield and stock collapse on
age and sex structure of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha) stocks. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.,
43(9):1746-1759.
King, D. 1986. The economic issues associated with com-
mercial salmon shing and limited entry in California.
Prepared under contract for the California Commercial
Fishing Review Board, Sacramento. 106 p. plus appendix.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                417
   Steelhead
   Rainbow Trout                         card data was 168,000 sh (but only 40,000 were kept).
                                   In 1994, estimated catch was 178,000, with 53,000 sh
                                   retained. These gures have not been corrected for
    History of the Fishery                    non-response bias, however, so are likely overestimated.
                                   Even prior to the implementation of catch-and-release

    S  teelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss formerly Salmo gaird-    requirement for wild steelhead (see below), California
      neri) were once abundant in California coastal and    steelhead anglers released approximately 70 percent of all
    Central Valley rivers and streams. American Indians uti-   steelhead caught.
    lized this resource for subsistence, trade, and ceremonial  Steelhead sport shing is important not only for the recre-
    purposes. Salmon and steelhead were harvested year-      ation that it provides, but also for its economic benets.
    round by central coast and Central Valley tribes, and pri-  A 1985 economic analysis of the anadromous sport
    marily during late summer and fall months by north coast   shery of the Sacramento-San Joaquin river system esti-
    tribes. Nets, spears, traps, and weirs were utilized to    mated that sales revenue generated from steelhead sport
    capture the sh. Today, American Indians employ gillnets   shing in the Sacramento River and tributaries was
    to capture salmon and are limited to the Klamath River    over 7.2 million dollars. When non-shing activities were
    system. These gillnet sheries target chinook salmon, but   included, Sacramento River steelhead generated over $9
    an unknown number of adult steelhead is also taken.      million annually.
    There is no commercial steelhead shery in California.
    Commercial salmon trollers cannot legally possess steel-
                                   Status of Biological Knowledge
    head, and very few are taken incidentally in the commer-
    cial salmon catch. However, there is a well-established,

                                   S teelhead are the anadromous form of rainbow trout,
    popular steelhead sport shery in California. The majority
                                    a salmonid native to western North America and the
    of angler effort is expended in river systems and coastal
                                   Pacic coast of Asia. In North America, steelhead are
    streams of the north coast, the central coast north of San
                                   found in Pacic Ocean drainages from southern California
    Francisco Bay, and the Sacramento River system. Some
                                   to Alaska, and in Asia in coastal streams of the Kamchatka
    rivers and streams of the central coast south of San
                                   Peninsula. Spawning populations in California are known
    Francisco still support a steelhead sport shery, but these
                                   to have occurred in coastal streams from Malibu Creek
    have become limited in recent years due to a decline
                                   (Los Angeles County) to the Smith River near the Oregon
    in their populations. The steelhead shery in southern
                                   border, and in the Sacramento and San Joaquin river sys-
    California (south of San Luis Obispo) has been closed due
                                   tems. Southern California streams south of Malibu Creek
    to severe declines and extirpation of many of the runs
                                   appear to support at least occasional spawning and pro-
    and a listing of others under the federal Endangered
                                   duction, but it is unknown if these coastal streams cur-
    Species Act (ESA). The San Joaquin River system
                                   rently support steelhead populations. The present distri-
    presently supports a very limited shery. The rest of
                                   bution and abundance of steelhead in California has been
    California’s steelhead sportshery has instituted catch
                                   greatly reduced from historical levels.
    and release regulations since the ESA listing of naturally
                                   Steelhead are similar to Pacic salmon in their ecological
    produced steelhead.
                                   requirements. They spend most of their lives in the ocean
    In 1993, California implemented the Steelhead Trout Catch
                                   where they grow to relatively large size, and then return
    Report-Restoration Card Program, which required that all
                                   to fresh water to spawn. Unlike Pacic salmon, steelhead
    steelhead anglers purchase a steelhead catch report card
                                   do not necessarily die after spawning. Repeat spawning is
    and record their catch. These data are used by the
                                   common; however post-spawning survival rates are gener-
    Department of Fish and Game (DFG) to generate catch
                                   ally quite low (10 to 20 percent). Steelhead do not neces-
    statistics, including the number of steelhead caught and
                                   sarily migrate to sea at a specic age. Some individuals
    released. The report card has provided angler harvest
                                   remain in a stream, mature, and even spawn without ever
    information and funding for management, research,
                                   going to sea; others migrate to sea at less than a year
    and habitat restoration projects. Current information indi-
                                   old. Although most spend two to six years at sea, some
    cates that approximately 69 percent of angler effort is
                                   return to freshwater after spending less than a year in
    expended on the north coast (north of the Mattole River),
                                   the ocean. The well-known Klamath River “half-pounders”
    15 percent on the north-central coast (between the Mat-
                                   are sexually immature steelhead that return to fresh water
    tole River and the Golden Gate), four percent on the
                                   after spending only a few months at sea. These sh do
    south-central coast (from the Golden Gate to Pt. Concep-
                                   not spawn, but return to the ocean and eventually ascend
    tion) and 12 percent in the Central Valley. In 1993, the
                                   the river in a second upstream migration as a larger,
    total statewide steelhead catch estimated from report
                                   mature steelhead.


      California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                       December 2001
418
In California, peak spawning in most runs occurs from     The second principal difference between salmon and




                                                               Steelhead Rainbow Trout
December through April. Steelhead generally spawn in      steelhead is the amount of time steelhead spend in fresh
small tributaries where cool, well-oxygenated water is     and salt water, which is much more variable. In a study
available year-round. Like salmon, the female steelhead    of steelhead life history in central coast streams, it was
digs a nest, or “redd,” deposits eggs while an attendant    found that the majority of adults returning to spawn had
male fertilizes them, then covers the eggs with gravel.    spent two years in fresh water and one or two years in
The length of time it takes for eggs to hatch largely     the ocean. However, steelhead showing other life history
depends on water temperature. Steelhead eggs hatch in     patterns were not uncommon. Scale analysis of adults
about 30 days at 51o F. Fry usually emerge from the gravel   indicated that they typically spent from one to four
four to six weeks after hatching, but factors such as redd   years in fresh water and from one to three years in the
depth, gravel size, siltation, and temperature all inuence  ocean. Studies on Sacramento River steelhead also show
the timing of emergence.                    this variability.
The newly emerged fry move to shallow, protected areas     Steelhead have traditionally been grouped into seasonal
associated with stream margins where they establish feed-   runs according to their peak migration period. In Cal-
ing stations that they defend. Juveniles mainly inhabit    ifornia, there are well-dened winter, spring, and fall
rifes, but they can utilize a variety of other habitat    runs. This classication is useful in describing actual run
types. Relatively high ngerling densities occur in associa-  timing, but is misleading when it is used to further catego-
tion with structural complexity, such as that provided by   rize steelhead. Run-timing may be a characteristic of a
large woody debris. Juveniles also exhibit a preference for  particular stock, but by itself, does not constitute race
sites with overhead cover and appear to select positions in  or ecotype.
streams in response to low light levels.            There are two principal steelhead ecotypes: 1) stream-
The preferred depth for steelhead spawning is approxi-     maturing steelhead, which enter fresh water with imma-
mately 14 inches and ranges from six to 24 inches. In     ture gonads and consequently must spend several months
natural channels, water depth usually does not hinder     in the stream before they are ready to spawn; and
adult migration because adult steelhead normally migrate    2) ocean-maturing steelhead, which mature in the ocean
during high ows. Depth can become a signicant barrier    and spawn relatively soon after reentry into fresh water.
or impedance in streams that have been altered for ood    This corresponds to the accepted classication that groups
control purposes. It has been reported that seven inches    steelhead into two seasonal “races” — summer and winter
is the minimum depth required for successful migration     steelhead. Stream-maturing steelhead (summer steelhead)
of adult steelhead, although the distance sh must travel   typically enter fresh water in spring, early summer, and
through shallow water areas is also a critical factor.     fall. They ascend to headwater tributaries, hold over in
                                deep pools until mature, and spawn in winter. Ocean-
Water temperature requirements for various life stages
                                maturing steelhead (winter steelhead) typically begin
of steelhead have been well studied, although there are
                                their spawning migration in late fall, winter, and spring
relatively few data specic to California. Egg mortality
                                and spawn relatively soon after freshwater entry. Ocean-
begins to occur at 56o F. Thermal stress has been reported
                                maturing steelhead generally spawn from January through
at temperatures beginning at 66o F, and temperatures
                                April, but some spawning can extend into May and June.
demonstrated to be lethal to adults have been reported at
70o F. In California, low temperatures are not as much of   Prior to the intensive water development of this century
a concern as high temperatures, particularly during adult   and the resultant loss of a considerable amount of holding
migration, egg incubation, and juvenile rearing. The abil-   habitat, stream-maturing (summer) steelhead were prob-
ity of steelhead to tolerate adverse temperatures varies    ably more common in California than they are today.
depending on stock characteristics, ecological conditions,   There is some evidence that they were present in the
and physiological conditions such as life stage.        Central Valley drainages, but were most likely extirpated
                                with the construction of large dams that blocked access
The life history of steelhead differs from that of Pacic
                                to the upper reaches on many of the major spawning
salmon in two principal aspects. First, juvenile steelhead
                                tributaries. At present, summer steelhead are known
rear in fresh water for longer periods of time (usually
                                to occur only in north coast drainages, mostly in tribu-
from one to three years). Because of this multi-year rear-
                                taries of the Eel, Klamath, and Trinity river systems.
ing requirement, water temperatures and other water
                                Ocean-maturing (winter) steelhead are also present in
quality parameters must remain suitable year-round. That
                                north coast drainages, and are also found in the Sacra-
is why steelhead typically migrate higher into watersheds
                                mento and San Joaquin river systems and central/south
to spawn than salmon. It is mostly in these upper tributar-
                                coast drainages.
ies that water quality - most importantly water tempera-
ture - remains suitable year-round.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               419
             The above classication scheme is based on behavioral     to persist in this marginal, frequently suboptimal
Steelhead Rainbow Trout



             and physiological differences and may not reect genetic    environment. Having several different life-history strat-
             or taxonomic relationships. Genetic similarity appears to   egies among a single population effects “bet-hedging”
             be a reection of geographical relationships. For example,   against extinction.
             summer steelhead occupying a particular river system
             are more genetically similar to winter steelhead of that
                                             Status of the Populations
             system than they are to summer steelhead in other sys-
             tems. Similarly, little or no morphological or genetic dif-

                                             B  ecause of the difculty in assessing steelhead popula-
             ferentiation has been found between steelhead and res-
                                               tions, we have limited estimates of adult numbers and
             ident rainbow trout forms inhabiting the same stream
                                             a statewide population estimate is not available. Carcass
             system. Taxonomists conclude that O. mykiss cannot be
                                             surveys, a dependable method to estimate salmon spawn-
             separated taxonomically by immigration timing (fall-, win-
                                             ing populations, are not useful for assessing steelhead
             ter-, spring-runs), ecotype (stream-maturing vs. ocean-
                                             spawning populations, because steelhead do not always
             maturing), or their migratory behavior (steelhead vs. res-
                                             die immediately after spawning. Counts made at weirs
             ident forms). Rather, rainbow trout are taxonomically
                                             and shways can be difcult because adult steelhead tend
             structured on a geographic basis. All steelhead in Cali-
                                             to migrate on high, turbid winter ows. Despite the lack
             fornia belong to the coastal rainbow trout subspecies,
                                             of accurate numbers, other reliable indicators show that
             O. m. irideus.
                                             steelhead, like most other anadromous salmonid stocks in
             This taxonomic classication recognizes the extreme vari-   California, have declined signicantly.
             ability that occurs within rainbow trout populations.
                                             In October 1997, the federal government listed southern
             Rather than the different life-history forms comprising
                                             California steelhead as endangered and central and south
             distinct populations, studies and observations provide evi-
                                             Central Coast steelhead as threatened under the ESA. In
             dence that coastal rainbow trout can form a single, inter-
                                             May 1998, Central Valley steelhead were listed as threat-
             breeding population in stream systems where there is
                                             ened, and in August 2000, Northern California steelhead
             access to the ocean. These populations are comprised
                                             were listed as threatened. Consequently, all California
             of individuals with different life-history traits and a con-
                                             steelhead populations south of the Klamath-Trinity River
             tinuum of migratory behaviors, the two extremes being
                                             system are now listed under the ESA.
             anadromy (strongly migratory) and residency (non-migra-
                                             South Coast. The precipitous decline of steelhead on the
             tory). Recent research demonstrating that juvenile rain-
                                             south coast is well documented. Of 122 streams south
             bow trout can adopt a life-history strategy that is
                                             of San Francisco Bay that were known to have contained
             different from their parents (i.e., a steelhead can
                                             a steelhead population, 47 percent had populations with
             produce non-anadromous progeny and non-anadromous
                                             reduced production from historical levels, 33 percent no
             rainbow trout can produce steelhead progeny) provides
                                             longer supported steelhead populations, and only 20 per-
             further evidence.
                                             cent had populations that had not declined signicantly
             This type of population structure and resultant exibility
                                             from historical levels. The percentage of streams with
             in reproductive strategies allows a population to persist in
                                             extinct populations ranged from zero percent in San Mateo
             the face of unstable and variable climatic, hydrographic,
                                             and Santa Cruz counties in the north to 92 percent in
             and limnological conditions that frequently exist at the
                                             Orange and San Diego counties.
             margins of a species’ range. For coastal rainbow trout, this
                                             Water development appears to be the primary cause of
             includes stream systems in the Central Valley and those
                                             localized extinctions and decline in numbers. A recent
             south of San Francisco Bay. Stream systems in California
                                             study found that 35 percent of the southern steelhead
             are subject to extreme variations in rainfall which can
                                             populations reviewed were negatively impacted by water
             result in high volume, ash ood runoff, or droughts last-
                                             diversions, 24 percent by dams lacking functional sh-
             ing several years. Natural stream ow in these streams
                                             ways; 18 percent by articial barriers other than dams
             can vary greatly, both seasonally and annually. It is not
                                             (such as impassable culverts and bridge supports) and
             uncommon, even under unimpaired conditions, for the
                                             ve percent from stream channelization. Overall, 21 per-
             lower reaches of many streams to become interrupted
                                             cent of the 165 populations reviewed were impacted by
             during the dry season, restricting the population to the
                                             blocked access to spawning and rearing tributaries due
             perennial headwaters, with these conditions persisting for   to main stem impediments. Other major impacts include
             years. The exibility inherent in this type of population   urbanization and other land-use activities.
             structure allows sh to complete their life cycles entirely
                                             Southern steelhead stocks (those occurring south of Point
             in freshwater until conditions once again allow migration
                                             Conception) are the most imperiled of all of California’s
             to the ocean, and this exibility has allowed populations
                                             steelhead populations, and are the only California steel-


               California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                        December 2001
  420
                                                                               Steelhead Rainbow Trout
               The historical range of steelhead in California.                 The present range of steelhead in California.
             Only major streams within the range are depicted.                Only major streams within the range are depicted.


head that are listed under the ESA as endangered. The              steelhead will now have access to some of their former
southernmost range of steelhead formerly extended to              spawning and rearing habitat.
northern Baja California and they were present in streams            The Santa Ynez River is reported to have had an annual
and rivers of Los Angeles, Orange, and San Diego counties.           run size from 12,995 to 25,032 adults in the 1940s.
At present, Malibu Creek in Los Angeles County is the              Although this was a cursory estimate, it does attest to the
designated southern extent of the steelhead range (in              large size of this run, which was already reduced from
terms of the ESA listing). However, the recent discovery            former times because of forest res and construction of
of a spawning population in San Mateo Creek in San Diego            dams in the upper watershed. The large size of this run
County has conrmed that steelhead are still present in             is also indicated by a DFG rescue of 1,036,980 juvenile
streams south of Malibu Creek, and the federal govern-             steelhead from the partially dry bed of the Santa Ynez
ment has recently proposed to extend the designated               River in 1944. Since the mid-1990s, a few adult steelhead
southern extent to include San Mateo Creek. It is not              have been observed every year, and juvenile steelhead
known if steelhead still occur in streams south of San             have been observed in several tributaries.
Mateo Creek.
                                        In the mid-1940s, DFG biologists reported that a minimum
The historical run-size of the Santa Clara River is esti-            of 2,000 to 2,500 adults spawned in Matilija Creek, a
mated to have been about 9,000 adults annually. In the             tributary of the Ventura River, and they believed that
past ve years, several hundred steelhead smolts have              this represented 50 percent of the total number of adults
been observed at sh screens at a diversion on the main-            entering the Ventura River. There are recent anecdotal
stem so it appears this population may be recovering,              reports of adult steelhead in the lower Ventura River, and
although only a few adult steelhead have been observed             juvenile steelhead have been observed.
in the shway in the diversion dam. A shway on a small
                                        Much of the coastline of southern Monterey and San
diversion dam on Santa Paula Creek, a major tributary
                                        Luis Obispo counties is relatively undeveloped; hence,
to the Santa Clara River, was recently completed, so
                                        many of these small coastal streams still contain steel-
                                        head populations. Status of populations in these streams


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                         California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                     A Status Report                       421
             range from healthy in the relatively undisturbed streams   Creek (a tributary to the Russian River). All of these
Steelhead Rainbow Trout



             in southern Monterey and northern San Luis Obispo coun-    dams except the latter two are at elevations greater than
             ties, to severely depressed or extirpated in the Morro    1,500 feet, so a considerable amount of habitat is still
             Bay/San Luis Obispo urban area. The largest populations    available downstream. The Russian River is the notable
             of steelhead (on the order of hundreds of adults) in the   exception - dams block access to the headwaters and a
             south-central coast region are probably in the Little Sur   major tributary.
             and Big Sur rivers.
             In the Carmel River from 1964 to 1975, the average annual
             run-size of steelhead was estimated to be 3,177 sh, about
             25 percent of historical levels. The mean number of adults
             counted at the San Clemente Dam sh ladder during
             this 12-year period was 821 sh per year. During a
             three-year period from 1988 to 1990, the river never
             breached its sand bar at the mouth making the river inac-
             cessible to upstream migrant adult steelhead. One adult
             was observed in the ladder in 1991, 14 adults in 1992, and
             285 adults in 1993. In 1993, the Fish and Game Commission
             closed the lower Carmel River to all angling to protect the
             remnant steelhead run. With the cessation of the recent
             six-year drought, the Carmel River steelhead population         Adult Steelhead Counts at San Celmente Dam on the Carmel River
             appears to be recovering. The average annual run size for    Data show steelhead counted at the San Clemente Dam on the Carmel River between
                                             1964 and 1999. Data not available for 1978-1983 and 1985-1987; no steelhead were
             the ve-year period beginning in 1995 was 590 adults. In
                                                counted at the San Celmente Dam during the years 1976-1977, 1989, and 1990.
             recognition of the increasing health of the population, the
             river was opened to a limited catch-and-release shery for  The north coast rivers and streams have the largest area
             steelhead in 1998.                      of steelhead habitat in the state and the most abundant
                                            populations of steelhead. The California Fish and Wildlife
             With the recent occurrence of several years of ample
                                            Plan of 1965 estimated an annual spawning escapement
             precipitation, it appears that steelhead in this region
                                            of 513,500 steelhead for this region. Because many of the
             may be starting to recover from the six-year drought of
                                            spawning and rearing tributaries are largely undeveloped
             the late 1980s through early 1990s. Opportunistic observa-
                                            and fairly remote, the north coast runs are in better
             tions conrmed the presence of steelhead in many small
                                            condition than other areas of the state. However, these
             southern California streams that were not known to have
                                            populations have also had some declines.
             contained steelhead populations for many years. Steel-
             head have been observed in Carpenteria, Maria Ygnacio,    In the 1960s, the Smith River was estimated to have a
             Gaviota, Mission, and Arroyo Hondo creeks in Santa Bar-    spawning escapement of 30,000 adult steelhead. There
             bara County; Arroyo Sequit and Topanga creeks in Los     have been no recent spawning surveys done for steelhead
             Angeles County; and San Mateo Creek in San Diego County.   and the population size is unknown at present. The Smith
             Since the ESA listing, habitat restoration projects have   River is presently protected by federal Wild and Scenic
             increased in the past ve years and include modication    River designation and has one of the most undisturbed
             of grade stabilization structures to facilitate passage on  watersheds in California. Steelhead populations appear to
             Gaviota Creek, development and design of a shway and     be healthy in this system and the habitat is relatively
             screens on the Robles Diversion on the Ventura River,     pristine. The Smith River is well known among anglers for
             initial discussions on removal of Matilija Dam on Matilija  producing trophy-size steelhead.
             Creek, construction of a new shway at Harvey Dam on     The largest population of steelhead in California inhabits
             Santa Paula Creek, and various restoration projects in    the Klamath River system. The California Fish and Wildlife
             Topanga and San Mateo creek watersheds.            Plan estimated an annual run size of 283,000 adult steel-
             North Coast. The historical range of steelhead on the     head for the entire Klamath River system. The size of
             north coast (north of San Francisco Bay) has not been     the fall-run from the 1977-1978 to the 1982-1983 seasons
             reduced to the extent it has in other areas of the state.   ranged from 87,000 to 181,410 adults annually. The size
             Major dams that have blocked access to historical spawn-   of the winter steelhead population in this system in the
             ing and rearing areas are Iron Gate Dam on the Klamath    early 1980s was probably about 10,000 to 30,000 adults
             River, Lewiston Dam on the Trinity River, Ruth Dam on     annually, based on limited sport angler and Native Ameri-
             the Mad River, Scott Dam on the Eel River, Coyote Dam     can gillnet harvest data. The steelhead population of the
             on the Russian River, and Warm Springs Dam on Dry       Klamath River excluding the Trinity River has declined



               California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                       December 2001
  422
dramatically, most likely due to high summer water tem-    smolts released, steelhead runs in north coast drainages




                                                                             Steelhead Rainbow Trout
peratures in the mainstem.                   are comprised mostly of naturally produced sh.
The most reliable population estimates for steelhead on    Since the early 1970s, systematic surveys have been
the north coast are for the Trinity River, a major tributary  undertaken on summer steelhead holding habitat to
of the Klamath River. DFG has operated several weirs      census adult summer steelhead. The most abundant popu-
in the system since 1977 to obtain steelhead run size,     lations are in the Middle Fork Eel and the North Fork
sport harvest, and spawning escapement estimates. Esti-    Trinity rivers. The Middle Fork Eel River population has
mates for some years during this period are not available   not fully recovered from the devastating 1964 ood which
because of the difculty in maintaining weirs in high
water. Eight years of run size estimates for the Trinity
River upstream of Willow Creek range from 7,833 to 37,276
and average 15,185 adults. The 1991-92 estimated run size
for the Trinity River above Willow Creek was 11,417.
Steelhead runs in the Eel River system have declined
signicantly. Annual counts made at Benbow Dam on the
South Fork Eel River show a decline from an average of
18,784 during the 1940s to 3,355 during the 1970s (counts
were discontinued after 1975). Annual counts of adults
at Cape Horn Dam in the upper watershed of the main
stem Eel River declined from an average of 4,063 during
the 1930s to 540 during the 1990s. Annual counts of
                                                     Eel River Steelhead Population Trends
wild steelhead at this location show an even greater
                                 Data shows steelhead population trends between 1971 and 1998 as counted for the
decline: from an average of 893 in the 1980s to 82 in the    Upper Eel River wild steelhead population and the summertime steelhead population
                                               (wild and hatchery) of the Middle Fork of the Eel River.
1990s. Recent anecdotal information indicates that steel-
head populations also appear to have declined signicantly
                                aggraded the river bed, lled-in holding pools, and smoth-
in the South Fork Eel River, partly due to predation or
                                ered spawning gravels. The adult population has declined
competition from introduced Sacramento squawsh, which
                                steadily since 1987 and is now about 500. The present esti-
are now widespread throughout the system.
                                mated annual statewide abundance of summer steelhead
The California Fish and Wildlife Plan estimated an annual   is about 2,000 adults.
spawning escapement of 50,000 steelhead in the Russian
                                Major factors impacting north coast steelhead stocks are
River. Presently, escapement of naturally produced steel-
                                watershed disturbances due to logging, grazing, and road
head in this system probably ranges from about 1,750 to
                                building, water diversions, and other agricultural impacts.
7,000 adults. Historically, steelhead spawned throughout
                                Poaching is a problem, especially for summer steelhead,
the Russian River system, but today many of the tributar-
                                which must over-summer in fresh water, often concen-
ies, including the East Fork, are now inaccessible due to
                                trated in a few pools. This renders them susceptible to
dam construction.
                                snagging and netting, especially if the pools are located
Marin County tributaries to San Pablo and San Francisco    in accessible areas. Urbanization of the watershed and
bays have all sustained intensive urban development and    gravel mining operations have caused serious problems on
anadromous runs in many streams have been extirpated.     central coast streams.
West Marin County tributaries to Tomales Bay and the
                                Central Valley. Steelhead were historically well-distrib-
Pacic Ocean still have steelhead with small population
                                uted throughout the Sacramento and San Joaquin river
estimates. Steelhead escapement in Lagunitas Creek is
                                systems, from the upper Sacramento/Pit river systems
probably about 400 to 500 adults annually.
                                south to the Kings River (and possibly Kern river systems
There are four DFG hatcheries in the north coast area:     in wet years) and in both east- and west-side tributaries
Iron Gate Hatchery on the Klamath River, Trinity River     of the Sacramento River. Present distribution of steelhead
Hatchery, Mad River Hatchery, and Warm Springs Hatchery    in the Central Valley has been greatly reduced, mainly
on Dry Creek (tributary to the Russian River). Average     from construction of impassable dams that block access to
annual production for these four hatcheries totals about    essential spawning and rearing habitat. It is estimated that
1,750,000 steelhead yearlings per year. The private, non-   82 to 95 percent of the historical steelhead spawning and
prot Rowdy Creek enhancement hatchery on the Smith      rearing habitat in the Central Valley has been lost to dam
River releases approximately 125,000 steelhead smolts     construction/passage problems.
annually. Despite the signicant number of hatchery




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                            423
                                                        and in some cases, is greater. It is estimated that chinook
Steelhead Rainbow Trout



                                                        salmon escapement was one to two million spawners
                                                        annually in the Central Valley prior to large-scale habitat
                                                        changes, so a cursory estimate of the annual steelhead
                                                        run size is one to two million adults
                                                        A cursory estimate of current steelhead abundance in
                                                        the Central Valley, based on Red Bluff Diversion Dam
                                                        (RBDD) counts, hatchery counts, and past natural spawn-
                                                        ing escapement estimates for some tributaries, is no
                                                        greater than 10,000 adult sh. A more reliable indicator
                                                        of the magnitude of the decline of Central Valley hatchery
                                                        and wild stocks is the trend in the RBDD adult steelhead
                                                        counts, which have declined from an average annual count
                        Adjusted Counts of Upper Sacramento River Steelhead at
                                          Red Bluff Diversion Dam   of 11,187 adults for the ten-year period beginning in 1967,
              Data shows steelhead counted at the Red Bluff Diversion Dam between 1967 and 1993.
                                                        to 2,202 adults annually in the early 1990s. Natural spawn-
                                                        ing escapement estimates above RBDD for the period 1967
                                                        to 1993 averaged 3,465 and ranged from zero (1989 and
             Naturally-spawning steelhead stocks are known to occur
                                                        1991) to 13,248 (1968). Natural escapement has shown
             in the upper Sacramento River and tributaries, Mill, Deer,
                                                        a more substantial decline than hatchery escapement.
             and Butte creeks, and the Feather, Yuba, American, Moke-
                                                        There are four steelhead hatcheries in the Central Valley:
             lumne, Calaveras, Stanislaus, and Tuolumne rivers. Natu-
                                                        Coleman National Fish Hatchery on Battle Creek, Feather
             rally spawning populations could be more widespread,
                                                        River Hatchery, Nimbus Hatchery on the American River,
             however, as indicated by recent implementation of mon-
                                                        and the Mokelumne River Hatchery. Together, these
             itoring programs that have found steelhead smolts in
                                                        hatcheries produce about 1.5 million yearlings annually.
             streams previously thought not to contain populations,
             such as Auburn Ravine, Dry Creek and the Stanislaus River.              Factors affecting abundance, persistence, and recovery
             It is possible that naturally spawning populations exist in              have been identied for anadromous shes in the Sacra-
             many other streams but are undetected due to lack of                 mento and San Joaquin River systems and these apply
             monitoring or research programs. A genetic evaluation by               reasonably well to Central Valley steelhead. These factors
             the National Marine Fisheries Service provides evidence                include: water diversions and water management, entrain-
             that a native Central Valley steelhead stock still exists.              ment, dams and other structures, bank protection proj-
                                                        ects, dredging and sediment disposal, and gravel mining.
             Until very recently, steelhead were considered to be
                                                        The primary impact to Central Valley steelhead is the sub-
             extinct in the San Joaquin River system. However, this
                                                        stantial loss of spawning and rearing habitat due to dam
             conclusion was based on little information and no eld
                                                        construction at low elevations on all the major tributaries.
             studies. The presence of steelhead in the San Joaquin
             River system has been conrmed by observations of steel-
             head smolts in the Stanislaus River and observations
                                                        Dennis R. McEwan
             of steelhead adults and smolts in the Calaveras and
                                                        California Department of Fish and Game
             Tuolumne rivers. Adult steelhead have also been observed
             in the Stanislaus River and in the San Joaquin River at its
             conuence with the Merced River.
             The California Fish and Wildlife Plan estimated that there
             were 40,000 adult steelhead in the Central Valley drain-
             ages in the early 1960s. In the 1950s, the DFG estimated
             the average annual steelhead run size in the Sacramento
             River system above the mouth of the Feather River was
             20,540 adults. Estimating steelhead abundance before
             extensive water development and habitat modication
             occurred is difcult given the paucity of historical infor-
             mation. However, an estimate can be made by comparing
             the relative abundance of chinook salmon and steelhead
             in other, relatively unimpaired river systems. These esti-
             mates show that steelhead abundance in these river sys-
             tems is at least as great as chinook salmon abundance,



                California’s Living Marine Resources:                      CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                                  December 2001
  424
References




                                                    Steelhead Rainbow Trout
Barnhart, R.A. 1986. Species proles: life histories and
environmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
brates (Pacic Southwest) - steelhead. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.60). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
TR EL-82-4. 21 p.
Behnke, R.J. 1992. Native trout of western North America.
American Fisheries Society Monograph no. 6. 275 p.
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead
Trout (CACSST). 1988. Restoring the balance. 1988 ann.
rpt. 84 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game. 1965. California
Fish and Wildlife Plan.
Interagency Ecological Program (IEP) Steelhead Project
Work Team. 1999. Monitoring, Assessment, and Research
on Central Valley Steelhead: Status of Knowledge, Review
of Existing Programs, and Assessment of Needs. In Com-
prehensive Monitoring, Assessment, and Research Program
Plan, Tech. App. VII-A-11.
McEwan, D.R. Central Valley steelhead. In proceedings of
the Central Valley Salmonid Symposium, 1997, R. Brown
ed. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull. No. 179. (in
press).
McEwan, D. and T.A. Jackson. 1996. Steelhead Restoration
and Management Plan for California. Calif. Dept. of Fish
and Game.
Titus, R.G., D.C. Erman, and W.M. Snider. (in prep.) His-
tory and status of steelhead in California coastal drainages
south of San Francisco Bay.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                        A Status Report        425
                 Commercial Landings -
                 Salmonids
Commercial Landings - Salmonids




                                                                     Total Salmon 1
                                                  Chinook           Coho
                                   Total Salmon 1
                      Chinook     Coho
                                           Year     Pounds          Pounds      Pounds
                 Year    Pounds    Pounds      Pounds

                 1916     ----     ----   5,592,216   1980    5,715,203          301,566    6,017,193
                 1917     ----     ----   6,085,997   1981    5,534,833          477,237    6,040,353
                 1918     ----     ----   5,933,346   1982    7,448,614         551,939    8,000,561
                 1919     ----     ----   7,208,382   1983    2,144,365          266,412    2,410,783
                 1920     ----     ----   6,066,190   1984    2,621,248          348,417    2,969,665
                 1921     ----     ----   4,483,105   1985    4,519,174          80,396    4,639,296
                 1922     ----     ----   4,338,317   1986    7,396,751          201,563    7,598,314
                 1923     ----     ----   3,736,924   1987    9,047,150         245,608    9,296,162
                 1924     ----     ----   6,374,573   1988   14,430,810          319,489   14,750,299
                 1925     ----     ----   5,481,536   1989    5,489,796          230,581    5,724,836
                 1926     ----     ----   3,863,677   1990    4,122,351          313,731    4,436,082
                 1927     ----     ----   4,921,600   1991    3,238,000          459,000    3,697,000
                 1928     ----     ----   3,444,306   1992    1,632,000          11,000    1,643,000
                 1929     ----     ----   4,033,660   1993    2,536,884           ----    2,536,884
                 1930     ----     ----   4,085,650   1994    3,103,104           ----    3,103,104
                 1931     ----     ----   3,666,841   1995    6,633,463           ----    6,633,463
                 1932     ----     ----   2,649,204   1996    4,113,403           ----    4,113,403
                 1933     ----     ----   3,657,661   1997    5,247,792           ----    5,247,792
                 1934     ----     ----   3,921,530   1998    1,847,102           ----    1,847,102
                 1935     ----     ----   4,773,112   1999    3,845,762           ----    3,845,762
                 1936     ----     ----   4,093,475
                 1937     ----     ----   5,934,996   - - - - Landings data not available.
                 1938     ----     ----   2,170,921
                                           1
                 1939     ----     ----   2,238,755     Prior to 1958, a commercial salmon fishery in rivers and bays existed. This data
                 1940     ----     ----   5,160,393     is not shown.
                 1941     ----     ----   2,946,030
                 1942     ----     ----   4,063,306
                 1943     ----     ----   5,285,527
                 1944     ----     ----   7,021,848
                 1945     ----     ----    7,912,754
                 1946     ----     ----   7,196,527
                 1947     ----     ----   8,104,297
                 1948     ----     ----   5,860,915
                 1949     ----     ----   5,531,021
                 1950     ----     ----   5,867,346
                 1951     ----     ----   5,849,530
                 1952  5,785,214    751,677   6,536,891
                 1953  6,335,634   800,589    7,136,223
                 1954   8,167,724   431,855   8,599,579
                 1955  9,245,882    411,114   9,656,996
                 1956  9,814,366   460,536   10,274,902
                 1957  4,640,709   536,200    5,176,909
                 1958  3,576,385    80,456   3,656,841
                 1959  6,543,223    225,476   6,768,699
                 1960  6,096,384    125,061   6,221,445
                 1961  8,100,964   536,943    8,637,907
                 1962  6,301,520   371,341    6,672,861
                 1963  6,829,048  1,019,642    7,848,690
                 1964  7,562,445  1,918,770    9,481,215
                 1965  8,102,205  1,571,469    9,737,674
                 1966  5,979,027  3,467,427    9,446,995
                 1967  3,866,374  3,375,944    7,401,729
                 1968  4,612,488  2,337,629    6,951,931
                 1969  4,895,322  1,234,529    6,150,906
                 1970  5,269,494  1,341,820    6,611,522
                 1971  4,925,826  3,183,830    8,116,878
                 1972  5,372,779  1,050,355    6,423,289
                 1973  7,586,832  1,993,863    9,668,984
                 1974  5,048,456  3,700,084    8,749,414
                 1975  5,781,321  1,128,304    6,925,172
                 1976  4,943,891  2,843,849    7,787,787
                 1977  5,637,016   283,222    5,929,542
                 1978  5,492,397  1,295,073    6,787,474
                 1979   7,547,752  1,197,983   8,749,498




                     California’s Living Marine Resources:      CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                          A Status Report                  December 2001
   428
Recreational Catch -
Salmonids




                                                                          Recreational Catch - Salmonids
      Chinook       Chinook         Coho         Coho         Total
                         Salmon CPFV 2; 3   Salmon Skiff 2; 3     Salmon 4
    Salmon CPFV     Salmon Skiff
     No. of Fish1     No. of Fish1    No. of Fish1     No. of Fish1     No. of Fish1
Year

1947      ----         ----         ----        ----        5,000
1948      ----         ----         ----        ----        11,200
1949      ----         ----         ----        ----        23,100
1950      ----         ----         ----        ----        56,300
1951      ----         ----         ----        ----        72,000
1952      ----         ----         ----        ----        86,500
1953      ----         ----         ----        ----        98,700
1954      ----         ----         ----        ----       119,900
1955      ----         ----         ----        ----       129,000
1956      ----         ----         ----        ----       114,500
1957      ----         ----         ----        ----        44,700
1958      ----         ----         ----        ----        52,700
1959      ----         ----         ----        ----        55,900
1960      ----         ----         ----        ----        37,900
1961      ----         ----         ----        ----        43,000
1962     85,700        33,900        1,900          11       121,511
1963     66,200        17,600        6,300          26        90,126
1964     77,300        24,600        14,700          25       116,625
1965     46,000        14,200        5,700          15        65,915
1966     62,700        10,900        7,500          25        81,125
1967     60,900        11,700        24,000          26        96,626
1968    113,600        40,600        14,000          26       168,226
1969    100,000        55,800        11,400          17       167,217
1970     93,000        54,800        5,300          9       153,109
1971    108,400        79,900        22,400          45       210,745
1972    139,800        60,700        11,800          33       212,333
1973    119,500        78,500        5,200          27       203,227
1974     91,700        65,800        16,200          60       173,760
1975     68,300        35,400        5,500        15,800       125,000
1976     50,600        30,400        15,300        42,600       138,900
1977     54,700        49,600        2,400        11,800       118,500
1978     42,000        34,100        3,600        41,000       120,700
1979     71,800        40,600        2,000        14,500       128,900
1980     62,900        22,500        1,700        20,400       107,500
1981     59,800        24,200         1,100        9,500        94,600
1982     91,500        47,200        3,900        22,800       165,400
1983     46,500        17,300          500       26,700        91,000
1984     68,200        19,600          800       18,200       106,800
1985    107,300        63,800        1,400        14,400       186,900
1986     86,500        55,100        2,200        16,500       160,300
1987    121,800        70,700        4,300        43,000       239,800
1988    109,100        62,300        3,500        31,200       206,100
1989    105,000        81,700        6,200        43,400       236,300
1990     78,300        61,600        10,200        41,500       191,600
1991     39,900        40,600        13,500        55,800       149,800
1992     42,400        31,100        1,000        10,500        85,000
1993     66,000        44,000        4,200        25,600       139,800
1994     99,100        84,100   (closed 5/1/94)         500       183,700
1995    182,000       215,200   (closed 5/1/95)         900       398,100
1996     72,900        91,200        closed         600       164,700
1997    122,400       106,600        closed         500       229,500
1998     59,700        62,300        closed         100       122,100
1999     40,000        47,700        closed         600        88,300

- - - - Landings data not available.
1
   All data presented in number of fish.
2
   Recreational fishing for Coho was allowed before May 1 between 1994 and 1995.
3
   Recreational fishing for Coho was prohibited after 1996.
4
   Total recreational salmon catch between 1947 and 1961 is derived from CPFV logbook data only.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                              A Status Report        429
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
430
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       431
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
432
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       433
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
434
Bay and Estuary
Ecosystems                            Besides serving as critical habitat for wildlife, the wet-




                                                                Bay and Estuary Ecosystems
                                 lands that fringe many of the state’s bays and estuaries


T
                                 also provide other important ecological and human ben-
   he bays and estuaries dotting California’s coastline are
                                 ets. Wetland plants and soils act as natural buffers
   truly the jewels in the crown of the state’s marine
                                 between land and ocean, absorbing ood waters, dissipat-
environment. These partially enclosed bodies of water are
                                 ing storm surge, and ltering sediments, nutrients, and
protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and
                                 other pollutants. The state’s bays and estuaries are also
storms. Bays are wide inlets or indentations of the ocean,
                                 cultural centers of coastal communities, serving as the
whereas estuaries are inlets containing the terminus of
                                 focal point for local commerce, recreation, and cultural
a river or stream. Many of the organisms described in
                                 activities. The protected waters of California’s bays and
this report spend part of their life in bays or estuaries.
                                 estuaries support important public infrastructure uses,
However, this section of the report focuses primarily
                                 serving as harbors and ports vital for the state’s shipping,
on the plant and animal species that utilize the state’s
                                 maritime, and industrial related economy.
estuarine areas as their principal habitat.
                                 Because of the complexity and fragility of estuarine eco-
California estuaries vary widely in shape and size, and
                                 systems, they are imperiled by their proximity to inten-
are often referred to as lagoons, harbors, inlets, esteros,
                                 sive human activity and development. Sewage, industrial
and sounds. The dening feature of an estuary is the
                                 waste, dredging, lling of marshes and tidal ats, and oil
mixing of fresh water from upland and riverine sources
                                 development and spills typify the long-term degradation
with oceanic salt water. The estuary ecosystem forms a
                                 of many of California estuaries. As a result, 40 animal
zone of transition from land to sea and from fresh to salt
                                 and 10 plant species that occur in or depend on the
water. The sheltered waters of California’s estuaries sup-
                                 state’s estuarine ecosystems, currently are listed by the
port unique assemblages of plant and animal communi-
                                 federal government as threatened, endangered, or pro-
ties, varying by environmental conditions and location.
                                 tected status. Additionally, environmental harm from non-
Estuarine habitat types include shallow open waters,
                                 indigenous, or invasive, species has increased exponen-
fresh and saltwater marshes, sandy beaches, tidal mud
                                 tially in recent years. San Francisco Bay is considered by
and sand ats, rocky shorelines, oyster-shell beds, river
                                 experts to be “the most invaded estuary in the world.”
deltas, eelgrass meadows, and kelp beds.
                                 Notable examples of deleterious nonindigenous species
California’s estuarine environment sustains remarkably
                                 are the Chinese mitten crab, the Asian clam, and the
high levels of productivity. Often referred to as the
                                 European green crab. Such invaders are capable of wreak-
“ocean’s nursery,” these waters support early life-history
                                 ing extensive ecological and economic harm. As Califor-
stages of such important organisms as California halibut,
                                 nia’s population grows, these impacts can be expected
Dungeness crab, Pacic herring, starry ounder, and
                                 to increase. So too does the importance of protecting
numerous surfperch species. Representative organisms
                                 the state’s estuarine resources for all of their natural,
typifying California estuaries include rails and stilts,
                                 economic, and aesthetic values.
harbor seal, Dungeness crab, surfperches, leopard shark,
starry ounder, and clams and oysters. These animals are
linked to one another and to an assortment of specialized    Eric J. Larson
plants and microscopic organisms through a complex food     California Department of Fish and Game
web, unique to estuarine environments. Tens of thousands
of birds, mammals, sh, and other wildlife depend on
estuarine habitats as places to live, feed, and reproduce.
Additionally, the state’s estuaries provide ideal locations
for migratory birds in the Pacic Flyway to rest and forage
during their journey. Due to their critical importance, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Estuary
Project has identied San Francisco Bay, Morro Bay, and
Santa Monica Bay as nationally signicant estuaries, thus
affording federal funding for research, management, and
restoration efforts. This designation of three of the state’s
estuaries in no way diminishes the ecological importance
of the other bay and estuarine ecosystems that dot the
California coastline.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                             A Status Report                 435
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems




               California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report              December 2001
436
Bay and Estuarine
Invertebrate                          face in protecting our resources. Increasingly, as pop-




                                                               Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview
                                ulation pressures continue pressing on estuaries, espe-

Resources: Overview                      cially near the large metropolitan areas in southern and
                                central California, only remnant populations of harvest-
                                able bivalve mollusks will remain.

C  alifornia’s bay and estuarine invertebrate resources
                                The law of unintended consequences and the complexity
   are myriad, and when most of us think of these
                                of human interaction within the natural world can work
resources, extensive mudats come to mind, exposed
                                together in interesting and often unpredictable ways. The
at low tides and teeming with shorebirds and skittering
                                extirpation of the sea otter from most of California in the
crabs. The chapters in this section feature the molluscan
                                nineteenth century allowed populations of geoduck and
bivalves we know as clams and the caridean shrimps
                                pismo clams to ourish in the absence of this major preda-
known collectively as the bay shrimps. The latter are
                                tor. Under the protection of the federal endangered spe-
the object of targeted commercial trawl sheries in San
                                cies act, sea otter populations have reoccupied their his-
Francisco Bay for use mostly as live bait in the sport
                                torical range in central California and as a consequence,
sturgeon and striped bass sheries, while the edible
                                have reduced geoduck and pismo clam populations in the
clams have traditionally been largely the domain of
                                Morro Bay and Monterey Bay regions to a point below the
recreational shermen.
                                level of harvestable surplus.
In recent decades, California’s bays and estuaries have
                                The multiple threats of habitat destruction, pollution,
been under increasing assault from the introduction of
                                exotic invasions, and the re-establishment of sea otter
exotic species, many of which are invertebrates. Some of
                                populations could mean the end of California’s bay and
these like the Asian clam have signicantly altered the
                                estuarine resources as we have known them unless Califor-
ecology of San Francisco Bay and can be found in densities
                                nia’s shery managers, resource scientists and political
as high as several thousand per square meter. The exotic
                                leaders can work together to nd timely solutions to these
green crab and Chinese mitten crab have also adversely
                                problems.
impacted native species and their habitats. Green crabs
can outcompete juvenile Dungeness crab in mudat habi-
tats while the mitten crab can burrow into and weaken
                                Peter Kalvass
levees along the San Francisco Bay Delta waterways. The
                                California Department of Fish and Game
problems caused by such alien species are discussed in
another section of this publication.
California’s coastal clam resources have been under attack
from numerous other sources as well – from industrial
waste and municipal sewage, to habitat loss and degrada-
tion, to exotic viruses hitchhiking on imported aquaculture
seed stock, to over-harvesting and poaching. Bivalve mol-
lusks dwelling in our embayments and estuaries by the
luck of the evolutionary draw just happen to occupy those
habitats most likely to be near high concentrations of
human populations. In this respect, they have been our
“canary in the coal mine” warning us when the conse-
quences of under-regulated industrialization and human
overpopulation have exceeded the carrying capacities of
our bays and estuaries. Although wastewater treatment
standards have signicantly reduced the concentrations
of some pollutants entering California’s waters in recent
decades, bioaccumulation processes still result in certain
bivalve populations being unsafe to eat. For example, a
potentially signicant resource of Manila clams exists in
San Francisco Bay, but water quality problems discourage
public use in many clam beds. The accelerated silting-in
of Morro Bay and Bolinas Bay and the deleterious effects
of septic and agricultural runoff in Tomales Bay are just a
few more examples of the challenges resource managers




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    437
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview




                           California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                A Status Report              December 2001
438
Bay Shrimp
History of Fishery                      truck in either live tanks or iced-down wooden trays with




                                                                     Bay Shrimp
                                burlap linings.

T  he commercial shery for bay shrimp in San Francisco   Since 1985, annual landings of bay shrimp have averaged
   Bay began in the early 1860s, with some accounts indi-  120,000 pounds and have ranged from 75,000 to 150,000
cating that the earliest participants used small-meshed    pounds. In 1999, 11 boats participated in the bay shrimp
bag seines. By 1871, Chinese immigrants established sh-   shery. Eight of these boats shed exclusively in north San
ing camps along the shores of the bay and exported large   Francisco Bay and three shed exclusively in south San
quantities of dried shrimp meal (dried heads and shells)   Francisco Bay. However, the total weight of bay shrimp
to China. These shermen introduced what is now known     landed was almost twice as high in the south San Francisco
as the Chinese shrimp net, a funnel-shaped net that is    Bay versus north San Francisco Bay due to higher catch per
anchored in place and relies upon the tide to carry shrimp  boat, and higher catch per hour trawled. Primary shing
into the net. Fishing camps also existed in Tomales Bay    locations are Alviso Slough and Redwood Creek in south
between 1890 and 1895. At the height of the shery in     San Francisco Bay, north San Francisco Bay, northern San
the 1890s, as many as 26 shing camps operated up to 50    Pablo Bay, Petaluma Creek, and Carquinez Strait. Fishing
nets each in San Francisco Bay with daily landings of 400   generally occurs in waters less than 20 feet deep in chan-
to 8,000 pounds of shrimp, and annual landings exceeding   nels of the estuary’s shallow reaches.
ve million pounds. Studies were required by the Califor-
                                The bay shrimp shery exhibits a distinct seasonal pattern
nia Fish and Game Commission between 1897 and 1911
                                both in pounds landed, and catch-per-unit (CPUE) of effort
to address concerns that many young sh, particularly
                                as measured in pounds caught per hour trawled, with
striped bass, were killed in the shrimp nets. The results
                                uctuations typically on the order of ve to eight-fold for
of these studies prompted a May to August season closure
                                both variables. Since 1996, March and April have had the
and a prohibition of Chinese shrimp nets in 1911. The
                                lowest average monthly landings at 3,000 pounds as well
legislature modied this decision in 1915 allowing Chinese
                                as the lowest CPUE. Peak CPUE and total catch typically
shrimp nets to be used in south San Francisco Bay. About
                                occurs in the months of June through November. Peak
this time, beam trawl nets began to be used by com-
                                monthly catch for the past four years ranged from 10,000
mercial shrimp harvesters in northern San Francisco Bay
                                to 12,000 pounds. Such seasonal variations in CPUE are
and San Pablo Bay. Annual landings gradually increased
                                most likely a result of uctuations in salinity. However,
over the next two decades and peaked at 3.4 million
                                seasonal variations in total pounds landed may reect
pounds in 1935. Following this period, landings steadily
                                corresponding uctuations in demand for bay shrimp by
declined in response to a decline in demand for fresh and
                                sport anglers.
dried shrimp as food. By the early 1960s, average annual
                                The current value of bay shrimp landed each year is
landings declined to 1,500 pounds, and in 1964 no shrimp
                                approximately $350,000, with the average pound of bay
were landed.
                                shrimp selling for $3.50 ex-vessel price. Additionally,
The current commercial shery for bay shrimp developed
                                over the past decade the bay shrimp shery has caught
in 1965 to supply live bait for sturgeon and striped bass
                                between 9,000 and 2,000 pounds of staghorn sculpin and
sport shing with a small percentage of the catch reserved
                                yellown goby per year at a total value ranging between
for human consumption. Regulation changes in the 1980s
                                $4,000 and $25,000.
eliminated shing in most of Suisun Bay due to high inci-
dental catch and associated mortality of small striped bass
in shrimp trawls. Currently, neither a quota nor season
closure is in effect for the commercial shery, and land-
ings are inuenced primarily by demand. Regulations also
allow for the catch of yellown (Oriental) goby, long jaw
mudsucker, and staghorn sculpin with a commercial bay
shrimp permit. Sport regulations allow the use of hand-
powered shrimp trawls no greater than 18 by 24 inches at
the mouth and a daily bag limit of ve pounds. Any nsh
caught in the sport shery must be returned to the water.
From 1965 to the present, the commercial shery for bay
shrimp has exclusively used beam trawls. These trawls
are spread by either a wooden or galvanized steel pole,
are 20 to 25 feet wide, and use a mesh of 7/8 inch to
one inch in the cod end. Live tanks are used on all                    California Bay Shrimp, Crangon franciscorum
vessels, and shrimp are transported to local bait shops by                                 Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     439
Bay Shrimp



                                    4




                      millions of pounds landed
                                    3
                         Bay Shrimp
                                    2
        Commercial Landings

                                    1
       1916-1999, Bay Shrimp
        Data Source: DFG Catch
          Bulletins, log books,
                                    0 1916
            and commercial
                                        1920  1930  1940   1950   1960   1970   1980    1990   1999
            landing receipts.




       Status of Biological Knowledge                             place in nearshore areas outside of the estuary. During
                                                   fertilization, female California bay shrimp, and other cran-

       T  he bay shrimp (grass shrimp) shery is composed of                 gonid shrimp, extrude their eggs into their brood pouch
         four species: the California bay shrimp (Crangon fran-               (on their abdominal region). The fertilized eggs are held in
       ciscorum), the blacktail bay shrimp (Crangon nigricauda),                the brood pouch throughout development (approximately
       the blackspotted bay shrimp (Crangon nigromaculata) and                 8 to 12 weeks) until they hatch.
       the oriental shrimp (Palaemon macrodactylus). The cran-                 California bay shrimp tolerate a wide range of salinity and
       gonid shrimp (“crangonid” is a taxonomic family) are                  temperature. During a 17-year interagency study in the
       easily distinguished from other shrimp by a very short ros-               San Francisco estuary, 90 percent of collected specimens
       trum that usually does not extend beyond the eyestalks,                 were found in waters with salinity ranging from 2.8 to 25.9
       a dorsally attened body, and poorly developed chelipeds.                parts per thousand (ppt) (mean 13.9 ppt). In the same
       All four species prefer a soft substrate such as mud or                 area, mean temperature was 64.8˚F with 90 percent col-
       sand, but can occasionally be found over rocky substrates                lected between 55.8 and 70.3˚F. Juveniles may be found
       and in the rocky intertidal.                              throughout the estuary where salinity is greater than one
       The California bay shrimp, is the primary component of                 part per thousand, although they prefer shallow (less than
       commercial shrimp landings. It is the dominant caridean                 16 feet), low salinity waters and migrate to deeper, higher
       shrimp (“caridean” is a taxonomic group between order                  salinity waters as they grow. The annual abundance of
       and family) in most Pacic Coast estuaries, and the most                juveniles is strongly correlated with fresh water outow in
       common species in the San Francisco estuary. The Califor-                the winter and spring; lowest abundance occurs in years
       nia bay shrimp ranges from Alaska to San Diego to a depth                with low outow.
       of at least 180 feet. It is the largest of the bay shrimp                Like other members of the genus, they are considered
       species. Adult females and males may reach total lengths                opportunistic feeders, and primary prey items may change
       of 3.2 inches and 2.4 inches, respectively, in California,               with size of the shrimp. Smaller California bay shrimp
       while a maximum size of 4.3 inches has been reported                  (< 1.2 inches total length, TL) consume mostly foraminifer-
       in the Columbia River. Life span varies by estuary. In the               ans, ostracods, and copepods; intermediate size shrimp
       San Francisco estuary, males are estimated to attain a                 prey upon amphipods and bivalves, and larger shrimp (>
       maximum age of 1.5 years and females may live up to 2.5                 2.4 inches TL) consume mostly bivalves, caridean shrimp,
       years. This species has been reported to be a protandrous                and polychaetes. Myoid shrimp are some common prey
       hermophodite, with males changing to females.                      items in parts of the San Francisco estuary. Little is known
       Their larvae develop into the post-larvae stage in about 30               about the ecology of larval and postlarval crangonids.
       to 40 days. Both sexes reach maturity in about nine to 12                However, diatoms and small zooplankton such as copepods
       months. Males mature at approximately 1.3 to 1.5 inches,                are probably an important part of the larval diet.
       while females mature at about 1.9 to 2.1 inches. Though                 The blacktail bay shrimp, ranges from Alaska to Baja
       gravid females have been observed in all months of the                 California and is found in estuaries and nearshore ocean
       year, they are most abundant in December through June.                 areas to a depth of at least 190 feet. This species is
       Spawning occurs near the mouth of the estuary in the                  less tolerant of low salinities than California bay shrimp.
       summer months. During winter and spring, spawning takes                 In the San Francisco estuary, 80 percent of collected


          California’s Living Marine Resources:                       CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                                   December 2001
440
specimens were found in waters with salinity ranging from   A sixth species of bay shrimp, Exopalaemon carinicauda,




                                                                Bay Shrimp
18.0 to 31.7 ppt (mean 25.9 ppt). In the same area,      was reported from San Francisco Bay in 1993. This species
mean temperature was 60.6˚F with 80 percent collected     seems to have been introduced accidentally from Korea.
between 51.3˚ and 66.7˚F. Juveniles tolerate lower salini-   It is distinguished from other shrimp by its long, toothed
ties and higher temperatures than adults. Adult females    rostrum, large chelae, and dorsal ridges. Its abundance
and males may reach total lengths of 2.5 and 2.4 inches,    and distribution in the estuary, and the impact of this
respectively. Males may live up to one year and females    species on the ecosystem are unknown.
may live up to 1.5 years. Both sexes are reported to      Bay shrimp are an important component in the diets
mature by the end of the rst year; males are thought     of nearshore and estuarine shes. Twenty-four predator
to spawn once and die. Male blacktails mature at approxi-   species have been identied in the estuary and 20 in
mately 1.1 inches, while females mature at about 1.5 to    the adjacent ocean environment. Major predators include
1.6 inches. Juvenile shrimp usually peak in abundance     green and white sturgeon, striped bass, leopard shark,
from May through August, but in some years there is a     brown smoothhound shark, big skate, white croaker, stag-
second fall-winter peak. Blacktail bay shrimp feed mostly   horn sculpin, starry ounder, English sole, pile and rub-
on amphipods.                         berlip surfperch, Pacic tomcod and brown rocksh.
The blackspotted bay shrimp is a very minor component
of the catch. It ranges from the Gulf of the Farallones
                                Status of the Populations
to Baja California, and is more common in the nearshore
ocean area than in estuaries. It is found on sandy bottoms

                                T  he absolute abundance of bay shrimp has not been
at depths ranging from 15 to 575 feet and reaches a maxi-
                                  estimated nor has the impact of commercial shing on
mum size of 2.8 inches TL. Females mature at about 1.7
                                these populations. However, annual abundance indices of
inches and males mature at about 1.1 inches. Blackspotted
                                bay shrimp indicate that abundance can vary widely
bay shrimp tolerate a smaller salinity range and lower
                                from year to year. For example, annual abundance indices
temperatures than the other two common crangonids.
                                of adult California and blacktail bay shrimp varied by
They are generally limited to areas with high salinity
                                more than a factor of 10 from 1980 to 1996. Studies
and cool temperatures, with 80 percent of the specimens
                                indicate that the abundance of California bay shrimp
collected at salinities ranging from 25.9 to 31.9 ppt and
                                increases with increased river inow to the estuary, prob-
temperatures ranging from 51.6˚ to 64.0˚ F in the long-
                                ably because of the increased low-salinity habitat which
term interagency study. Abundance increased during the
                                is favorable for the rearing of juveniles. In contrast, abun-
1987-1992 drought. The Oriental shrimp, was introduced
                                dance of blacktail bay shrimp increased during years of
to the San Francisco estuary from Asia in the 1950s and
                                low river inow, although not to levels capable of replac-
is now a signicant component of the commercial catch.
                                ing California bay shrimp in abundance.
This species reaches a total length of about 3.0 inches
and appears to complete its entire life-cycle in estuarine
waters. It is common in lower salinity areas, including
                                Management Considerations
south San Francisco Bay and areas upstream from San
Pablo Bay. The center of its distribution is either Suisun   See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Bay or the west delta. It is more tolerant of lower salinity  further information.
than the crangonid shrimp and is abundant over a broad
range of salinities. In San Francisco Bay, 80 percent of
                                Paul Reilly, Kevin Walters, and David Richardson
collected specimens have been found in waters with salin-
                                California Department of Fish and Game
ity ranging from 1.9 to 28.1 ppt (mean 13.5 ppt) and
temperatures ranging from 54.1˚ to 71.˚ F (mean 64.4˚
F). Abundance of oriental shrimp did not appear to be
affected by the 1987-1992 drought. Gravid female oriental
shrimp occur most frequently from May to August, with
larvae hatching during summer and early fall.
An additional species of Crangon, C. munitella, has been
collected on rare occasions within the estuary. For exam-
ple, from 1980 to 1996 the DFG’s Bay-Delta Project caught
more than 2.2 million California bay shrimp in otter trawls,
while observing only 26 C. munitella.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                441
       References
Bay Shrimp




       Baxter, R., K. Hieb, S. DeLeon, K. Fleming, and J. Orsi.
       1999. Report on the 1980-1995 sh, shrimp, and crab
       sampling in the San Francisco Estuary, California. Calif.
       Dept. Fish and Game Tech. Rep. 63. 503 p.
       Bonnot, P. 1932. The California shrimp industry. Calif. Div.
       Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 38. 20 p.
       Brienes, M. 1983. China Camp and the San Francisco Bay
       shrimp shery. Calif. Dept. Parks and Recreation, Sacra-
       mento. 154 p.
       Israel, H.R. 1936. A contribution toward the life history of
       two California shrimps, Crago franciscorum (Stimpson) and
       Crago nigricauda (Stimpson). Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
       Fish Bull. 46. 28 p.
       Jensen, G.C. 1995. Pacic coast crabs and shrimps. Sea
       Challengers, Monterey, California.
       Siegfried, C.A. 1989. Species proles. Life histories and
       environmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
       brates (Pacic Southwest). Crangonid Shrimp. Fish and
       Wildlife Service Biol. Rep. 82(11.125). 18 p.
       Skinner, J.E. 1962. Historical review of the resources of
       the San Francisco Bay area. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
       Water Proj. Br. Rept. (1):1-225.
       Wahle, R.A. 1985. The feeding ecology of Crangon fran-
       ciscorum and Crangon nigricauda in San Francisco Bay,
       California. Jour. Crustacean Biol 5:311-326.




         California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December 2001
442
Pacific Razor Clam
History of Fishery                       in less than seven seconds. A digger must work quickly




                                                                      Pacific Razor Clam
                                to capture a clam before it burrows to depths that are

T  he Pacic razor clam (Siliqua patula) is one of the    difcult to reach. At the surface of the sand, the clam
   tastiest food clams in California and is diligently pur-  assumes an almost vertical position with only siphons
sued by sportsmen on the beaches where it is abundant.     exposed. Water is drawn into the inhalant siphon by a
The best California beaches for razor clams are in Del     current set up by the action of cilia lining the mantle
Norte and Humboldt counties. Before 1949, a small com-     cavity. As water is passed across the gills, planktonic food
mercial shery existed, but only a few pounds of clams     organisms are guided by cilia and a pair of palps to the
were ever sold. Commercial shing for razor clams is      mouth. Respiratory exchange takes place as the water
presently prohibited.                     passes over the gills, and waste products are passed out in
                                the water through the smaller exhalant siphon.
There were no seasonal restrictions on razor clamming
until 1953. Due to a decline in the numbers of larger clams  The life-cycle of the razor clam is typical of most clams.
at that time, Clam Beach in Humboldt County was divided    Sexes are separate, fertilization is external, and free-
into a north (Mad River to Strawberry Creek) and south     swimming larvae develop three or four days after fertiliza-
beach (Strawberry Creek to Little River) to limit shing    tion. Approximately eight weeks later, the larvae settle
effort seasonally. The south beach was open to clamming    into the sand and the juvenile phase of life begins. Sexual
only in odd-numbered years, while the north beach was     maturity in razor clams may be related to size as well
open during even-numbered years. A similar restriction     as age. While maturity is commonly achieved at a length
went into effect for the razor clam bed at Crescent City in  of about four inches, the age at maturity varies with
Del Norte County in 1955.                   geographic location; usually at the age of two years in
                                California. Razor clams usually spawn in May and June
A 1960 study on Clam Beach concluded that the alternate-
                                in California, mid-May to July in Washington, and as late
year closures were responsible for a decline in older and
                                as August in Alaska. The optimum temperature for razor
larger clams on the south beach due to of the concentra-
                                clam spawning is around 55° F.
tion of clammers there. As a result, all of Clam Beach was
opened to clamming from 1971 to 1973. During that three-    Razor clams attain their maximum rate of growth during
year period, catch and effort were monitored, and public    their rst year of life. The growth rate remains high
reaction noted. It was found that instead of being evenly   through the second or third year, after which it slows
distributed, 86 percent of the clamming effort took place   markedly. The largest razor clam on record in California
on the north beach. The high pressure on the north beach    was a seven-inch specimen taken from Clam Beach
resulted from a combination of easier access to the north   in 1979.
beach, and the much greater clamming success there.      The mortality rate of razor clams on Clam Beach increases
There was also a strong sentiment among clam diggers to    rapidly after the third year of life, with few clams living to
return to alternate year closures because of the declining   be seven years old. In the northern part of the range, the
average size of clams. In 1974, the alternate year shing   maximum age is greater. Razor clams in Alaska live 18 or
pattern was reinstated with the north beach open during    19 years, but the typical life-span is shorter.
odd-numbered years and the south beach open during
even-numbered years. In the years immediately following
the reinstatement, the catch-per-digger and the average
clam size increased signicantly.
A daily bag limit of 30 razor clams was changed to 20 in
1963. In addition, all clams dug were required to be kept
regardless of size or broken condition.



Status of Biological Knowledge

T  he Pacic razor clam ranges from western Alaska to
   Pismo Beach, California, and is generally found on
at or gently sloping sandy beaches with a moderate to
heavy surf. Razor clam shells are long and thin, with
fragile, shiny valves – not what one would expect in a
surf-loving animal. An excellent burrower, it depends on
digging speed for protection from wave shock. Individuals                      Pacific Razor Clam, Siliqua patula
                                                               Credit: DFG
laid on top of the sand have buried themselves completely


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                      443
           Status of the Population                    respectively. Catch, effort and catch-per-digger exhibited
Pacific Razor Clam



                                           no particular trends but uctuated over time.

           T  here are only three areas along the coast of California
             that have had signicant populations of Pacic razor
                                           Management Considerations
           clams. The Pismo Beach-Morro Bay area supported a very
           small sport shery, which has diminished over the years.
                                           See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
           Currently, this population is quite small and seems to
                                           further information.
           consist mostly of individuals ranging from one to two
           inches in size. The Clam Beach and Crescent City sheries
           are similar to each other in several respects. Both beds    Thomas O. Moore
           are divided into north and south beaches with alternate-    California Department of Fish and Game
           year closures in effect. In both areas, the northern beach
           was more heavily shed and more productive than the
                                           References
           southern beach for many years. However, the southern
           beach in Crescent City saw an increase in effort and in
                                           Amos, M.H. 1966. Commercial clams of the North Ameri-
           catch-per-digger during the early 1980s. A decline in razor
                                           can Pacic coast. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of
           clam abundance was seen in the coastal states of Wash-
                                           Comm. Fish. Circular 237. 18 p.
           ington, Oregon, and California following the 1982-1983
           El Niño. A previously unknown disease, nuclear inclusion    Collier, P.C. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
           X (NIX), caused the closure of the razor clam shery      razor clam populations on coastal beaches in Humboldt
           in Washington in 1984 and 1985. Mortality appeares to      County, California. Unpublished.
           depend on the intensity and prevalence of infection. The
                                           McMillin, H.C. 1924. The life-history and growth of the
           prevalence and intensity of NIX decreased both north and
                                           razor clam. Wash. Dept. of Fisheries. Olympia, Wash. 52
           south of central Washington beaches. In Oregon, preva-
                                           p.
           lence was high, but intensities were low enough that little
                                           Sims, C.W. 1960. A study of the shery and the population
           mortality was seen. Little information exists for NIX in
                                           of the Pacic razor clam, Siliqua patula, of Clam Beach,
           California, but large declines in razor clam abundance
                                           California. Thesis, Humboldt State University. 81 p.
           were noted in the late 1980s and into the mid-1990s for
           beaches in northern California. A major source of mortal-    Tegelberg, H.C. 1964. Growth and ring formation of Wash-
           ity, especially for young razor clams, is the scouring effect  ington razor clams. Wash. Dep. Fish. Fish. Res. Pap.
           of winter storms. The El Niño events of the past two      2(3):69-103.
           decades have had large storms associated with them and     Wolotira, R.J., Jr., M.J. Allen, T.M. Sample, C.R. Iten, S.F.
           this may have had some impact on northern California      Noel, and R.L. Henry. 1989. Pacic razor clam, Siliqua
           razor clam populations. The razor clam population in the    patula (Dixon, 1789). Pages 73-79 in Life history and har-
           Crescent City area is recovering, but the Clam Beach      vest summaries for selected invertebrate species occur-
           population is still much diminished from former levels.     ring off the west coast of North America. Vol. 1: Shelled
           No current population estimates are available for any      Molluscs. NOAA Tech. Memorandum NMFS F/NWC-160,
           of California’s razor clam beds. Beginning in 1974, a sam-   7600 Sand Pt. Way N.E., Seattle, WA 98115.
           pling program was initiated to provide estimates of total
           catch and effort for Clam Beach. Estimates of annual
           catch, number of diggers, and annual catch-per-digger
           were made for the years 1974 through 1989 for North and
           South Clam Beach and for the years 1980 through 1989
           for Moonstone Beach (Little River to bluffs). Estimates of
           annual clam catch for North Clam Beach ranged from 1,100
           to 116,400; for South Clam Beach the range was from zero
           to 45,500; and for Moonstone Beach the range was from
           zero to 74,800. The annual estimated number of diggers
           ranged from 880 to 12,670 on North Clam Beach, from
           220 to 6,900 on South Clam Beach, and from 50 to 5,510
           on Moonstone Beach. Annual catch-per-digger for North
           Clam Beach, South Clam Beach and Moonstone Beach
           ranged from 1.3 to 9.5, 0.0 to 6.6 and 0.0 to 13.9 clams,




             California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                        December 2001
444
Gaper Clams
History of the Fishery                    relatively thin shells, which do not close tightly enough to




                                                                       Gaper Clams
                                maintain their moisture, restricts the commercial use of

T  he shery for the gaper clams, the Pacic gaper      these clams to a fairly local market.
   (Tresus nuttalli) and the fat gaper (Tresus capax), is  Diggers generally use skiffs to get to the better clam dig-
almost exclusively sport, however, the Fish and Game     ging areas. Shovels are used to dig the clams, which may
Code allows these clams to be harvested commercially in    be as deep as four feet in sand or mud. In muddy areas,
Humboldt Bay for daily restaurant or market orders. For    three-foot lengths of PVC pipes about 12 to 15 inches in
the 20-year period from 1950 to 1970, annual commercial    diameter are often used to prevent the hole from caving
landings for Humboldt Bay averaged 1,000 pounds with a    in, enabling clammers to reach deeply buried clams.
maximum annual landing of 6,000 pounds and a minimum
                                Gaper clams generally are used in clam chowder or fried
of 200 pounds. More stringent public health regulations
                                and served as a main dish.
concerning the marketing of shellsh and the retirement
of a long-time commercial clammer essentially eliminated
the commercial clam shery in the early 1980s.
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
The Pacic and fat gaper are the object of a heavy

                                G  aper clams are found from Alaska to Scammon’s
sport shery that takes place in intertidal areas of bays
                                  Lagoon, Baja California. Both the Pacic and fat gaper
with sand and mud bottoms. Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay,
                                live in ne sand or rm sandy-mud bottoms in bays,
Tomales Bay, Drakes Estero, Elkhorn Slough and Morro Bay
                                estuaries, and more sheltered outer coast areas. They are
are popular digging areas. At Tomales Bay, which is one of
                                found from the intertidal zone to depths of at least 150
the major producing areas, as many as 1,200 people have
                                feet. The Pacic gaper is the most commonly taken gaper
been counted during one low tide on the two emergent
                                clam in California. A closely related species, the fat gaper,
sand bars. These popular areas, Clam Bar and Seal Bar,
                                is the predominant gaper clam taken in Humboldt Bay,
can be reached only by boat. In the past, a commercial
                                where it is very common in the intertidal zone. Further
ferry provided transportation to the two sandbars allow-
                                south, the fat gaper occurs mostly subtidally but can make
ing as many as 11,000 people to dig there each year.
                                up to ve percent of the catch taken in the intertidal zone
With a legal limit of 10 gaper clams per day, clammers
                                at Tomales Bay.
were taking about 55,000 clams per year. However, the
commercial ferry service has recently been permanently    Reproduction occurs year around in central California but
discontinued and the annual sport take of clams has fallen  is predominant during spring and peaks in the months of
by almost 75 percent.                     February and April. Upon completion of a free-swimming
                                larval stage, the young gaper clam settles down to a
Sport take of gaper clams is also quite popular in Hum-
                                xed position and comparatively inactive existence. The
boldt Bay. A survey in 1992 estimated an average of 4,300
                                only movement is downward as the clam grows older and
sport clammers per year for the previous 10-year period
                                increases in size. After reaching a size of about three
with an estimated annual take of 56,000 gaper clams.
                                inches, little downward movement occurs.
Current effort by clammers is estimated to be about the
same or slightly higher. Since the discontinuance of the   Age and growth studies reveal that most gaper clams
Tomales Bay clam ferry, Humboldt Bay is the largest gaper   taken in central California range from about three to eight
clam shery in the state.                   years old. For the rst four years, the clams average about
                                one inch of growth in length per year. The growth rate
In the past, Morro Bay had been considered a good loca-
tion for sport take of gaper clams. However, settlement of
small gaper clams has been poor since the early-1990s for
unknown reasons and that factor coupled with foraging by
sea otters has reduced abundance of gaper clams, result-
ing in greatly reduced effort by clammers in the 1990s.
Utilization of gaper clams has increased through the years,
and it appears that it will continue to increase in propor-
tion to population growth in the coastal counties where
these clams occur. There is no season or size limit, but
there are bag limits set for sport and commercial harvest-
ing. An angler may take 10 clams per day throughout
the state, except in Elkhorn Slough where the limit is 12
clams per day and in Humboldt Bay where a take of 25
                                                    Pacific Gaper Clam, Tresus nuttalli
clams per day is allowed. The fact that gaper clams have                Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                       445
                                      Management Considerations
       appears to slow down after this period. Gaper clams live
Gaper Clams



       to a maximum age of 17 years and can attain a length of
                                      See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
       10 inches with a weight of approximately ve pounds.
                                      further information.
       The gaper clams reach sexual maturity and spawns at
       about two to three years of age. At this time, they are two
       to 2.75 inches in size. Spawning appears to begin in the   Thomas O. Moore
       spring, coinciding with the seasonal water temperature    California Department of Fish and Game
       minimum.
       Gaper clams are suspension feeders, feeding on sus-
                                      References
       pended particles, which include phytoplankton and detri-
       tus. In intertidal beds, feeding occurs during the high
                                      Campbell, A., N. Bourne., and W. Carolsfeld. 1990. Growth
       tide period.
                                      and maturity of the Pacic gaper Tresus nuttallii (Conrad
                                      1837) in southern British Columbia. J. Shellsh Res.

       Status of the Population                   9(2):273-278.
                                      Collier, P., and R. Warnerl 1992. Distribution, abundance

       A  lthough densities of gaper clams in areas of certain   and use of clam populations in Humboldt Bay, Del Norte
         bays have been determined, complete statewide inter-   County, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpub-
       tidal and subtidal population estimates have not been     lished report.
       made. However, both the intertidal and subtidal resource
                                      Hardy, R.Al 2000. Distribution, abundance and use of clam
       appears to be in a healthy state where most clamming
                                      populations in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, Califor-
       effort is located. Subtidal populations are relatively
                                      nia. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
       unavailable and unused by sport clammers and provide
                                      Machell, J.R., and J.D. DeMartini. 1971. An annual repro-
       a spawning refuge. In general, spawning stock reserves
                                      ductive cycle of the gaper clam, Tresus capax (Gould),
       seem adequate to sustain the population. Gaper clams
                                      in south Humboldt Bay, California. Calif. Fish Game.
       occur in densities of up to 20 clams per square foot,
                                      57:274-282.
       with a density of two clams per square foot considered
       commercially viable. Intertidal siphon counts by biologists  Wendell, F., J.D. DeMartini, P. Dinnel, and J. Sieke. 1976.
       using a stratied random sampling design on Clam Bar in    The ecology of the gaper or horse clam, Tresus capax
       Tomales Bay supplied data for estimating intertidal popu-   (Gould 1850) (Bivalvia: Mactridae), in Humboldt Bay, Cali-
       lation sizes of 540,000 gaper clams in 1968 and 430,000    fornia. Calif. Fish and Game. 62:41-64.
       in 1969.




                                               DFG biologists showing off gaper clam catch from Tomales Bay
                                                                        Credit: DFG




         California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                       December 2001
 446
Washington Clams
History of the Fishery                    Status of Biological Knowledge




                                                                       Washington Clams
T                               T
   he Washington clam shery is almost exclusively a       he range of the Washington clam is from Humboldt
   sport shery. The Fish and Game Code allows commer-      Bay, California, to San Quentin Bay, Baja California.
cial shing in Humboldt Bay by daily market or restaurant   This species lives at depths of 12 to 18 inches in mud,
order and by special bag limits. These clams are highly    sandy mud or sand of bays, lagoons and estuaries. Its
perishable and are dug as required and consumed locally.   shell is thick and rm, oval in outline, and roughened on
From 1954 to 1963, commercial landings averaged 5,000     the outer surfaces by numerous concentric ridges. Inside,
pounds per year, with a high of 11,000 pounds in       the shells are shiny white with dark purple markings at
1956 and a low of 2,000 pounds in 1960. Landings       the posterior end. Though the harvest is from bottoms
decreased following this period due to more stringent     exposed at low tide, this clam also occurs subtidally in the
public health regulations pertaining to the marketing of   same general area.
shellsh. By the early 1980s, commercial landings of Wash-  The butter clam ranges from Sitka, Alaska, to San Fran-
ington clams ceased with the retirement of a longtime     cisco Bay, California, but is infrequently taken south of
commercial clammer.                      Humboldt Bay. Its shell is thick and rm, oval in outline,
Two principal species of Washington clam are harvested    but more rounded than that of the Washington clam. The
in California. The Washington clam (Saxidomus nuttalli) is  interior of the shell is entirely white with no purple mark-
the principal species sought, and the best yielding locali-  ings. This clam lives at depths of 10 to 14 inches in mud or
ties are Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay, Tomales Bay, Drakes    sandy mud of bays, lagoons and estuaries in areas that are
Estero, and Elkhorn Slough. Bolinas Lagoon and Morro Bay   usually exposed at low tide.
have historically been good yielding localities. However,   Spawning occurs during a period from spring to fall, pre-
in the past decade clam populations in these two areas    sumably as a result of warmer water temperature. A study
have declined signicantly. The second popular Washing-    of the Washington clam in British Columbia revealed that
ton clam, the butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus), formerly   about half of these clams spawned at the end of their
known as the smooth Washington clam, is seldom taken     third year. The larvae appeared as bivalve veligers in two
south of Humboldt Bay. In only one California locality,    weeks and, at the end of four weeks, when less that 0.2
near Fields Landing in Humboldt Bay, is this clam common   inches long, settled to the bottom. Tidal currents play an
enough to support a minor shery. Results of a sport     important role in the distribution of these animals due
clamming survey of Humboldt Bay, from 1975 through      to their pelagic larvae life-stage. Successful spawning and
1989, produced a mean estimated total take of both clam    settlement may be somewhat sporadic, with a period of
species of 42,000 per year.                  years between settlements of consequence. Upon comple-
The Washington clam catch is considerably less than that   tion of a free-swimming larval period, both species settle
of gaper clams, primarily because the latter are more pre-  down to a xed position and a comparatively inactive
dominant in most bays, and the Washington clam siphon     existence. About the only movement is downward as the
holes are more difcult to locate. The recent Humboldt    clams grow older and increase in size. Age studies reveal
Bay survey found that the Washington clam and the butter   that most Washington clams harvested in central Califor-
clam comprised 20 percent and 13 percent, respectively,    nia are from four to eight years old. Occasional individuals
of the total estimated harvest of all species taken in that  of both species up to 10 years old are found in California,
bay. In Bodega Bay, Washington clams are the predomi-     while some butter clams over 20 years old have been
nant take, comprising an estimated 30 to 40 percent of
the total clam harvest, with an occasional butter clam
also taken.
Sport clammers may take 10 Washington clams per day
throughout the state except in Elkhorn Slough, where
the limit is 12 in combination with gaper clams, and in
Humboldt Bay, where the limit is 50 in combination with
no more than 25 gaper clams.
Skiffs are used to transport diggers to intertidal areas
where these clams occur, but some locations have popula-
tions accessible by foot. The clams are dug by shovels to a
depth of 12 to 18 inches near the low tide line. Washington
clams have excellent avor and texture and may be used
                                                   Washington Clam, Saxidomus nuttalli
in clam chowder, or fried and served as a main dish.                  Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                       447
                                         References
          found in British Columbia. The Washington clam grows to
Washington Clams



          a length of nearly seven inches and attains a weight of
                                         Collier, P.C. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
          about two pounds. The butter clam may attain a length
                                         clam populations in Humboldt Bay, Humboldt County, Cali-
          of ve inches.
                                         fornia. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
          Paralytic shellsh poisoning (PSP) is of widespread concern
                                         Collier, P.C., and R. Warner. 1992. Sport clamming survey
          to consumers of shellsh. Both the Washington clam and
                                         of Humboldt Bay from 1975 through 1989. Calif. Dept. Fish
          the butter clam have been shown to retain high levels
                                         and Game, unpublished Report. 15 p.
          of paralytic shellsh toxin in the viscera and in the dark
          colored tips of the siphons for long periods of time after a  Fitch, J.E. 1961. Common marine bivalves of California.
          PSP event. California clammers can call a toll-free biotoxin  Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 90. 102 p.
          hotline at 1-800-553-4133 to obtain recorded information
                                         Hardy, R.A. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
          on PSP events and areas with posted biotoxin warnings.
                                         clam populations in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County,
                                         California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.

          Status of the Population                    Mello, J.J. 1981. A one year survey of recreational clam-
                                         ming on the Morro Bay mudats for the period of April,

          D  ensities and distributions of these clams have been    1979 to March, 1980. Calif. Polytech. State Univ., Dept.
            determined for some of the more frequently used      Bio. Sci., San Luis Obispo, Calif. 18 p.
          bay and estuarine intertidal areas, but knowledge is lack-
                                         Spratt, J.D. 1982. Results of sampling clammers in Elkhorn
          ing about subtidal densities and distribution. Estimates
                                         Slough during 1978 and 1979. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
          have not been made of the total population size of the
                                         Mar. Resour. Admin. Rep. 82-11. 12 p.
          Washington clam resource in California, however, the pres-
          ent level of harvest can be easily sustained.



          Management Considerations
          See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
          further information.


          Thomas O. Moore
          California Department of Fish and Game




            California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                        December 2001
448
Geoduck
History of the Fishery                     ies, and sloughs, in bottom types ranging from mud to




                                                                       Geoduck
                                pea-sized gravel, but mostly in unshifting mud or sand.

T  he geoduck clam (Panope generosa) shery is entirely    Shells are whitish and covered with a dull, yellowish-
   a sport shery in California. Geoduck clams are the    brown periostracum, which is often badly eroded in large
largest burrowing clam in the world and also the deepest-   clams. Shells are sculptured with a number of unevenly
dwelling clam in California. The geoduck is an important    spaced, concentric growth lines. Siphons are united to
sport and commercial species in Washington state and      form a tube, extremely long and impossible to withdraw
British Columbia. It is considered uncommon throughout     into the shells. Valves gap widely on all sides except on
California but is found in Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay,      the hinge area. Flesh exposed between the gaping valves
Tomales Bay, and Drakes Estero. In the past, Bolinas      is covered with a heavy reddish-brown epidermis or skin.
Lagoon and Morro Bay had beds of geoducks which sup-
                                Geoducks are long-lived and slow growing. Growth is rapid
ported a sport shery; however, geoduck and other clam
                                for the rst four years then greatly decreases. In prime
species have declined signicantly in abundance in these
                                habitat in Washington state, geoducks can reach an aver-
locations over the past decade.
                                age weight of 1.9 pounds in ve years. Both male and
Very few clammers in California take a sport limit of     female geoducks are usually sexually mature by age ve.
geoducks. Their rarity in most California bays and estuar-   Maximum shell size is over nine inches, with a total body
ies usually causes them to be taken incidently when clam-   length (from foot to extended siphon) of 59 inches, and a
ming for gaper clams. As with gaper clams, they are      weight of over 20 pounds.
often located on the mudats by the streams of water
                                The sexes are separate and spawning takes place in late
they shoot several feet into the air. They differ from the
                                spring to early summer. Fertilization is external and takes
gaper clams by not having chitinous aps or pads at the
                                place in the water column. Larvae remain in the water
siphon tip, no fringing tentacles on the inner edge of
                                column for several weeks before metamorphosing into
each siphon, and are a light brown in color. Clammers can
                                juveniles and settling to the bottom. Larval clams eat
check undisturbed clams by their siphons at the surface
                                phytoplankton while juveniles and adults lter-feed on
for this feature. The bulk of the geoduck population
                                plankton and detritus.
is subtidal which makes it harder to locate a geoduck.
                                Predators include moon snails and spiny dogsh, which
Only the lowest tides provide the chance of encountering
                                prey on small individuals. Juveniles and adults are eaten
many geoducks. In Tomales Bay, less than one percent of
                                by pink seastars , sunstars, and various crab species. Sea
the catch consists of geoducks; about one out of three
                                otters are a major predator on geoduck clams within their
hundred clammers takes a geoduck while clamming in
                                range in California. Siphon tips are eaten by cabezon and
this location.
                                starry ounder.
Geoducks can reach a weight of 10 pounds or more.
Because of their size, a limit of three clams is considered
an adequate bag limit throughout the state. Geoducks
                                Status of the Population
are one of the nest food clams in California. They are


                                W
highly esteemed for their ne avor and large size and are      hile larvae of geoduck clams experience extremely
considered a trophy clam to sport diggers.              high mortality, resulting in a low recruitment rate,
                                the natural mortality rate of adults is low. Information on
Skiffs are generally used to transport clammers to inter-
                                distribution and density of these clams comes from stud-
tidal areas where these clams live buried in sandy mud
                                ies in Washington state and British Columbia, where com-
at depths of four feet or greater. Lengths of PVC pipe or
metal tubes, approximately 12 to 15 inches in diameter
and about three feet in length, are needed to shore up the
sides of the deep holes required to take these clams.
Geoduck clams may be ground for use in fritters or clam
chowder, or pounded and fried and served as a main dish.



Status of Biological Knowledge

G  eoduck clams are distributed from Forrester Island,
   Alaska to Scammon’s Lagoon, Baja California and in
the northern Gulf of California. They are found from the                        Geoduck Clam, Panope generosa
                                            Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
lower intertidal zone to depths of 360 feet in bays, estuar-



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                      449
                                     References
     mercial and sport sheries exist; very little is known about
Geoduck



     geoduck beds in California. These studies showed that
                                     Brean, P.A. and T.L. Shields. 1983. Age and size structure
     geoduck clams are contagiously distributed or clumped.
                                     in ve populations of geoduc clams (Panope generosa) in
     In a Washington state study, the average geoduck density
                                     British Columbia. Canadian Technical Report of Fish and
     was 1.4 clams per square yard with a range of zero to 18
                                     Aquat. Sci. No. 1169. 62 p.
     clams per square yard. In British Columbia, clam densities
     as high as 31 clams per square yard were found. Intertidal   Goodwin, C.L. and B. Pease. 1987. The distribution of
     clam densities in California would be expected to be      geoduck (Panope abrupta) size, density, and quality in
     considerably less than one clam per square yard. Fluctua-   relation to habitat characteristics such as geographic area,
     tions in population size result from natural mortality and   water depth, sediment type, and associated ora and
     appears not to be inuenced by sport clammers, whose      fauna in Puget Sound, Washington. Technical Report 102,
     take is very low. Geoduck populations in California will be  State of Washington Dept. Fisheries. 44 p.
     impacted by the expansion of the southern sea otter over
                                     Spratt, J.D. 1982. Results of sampling clammers in Elkhorn
     its historic range.
                                     Slough during 1978 and 1979. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
                                     Mar. Resour. Admin. Rep. 82-11. 12 p.

     Management Considerations
     See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
     further information.


     Thomas O. Moore
     California Department of Fish and Game




       California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
             A Status Report                        December 2001
450
Littleneck Clams
History of the Fishery                     occurs within six inches of the surface and deep digging is




                                                                      Littleneck Clams
                                not required for harvesting. Clam beds known to resident

T  here are seven species commonly known as “littleneck    sport diggers receive relatively heavy exploitation during
   clams” or “chiones”: banded chione (Chione californi-   minus tides. Other clam beds remain underutilized due
ensis), smooth chione (Chione uctifraga), wavy chione     to difculty of access or lack of public awareness. This is
(Chione undatella), rough-sided littleneck (Protothaca     one of the most abundant clams on the West Coast and is
laciniata), common littleneck (Protothaca staminea), thin-   highly esteemed for food.
shelled littleneck (Protothaca tenerrima) and Manila clam   The Manila clam continues to expand its range on the
or Japanese littleneck (Tapes philippinarum). They are     West Coast and now occurs from southern California to
grouped here because they are regulated by an aggregate    British Columbia. It is particularly abundant in San Fran-
bag and size limit. All are members of the family Veneri-   cisco Bay and other estuaries to the north in the intertidal
dae (Venus clams) and all but the Manila clam are native    zone. It is easily dug, as it generally occurs within two
to California. The Manila clam is a native of the Orient    inches of the surface. It prefers a substrate of coarse,
and was introduced unintentionally into California waters   sandy mud with a mixture of larger gravel and cobbles and
in the 1930s.                         may attach itself with byssal threads to any suitable sub-
Although seven species have been aggregated for regulat-    strate, including broken glass or ceramics. It also occurs
ing molluscan resources, only four (smooth chione, wavy    sub-tidally in the extensive oyster shell beds of south San
chione, common littleneck and Manila clam) are of major    Francisco Bay.
importance; they comprise more than 95 percent of the     Maximum length of the three species of chiones is approx-
littleneck clam harvest in California. Since commercial    imately 2.5 inches. Of the four types of littlenecks, the
clammers are restricted to the same daily bag and size     thin-shelled is the largest, attaining a length of 4.3 inches.
limits as sport shers (50 clams, all species combined;    The other three species reach approximately three inches
minimum length 1.5 inches), it is not feasible for them    in length.
to make a living harvesting these bivalves. Thus, most
                                Of the seven species, life history information is best
exploitation is by sport diggers.
                                known for the Manila clam population in San Francisco
All digging is by hand (with rake, shovel, garden hand fork,  Bay. By examining the length-frequency distribution of
or trowel) and is carried out in intertidal areas during    a strong year class over time, minimum legal size was
daylight hours, generally at low tides of 0.0 feet or less.  estimated to be reached in two and a half to three
                                years. This was veried by examining internal and external
                                growth rings on the shells formed each year in the fall as
Status of Biological Knowledge                 growth slows down or ceases. Maximum age is estimated


T
                                to be eight or nine years.
   he three species of chiones occur south of Point Con-
   ception on mud and sand ats of sloughs and bays,     Manila clams have a three-week planktonic larval period.
primarily in the intertidal zone. Banded and wavy chiones   They are rst recognizable in the substrate at about 0.04
may, however, occur subtidally to a depth of 165 feet.     inch. At 0.75 to 1.0 inch, they are capable of reproducing
                                and are repeat spawners. The primary spawning period
Thin-shelled and rough-sided littlenecks are both uncom-
                                is late spring to early summer, and they are known as
mon in California except in Alamitos Bay (Los Angeles
                                dribble spawners, releasing eggs and milt over a prolonged
County) where the latter species is abundant. Thin-shelled
                                time period. A secondary spawning period is thought to
littlenecks occur throughout the state in rm, sandy mud
of bays, in the low intertidal zone, and offshore to a depth
of 165 feet. They occupy burrows up to 16 inches deep.
Rough-sided littlenecks occur in California from Monterey
Bay south to the Mexican border in sand or muddy sand
in bays, the low intertidal zone, and in adjacent shallow
subtidal areas. Larger individuals may burrow up to 12
inches below the surface. The locally abundant population
in southern California is in water too deep for stand-up
diggers, and the underwater visibility is too poor for skin
divers to harvest them.
The common littleneck occurs throughout California in
bays, coves and cobble patches along the outer coast in
                                               Common Littleneck Clam, Protothaca staminea
the middle and low intertidal zones. This species generally
                                                               Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                      451
          occur in the winter. Sexes are separate, as they are in all  Small beds of common littleneck clams are generally the
Littleneck Clams



          littleneck clams.                       rule in northern California. One bed in San Mateo county
                                         has sustained an annual harvest estimated to exceed
          Natural mortality of sublegal Manila clams may be as
                                         10,000 clams. San Onofre, in southern California, contains
          high as 50 percent per year. Known predators include bat
                                         an intertidal cobble bed over one mile in length and at
          rays, mud crabs, lined shore crabs, Cancer crabs, chan-
                                         least 115 feet wide. A 1967 population estimate yielded
          neled whelks and scoter ducks. Large clams are capable
                                         4.5 million legal-size clams; however, the bed had never
          of movements of up to three feet during a single tidal
                                         been open to the public before the survey. In terms of
          cycle, although marking studies have shown virtually no
                                         legal limits, this bed could have furnished 90,000 user days
          net movement over a several-month period.
                                         of recreation.
          Common littleneck clams have a similar early life history
                                         The cobble beach at San Onofre probably is the most pro-
          and are capable of reproducing at about one inch in
                                         ductive bed of littleneck clams in the state. However, the
          length. In southern California, they may reach the mini-
                                         population is unstable and uctuates greatly even when
          mum legal size in one to 1.5 years. External growth checks
                                         unexploited. Heavy runoff from a nearby creek in 1969
          are prominent on the shell, but these are not annual rings.
                                         caused expansive sanding-in of the cobbles and destroyed
          The spawning season in southern California is generally
                                         much of the bed. Recovery time was estimated at
          from March through July.
                                         ve years.
          Meat yield from harvested littleneck clams has been esti-
                                         Little is known about the populations of the other lit-
          mated. A limit of 50, 1.7-inch common littlenecks yields
                                         tleneck species. The smooth chione is in danger of extinc-
          9.5 ounces of meat, while a limit of 2.5-inch clams would
                                         tion in areas where harbors are being developed. Habitat
          provide 24.5 ounces. In contrast, a limit of 50 Manila clams
                                         loss or degradation, particularly by man-induced or natu-
          from San Francisco Bay with a typical mean length of 1.6
                                         ral siltation, can cause permanent population reductions.
          inches would yield 6.4 ounces of meat.
                                         Extreme variations in physical conditions, such as rainfall,
          In the past, littleneck clams have been cultivated and
                                         can depress populations dramatically.
          transplanted. Aquaculturists have reared the Manila clam
          from 0.25 inches to 1.5 inches in 10 months with 64
          percent survival. Manila clams were transplanted in 1953    Paul N. Reilly
          from San Francisco Bay to several southern California bays   California Department of Fish and Game
          and sloughs. Many of the transplants survived for more
          than a year, but there was no natural reproduction.
                                         References
          Status of Population                      McAllister, R.D. and T.O. Moore Jr. 1982. Selected shellsh
                                         resources of San Francisco Bay: their distribution, abun-

          I n 1981, population estimates of Manila clams were      dance, use, public access, and recommended management
           derived for beds in San Francisco Bay. In the 10 most    alternatives. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Prepared for
          important beds, the peak estimate in the summer was      San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board,
          19.3 million clams with 3.4 million of legal size. One bed   Oakland, 168 p.
          in south San Francisco Bay, covering approximately 75,000   Tasto, R.N. 1974. Marine bivalves of the California coast.
          square feet, was surveyed annually for several years in    Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources Leaet No.
          the 1980s; population estimates have ranged from 80,000    6. 23 p.
          to 1,525,000. For the highest estimate, only two percent
          of the population was of legal size. Maximum density of
          legal-sized clams in this bed was 2.5 per square foot.
          Densities of juvenile Manila clams may exceed 100 per
          square foot in the most productive intertidal beds. Typi-
          cally, intertidal densities in San Francisco Bay range from
          20 to 40 per square foot during years of good recruitment.
          In the subtidal shell beds, density averages one-tenth of
          that in the intertidal zone.
          Surveys of clammers in San Francisco Bay in 1981 resulted
          in an estimated annual total effort of 900 user days.
          However, water quality problems have limited and still
          limit recreational harvest opportunities.


            California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                        December 2001
452
Commercial Landings -
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates




                                                    Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
                              Bay
       Bay
                             Shrimp1
     Shrimp1
                      Year     Pounds
Year   Pounds

                      1980    127,968
1916   411,847
                      1981    178,363
1917   605,004
                      1982    211,697
1918   722,178
                      1983    148,115
1919   747,023
                      1984    142,012
1920   817,091
                      1985    132,578
1921   907,467
                      1986    107,304
1922   990,349
                      1987    103,088
1923  1,113,358
                      1988    132,951
1924  1,551,086
                      1989    122,599
1925  1,460,234
                      1990    151,382
1926  1,431,511
                      1991    140,725
1927  1,697,365
                      1992    114,923
1928  2,280,871
                      1993    155,891
1929  3,054,748
                      1994     95,328
1930  2,687,831
                      1995     98,053
1931  1,684,763
                      1996    113,398
1932  2,681,807
                      1997     69,231
1933  2,087,952
                      1998     89,348
1934  1,783,663
                      1999     98,086
1935  3,445,091
1936  2,240,849
                      - - - - No landings data available.
1937  1,108,761
1938  1,847,926
                      1
                        Presented data represents the commercial landings from
1939  1,175,979
                        San Francisco Bay
1940  1,080,190
1941   952,152
1942   800,958
1943   253,215
1944   291,974
1945   382,147
1946   432,145
1947   841,086
1948   926,707
1949   800,441
1950   913,181
1951   931,323
1952   913,908
1953   732,308
1954   744,768
1955   682,731
1956   718,968
1957   192,814
1958    45,955
1959    35,011
1960    1,580
1961    2,050
1962    1,075
1963    1,225
1964     ----
1965    10,765
1966    4,165
1967    19,771
1968    10,465
1969    8,041
1970    65,761
1971    59,721
1972    73,067
1973    62,308
1974    79,797
1975    99,708
1976    98,789
1977    82,797
1978    81,715
1979    92,213


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME         California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                    A Status Report                 453
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates




                            California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                                  A Status Report              December 2001
454
Bay and Estuarine
Finfish Resources:                       The nsh species found in the state’s bays and estuaries




                                                                         Bay and Estuarine Finfish Resources: Overview
                                serve as an index of the overall health of these important

Overview                            ecosystems. California’s estuaries are heavily inuenced
                                by urbanization. While the more severe human impacts
                                of such urbanization (lling of wetlands, for example) can

F  insh species utilizing California’s bays and estuaries
                                be seen throughout the bay and estuarine ecosystems,
   include the sturgeons, gobies, cow sharks, smelts,
                                the more subtle impacts tend to be chronic. Some of the
striped bass, Pacic herring, and California halibut. Many
                                chronic impacts are identied though long-term studies
of these sh move between bays and estuaries and open
                                of specic indicator species. For example, while some
Pacic waters. Several are dependent on bay and estua-
                                impacts of increased diversions of water from the San
rine systems for their entire life histories. While numerous
                                Francisco Bay Delta to the state and federal water proj-
shery resources, such as salmonids, Dungeness crab, and
                                ects during the 1970s, could be determined through a
many of the marine mammals also occur in or utilize the
                                decrease in freshwater outow through the estuary, the
state’s bay and estuarine habitats, only the species that
                                impacts on sh were not immediately known. However,
are principally dependant on this ecosystem for reproduc-
                                studies by the California Department of Fish and Game
tion, or life stage development are discussed in this chap-
                                noted a decline in annual striped bass sports catch
ter. Surf and night smelts, which are not dependent on
                                rates from over 750,000 in the early 1960s to approxi-
bay and estuarine habitats are included in this chapter
                                mately 52,000 sh in 1994. The DFG determined that the
due to the layout of the document which combined true
                                reduction in adult striped bass population was due to
smelts into a single paper. Coastal nsh species which
                                reduced recruitment of young sh and a decline in adult
utilize bays and estuaries as nursery grounds or for other
                                survival rates. This decline also correlated directly with
purposes, but are discussed elsewhere in this document,
                                the increase in Delta pumping. By 1998, catch rates had
include the salmonids, leopard shark, bat rays, some of
                                rebounded to approximately 295,000 sh, most likely as a
the croakers, many of the surfperches, brown rocksh,
                                result of increased sh abundance and renewed interest in
and several atshes.
                                the shery. In recent years, recruitment has continued to
Bay and estuarine species support important commercial     increase as a result of improved survival of striped bass
and/or sport sheries. It is estimated that California’s    between the ages of zero and three.
striped bass sport shery has an annual economic value
                                Other measures of bay and estuarine health can be
of more than $45 million. Add to this, the commercial
                                inferred through analysis of bioaccumulation of chemicals
value of sheries for Pacic herring and the commercial
                                in sh species such as white sturgeon. Although this chap-
passenger shing vessel eet targeting shark and other
                                ter does not directly address contaminant concerns, it
bay and estuarine species, and the overall annual value of
                                remains that the overall health and abundance of bay and
sheries specic to California’s bays and estuaries range
                                estuarine nsh species can serve as a looking glass into
into the hundreds of millions of dollars. On the basis
                                this often troubled environment.
of economics alone, California’s bay and estuary nsh
species are very important resources.
                                Eric J. Larson
In addition to being a food source and nancial resource
                                California Department of Fish and Game
for human populations, many of the nsh species
included here are an important food source for a diverse
group of foraging marine sh, birds and mammals. Herring
spawning, in particular, provides a highly utilized opportu-
nity for feeding by other marine organisms. As herring
move into shallow bay waters to spawn, a feeding frenzy
often occurs which can last for several days. Gulls, cormo-
rants, pelicans and other marine birds, California sea lions
and harbor seals, a variety of sh, including sturgeon, and
invertebrates feast on the adult herring and the develop-
ing embryos. Fish species such as Pacic herring and many
of the smelt are a principal food source for marine organ-
isms at the higher trophic levels. Fluctuation in the health
and abundance of these higher trophic level species often
can be traced to the population uctuations of plankton
feeders such as herring and smelt.
                                              Sportfishing at Golden Gate Bridge for striped bass.
                                         Credit: Chris Dewees, California Sea Grant Extension Program


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                             455
   Pacific Herring
    History of the Fishery                          California sac-roe herring landings peaked in the 1996-1997
                                        season at 23.6 million pounds, and then fell to a record

    P  acic herring (Clupea pallasi) landings peaked three         low harvest of four million pounds the following season.
      times during the past century in response to market         Ocean conditions due to the 1997-1998 El Niño produced
    demands for shmeal, canned sh, and sac-roe. During the         herring in poor condition which were less susceptible to
    intervening years, herring catches were low, when most of        gillnet gear resulting in reduced landings. In addition,
    the herring catch was used as pet food, bait, or animal         herring may have been displaced by changes in ocean
    food at zoos. The herring reduction shery peaked in 1918        currents, which are also attributed to El Niño, resulting
    at eight million pounds, but this shery ended in 1919          in downswings of stock size. Stocks showed signs of
    when reduction of whole sh into shmeal was prohibited.         rebuilding in the 1998-1999 season but declined again
    From 1947 to 1954 herring were canned to supplement           in 1999-2000 in spite of favorable La Niña conditions.
    the declining supply of Pacic sardines; landings peaked         Landings increased, however, to 6.8 million pounds in
    in 1952 at 9.5 million pounds. Canned herring, however,         1999-2000 season due to much improved physical condi-
    proved to be a poor substitute for sardines and limited         tion of sh from the previous season.
    demand led to the demise of this shery by 1954.             The sac-roe shery is limited to California’s four largest
    In 1973, sac-roe sheries along the West Coast of North         herring spawning areas: San Francisco Bay, Tomales Bay,
    America from Alaska to California developed to supply          Humboldt Bay, and Crescent City Harbor. San Francisco
    the demands of the Japanese market. This occurred after         Bay has the largest spawning population of herring and
    domestic Japanese stocks crashed and Japan and the            produces more than 90 percent of the state’s herring
    Soviet Union agreed to ban the harvest of sac-roe herring        catch. The four spawning areas are managed separately by
    in the Sea of Okhotsk. The ban was enacted after these          the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG); catch
    stocks were depleted by overshing. The Japanese gov-          quotas are based on the latest population estimates from
    ernment also liberalized import quotas, which opened the         acoustic surveys and spawning-ground surveys. Quotas are
    sac-roe market to United States and Canadian exporters.         adjusted annually and are generally set at about 15 per-
    Since then, herring in California have been harvested          cent of the amount of herring expected to return to
    primarily for their roe, with small amounts of whole her-        spawn at each spawning area. Since quotas are set before
    ring marketed for human consumption, aquarium food,           the start of the spawning season, they are conservative
    and bait.                                and allow for potential declines in herring biomass. If
                                        the herring biomass declines, and spawning escapement
    Herring ovaries (commonly referred to as “skeins” by
                                        is less than expected, the landings may approach the
    those in the shing indusrty) are brined and prepared as
                                        department’s recommended maximum harvest rate of
    a traditional Japanese New Year’s delicacy called “kazu-
                                        20 percent.
    noko.” Brined skeins are leached in freshwater overnight
    and served with condiments or as sushi. Most herring           The sac-roe shery is managed through a limited-entry
    taken in California are trucked from the port of landing         system, which was implemented in the 1973-1974 season
    to a processing plant for removal of skeins and brining         with 17 permits issued. Since 1983, only ve new permits
    and grading. Skeins are graded by size, color and shape,         have been issued, and the number of annual herring per-
    packed in plastic pails, exported for sale, and auctioned.        mits has stabilized at just over 450. Approximately 400
    Some herring are frozen and exported to China for pro-          of the permits are for the San Francisco Bay shery in
    cessing where labor costs are low. Herring skeins from          which an estimated 120 vessels participate. During the
    San Francisco Bay are typically smaller in size than those        1979-1980 season, the Fish and Game Commission decided
    produced in British Columbia and Alaska but are highly          not to issue any new round haul permits for the San
    valued for their unique golden coloration.                Francisco Bay shery with the intent of converting the sac-
                                        roe shery to gillnet only by attrition. When it was clear
                                        that the number of round haul permits would not decline
                                        further due to the transferability of permits in 1988,
                                        the DFG developed a ve-year conversion plan, which
                                        was implemented in the 1993-1994 season. The 1997-1998
                                        season marked the completion of the San Francisco Bay
                                        sac-roe shery conversion to a gillnet only shery.
                                        The sac-roe shery, like many quota sheries, is extremely
                                        competitive among shermen and buyers for a share of
                                        the catch. Competition tends to breed innovation, espe-
                       Pacific Herring, Clupea pallasi
                                        cially with respect to gear, boats, and shing practices
                                 Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
456
                                                                       Pacific Herring
              30
millions of pounds landed


              25
   Pacific Herring




              20
              15
              10                                          Commercial Landings
                                                         1916-1999, Pacific Herring
              5
                                                         Data Source: DFG Catch

              0 1916                                        Bulletins and commercial
                   1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980   1990   1999   landing receipts.


in this potentially lucrative and high-pressure shery. One       permittee received a permit on an experimental basis to
of the more noticeable changes has occurred in boat           harvest roe-on-kelp using unenclosed oating rafts from
design. The composition of the San Francisco eet slowly        which fronds of giant kelp are suspended. This product
evolved from converted wooden and berglass stern pick-         known as “komochi kombu” or “kazunoko kombu” is
ing salmon trollers to fast state-of-the-art welded alumi-       also a Japanese delicacy and prepared similarly to kazu-
num bow pickers, many outtted with multiple jet drives         noko. There are 11 roe-on-kelp permits for the 2000-2001
and the latest in sh nding electronics. One piece of         shery in San Francisco Bay. Permits are available to
equipment that increased the efciency of the gillnet          permittees willing to trade their sac-roe permits for
eet was the net shaker, a hydraulically driven drum with        roe-on-kelp permits.
ns, working in concert with the net drum. This device         Currently, giant kelp is harvested from the Channel Islands
shakes the net free of sh, eliminating the need to shake        off southern California or Monterey Bay, brought to San
the net by hand. As a result of these and other changes,        Francisco Bay, suspended from oating rafts or longlines
the sac-roe eet has become very efcient.               hung beneath piers. Rafts are positioned in locations
Herring buyers pay shermen based on the percentage of         where herring spawning is expected to occur and then
ripe skeins in the catch. This is calculated from several        anchored. Once spawning has commenced, suspended
random 10-kilogram samples per landing taken by roe           kelp is left in the water until egg coverage is sufcient,
technicians. Each sh sampled is sexed and ripe skeins         or spawning has ended. In some instances, suspended
are extracted, placed on a scale and weighed. The total         kelp is harvested prematurely with less than optimum
weight of the ripe skeins is then divided by 10 kilograms,       coverage because freshwater surface runoff may cause
resulting in the “roe count” or roe percentage. A typical        product deterioration.
“roe count” for the San Francisco shery in January is 13        Preliminary roe-on-kelp product grading is conducted by
to 14 percent. The ex-vessel price paid is based on 10         the permittee prior to harvest to determine if coverage
percent yield, and is adjusted for percentage points above       is ample enough to warrant harvesting. Once the product
or below. A yield of 10 percent or higher is considered the       is harvested, grading criteria such as the dimensions of
minimum acceptable by the sac-roe buyers. In the year          the kelp blade, uniformity of egg coverage, thickness or
2000, the base price for California herring with 10 percent       number of egg layers, kelp condition, presence of eyed
roe yield was an estimated $500 per ton of whole sh.          embryos, and the presence of silt are all used to deter-
The base price for 10 percent roe count sh peaked at          mine the price paid to the sherman. Roe-on-kelp has a
an estimated $2,000 per ton in 1979, when landing values        per pound value much higher than herring roe. Ex-vessel
reached as high as $4,000 per ton when adjusted for roe         prices range from $4 to $20 per pound.
percentage. In recent years, the base price has ranged
                                    Herring regulations changed yearly as the shery
between $500 and $2,000 per ton. Since 1980, the ex-
                                    expanded and new conicts or issues were addressed.
vessel seasonal value of the sac-roe catch in California has
                                    Management concepts new to commercial shing in Cali-
ranged from two million to 19.5 million dollars.
                                    fornia were introduced as the herring shery developed,
Another aspect of California’s herring industry is the roe-       such as limited entry, permits issued by lottery, individual
on-kelp shery. Beginning in 1965, scuba divers harvested        vessel quotas, quota allocation by gear, the platoon
species of algae with herring eggs attached from Tomales        system used to divide gillnet vessels into groups, the
and San Francisco Bays. In the 1984-1985 season, a sac-roe       transferability of sac-roe shery permits, and the conver-



   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
          December 2001                              A Status Report                  457
         sion of round haul permits to gillnet permits. Many of    During the incubation period (about 10 days) embryos are
Pacific Herring



         these were controversial management decisions, but they   vulnerable to predation by marine birds, sh, and inverte-
         have proven to be effective solutions to socioeconomic    brates. They may also die from desiccation or freezing
         conicts in a congested shery.               if exposed during low tidal cycles. Normally, between 50
                                        and 99 percent of herring embryos die before hatching.
                                        Human induced causes of mortality at this stage include
         Status of Biological Knowledge                smothering caused by suspended sediments from dredg-
                                        ing, and anti-fouling agents such as creosote.

         P  acic herring occur within the coastal zone (waters of
                                        Herring embryos hatch into larvae, which eventually
           the Continental Shelf) from Baja California to Alaska
                                        metamorphose into juvenile herring. The distribution of
         and across the Pacic rim to Japan and China. Known
                                        larval herring in bays and estuaries is not well known,
         spawning areas in California include San Diego Bay, San
                                        but juvenile herring from San Francisco Bay have been
         Luis River, Morro Bay, Elkhorn Slough, San Francisco Bay,
                                        found as far inland as the Delta Pumping Plant at Tracy.
         Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, Russian River, Noyo River, Shel-
                                        Juveniles may remain in the bay until summer or early fall,
         ter Cove, Humboldt Bay, and Crescent City Harbor. Califor-
                                        when they migrate to the open ocean.
         nia’s largest spawning population of herring utilizes San
         Francisco Bay. Most spawning areas are characterized as   Some herring reach sexual maturity at age two when they
         having reduced salinity, calm and protected waters, and   are about seven inches in length; all are sexually mature
         spawning-substrate such as marine vegetation or rocky    at age three. California herring may live to be nine or
         intertidal areas; however, man-made structures such as    10 years old and reach a maximum length of about 11
         pier pilings and riprap are also frequently used spawning  inches, although sh older than seven are rare. Adult her-
         substrates in San Francisco Bay.               ring leave the bay immediately after spawning, and their
                                        distribution while in the ocean is not well known. Herring
         Results of tag and recovery studies from Canada indicate
                                        are sometimes caught in Monterey Bay in the summer,
         that 25 percent of the herring may stray between adjacent
                                        and are also caught by groundsh trawlers off Davenport
         spawning areas in British Columbia. The problem of stock
                                        (north of Santa Cruz) just prior to the spawning season.
         identication has not been resolved in California, and it
         is not known whether adjacent spawning areas contain     While in the ocean, adult herring feed on macroplankton
         genetically distinct stocks. However, each spawning area   such as copepods and euphausiids. Larval and juvenile
         in California where herring shing is allowed is managed   herring are believed to feed on molluscan larvae and
         on the assumption that its spawning population is a sepa-  other zooplankton while in bays and estuaries. Herring
         rate stock.                         are a forage species for a diverse group of marine shes,
                                        birds, and mammals. Spawning events in particular pro-
         During the spawning season (November through March),
                                        vide an opportunity for feeding. As herring move into
         schools of herring enter bays and estuaries, where they
                                        shallow water to spawn, a feeding frenzy may commence
         may remain up to three weeks before spawning. School
                                        which can last for several days. Gulls, cormorants, peli-
         size varies but can be as large as tens of thousands of
                                        cans and other marine birds, California sea lions and
         tons and miles in length in San Francisco Bay. Salinity
                                        harbor seals, a variety of shes (including sturgeon in San
         is an important factor in the success of fertilization and
                                        Francisco Bay) and invertebrates feast on adult herring
         embryonic development, and reduced salinity may act as a
                                        and embryos.
         cue for spawning. When a school is ready to spawn, male
         herring initiate spawning by releasing milt. A pheromone
         in the milt triggers spawning by females which lay their
                                        Status of the Population
         adhesive eggs on suitable substrate. Fecundity is 220 eggs


                                        T
         per gram of body weight, and a large female herring may     he size of herring spawning populations in Tomales
         lay 40,000-50,000 eggs. Female herring come in contact      and San Francisco Bays is estimated annually from
         with the substrate while spawning, extruding a strip of   hydroacoustic and spawning-ground surveys. Abundance
         adhesive eggs that is two to three eggs wide. Repeated    uctuates widely due to variations in recruitment (the
         passes by thousands upon thousands of females can build   rst appearance of young sh, primarily two-year-olds,
         the eggs up to a thickness of four to ve layers. Spawn   in the spawning population) caused by environmental fac-
         depth distribution generally is shallower than 30 feet    tors that affect primary productivity, especially El Niño
         deep, but has been found to a depth of 60 feet in San    events. Since 1979, the San Francisco Bay herring biomass
         Francisco Bay. A large spawning run may last a week and   has ranged from a high of 99,050 tons to a low of 20,000
         can result in 20 miles or more of the shoreline being    tons, with peaks occurring in 1982 (99,600 tons), 1988
         covered by a 30-foot-wide band of herring eggs.       (68,900 tons), and 1996 (99,050 tons). The lowest biomass



           California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                       December 2001
  458
estimates have occurred during or just after El Niño events  that appear. Because of the shing methods used and




                                                                Pacific Herring
– 40,800 tons in 1984, 21,000 tons in 1993, and 20,000    large local populations of harbor seals and sea lions, it
tons in 1998. The lack of upwelling and associated warm    is very difcult for shermen to catch sh from small
water conditions that occur during El Niño events reduces   schools.
the production of food for herring, which can affect their
condition and survival. It also may displace herring to
                               Management Considerations
areas of colder water. San Francisco Bay’s population has
not yet recovered from the affects of the 1997-1978 El
                               See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Niño; spawning biomass was estimated at 27,400 tons
                               further information.
in 2000.
The Tomales Bay spawning biomass estimates have ranged
                               Diana L. Watters, Kenneth T. Oda and John Mello
from a high of 22,163 tons in 1978 to a low of 345 tons
                               California Department of Fish and Game
in 1990 with a 26-year average of 4,671 tons per season.
The season following the 1983 El Niño spawning biomass
declined about 90 percent suggesting the herring popula-
                               References
tion had not escaped the effects of that strong oceanic
event. The next four years the population remained unsta-
                               Grifn, Frederick J., M.C. Pillai, C.A. Vines, J. Kaaria, T.
ble with spawning escapement in Tomales Bay alternating
                               Hibbard-Robbins, R. Yanagimachi, and G.N. Cherr. 1998.
between average and very poor. During the California
                               Effects of Salinity on Sperm Motility, Fertilization, and
drought, which lasted from 1987 to 1992, the herring
                               Development in the Pacic Herring, Clupea pallasi. Biol.
spawning population severely declined in Tomales Bay.
                               Bull. 194:25-35.
Consequently, the department closed the Tomales Bay
                               Miller, D.J. and J. Schmidkte. 1956. Report on the distribu-
commercial herring shery from 1990 through 1992 to
                               tion and abundance of Pacic herring, Clupea pallasi,
hasten the recovery of the stock. Spawning biomass in
                               along the coast of central and southern California. Calif.
Tomales Bay averaged approximately 2,817 tons per season
                               Fish and Game. 42:163-187.
from 1993 through 1997; however, during the intense
1997-1998 El Niño, spawning biomass dropped to 586 tons.   Reilly, P.N. 1988. Growth of young-of-the-year and juvenile
Although the Tomales Bay population rebounded to near     Pacic herring from San Francisco Bay, California. Calif.
normal levels the following season, the spawning biomass   Fish and Game. 74:38-48.
fell to 2,011 tons in 2000. Preliminary aging of Tomales
                               Spratt, J.D. 1992. The evolution of California’s herring
Bay herring, caught during the 1999 and 2000 seasons,
                               roe shery: catch allocation, limited entry, and conict
shows ve- and six-year-old herring under represented
                               resolution. Calif. Fish and Game. (78)1:20-44.
in the spawning population. Because the Tomales Bay
                               Spratt, J.D. 1981. The status of the Pacic Herring, Clupea
herring eet has had a very low exploitation rate since
                               harengus pallasii, resource in California 1972 to 1980.
the 1997-1998 season, the scarcity of older sh in the
                               Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 171. 107 p.
population is most likely related to oceanic conditions –
not overshing.                        Trumble, R.J. and R.D. Humphries. 1985. Management
                               of Pacic herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) in the
Humboldt Bay’s spawning population has not been
                               eastern Pacic Ocean. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42(Suppl.
assessed since the 1990-1991 season, when 400 tons was
                               1):230-244.
estimated to have spawned. This population supported a
small, but successful shery with a 60-ton quota for many   Ware, D. M. 1985. Life history characteristics, reproduc-
years. However, over the last 12 years shermen have     tive value and resilience of Pacic herring (Clupea haren-
observed a decline in the spawning population, and in the   gus pallasi). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42 (Suppl. 1):127-137.
last ve years shing effort has also declined. Only one of
the four permits issued for Humboldt Bay has been used to
sh in the last three seasons. It has been suggested that
aquaculture impacts to eelgrass, the primary spawning
habitat for herring in Humboldt Bay, may have contributed
to the observed decline.
Individual spawning runs have been estimated in Crescent
City Harbor, but no seasonal population estimates have
ever been made for the area. The success of the small
shery that occurs there depends on the size of schools



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                459
   Striped Bass
    History of the Fishery                         Bay, and the Pacic Ocean in the summer. The proportion
                                        entering the ocean varies from year to year. These sh

    I n 1879, 132 young striped bass (Morone saxatilis) from        begin returning to the delta in the fall.
     the Navesink River, New Jersey were released into the         The distribution of shing effort and catch has changed
    San Francisco Bay estuary at Carquinez Strait. A second         substantially over the years. Before the late 1950s, little
    plant of 300 sh from the Shrewsbury River, New Jersey         shing occurred in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
    followed in 1882. Shortly after these introductions, striped      Ocean. Most of the catch came from San Pablo and Suisun
    bass experienced a population explosion in the estuary.         bays, the delta, and rivers upstream. From the late 1950s
    Commercial harvesting started in the early 1880s, and          to early 1980s, however, post-spawning striped bass gener-
    by the turn of the century, exceeded one million pounds         ally migrated farther downstream and stayed there longer.
    annually. The greatest recorded commercial catch, over         Thus, shing improved in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
    two million pounds, occurred in 1903. Subsequently,           Ocean and declined in the delta. Also, the use of the
    annual catches declined due to increased restrictions on        Sacramento River as a spawning area appeared to have
    the shery.                               increased, improving shing there in the spring. In the
    In 1935, the commercial shery for striped bass was           1980s and much of the 1990s, the migrations shifted
    closed, although the stock was not depleted. The closure        upstream again with Suisun Bay and the delta providing
    stemmed largely from a social conict between sport           the bulk of the catch. However, in 1998 and 1999, shing
    and commercial shing interests which culminated in the         once again improved substantially in San Francisco Bay
    closure of the commercial gillnet sheries for chinook         and the ocean. While signicant environmental changes
    salmon and American shad in 1957. Thousands of striped         have occurred, data are insufcient to develop con-
    bass that could not be legally marketed were killed annu-        clusions regarding causes of these changes in striped
    ally in nets shed for these two species. Closure of the        bass migrations.
    salmon and shad sheries reduced shing mortality for          Based on tag returns, in the 1970s private boat anglers
    striped bass, but the magnitude of the reduction cannot         accounted for about 63 percent, shore anglers for 19 per-
    be estimated because the precise extent of the incidental        cent, and commercial passenger shing vessels for 18 per-
    harvest is unknown. Some illegal netting continues today.        cent of the annual striped bass catch. By the 1990s, the
    The striped bass sport shery has become the most impor-        private boat portion of the catch changed little (64 per-
    tant shery in the San Francisco Bay estuary and one          cent), but the commercial passenger shing vessel portion
    of the most important sheries on the Pacic Coast.           decreased to nine percent and the shore catch increased
    From 1969 to 1996, a general decline in catch was associ-        to 27 percent of the total.
    ated with a decline in striped bass abundance. Over this        Striped bass are generally caught by bait shing or troll-
    period, the annual catch varied from about 444,000 sh         ing, although under some conditions y-shing or casting
    in 1975 to 52,000 sh in 1994. During the early 1960s,         plugs or jigs is effective. Common dead baits include
    the annual catch of striped bass was even larger, probably       threadn shad, anchovies, cut sardines, staghorn sculpins
    around 750,000 sh. In 1985, an economist estimated the         (bullheads), gobies (mudsuckers), shrimp, blood worms,
    annual value of the striped bass shery to exceed 47          and pile worms. Drift shing with live anchovies or shiner
    million dollars.                            perch is popular in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
    Striped bass angling occurs year-round, but shing locali-       Ocean, and live golden shiner minnows or theadn shad
    ties vary seasonally in accordance with the striped bass        are sometimes are used in the delta. Trolling methods are
    migratory pattern. Tag recoveries indicate that many          specialized. Many types of plugs, jigs, and spoons are used
    adults inhabit salt water San Pablo Bay, San Francisco         in trolling, frequently in double combinations.
                                        Present shing regulations include an 18-inch minimum
                                        length and a daily bag limit of two sh. From 1956 to 1981,
                                        the minimum length was 16 inches and the bag limit was
                                        three sh. Prior to 1956, regulations were more liberal.
                                        A 12-inch minimum length and ve-sh bag limit generally
                                        was in effect.
                                        Exploitation rates have been estimated almost annually
                                        since 1958. They have varied from nine percent (1989,
                                        1992, and 1994) to 28 percent (1963) except for an unusu-
                                        ally high 37 percent in 1958. Exploitation in the San Fran-
                                        cisco Bay estuary is lower than for historic exploitation
                       Striped Bass, Morone saxatilis
                                Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
460
on commercially shed Atlantic Coast stocks, which were     On one occasion, DFG biologists observed several thou-




                                                                Striped Bass
exploited at rates as high as 50 to 70 percent annually     sand striped bass at the surface along the bank of the
before a severe population decline in the 1980s led to very   Sacramento River above Knights Landing. Small groups
restrictive regulations, included shing moratoriums.      of from three to six bass were observed splashing and
                                churning in the main current of the river in the act of
While the primary California population of striped bass is
                                spawning. At times, ve or more groups of bass were
located in the San Francisco Bay estuary, striped bass also
                                observed spawning at one time. Usually a large female
have been introduced into many other areas including the
                                was accompanied by several smaller males.
lower Colorado River, several reservoirs, and the Pacic
Ocean in southern California. Conditions are generally not   During the spawning act, eggs and milt are released into
suitable for striped bass spawning in the reservoirs or in   the water. The milt contains microscopic sperm cells
marine waters off southern California, so those sheries    that penetrate the eggs and cause them to begin to
usually depend on maintenance stocking from hatcheries.     develop. While the eggs are still in the female they are
However, at least two reservoir populations, Millerton and   only about 0.04 inch in diameter, but upon their release
New Hogan, do reproduce successfully. A striped bass sh-    they absorb water and increase to about 0.13 inch in diam-
ery also has developed in reservoirs which are part of the   eter. At this time, they are so transparent that they are
State Water Project (SWP) and the federal Central Valley    virtually invisible.
Project (CVP), such as San Luis Reservoir, O’Neill Forebay,   Striped bass eggs are only slightly heavier than water; so
and Pyramid and Silverwood lakes. These reservoirs are     a moderate current will suspend them while they develop.
unintentionally stocked by young bass contained in water    Without any water movement they sink to the bottom and
diverted from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, and their    die. The larval bass hatch in about two days, although the
sheries have also declined in response to the decline of the  length of time depends upon the temperature. Develop-
“source” San Francisco Bay estuary population.         ment is faster when the water is warmer.
                                The newly hatched bass continue their development while
Status of Biological Knowledge                 being carried along in the water. At rst, the larval bass
                                subsist on their yolk, but in about a week they start feed-
Spawning and Early Nursery Period. Striped bass begin      ing on tiny crustaceans, which are just visible to the naked
spawning in the spring when the water temperature        eye. After several weeks, they begin feeding on larger
reaches 60˚ F. Most spawning occurs between 61˚ and 69˚     invertebrates, such as opossum shrimp and amphipods.
F, and the spawning period usually extends from April      At this time, they generally inhabit the delta and Suisun
to mid-June. They spawn in fresh water where there is      Bay. By late July or August, the young bass are about two
moderate to swift current. The section of the San Joaquin    inches long.
River between the Antioch bridge and the mouth of the
Middle River, together with the other channels in the
                                Status of the Population
area, is one very important spawning ground. Another is
the Sacramento River from Sacramento to Colusa. About
one-half to two-thirds of the eggs are spawned in the      Young Striped Bass Abundance
Sacramento River and the remainder in the San Joaquin
                                Reduced juvenile production was the principal cause of
River system. Female striped bass usually spawn for the
                                the adult striped bass population decline between the
rst time in their fth year when they are 22 to 25 inches
                                early 1970s and the early 1990s. Since 1959, the DFG
long. Many males mature when two years old and only
                                has sampled young-of-the-year striped bass each summer
about 11 inches long. Most males are mature at age three.
                                (except 1966). An extensive survey is conducted every
Stripers are very prolic. A ve-pound, ve-year-old      second week from late June to late July or early August
female may spawn as many as 250,000 eggs in one season,     throughout the nursery habitat. The sh are measured,
and a 12-pound, eight-year-old sh is capable of producing   and when their mean fork length reaches 1.5 inches,
over a million eggs. Some striped bass live for more than    a young-of-the-year index is calculated on the basis of
20 years; these sh may exceed 50 pounds in weight       catch-per-net-tow and the volume of water in the areas
and spawn several million eggs. Because of this great      where the sh are caught.
reproductive potential, striped bass were able to establish
                                Young-of-the-year striped bass abundance has suffered
a large population within a few years after their introduc-
                                an erratic but persistent decline from high index levels
tion in California.
                                sometimes exceeding 100 in the mid-1960s to the all time
Striped bass typically spawn in schools at night during     low of only 1.4 in 1998. From 1959 to 1976, average
periods of warm weather when water temperatures rise.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               461
        abundance of young striped bass was more than three
Striped Bass


                                                     60
        times the subsequent average abundance.




                                        thousands of fish landed
                                                     50
        Substantial effort has gone into evaluating factors control-                40




                                          Striped Bass
        ling young striped bass production. Initially (1959-1970),                 30
        annual uctuations in young bass abundance could be
                                                     20
        explained by a simple model based on delta freshwater
                                                     10
        outow which indicated that young bass production was
                                                      0 1947
        much greater in years with high spring-early summer ows                       1950  1960  1970  1980   1990    1999


        than in years with low ows. The mechanism causing       Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Striped Bass
        the most abundant year classes to occur under high ow     CPFV = commercial passanger fishing vessel (Party Boat); Recreational catch from CPFV
        conditions was unknown. However, one potential explana-     Logs for Ocean and San Francisco Bay (Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta catches are not
        tion was that when ows were high, a lower percentage      included until 1964), CPFV catch was not reported prior to 1960.
        of the ow to the delta was diverted by the combination
        of major water projects (CVP and SWP) and local delta      importance of various factors that may be at the root of
        agriculture. Hence, under those conditions, fewer young     the problem. These factors include losses of young sh
        bass would be entrained in diverted water and removed      to water exports, shortages of important food organisms
        from the estuary. Other potential explanations for the     possibly limiting survival of young bass, toxic chemicals
        greater abundance in high ow years included: 1) expan-     and trace metals inhibiting reproduction and reducing
        sion of the nursery area resulting in greater habitat avail-  survival, and a shift in global climate possibly resulting
        ability and less competition; 2) higher food production;    in adults straying from the estuary. It has also
        3) dilution of toxicity; and 4) reduction in predation losses  been suggested that the effect of water exports and
        due to more turbid conditions.                 adverse factors associated with salinity encroachment
                                        may be reduced by density-dependent mortality after the
        In the early 1970s, production of young bass began to fall
                                        rst summer.
        below the levels expected based on the initial models,
        and this decline was most acute in the delta portion
                                        Adult Striped Bass Abundance
        of their nursery. During this period the SWP and CVP
                                        The decline of the striped bass shery in the San Francisco
        substantially increased their water export from the delta,
                                        Bay estuary between the early 1960s and the present
        resulting in greater diversion rates being associated with
                                        is a direct result of a substantial decline in the striped
        any particular ow. Minimum estimates of losses, which
                                        bass population. The California Department of Fish and
        do not include sh smaller than 0.8 inches, in these
                                        Game (DFG) has measured adult (larger than 18 inches,
        water exports were approximately 10 to 30 million young
                                        about three years old) striped bass abundance with mark-
        striped bass annually. Maximum loss estimates approached
                                        recapture (tagging) population estimates since 1969.
        or exceeded 100 million young bass in some years. Con-
        trasting these losses with estimates of abundance at the    According to the estimates, the striped bass population
        1.5-inch stage of about 15 to 30 million sh indicates     averaged about 1.7 million adults between 1969, when the
        that signicant population impacts could be expected.      estimates began, and 1976. Abundance declined to as little
        Potential effects were taken into account by developing     as 600,000 adults in the early 1990s, but had increased to
        a new model which considered the delta and Suisun Bay      about 1.3 million in 1998. A combination of much greater
        separately and included both outow and diversion terms     catches by the shery and tag returns suggest that the
        in the delta portion of the model. This model yielded      striped bass population had about three million adults in
        reasonable predictions of young bass abundance from 1959    the early 1960s. The reduction in the adult stock through
        to 1976 and provided additional evidence that losses of     the early 1990s was principally due to reduced recruit-
        young sh to diversions were an important factor regulat-    ment of young sh. Increased abundance in the late 1990s
        ing striped bass abundance.                   is unexplained, but may be due to factors allowing greater
                                        survival of young sh until they are recruited to the shery.
        However, since 1977, abundance of young striped bass has
        been considerably lower than predicted by the 1959-1976
                                        Fishery Restoration
        model. Scientists representing various interests, including
        the DFG, water user groups, universities, and the Oak      As a result of the initial decline in estimated legal-sized
        Ridge National Laboratory, have extensively evaluated      striped bass abundance in the late 1970s, and also in
        potential causes of this decline in abundance, and gener-    response to public pressure for supplementation stocking,
        ally agree that reduced egg production by the smaller      the DFG began a hatchery program starting with the 1980
        population of adults likely is part of the explanation.     year class that were stocked as yearlings in 1981. The
        However, consensus has not been reached on the relative     number of sh stocked increased from about 63,000 for


          California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                           December 2001
462
the 1980 year class to almost 3.4 million for the 1990    ence suggests that in spite of efforts to ensure a sufcient




                                                               Striped Bass
year class.                         supply of sh, stocking goals will not always be met.
The hatchery program changed substantially in 1992 as    Sufcient quantities of these stocked striped bass will
the result of concern over potential predation by striped  be marked to allow evaluation of their contribution to
bass on threatened and endangered species, such as      subsequent adult populations and the relative benets
Sacramento River winter-run chinook salmon and delta     of: 1) conventional aquaculture and pen rearing; and
smelt, and all stocking of hatchery-reared striped bass   2) stocking age-one and age-two sh.
was suspended (age-one sh from the 1991 year class     Other actions by the DFG include: 1) working through the
were not stocked in the estuary). Instead, 22,000-284,000  CALFED Bay-Delta program to plan and implement ecosys-
sh obtained from sh screens in the southern Sacra-     tem restoration measures that will benet a spectrum of
mento-San Joaquin Delta and reared in oating pens have   species, including striped bass; 2) negotiating for mitiga-
been stocked annually, beginning with the 1992 year class  tion from owners of power plants in the estuary for losses
released as yearlings in 1993. Most years, a fraction of   caused by power plant operations and for mitigation from
the stocked sh have been externally marked or coded-    the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) and
wire tagged to allow estimation of their contribution to   U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) for losses at their
the population.                       pumping plants; and 3) increasing study effort to improve
Hatchery sh have contributed measurably to the popula-   understanding of processes controlling striped bass abun-
tion of each year class in the estuary, especially at the  dance, with study funding coming from several sources
higher stocking levels. Estimated percentage of hatchery-  including the DWR, USBR, State Water Resources Control
reared striped bass in each year class increased from    Board, Federal Aid to Sport Fish Restoration funds, and sales
about one percent for the 1981 year class to about 31    of striped bass stamps required of all striped bass anglers.
percent for the 1989 year class. More recently, sh reared
in oating pens have contributed about four percent of
                               Management Considerations
the 1994 year class and about 13 percent of the 1996
year class.
                               See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Greater stocking of age-one and age-two striped bass (up   further information.
to 1.275 million age-one equivalents) reared in hatcheries
and pens began in summer 2000. This stocking is the
                               Donald E. Stevens and David W. Kohlhorst
focus of a Striped Bass Management Conservation Plan
                               California Department of Fish and Game
prepared according the federal Endangered Species Act
requirements. It is designed to maintain the striped bass
population and sport shery at the present level and to be
                               References
consistent with recovery of listed species.
Due to the greater genetic diversity of naturally produced  Arnold, J. and T. Heyne. 1994. Seasonality and quality of
sh, the DFG’s priority is to stock sh salvaged at the   eggs produced by female striped bass (Morone saxatilis)
SWP and CVP sh screens in the southern delta and reared   in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Interagency
for one or two years in net pens oating in the estuary.   Ecological Program Technical Report 39. 13 p.
However, it is unlikely that numbers of salvaged sh will
                               Bennett, W. A. and E. Howard. 1997. El Niños and the
consistently be sufcient to fully support the program, so
                               decline of striped bass. Interagency Ecological Program
in most years, net-pen-reared sh will be supplemented
                               Newsletter 10(4):17-21.
with sh produced by aquaculture.
                               Bennett, W. A. and E. Howard. 1999. Climate change
Striped bass spawn primarily during May, but salvaged sh
                               and the decline of striped bass. Interagency Ecological
are not available until late May through July. Thus, each
                               Program Newsletter 12(2):53-56.
year, the number of salvaged sh available for pen rearing
                               California Department of Fish and Game. 1987. Factors
will not be known until after articial spawning would
                               affecting striped bass abundance in the Sacramento-San
have to occur. The DFG will attempt to ensure sufcient
                               Joaquin River system. Interagency Ecological Study Pro-
availability of sh each year by contracting with private
                               gram Technical Report 20. 147 p.
aquaculturists to begin raising sufcient sh for most
of the allotment. After the number of salvaged sh is    California Department of Fish and Game. 1989. Striped
known, excess aquaculture sh would be disposed of, or    bass restoration and management plan for the Sacra-
perhaps used elsewhere by the DFG or aquaculturists (e.g.,  mento-San Joaquin Estuary Phase I. 39 p.
reservoir stocking or food market). However, past experi-



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                           A Status Report                463
        Chadwick, H.K. 1967. Recent migrations of the Sacra-
Striped Bass



        mento-San Joaquin River striped bass population. Trans-
        actions of the American Fisheries Society 96:327-342.
        Chadwick, H.K. 1977. Effects of water development
        on striped bass. Pages 123-130 in: H. Clepper, editor.
        Marine Recreation Fisheries 2. Sport Fishing Institute,
        Washington, D.C., USA.
        Collins, B.W. 1982. Growth of adult striped bass in the
        Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and Game
        68:146-159.
        Orsi, J.J. 1971. The 1965-1967 migrations of the Sacra-
        mento-San Joaquin Estuary striped bass population. Cali-
        fornia Fish and Game 57:257-267.
        Raquel, P. 1988. Estimated entrainment of striped bass
        eggs and larvae at State Water Project and Central Valley
        Project facilities in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
        1987. Interagency Ecological Program Technical Report 15.
        11 p.
        Scoeld, E.C. 1931. The striped bass of California (Roccus
        lineatus). California Department of Fish and Game, Fish
        Bulletin 29.
        Stevens, D.E. 1977. Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) moni-
        toring techniques in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary.
        Pages 91-109 in W. Van Winkle, editor. Proceedings of
        the conference on assessing the effects of power-plant-
        induced mortality on sh populations. Pergamon Press,
        New York, NY.
        Stevens, D.E., D. W. Kohlhorst, L.W. Miller, and D.W. Kelley
        1985. The decline of striped bass in the Sacramento-San
        Joaquin Estuary, California. Transactions of the American
        Fisheries Society 114:12-30.




          California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                       December 2001
464
Green Sturgeon
History of the Fishery                     California green sturgeon grow rapidly when young, prob-




                                                                     Green Sturgeon
                                ably reaching 12 inches fork length in one year. Juvenile

H  istorically, the green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris)  green sturgeon raised in captivity grow substantially faster
   resource has been of minor importance to Califor-     than white sturgeon raised under similar conditions. Rela-
nians, although they may have been more important to      tively rapid grow continues until they reach 51-55 inches
American Indians in the north coast area. An early com-    in about 15-20 years. Maximum size in the Klamath River
mercial shery developed for sturgeon in the San Fran-     in recent years has been about 90 inches and about
cisco Bay estuary between the 1860s and 1901, stimulated    180 pounds, but historical accounts report sh up to
by a growing acceptance of smoked sturgeon and caviar on    350 pounds. Like white sturgeon, their growth is likely
the East Coast of North America. However, green sturgeon    affected by water temperature and dissolved oxygen con-
probably were a minor component of that shery, as they    centration. The largest recently captured sh from the
were considered to be of inferior quality and were actually  Klamath River were estimated to be about 40 years old.
claimed by some people to be poisonous. The commercial     Compared with most freshwater or anadromous shes,
shery was closed in 1901, then reopened from 1909       green sturgeon are quite old (15-20 years) when they
to 1917. Commercial sturgeon shing in California ceased    become sexually mature. Fecundity varies with female
in 1917.                            size, ranging from 60,000-140,000 eggs per female. These
Sport shing for green sturgeon was legalized in 1954,     values are lower than for white sturgeon, both because
with a 40-inch total length minimum size limit and a one    green sturgeon are smaller than white sturgeon and
sh per day per person creel limit. In 1956, snagging for   because green sturgeon eggs are larger than white stur-
sturgeon was outlawed and the minimum size limit was      geon eggs.
raised to 50 inches through 1963. The sport shery for     Spawning occurs in the Sacramento River between March
green sturgeon in California is small, being overshadowed   and June; it may extend slightly longer, into July, in
by the sport shery for white sturgeon in the San Fran-    the Klamath River. Water temperature during spawning is
cisco Bay estuary and its tributaries and by the tribal    likely 50° to 70°F. Little is known about spawning behav-
green sturgeon shery in the Klamath River. Exact sport    ior. Spawning occurs in deep, fast water. The fertilized
catch data are not available. However, concern about      eggs are slightly adhesive and hatch after four to 12
potential over-harvest of white sturgeon in the late 1980s   days. Larvae stay close to the bottom and appear to
led to angling regulation changes starting in 1990 that    rear primarily in rivers well upstream of estuaries. Under
instituted a 72-inch maximum size limit and increased the   hatchery conditions, larval green sturgeon remain near the
minimum size limit by two inches per year until a new     bottom and do not move up into the water column where
minimum size of 46 inches was reached in 1992. These      they could be transported downstream. Most young green
regulation changes have also benetted green sturgeon.     sturgeon migrate from river to ocean when they are one
                                to four years old, which may partly explain their relative
                                scarcity in the San Francisco Bay estuary.
Status of Biological Knowledge
                                Green sturgeon feed on a variety of bottom-dwelling ani-

G  reen sturgeon are generally found in marine waters    mals. Sturgeon feed by suction with their ventral, pro-
   from the Bering Sea to Ensenada, Mexico. However,     trusible mouths. Dense aggregations of taste buds on their
spawning populations have been found only in medium-      four barbels presumably assist in identication of food
sized rivers from the Sacramento-San Joaquin system      on the bottom. Young sturgeon (eight inches) feed pri-
north; spawning has not been documented in either the
Columbia or Fraser rivers. Green sturgeon apparently
spend much less time in the San Francisco Bay estuary
than white sturgeon, either as young or adults. Adult
green sturgeon probably enter the estuary and move up
the Sacramento River in early spring. Spawning occurs as
far upstream as the area above Red Bluff Diversion Dam,
which is now open to allow sh passage during part of
the green sturgeon spawning period. Anecdotal evidence
suggests that spawning may also occur in the Feather
River but has not yet been documented there. Almost all
recoveries from a tagging program in the San Francisco
Bay estuary have come from outside the estuary, primarily
                                                 Green Sturgeon, Acipenser medirostris
from rivers and coastal areas in Oregon and Washington.
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                     465
                                        References
         marily on small crustaceans such as amphipods and opos-
Green Sturgeon



         sum shrimp. As they develop, they take a wider variety
                                        Chadwick, H.K. 1959. California sturgeon tagging studies.
         of benthic invertebrates, including various species of
                                        California Fish and Game 45:297-301.
         clams, crabs, and shrimp. Larger green sturgeon diet
         includes shes.                        Emmett, R.L., S.L. Stone, S.A. Hinton, and M.E. Monaco.
                                        1991. Distribution and abundances of shes and inverte-
         Little is known about predators on green sturgeon. Smaller
                                        brates in west coast estuaries, volume 2: Species life
         sh are undoubtedly taken by various sh and bird preda-
                                        histories summaries. ELMR Report No. 8, NOS/NOAA Stra-
         tors, although the ve lines of sharp, bony scutes along
                                        tegic Environmental Assessment Division, Rockville, Mary-
         their bodies probably make them less desirable prey than
                                        land.
         most other species. Information from the Columbia River
         suggests that total mortality of green sturgeon is less than  Miller, L.W. 1972a. Migrations of sturgeon tagged in the
         for white sturgeon.                      Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and Game
                                        58:102-106.

         Status of the Population                    Moyle, P.B., R.M. Yoshiyama, J.E. Williams, and E. Wikra-
                                        manayake. 1993. Fish species of special concern of Califor-

         B                               nia. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento,
           ecause green sturgeon spend most of their lives in
                                        California.
           the ocean and are not readily available to the sport
         shery or sampling programs in estuaries or rivers, their   U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Green sturgeon.
         population status is difcult to determine. Although green   Pages 83-95 in: Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta native
         sturgeon have never been abundant, limited evidence sug-    shes recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
         gests that the overall population may have declined in     Portland, Oregon.
         California. This is supported by the apparent extirpation
         of the species from some rivers, such as the Eel and
         South Fork Trinity, leaving the Sacramento, Klamath, and
         mainstem Trinity rivers as the only documented spawning
         streams in California, along with the Rogue and Umpqua
         rivers in Oregon. However, abundance estimates in the
         San Francisco Bay estuary, based on mark-recapture esti-
         mates of white sturgeon abundance and the ratio of white
         to green sturgeon in tagging catches, do not suggest that
         the population has declined in that system. Additionally,
         the recent opening of the Red Bluff Diversion Dam gates
         during much of the spawning period has provided green
         sturgeon with access to additional spawning area upstream
         of Red Bluff. Catches of juvenile green sturgeon during
         sampling for downstream-migrant chinook salmon smolts
         at the dam in midsummer indicates that they have taken
         advantage of this additional spawning habitat. The
         number and size distribution of green sturgeon caught
         incidental to a commercial salmon shery in the lower
         Columbia River leads Oregon biologists to suggest that
         “tens of thousands” of green sturgeon inhabit the
         ocean offshore of Oregon
         and Washington.


         David W. Kohlhorst
         California Department of Fish and Game




           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
466
White Sturgeon
History of the Fishery                    Spawning may also occur in the Feather River, but has not




                                                                     White Sturgeon
                                yet been documented there. A small number move up the

H  istorically, the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmon-   San Joaquin River. The Klamath River supports the other
   tanus) resource has been very important to Califor-   California subpopulation of white sturgeon. Although most
nians. Sturgeon scutes and skull plates are found in Native  recoveries from a tagging program in the San Francisco
American middens in the San Francisco Bay, Sacramento-    Bay estuary have come from the estuary and its tributar-
San Joaquin delta, and Elkhorn Slough areas, indicating    ies, a few sh (less than one percent of total recoveries)
that these large sh were important sources of tribal     have moved along the Pacic Coast and been recovered in
nutrition. An early commercial shery developed for white   Oregon and Washington.
sturgeon between the 1860s and 1901, stimulated by a     California white sturgeon grow rapidly when young, reach-
growing acceptance of smoked sturgeon and caviar on      ing 12 inches fork length in one year. This rapid growth
the East Coast of North America. The California harvest    slows thereafter and they reach the present minimum
was concentrated in the San Francisco Bay and delta.     legal size of 46 inches after nine to sixteen years. Subse-
Fishing gear included gillnets, longlines, and multiple    quently, they grow one to 2.5 inches per year. Ages and
unbaited hooks for snagging sturgeon. The commercial     growth rates of eld-caught sh have been determined
catch peaked at 1.65 million pounds in 1887, declined     from the number and spacing of annular rings, visible in
to 0.3 million pounds in 1895, and to 0.2 million pounds   sections of rst pectoral n rays. Laboratory experiments
in 1901, when the commercial shery was closed. Small     have shown that young-of-the-year white sturgeon growth
commercial catches in a reopened shery from 1909 to     is affected by water temperature and dissolved oxygen
1917 indicated that white sturgeon populations were still   concentration. They grow signicantly faster at 68°F than
low, and commercial shing ceased in 1917.          at 59°F, but an increase to 77°F does not signicantly
Sport shing for white sturgeon was legalized in 1954,    increase growth rate. When dissolved oxygen concentra-
with a 40-inch total length minimum size limit and a one   tions drop to 56 percent of air saturation at any of
sh per day per person creel limit. In 1956, snagging for   these three temperatures, juvenile sh show a signicant
sturgeon was outlawed and the minimum size limit was     decrease in growth rate, presumably due to reduced
raised to 50 inches through 1963. The small sport shing   food consumption. The white sturgeon’s rapid growth rate
catch increased dramatically in 1964 when the minimum     has attracted the interest of some California aquacultur-
size reverted to 40 inches and bay shrimp were discovered   ists, who grow sturgeon in freshwater tanks which have
to be effective bait. By 1967, 2,258 sturgeon were landed   consistently moderate temperatures and high dissolved
by party boat anglers. Possibly due to reduced stocks of   oxygen concentrations.
other estuarine and coastal marine species such as striped  The largest sturgeon were caught before 1900 when size
bass, angling for white sturgeon has become very popular.   records were vague. However, the largest of these sh
Although exact sport catch data are not available, the    was probably more than 13 feet long and weighed more
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) estimates    than 1,300 pounds, making white sturgeon the largest
that the harvest rate during the 1980s was 40 percent     freshwater-inhabiting sh in North America. This sh may
greater than it was during the previous two decades.     have been 100 years old. The largest white sturgeon cap-
In 1990, a 72-inch maximum size limit became law and     tured in California waters during the past 40 years was
the minimum size limit was increased by two inches per    a 468-pound sh caught by a sport angler in Carquinez
year until a new minimum size of 46 inches was reached    Strait in 1983. This sh is the present world record sport-
in 1992.                           caught white sturgeon. In a University of California, Davis
                                (UCD) study of white sturgeon during the 1980s, many sh
                                were caught, measured, examined for sex and stage of
Status of Biological Knowledge                maturity, and released. Median male size was 3.6 feet and


W
                                median female size was 4.6 feet in San Francisco Bay.
    hite sturgeon are generally found in estuaries, and
    their range extends along the Pacic Coast of North
America from Ensenada, Mexico, to the Gulf of Alaska.
However, spawning populations have been found only
in large rivers from the Sacramento-San Joaquin system
north. Indeed, most California white sturgeon are found in
the San Francisco Bay estuary. Some white sturgeon move
into the delta and lower Sacramento River during late-fall
and winter. Some of these sh move up the Sacramento
                                               White Sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus
River to the Knights Landing-Hamilton City area to spawn.
                                                              Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                    467
                                        Status of the Population
         Compared with most freshwater or anadromous shes,
White Sturgeon



         white sturgeon are quite old when they become sexually

                                        T  he 19th century history of white sturgeon shing
         mature, but they evidence impressive fecundity at this
                                          in California waters shows this species’ vulnerability
         large size. In the UCD study during the 1980s, sexually
                                        to overshing. Delayed sexual maturity and infrequent
         mature males were 3.6 to 6.0 feet long (nine to 25
                                        spawning by the females exacerbates this vulnerability
         years old), whereas mature females were generally 4.6 to
                                        compared to many other shes. DFG tagging studies indi-
         6.6 feet (14 to 30 years old). However, high natural vari-
                                        cated that angler harvest was high during the 1980s and
         ability in the size at sexual maturity was noted, especially
                                        new size limits (including initiation of a rst-ever maxi-
         among females. For example, the smallest pre-spawning
                                        mum size limit in 1990) reect DFG’s management con-
         female white sturgeon weighed only 25 pounds, whereas a
                                        cerns. Annual harvest rate estimates indicate that the
         120-pound female was caught which, from gonadal analy-
                                        angling regulation changes begun in 1990 have had the
         sis, was determined to have not yet spawned. Studies sug-
                                        desired effect: harvest rates have been reduced by at
         gest that white sturgeon females do not spawn every year.
                                        least half from the levels of the mid- to late 1980s
         Several years may lapse between successive spawnings
         in an individual female. In the study on San Francisco     Adult (at least 40 inches total length) white sturgeon
         Bay sh, approximately 50 percent of the males captured    abundance, as estimated from tagging studies, varied
         were approaching spawning condition for that year, com-    greatly between 1967 and 1998. The abundance estimate
         pared with only about 15 percent of the captured females.   reached its highest level (142,000) in 1997. This abundance
         Fecundity varies with female size. Smaller females (under   pattern is largely the result of irregular recruitment to the
         ve feet) contain about 100,000 eggs, whereas a 9.2-foot,   adult population by highly variable year classes. Strong
         460-pound female contained 4.7 million eggs.          year classes are produced in years with high spring fresh-
                                        water outows from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
         Spawning occurs in the Sacramento River between mid-
                                        so much of the present high white sturgeon abundance is
         February and late May when water temperatures are 46°
                                        attributable to the very wet 1982-1983 period.
         to 72°F. Little is known about spawning behavior. White
         sturgeon spawn their eggs onto deep gravel rifes or rocky   Unfortunately, the severe drought that gripped California
         holes in the Sacramento River. The fertilized eggs are very  from 1987 to 1992 will soon begin to affect the adult
         adhesive and hatch after four to 12 days on the bottom.    white sturgeon population, because reproductive success
         Larvae stay close to the bottom and rear in both the river   was low in most of those years. The strong year classes
         and the estuary downstream. Rearing location is at least    from the early 1980s were recruited starting in about 1994
         partly determined by river ow; more larvae are washed     and, by 1997 and 1998, few sh smaller than the minimum
         into the estuary when freshwater ows are high. Young     size limit of 46 inches were caught. Thus, the population
         juvenile sturgeon become increasingly tolerant of brackish   should decline substantially as recruitment almost ceases
         water as they grow and develop.                and growth and mortality reduce the abundance of sh
                                        now in the shable population. However, another cycle
         White sturgeon feed on a wide variety of bottom-dwelling
                                        of strong recruitment can be expected when sh from a
         animals. Sturgeon feed by suction with their ventral, pro-
                                        series of wet years starting in 1993 begin to enter the
         trusible mouths. Dense aggregations of taste buds on their
                                        shery late in the next decade.
         four barbels presumably assist in identication of food
         on the bottom. When their mouths are blocked by food,     The present low exploitation rates, past rapid recoveries
         white sturgeon can ventilate their gills by ushing water   from population lows in the mid-1970s and early 1990s,
         in via the dorsal part of the gill slit and out via the    and current protection of the most fecund females by the
         ventral part. Young sturgeon (eight inches) feed primarily   72-inch maximum size limit suggest that no further angling
         on small crustaceans such as amphipods and opossum       restrictions are needed at this time.
         shrimp. As they develop, they take a wider variety of
         benthic invertebrates, including various species of clams,
                                        David W. Kohlhorst
         crabs, and shrimp. Larger white sturgeon diet includes
                                        California Department of Fish and Game
         shes and, during winter in San Francisco Bay, herring roe.
                                        Joseph J. Cech, Jr.
         Little is known about predators on white sturgeon. Smaller
                                        University of California, Davis
         sh are undoubtedly taken by various sh and bird preda-
         tors, although the ve lines of bony scutes along their
         bodies probably make them less desirable prey than other
         estuarine species. Anglers undoubtedly mount the largest
         predatory effort on adult sh.




           California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                A Status Report                        December 2001
 468
References




                                                           White Sturgeon
Cech, J.J. Jr., S.J. Mitchell, and T.E. Wragg. 1984. Com-
parative growth of juvenile white sturgeon and striped
bass: Effects of temperature and hypoxia. Estuaries
7:12-18.
Chapman, F.A. 1989. Sexual maturation and reproductive
parameters of wild and domestic stocks of white sturgeon,
Acipenser transmontanus. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
California, Davis.
Chapman, F.A., J.P. Van Eenennaam, and S.I. Doroshov.
1996. The reproductive condition of white sturgeon,
Acipenser transmontanus, in San Francisco Bay, California.
Fishery Bulletin 94:628-634.
Kohlhorst, D.W. 1980. Recent trends in the white stur-
geon population in California’s Sacramento-San Joaquin
Estuary. California Fish and Game 66:210-219.
Kohlhorst, D.W., L.W. Botsford, J.S. Brennan, and G.M.
Cailliet. 1991. Aspects of the structure and dynamics
of an exploited central California population of white
sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). Pages 277-293 in:
P. Williot, editor. Acipenser. Actes du premier colloque
international sur l’esturgeon, Bordeaux, France.
Kohlhorst, D.W., L.W. Miller, and J.J. Orsi. 1980. Age and
growth of white sturgeon collected in the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary, California: 1965-1970 and 1973-1976. Cal-
ifornia Fish and Game 66:83-95.
Miller, L.W. 1972a. Migrations of sturgeon tagged in
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and
Game 58:102-106.
Miller, L.W. 1972b. White sturgeon population character-
istics in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary as measured
by tagging. California Fish and Game 58:94-101.
Schaffter, R.G. 1997. White sturgeon spawning migrations
and location of spawning habitat in the Sacramento River,
California. California Fish and Game 83:1-20.
Schaffter, R.G. and D.W. Kohlhorst. 1999. Status of
white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary.
                                          Angler holding a white sturgeon
California Fish and Game 85:37-41.
                                                    Credit: DFG




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME           California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                       A Status Report                469
   Cow Sharks
    History of the Fishery                          Bay. The sevengill shark has a worldwide distribution in
                                         most temperate seas, the only notable exception being its

    T  wo species of cow sharks (Family Hexanchidae) occur         absence from the temperate waters of the North Atlantic.
      along the California coast, the sixgill shark (Hexanchus       Sevengill sharks are ovoviviparous, with 80 to 100 young
    griseus) and sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus).          being born per pregnancy. The young are born during the
    Sevengill sharks were among the most common species            spring following a two-year reproductive cycle. Humboldt
    taken during shark sheries of the 1930s and 1940s. Even         Bay and San Francisco Bay serve as important pupping and
    after this shery collapsed, these sharks were taken in          nursery grounds. The young remain within the vicinity of
    considerable numbers during shing competitions in San          these nursery grounds for the rst few years of life, before
    Francisco Bay in the 1950s and 1960s. The popularity of          ranging aeld upon entering adolescence. Males mature
    Jaws movies in the mid-1970s brought renewed interest           between ve and six feet, and grow to a maximum size
    in shark shing. Several operators in the San Francisco          of 8.25 feet. Females mature between 7.25 and 8.25 feet
    Bay area targeted their charters on sevengill sharks, and         and grow to at about 10 feet. The size at birth is between
    as recently as the mid-1980s, these sharks were still           14 and 18 inches.
    the object of a popular sport shery in San Francisco
                                         Juvenile sevengills grow quite rapidly during the rst two
    Bay. This shery declined in the late 1980s and early
                                         years of life, more than doubling their length. This rapid
    1990s, as charter boats began to target other species.
                                         growth rate by juveniles in the nursery ground enhances
    Although caught primarily by recreational anglers, seven-
                                         their chance of survival since a sevengill over 28 inches
    gills are caught incidentally in commercial sheries for
                                         has fewer predators than a newborn half its size. In con-
    other species.
                                         trast to the rapid growth of juveniles, once maturation
    The sixgill shark is also an incidental catch, especially in       begins their growth rate slows down considerably.
    trawl and gillnet sheries. It frequently appears in sh
                                         The sevengill shark is an active predator that feeds at
    markets and at dining establishments, but exact data on
                                         or near the top of the food chain. The main prey items
    the extent of this shery is lacking. Both species are
                                         include other sharks, skates, rays, bony shes, and marine
    typically either discarded or sold as “shark, unidentied,”
                                         mammals. Sevengills have been observed to employ a
    making it difcult to quantify landings.
                                         variety of foraging strategies when hunting for food. As
                                         a solitary hunter, they will use stealth to ambush smaller
    Status of Biological Knowledge                      prey items, but while hunting larger prey, these sharks
                                         will hunt cooperatively in packs to subdue seals, dolphins,

    T  he sevengill shark is a fairly common coastal species        other large sharks and rays. White sharks are one of the
      that frequently enters bays and, although rarely occur-       few known predators on adult sevengill sharks and have
    ring below depths of 330 feet, is found occasionally to          been observed to attack them on occasion. In most areas
    depths of over 660 feet. It seems to be most abundant           where it occurs, the sevengill shark is displaced only by
    where the water temperature lies between 54˚ and 64˚F.          the white shark and killer whale as the top nearshore
    It tends to prefer rocky reef habitats where kelp beds          marine predator.
    thrive, though it is commonly caught over sandy and mud          The sixgill shark is one of the widest ranging of all shark
    bottoms. Although relatively common at times of the year         species, with a circumglobal distribution from northern
    in Humboldt and San Francisco bays, very little is known         and temperate areas to the tropics. In the eastern North
    about movement patterns along the open coast.               Pacic, this species occurs from the Aleutian Islands to
    In the eastern North Pacic, sevengill sharks range from         southern Baja California. This is a deepwater shark; adults
    southeast Alaska to the Gulf of California, with their          are found along the continental shelf and upper slopes
    distribution becoming sporadic south of San Francisco           down to at least 8,250 feet deep. They are known to
                                         move up to a thousand feet off the bottom, occasionally
                                         coming to the surface. Juveniles are often caught close
                                         inshore, including enclosed bays such as Humboldt and
                                         San Francisco, while adults are normally taken in deeper
                                         water. These sharks seem to associate themselves with
                                         areas of upwelling and high biological productivity.
                                         Sixgill sharks are ovoviviparous with observed litters of
                                         47 to 108. Adult females move onto the continental shelf
                                         during the spring to drop their litter following a two-year
                                         reproductive cycle. Young sixgills usually remain on the
                     Sixgill Cow Shark, Hexanchus griseus
                                  Credit: DFG


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                             December 2001
470
                                References
shelf and uppermost slopes until they reach adolescence,




                                                               Cow Sharks
at which time they move further down the slope and into
                                Ebert, D.A. 1986. Biological aspects of the sixgill shark,
deeper water. It is the newborns and juveniles that typi-
                                Hexanchus griseus. Copeia, 1986(1): 131-135.
cally seem to stray close inshore and occasionally occur in
bays and harbors. Adult males typically remain in deeper    Ebert, D.A. 1986. Aspects on the biology of hexanchid
water, where mating and courtship takes place. Males      sharks along the California coast. In: Indo-Pacic sh biol-
mature at about 10 feet, while females mature at about     ogy: Proceedings of the second international conference
14 feet. This is a large shark with males reaching at least  on Indo-Pacic shes (T. Uyeno, R. Arai, T. Taniuchi, and
11.5 feet and females at least 15.8 feet. The size at birth  K. Matsuura, eds.), p. 437-449. Ichthyol. Soc. Jpn., Tokyo.
is between 24 and 29 inches. Little is known about their
                                Ebert, D.A. 1989. Life history of the sevengill shark,
growth rate, although juveniles held in captivity will grow
                                Notorynchus cepedianus Peron, in two northern California
quite rapidly, nearly doubling their size in the rst year
                                bays. Calif. Fish Game, 75(2): 102-112.
of life.
                                Ebert, D.A. 1991. Observations on the predatory behaviour
The sixgill shark is a large, active, powerful predator
                                of the sevengill shark, Notorynchus cepedianus. S. Afr. J.
that feeds on a wide variety of prey species including
                                mar. Sci. 11: 455-465.
other sharks, rays, chimaeras, bony shes, and marine
mammals. Larger sixgills will actively forage on quite
large prey items including swordsh, marlin, dolphinsh,
seals, and dolphins. They have also been observed to con-
sume whales as carrion. Juveniles held in captivity have a
voracious appetite.



Status of the Population

T  he main concentrations of sevengill shark populations
  in California appear to be in Humboldt and San Fran-
cisco Bays, both of which serve as nursery grounds for
newborns and juveniles. Damage to either of these areas
could have an adverse effect on the population. Outside
these bays there is very little reliable information regard-
ing the status of sevengill shark populations.
There is no information on the population status of the
sixgill shark.


David Ebert
U.S. Abalone




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               471
   True Smelts
    General                            whitebait and night smelt were lumped into the category
                                   “true smelt.” However, it is unlikely that whitebait smelt

    T  he true smelts of the family Osmeridae are small      were ever harvested in very large numbers. Furthermore,
      shes found in cold coastal, estuarine, and freshwater   “whitebait smelt” was the only smelt category available to
    habitats in the Northern Hemisphere. The term “true      sh processors who lled out the required DFG pink slips
    smelt” identies these shes from similar-looking species   on which catch is recorded. Therefore, it is quite likely
    of the silverside family (Atherinopsidae, recently changed   that “whitebait smelt” in the historical sheries statistics
    from Atherinidae) whose common names often include the     includes all species of smelt harvested (but mainly surf
    word “smelt” (such as jacksmelt, or topsmelt). Smelt life   and night smelt).
    history strategies range from completing all life stages in  Since 1977, landings of smelts have been recorded in
    freshwater, migrating from marine or estuarine habitats to   their own species categories; however up to one third of
    freshwater to spawn (anadromous), or living entirely in the  the landings were still reported as “true smelt” and not
    marine environment and spawning in the surf or subtidal    identied to species. After 1989, the percentage of land-
    zone. Like salmonids, the true smelts have an adipose n    ings reported in the “true smelt” category has averaged
    and some have a curious cucumber odor.             less than 0.5 percent of the total landings. Therefore,
    Most of the 12 species in the family support either sport   while the total smelt catch can be estimated for the
    or commercial sheries due to their highly prized delicate   past several decades, landings by species can only be
    avor. They are also a major forage sh for marine mam-    determined since 1990.
    mals, birds, and predatory shes such as salmon and      In addition to commercial landings, there is a large, but
    cod. Seven of the 12 species occur in California: delta    largely unreported, sport shery for surf smelt and night
    smelt, found only in the upper portions of the Sacra-     smelt. The Marine Recreational Fishery Statistical Survey
    mento-San Joaquin estuary; surf smelt, commonly known     (MRFSS), established by the National Marine Fisheries Ser-
    as day smelt, found along most of California’s coast but    vice (NMFS) in 1979, estimates the impact of recreational
    spawning only from Santa Cruz northward; wakasagi, a      shing on marine resources. Estimates of annual recre-
    Japanese freshwater species introduced into California     ational smelt catches (1980 to 1998), based on phone and
    reservoirs which has also taken up residence in the Sac-    intercept surveys, range from nearly 200,000 pounds in
    ramento-San Joaquin estuary; night smelt, found from      1998 to less than 5,000 pounds in 1983. Nearly all of these
    Pt. Arguello, northward; longn smelt, an estuarine spe-    recreational catches are reported as surf smelt.
    cies found mainly in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary;
    eulachon, an anadromous species found mainly in the
                                   Delta Smelt
    Klamath River; and whitebait smelt, a rather uncommon
    marine species ranging from San Francisco Bay northward,
    about which little is known.
                                   History of the Fishery
    The six native smelts have all supported commercial sh-
                                   In the 19th century, delta smelt (Hypomesus transpaci-
    eries in the past, but only surf and night smelts contribute
                                   cus) and longn smelt were the object of a commercial
    signicantly to the sheries today. The combined sheries
                                   shery that supplied markets in San Francisco. Much of the
    vary from year to year, with catch ranging from 0.5 to
                                   market seems to have been for dried sh for the Chinese
    2.1 million pounds per year (1970 to 1999). In 1995, for
                                   community. In the 20th century, delta smelt have not been
    example, over 2.0 million pounds of smelt were landed,
                                   the target of a shery, however other bait sheries in the
    with a wholesale value of over $600,000. The average
                                   Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (e.g., shrimp, threadn
    wholesale price per pound ranges from $0.20 to $0.30.
                                   shad) often collect delta smelt as bycatch.
    Smelts are sought commercially not only for human con-
    sumption but also as feed for marine mammals, birds and
                                   Status of Biological Knowledge
    shes in aquariums, and as bait for shing.
                                   Our understanding of delta smelt life history has increased
    Unfortunately, most of the historical commercial landing
                                   dramatically just prior to and since the delta smelt was
    records for smelt, gathered by the California Department
                                   listed as a threatened species in 1993 by both the federal
    of Fish and Game (DFG), were lumped together, so the
                                   government and the state of California. Since then, it
    relative importance of each species in the past sheries
                                   has been the target of focused research to determine
    cannot be determined. The catch records for 1916 through
                                   the factors affecting its abundance and to develop water
    1969 are for “smelt” and “whitebait smelt.” The term,
                                   management strategies to protect it. It is endemic only
    “smelt” included not only surf smelt but jacksmelt, top-
                                   to the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, which also serves
    smelt, and grunion. After 1969, the silverside catch was
                                   as the major water conduit for two-thirds of the state’s
    removed from the “smelt” statistics and all smelts except
                                   human population. Hence, under protections set forth


      California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                        December 2001
472
in both the federal and state endangered species acts,     Since the wakasagi has become established in more brack-




                                                                           True Smelts
the condition of the delta smelt population can play a     ish portions of the estuary, the potential for interbreeding
major role in how water is managed throughout the state.    as well as for increased competition for food, spawning
The delta smelt is considered environmentally sensitive    areas, etc., has increased and may pose a signicant
because it resides mainly in the brackish water portion of   threat to delta smelt recovery.
the estuary, is primarily an annual sh (i.e., completes its  Unlike many shes with similar life histories in the estu-
life cycle, for the most part, in one year), is exclusively  ary, delta smelt abundance is not strongly affected by
planktivorous and dependent on a zooplankton community     freshwater outow or by the position of the low salinity
that has been greatly altered by exotic species, has a very  zone; however, population levels are only high in years
low fecundity for a sh with planktonic larvae, is fragile   with moderate to high outows. Distribution, however,
and easily stressed, and is a very poor swimmer.        is strongly related to freshwater outow. In low outow
The delta smelt is one of the smaller smelts. It reaches    years, the population is concentrated above the conu-
adult sizes at two to three inches and rarely lives more    ence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers in the
than one year. It is translucent with a silvery steel-blue   narrow channels of the delta where it becomes more
streak along its sides and it exudes a strong odor of     vulnerable to entrainment in water diversions, predation,
cucumbers. Most of the year, it resides in the open surface  pollutant exposure, and competition with wakasagi and
waters of the low salinity portions of the estuary where    other planktivorous shes. Delta smelt do not exhibit
fresh and salt water mix. They are usually found at salini-  a strong stock-recruitment relationship that would be
ties between two and seven parts per thousand (ppt)      expected for a near annual sh, therefore, environmental
although are not uncommon in salinities between zero and    factors may strongly contribute to population success
18 ppt. Delta smelt migrate to freshwater areas of the
                                Status of the Population
estuary that are under tidal inuence to spawn from late
winter to early summer. Spawning usually takes place in    Delta smelt were once one of the most common shes
shallow water where the eggs are demersal and attach to    in the estuary. Historically, delta smelt abundance uctu-
the substrate. Females produce between 1,200 and 2,600     ated from year to year, but from the early 1980s to the
eggs depending on size. Most adults die after spawning,    mid-1990s, the population was consistently low. In recent
however a few survive to a second year. In recent years,    years, abundance has varied dramatically even though
fewer smelt have survived to a second year and the aver-    stringent measures are now in place to provide better
age size of the rst-year sh has signicantly decreased.   habitat conditions for delta smelt. The causes of the delta
Larger sh may contribute signicantly more to the egg     smelt decline are multiple and synergistic and vary from
supply and may be responsible for better success of the    year to year. These include: reductions in freshwater out-
population when environmental conditions are favorable.    ow caused by drought and by the diversion and upstream
                                storage of large amounts of water by the state and
Delta smelt feed primarily on planktonic copepods, cla-
                                federal water projects, entrainment losses to water diver-
docerans, and amphipods. Recent dramatic shifts in the
                                sions, high outows in extremely wet years, exposure to
zooplankton community, both in terms of species inva-
                                toxicants, disease, competition, predation, and loss of
sions and total abundance, may affect delta smelt sur-
                                genetic integrity.
vival. Historically, the most common food item was the
euryhaline copepod, Eurytemora afnis; however, this
copepod has since been replaced by Pseudodiaptomus
forbesi, as the primary prey item, although E. afnis
is still strongly preferred. In recent years, the exotic
Asian clam, Potamocorbula amurensis, has greatly reduced              2.0
zooplankton densities in the estuary.
                                Delta Smelt Abundance




                                          1.6
                                 thousands of fish




Genetic studies indicate that delta smelt are more closely
                                          1.2
related to surf smelt than to wakasagi even though they
                                          0.8
look more like the latter. Many of the traditional external
characteristics used to identify different species (e.g., n            0.4
ray counts) overlap between delta smelt and wakasagi;
                                          0.0
however, the number of melanophores on the mandible                   1967  1970   1980       1990       1999


(delta smelt has zero or one, wakasagi usually has ve
                                Fall Midwater Trawl Abundance Indicies
to many) is often used to separate the species. Hybrids
                                1967-1999, Delta Smelt
between delta smelt and wakasagi, as well as delta and
                                Data Source: DFG Central Valley Bay-Delta Branch. Indices for 1974 and 1979 were
longn smelt hybrids, have been observed in the estuary.
                                not available.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                           California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                      A Status Report                473
       Surf Smelt                               Status of Biological Knowledge
True Smelts



                                           Surf smelt are the most widely distributed smelt in Cali-
                                           fornia but are only common north of San Francisco Bay.
       History of the Fishery
                                           They are schooling, plankton feeding sh that can reach
       The fact that surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) spawn on
                                           10 inches in length. Females typically grow the largest and
       selected beaches at predictable times of the day and year
                                           live the longest (up to ve years), while males rarely live
       has made them a favorite sport sh. The standard A-frame
                                           longer than three years. Females are mature, however, in
       dip net used to catch this smelt is based on one used by
                                           one to two years, producing 1,300 to 37,000 eggs. In Cali-
       American Indians in the aboriginal shery. It consists of a
                                           fornia, most spawning occurs in June through September,
       three- to four-foot long triangle of netting with poles on
                                           in the surf zone of beaches, especially during high tides.
       two sides and bag at the apex, into which, sh can be
                                           The spawning smelt congregate in the surf during the day,
       ipped by tilting the net upwards. About 95 percent of all
                                           usually while the tide is falling. The biggest congregations
       commercial landings are taken with this gear. The other
                                           occur when high tide is in the late afternoon. The fertil-
       ve percent are captured using purse seines, trawls, or
                                           ized eggs adhere to sand and pebbles. The most favored
       beach seines. This species was thought to be the dominant
                                           spawning beaches are those made up largely of coarse
       species in the commercial smelt catch; however, since
                                           sand and pea-sized gravel, with some freshwater seepage.
       all species categories have been reported, surf smelt
                                           During periods of heavy spawning, some beaches are liter-
       average only one third (33.0 percent) of the smelt catch
                                           ally coated with eggs. The eggs hatch in two to three
       (1990 through 1999). Landings averaged 478,000 pounds
                                           weeks. Little is known about their larval life or of the
       between 1990 and 1999 with 70 percent being reported
                                           habits of juvenile and adults in the ocean environment.
       from Eureka and Arcata. Another 25 percent of the land-
                                           They presumably spend their lives in waters close to
       ings were reported in the Crescent City area. Surf smelt
                                           shore, however, as smelt are a common bycatch in the
       (and night smelt) are sold fresh in the coastal markets or
                                           shrimp shery.
       sold to aquariums as feed for sh and marine mammals.
       The sport shery primarily uses techniques and A-frame         Status of the Population
       nets similar to the commercial shery. Beach seines
                                           The shery for surf smelt may be decreasing while
       (“jump nets”) up to 20 feet long (with mesh sizes of at
                                           landings for night smelt have increased. Landings have
       least 7/8 inch) are also legal in the sport shery, as are
                                           dropped from over 800,000 pounds (1995 to 1997), to
       cast nets (Hawaiian throw nets). The sport catch limit for
                                           100,000 pounds in 1998, to just over 12,000 pounds in
       smelt is 25 pounds per day, a regulation that has been in
                                           1999. Environmental factors such as seawater temperature
       place for many years.
                                           changes (e.g., El Niño) may dramatically affect population
       Unfortunately, we have no historical records of the recre-       levels. However, given their short life-cycle, excessive
       ational catch, although it was estimated to be 400,000         shing could cause smelt populations to plummet in just
       pounds, roughly four million smelt, in 1958. Since 1980,        two or three years. Heavy recreational use of the beaches
       the MRFSS estimate of recreational surf smelt landings in       may also compact gravels and crush recently spawned
       California averages 86,000 pounds and ranges from 4,500        eggs. It is also possible that the developing eggs may
       pounds in 1982 to 197,000 pounds in 1998. These recent         depend on water percolating through the gravels from
       estimates are less than half the 1958 estimate, perhaps        above, so alterations of inowing streams or lagoons may
       suggesting that either changes in recreational effort or        affect the suitability of the spawning habitat for egg
       changes in surf smelt abundance has occurred. It should        survival.
       be noted that surf smelt was the only smelt to be reported
       in any numbers and very few night smelt landings were
                                           Wakasagi
       reported. This is unusual since night smelt currently make
       up over 50 percent of the commercial shery.
                                           History of the Fishery
                                           In Japan, wakasagi (Hypomesus nipponensis), are a
                                           favored food sh, supporting a highly specialized shery.
                                           Intensive commercial shing and reduced catches stimu-
                                           lated the development of articial propagation techniques
                                           that led to large-scale aquaculture facilities producing mil-
                                           lions of wakasagi annually. This long history of articial
                                           propagation of wakasagi is what made it so easy to trans-
                          Surf Smelt, Hypomesus pretiosus
                                           port them to California.
                                   Credit: DFG


         California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                            December 2001
 474
                                                                          True Smelts
            3.0
millions of pounds landed


            2.5                                           Commercial Landings
                                                        1916-1999, Smelts
            2.0                                           Commercial landings include the
     Smelts




                                                        combined landings of smelts
            1.5                                           and white bait smelts for 1916
                                                        through 1969 and the combined
            1.0                                           landings of true smelts, surf
                                                        smelts, white bait smelts, and
            0.5                                           night smelts for 1970-1999.
                                                        Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
            0.0 1916  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960   1970   1980    1990   1999   and commercial landing receipts.


Status of Biological Knowledge                    limited food supply. In Japan, most individuals from anad-
                                   romous stocks apparently live one year, spawn, and die,
The wakasagi was imported from Japan to California in
                                   while some freshwater populations may live up to four
1959 by the Department of Fish and Game as a forage
                                   years. In California, wakasagi can live at least two years
sh for salmonids in lakes and reservoirs. At the time, it
                                   and may reach lengths of up to ve inches. They usually
was believed to be the same species as delta smelt. It
                                   spawn from February to May. The presence of hybrids in
was apparently easier to ship wakasagi eggs from Japan
                                   the estuary indicates that wakasagi can interbreed with
than it was to collect and transport live delta smelt from
                                   delta smelt; however, no backcrossed individuals have
the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Its current range in
                                   been observed. The high degree of genetic divergence
California is from Shastina Reservoir, Siskiyou County, in
                                   between the two species suggests that the hybrids may
the northern part of the state to San Luis Reservoir and
                                   be infertile.
parts of the California Aqueduct in the central part of
the state. An initial introduction in southern California
                                   Status of the Population
at Big Bear Lake, San Bernardino County, apparently did
                                   The wakasagi is still expanding its range in central Califor-
not survive. It is common in Lake Oroville on the Feather
                                   nia and the consequences of this introduction may not yet
River and Folsom Lake on the American River, two large
                                   be fully realized. It is a threat to delta smelt not only
water storage facilities in which water is released in
                                   because it can interbreed; it may also compete for the
large amounts for transport down the Sacramento River
                                   same food items and spawning locations, and possibly prey
to the water diversions in the southern delta. Since 1995,
                                   on its larvae. The rst known observation of a wakasagi
wakasagi, in small numbers, have been widely distributed
                                   in the estuary was in 1974. Since then, the number of
throughout the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary.
                                   observations of individuals has increased although large
The wakasagi has been well studied in Japan due to its
                                   densities of wakasagi are still rare.
demand as a favored food item, but little was known
                                   Now that wakasagi are rmly established in the estuary,
about it in California until recently. Once the wakasagi
                                   protective measures for delta smelt have become much
became established in the estuary and its potential as a
                                   more difcult to manage due to the physical similarity
threat to delta smelt realized, research on the species
                                   of the two species, particularly at small sizes. Regular
increased dramatically. In Japan, it can be either anad-
                                   accounting of delta smelt catch is required of projects
romous or resident in fresh water. In California, it has
                                   that export water out of the delta so they do not exceed
been well established in cold-water reservoirs and now
                                   a “take limit” (i.e., allowable number of delta smelt
appears to survive in estuarine conditions as well
                                   that can be killed which is established to limit project
as in the warm-water reservoirs of the California Aque-
                                   impacts). At the state and federal water diversions, which
duct. Wakasagi are able to tolerate a wider range of
                                   may draw in and kill tens of thousands of young-of-
salinities and temperatures than delta smelt. They are
                                   the-year smelts (delta smelt, wakasagi, longn smelt)
also faster swimmers and are much more tolerant of
                                   daily in the spring, “real time” identication of small
stressful conditions.
                                   smelt becomes nearly impossible. Regulated water diver-
Wakasagi are opportunistic planktivores, feeding mainly
                                   sions are allowed until the established take limit is
on planktonic copepods. In the Sacramento-San Joaquin
                                   exceeded. Then diversions are further restricted reducing
estuary, they feed on the same food items as delta smelt
                                   the amount of water that is exported. Thus, timely identi-
and represent a competitive threat to the delta smelt’s



  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                              A Status Report                      475
       cation of delta smelt is a necessity since reductions in    apparently spawn repeatedly during the season, dashing
True Smelts



       exports may be very costly.                   in to release their eggs among crowds of eager males.
                                       The fertilized eggs stick to the gravel and hatch in about
                                       two weeks.
       Night Smelt
                                       Status of the Population
       History of the Fishery                     While night smelt has become the predominant smelt
                                       in the commercial landings in the 1990s, averaging over
       Night smelt (Spirinchus starksi) are also taken in large
                                       800,000 pounds per year, we know very little about the
       numbers, both in the commercial and sport sheries, in
                                       status of the population. Given the short life-cycle, exces-
       much the same ways as surf smelt. Although night smelt
                                       sive shing could cause smelt populations to plummet in
       are smaller in size and spawn only at night, they represent
                                       just two or three years. Heavy recreational use of the
       over 50 percent of the total commercial smelt landings
                                       beaches may also compact gravels and crush recently
       valued at over two million dollars in the 1990s. Landings
                                       spawned eggs. It is also possible that the developing eggs
       averaged over 1.2 million pounds annually from 1994 to
                                       may depend on water percolating through the gravels
       1996. Like surf smelt, night smelt are caught mainly with
                                       from above, so alterations of inowing streams or lagoons
       A-frame dip nets. Most are caught in the area around
                                       may affect the suitability of the spawning habitat for
       Eureka, which accounts for about 60 percent of all com-
                                       egg survival.
       mercial smelt landings. Crescent City landings make up
       an additional 33 percent. Night smelt are either sold for
       consumption as fresh sh or shipped to aquariums for
                                       Longfin Smelt
       consumption by sh, birds, and mammals.
       Catches of night smelt in the sport shery, as reported
                                       History of the Fishery
       in the MRFSS data, are surprisingly small since they now
                                       Longn smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys) were once har-
       make up the bulk of the commercial smelt catch. This may
                                       vested along with delta smelt in the Sacramento-San Joa-
       be due to limited angler contact at night when the major-
                                       quin estuary for Chinese markets in San Francisco. There
       ity of landings takes place. The largest catch estimate was
                                       is currently no longn smelt shery in California, however
       131 pounds in 1986, less than one-tenth of one percent of
                                       it is often bycatch in the bay shrimp shery.
       the total sport smelt catch for that year.

                                       Status of Biological Knowledge
       Status of Biological Knowledge
                                       The longn smelt is a pelagic, estuarine sh, which ranges
       Night smelt range in distribution from Point Arguello in
                                       from Monterey Bay to Alaska. In California, it has histori-
       central California to Alaska. Like surf smelt, night smelt
                                       cally been collected in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estu-
       are schooling, plankton-feeding sh that are important
                                       ary, Russian River estuary, Humboldt Bay, and the Eel,
       prey for other shes as well as marine mammals and birds.
                                       Klamath, and Smith rivers. It is also often collected in the
       They rarely exceed six inches in length or three years
                                       coastal waters of the Gulf of the Farallones particularly
       in age.
                                       during late summer and fall.
       Spawning has been recorded from January through Sep-
       tember on the same beaches as those used by surf smelt.
       Much of the spawning takes place earlier in the season
       than the spawning of surf smelt; so it is likely that most of
       the smelt catch before June is night smelt, with surf smelt
                                                         90
       the predominant species in the summer. However, both
                                       Longfin Smelt Abundance Indicies




                                                         80
       species have been observed using the same beaches on                        70
                                           thousands of fish




       the same day, with night smelt spawning at night and surf                     60
                                                         50
       smelt spawning during the day. Peaks of spawning occur
                                                         40
       between dusk and midnight on outgoing tides, although                       30
       night smelt spawning seems much less tied to tidal height                     20
                                                         10
       than is the spawning of surf smelt. A distinguishing feature
                                                         0
       of night smelt spawning aggregations is the prevalence of                        1967  1970  1980  1990       1999


       males close to shore (and in the shore shery). The male    Fall Midwater Trawl Abundance Indicies
       to female ratio early in the season is eight-to-one, but by   1967-1999, Longfin Smelt
       the end of the season it is nearly 100-to-one. The ratio is   Data Source: DFG Central Valley Bay-Delta Branch. Indices for 1974 and 1979 were
       close to one to one in offshore catches of smelt. Females    not available.


         California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                             December 2001
 476
In the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, longn smelt are     increases in predation, reductions in food availability sub-




                                                                 True Smelts
widely distributed in the brackish parts of the estuary     sequent to invasions by exotic species.
ranging in salinities from 14 to 28 ppt. Adults feed mainly   Resident populations in coastal estuaries along the north-
on the opossum shrimp, while juveniles prefer copepods.     ern coast of California have declined dramatically or all
Longn smelt live up to three years and reach lengths of     but disappeared since the 1970s. Once common in Hum-
six inches, but most spawning adults are two years old and    boldt Bay, longn smelt have only been observed in very
about four inches in length. Longn smelt are anadromous     small numbers in the mid-1990s. In addition, sporadic col-
and spawning takes place in the freshwater or slightly      lections of longn smelt from the Eel River estuary and
brackish portions of the estuary from December through      the Klamath River occurred in the mid-1990s. There have
April. Females produce between 5,000 and 24,000 eggs,      been no recent observations in the Smith River. Although
which are adhesive and attach to the substrate. Hatching     the causes of these declines in these northern estuaries
takes place in up to 40 days depending on the water       are not known, they may be similar to the causes of the
temperature. This winter to early spring spawning period     decline in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary.
results in larvae hatching at times when freshwater out-
                                 Because of the severe decline in abundance of longn
ows out of the estuary are highest. Early-stage larvae
                                 smelt in California in the early 1990s, the USFWS was
are surface oriented and are transported long distances
                                 petitioned to list the longn smelt as a threatened spe-
by surface currents generated as these high freshwater
                                 cies. The petition was denied in 1993, largely on the
ows mix with more saline water. As larvae mature, they
                                 basis that the California populations were not genetically
move to lower portions of the water column at salinities
                                 distinct from abundant and stable populations found
of about 15 ppt where they can maintain their position in
                                 in Washington.
the estuary. Potential predators of longn smelt include
striped bass and inland silversides (eggs and larvae).

                                 Eulachon
The annual abundance of longn smelt in the Sacramento-
San Joaquin estuary is signicantly and positively cor-
related with the amount of freshwater outow during
                                 History of the Fishery
spawning and larval periods. Potential mechanisms for this
                                 The eulachon (Thaleichthys pacicus) is the largest of
strong relationship include a reduction in predation during
                                 smelts found in California. It is also known as candlesh,
periods of high ows, increased habitat availability which
                                 because they are so oily that American Indians once dried
may increase survival by reducing interspecic competi-
                                 them to burn like candles. They are highly prized as a
tion, and increases in nutrient levels which are transferred
                                 food sh, being considered one of the tastiest of the
up the food chain.
                                 smelts. Until the mid-1970s or so, eulachon supported a
Hybrids between longn and delta smelt have been col-
                                 fairly consistent river sport dipnet shery, as well as a
lected in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. However, it
                                 dipnet shery by American Indians. The commercial catch
is unlikely that offspring are fertile since these species are
                                 in California has apparently never been large (maximum
not closely related and no genetic introgression has been
                                 reported landings are 3,000 pounds in 1987), but eulachon
observed. Under certain hydrologic conditions longn and
                                 are important commercially in British Columbia.
delta smelt apparently overlap in their spawn times and
locations. However, it appears that these circumstances
                                 Status of Biological Knowledge
are rare since only a few of these hybrids have been
                                 Eulachon range from central California to Alaska. In Cali-
observed.
                                 fornia, they are found along the coast as far south as
                                 Monterey Bay and seem to prefer the outer continental
Status of the Population
                                 shelf, where they school at depths of 150 to 750 feet.
Longn smelt was once one of the most common shes
                                 They reach a length of up to twelve inches and may live to
in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary; however, abun-
                                 be ve years old. They feed mainly on euphausid shrimps,
dance reached an all time low in 1992, following seven
                                 copepods, and other crustaceans and can reach maturity
years of drought. In the late 1990s, population levels have
                                 in two to three years. They are a very important food for
increased as hydrologic conditions have become wetter
                                 predatory marine animals, including salmon, halibut, cod,
and freshwater outows have increased, however popula-
                                 and sturgeon.
tion levels have not fully recovered to expected levels
                                 Eulachon are anadromous, spending most of their life in
based on the abundance-outow relationship. Additional
                                 the open ocean then migrating to lower reaches of coastal
factors potentially affecting abundance include reductions
                                 streams to spawn in fresh water. The principal spawning
in outows through water exports, entrainment losses
                                 run in California is in the Klamath River, but runs have also
to water diversions, climatic variations, toxic substances,



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                477
                                       Status of Population
       been recorded in the Mad and Smith Rivers and Redwood
True Smelts



       Creek. They spawn in gravelly rifes close to the stream    This species seems to be locally abundant and rarely
       mouths, rarely ascending more than six or seven miles.     enters the shery. However, we have no idea if it was
       Most eulachon die after spawning, but a few apparently     more abundant in the past or whether current populations
       live to spawn a second time. Each female lays about      are stable or not.
       25,000 eggs which stick to the gravel and hatch in two
       to three weeks.
                                       Discussion
       Status of Population

                                       C  alifornia smelts provide examples at two ends of the
       In recent years, eulachon numbers seem to have declined
                                         spectrum of California sheries. At one end are the
       drastically; so they are now rare or absent from the Mad
                                       surf smelt and night smelt, which together support a fairly
       River and Redwood Creek and scarce in the Klamath River.
                                       large commercial and sport shery. Although the shery is
       However, the eulachon and its shery have been largely
                                       one of the largest in California in terms of numbers and
       ignored in the past, and so we do not known if the sh are
                                       pounds of sh caught, its value is relatively low. It is
       at a low point in a natural population cycle or if they have
                                       also a shery about which surprisingly little is known and
       been reduced by human related factors.
                                       could conceivably decline or collapse from a combination
                                       of overexploitation and alterations to the 19 or 20 princi-
       Whitebait Smelt                        pal spawning beaches, which are receiving increasingly
                                       heavy recreational use. At the other end of the sheries
                                       spectrum are delta smelt, longn smelt, eulachon, and
       History of the Fishery
                                       whitebait smelt, all species, which once supported sher-
       Although about half the commercial smelt catch was       ies but that are now in relatively low numbers. One of
       called “whitebait smelt,” the species itself (Allosmerus    these species has been listed as a threatened species,
       elongates) is apparently uncommon throughout its range     another was petitioned to be listed, and the other two
       or only locally abundant and so it probably infrequently    we know so little about that we do not know if these
       taken in the shery.                      populations are in trouble. Three of these species require
                                       fresh water for spawning and their declines are probably
       Status of Biological Knowledge                 all related to alterations of the spawning and rearing
       One indication of the scarcity of whitebait smelt is that   habitats. It is clear that we need to know much more
       comparatively little is known about its biology. Like other  about all of California’s smelt, so that they can be man-
       smelt, they live in large schools and are voracious feeders  aged for sheries of the future and to maintain their
       on zooplankton. They tend to favor productive inshore     important roles in coastal and estuarine food webs.
       areas and bays; however they are only rarely caught in
       estuaries or coastal waters. They are collected sporadi-
                                       Management Considerations
       cally in San Francisco and San Pablo bays primarily during
       winter and spring. Spawning is thought to take place in
                                       See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
       sandy, subtidal areas. The Sacramento-San Joaquin estu-
                                       further information on all the true smelts.
       ary does not appear to be a spawning area since only
       post-larval to adult individuals have been collected there.
       Young-of-the-year remain translucent and are considered    Dale A. Sweetnam and Randall D. Baxter
       “post-larval” until they are almost three inches in length.  California Department of Fish and Game
       They live one to three years and reach lengths of seven
                                       Peter B. Moyle
       inches. The succession of even year classes in San Fran-
                                       University of California, Davis
       cisco Bay may suggest a two-year maturity schedule.




         California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                        December 2001
 478
References                          Moyle. P.B., B. Herbold, D.E. Stevens, and L. Miller.




                                                               True Smelts
                               1991. Life history and status of the Delta smelt in the
Aasen, G.A., D.A. Sweetnam, and L.M. Lynch. 1998. Estab-   Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc
lishment of the wakasagi, Hypomesus nipponensis, in the    121:67-77.
Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. California Fish and Game
                               Stanely, S.E., P.B. Moyle, and H.B. Schaffer. 1995. Allozime
84:31-35.
                               analysis of delta smelt, Hypomesus transpacicus, and
Baxter, R.D. 1999. Osmeridae. Pages 179-215 in James     longn smelt, Spirinchus thaleichthys in the Sacramento-
Orsi, editor. Report on the 1980-1995 sh, shrimp, and    San Joaquin estuary. Copeia. 1995: 390-396.
crab sampling in the San Francisco estuary, California.
                               Sweetnam, D.A. 1999. Status of delta smelt in the Sacra-
Interagency Ecological Program Technical Report 63.
                               mento-San Joaquin estuary. California Fish and Game 85
Bennett, W.A. and P.B. Moyle. 1995. Where have all the    22-27.
shes gone? Interactive factors producing sh declines in
                               Trenham, P.C., H.B. Shaffer and P.B. Moyle. 1998. Bio-
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. In, San Francisco Bay
                               chemical identication and population subdivision in mor-
the urbanized ecosystem. J.T. Hollibaugh, editor. AAAS
                               phologically similar native and invading species (Hypome-
Symposium volume. 519-542.
                               seus) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary, California.
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1971. Marine food and     Transaction of the American Fisheries Society 27:417-424.
game shes of California. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press. 177
                               U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Sacramento-San Joa-
pp.
                               quin Delta Native Fishes Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and
Moyle, P.B. in PRESS. Inland shes of California, 2nd edi-  Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon. 195 pp.
tion. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               479
              Bay and Estuarine Finfish
                          Commercial Landings                              Recreational Catch
Bay and Estuarine Finfish




                    Pacific    True           Pacific        True                Striped
                           Smelts1                     Smelts1
                    Herring                 Herring                            Bass
                                                                    No. of Fish1,2
              Year    Pounds    Pounds    Year     Pounds        Pounds         Year

              1916   2,928,591  1,153,306    1980   17,447,200        560,437         1960     30,856
              1917   7,435,997  1,107,349    1981   13,442,600        425,506         1961     42,357
              1918   7,938,280   932,841    1982   23,433,040        698,396         1962     39,682
              1919   4,289,899   762,895    1983   17,825,400         310,726         1963     58,551
              1920    274,364   744,865    1984    8,973,600        482,563         1964     34,163
              1921    542,124   770,302    1985   16,943,800       1,075,513         1965     16,488
              1922    341,621   914,147   1986   16,816,400        633,716         1966     44,869
              1923    383,950    874,198   1987   18,569,200        928,798         1967     23,794
              1924    435,620   844,395    1988   19,369,600         867,271         1968     23,058
              1925    862,974   822,637    1989   20,339,200         745,147         1969     20,091
              1926    453,607   968,680    1990   17,944,200        900,527         1970     15,269
              1927   1,168,321  1,100,070    1991   15,942,800       1,345,154         1971     13,381
              1928   1,139,682  1,061,302    1992   13,476,400        903,908         1972     31,690
              1929    957,563  1,176,214   1993    9,552,200       1,112,876         1973     21,120
              1930    717,634  1,229,582    1994    6,496,600       1,912,447         1974     41,561
              1931    685,759  1,216,305    1995   10,256,600       2,032,352         1975     17,561
              1932    765,724  1,032,756    1996   14,551,200       2,075,415         1976     10,677
              1933    601,445   825,453    1997   20,117,400       1,741,649         1977     8,263
              1934    801,601   838,173   1998    5,347,200        503,118         1978     2,609
              1935    933,285  1,039,825    1999    4,834,400        563,369         1979     7,370
              1936    840,530  1,038,969                                  1980     1,391
              1937    631,330    768,247                                 1981     2,985
              1938    504,884    674,585                                 1982     3,646
                                 1
              1939    302,242    641,819     True smelts includes the combined commercial land-   1983     14,206
              1940    453,193   576,809      ing categories of smelt and white bait smelt for    1984     13,524
              1941    789,753   583,841      1916 through 1969 and the combined commercial      1985     9,686
              1942    190,815   603,197     landing categories of true smelts, surf smelts, white  1986     8,572
              1943    630,358  1,707,640      bait smelt, and night smelt for 1970 through 1999.   1987     8,858
              1944    422,255  1,810,469                                  1988     10,415
              1945    460,465  2,660,732                                  1989     2,167
              1946    481,776  1,137,813                                 1990     2,356
              1947   1,654,850  1,039,926                                  1991     4,427
              1948   8,002,692  1,004,595                                  1992     5,274
              1949    379,311   957,380                                 1993     1,687
              1950   1,425,351   798,575                                  1994     2,247
              1951   4,923,655  1,257,719                                  1995     3,102
              1952   9,495,386   798,794                                  1996     6,096
              1953   7,801,928   849,408                                  1997     7,368
              1954    911,906   876,508                                  1998     19,720
              1955   1,946,521   994,730                                  1999     10,774
              1956   1,735,776    615,153
              1957   1,188,080    615,072
                                                               1
              1958   1,726,966   856,669                                    All data presented in number of fish caught.
                                                               2
              1959   1,727,013   826,353                                    Ocean and San Francisco Bay recreational catch;
              1960   1,800,672    597,757                                   Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta receational catches
              1961   1,401,248    827,117                                   are not included until 1964.
              1962   1,305,569    527,855
              1963    630,087   506,536
              1964    349,270   605,254
              1965    516,319   517,547
              1966    241,973   684,716
              1967    271,902   791,669
              1968    357,869   681,123
              1969    170,532   574,910
              1970    315,968   811,364
              1971    240,936    495,153
              1972    115,748   703,656
              1973   2,813,267  1,307,180
              1974   5,252,676   768,844
              1975   2,433,676   648,325
              1976   4,858,113    627,416
              1977   9,301,000   878,206
              1978  11,387,000   372,317
              1979   9,373,600   546,843




                  California’s Living Marine Resources:               CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                           December 2001
480
Bay and Estuarine
Plants: Overview                        The economic value of bay and estuarine wetlands and




                                                               Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview
                                subtidal habitats is considered to be among the highest
                                of all natural resources. Such habitats support commercial

F  rom a biological perspective, no other complex is more
                                harvests of sh and shellsh and provide millions of days
   important to bay and estuary ecosystems than their
                                of recreational shing and waterfowl hunting each year.
plant communities. Whether discussing tidal wetlands,
                                On a global level, such plant communities help stabilize
shallow subtidal habitat, or marine algae, plant communi-
                                available nitrogen, atmospheric sulfur, carbon dioxide, and
ties and the habitats they form are vital to the function
                                methane. In the crowded urban environment, where many
and health of bays and estuaries. Two important plant
                                remnant populations of bay and estuary plant communities
components within the bay and estuary setting are the
                                exist, such habitats contribute to open space and are a
tidal wetland, and the subtidal eelgrass (Zostera marina)
                                valuable aesthetic asset. A recent economic assessment of
and Gracilaria spp. communities. While these two plant
                                California’s wetlands conducted by the California Coastal
groupings are small fractions of the bay and estuarine
                                Commission established annual benets valued at between
plant assemblage and do not occur in all bays and estu-
                                $6.3 billion and $22.9 billion.
aries of the state, they are signicant contributors to
the overall productivity and species diversity of these
ecosystems. Other commonly occurring bay and estuarine     Eric J. Larson
plant communities, such as phytoplankton, algal mats,     California Department of Fish and Game
and sea lettuce are not addressed by this report, but are
important food contributors and principal components of
these ecosystem carbon budgets.
Bay and estuary ecosystems are the probably the most
impacted and altered environments of the California
coastline. Most of the state’s bay and estuary ecosystems
are intensively urbanized, serving as centers for industry,
agriculture, and commerce. The impacts of such anthropo-
genic activities are acutely evident within the bay and
estuarine plant communities. The loss of tidal and sub-
tidal wetland habitats on a statewide level is substantial.
Where once vast mosaics of tidal wetlands predominated,
agriculture, housing, or other developments have been
formed from lands diked from the bay or lled. Similarly,
losses of subtidal plant communities are accelerating
worldwide. In southern California, it has been estimated
that as little as ten percent of the historical distribution
of eelgrass remains. In the majority of cases, once bay
and estuary plant communities are destroyed they are lost
forever. Some restoration has occurred throughout the
coastal region of California with signicant efforts focused
on southern California, particularly within Mission and San
Diego bays and the reopening of Bataquitos Lagoon to
tidal ow. However, in most cases, the goal remains one
of preservation.
Bay and estuary plant communities provide critical habi-
tats, which support a diverse array of sh and wildlife
including species that are in danger of extinction. The
diverse structure of bay and estuarine plants also helps
to improve water quality, protect lands from ooding,
provide energy to the marine and estuarine food web,
and stabilize shorelines against erosion. Studies have
found that subtidal plant communities are also principal
contributors to primary productivity within bay and
estuary ecosystems.




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  481
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview




                   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                        A Status Report              December 2001
482
Coastal Wetlands -
Emergent Marshes                        the lowest zone of a salt marsh. This lower marsh zone




                                                                      Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
                                occurs from approximately mean sea level to the line of
                                mean high tide.
General Description
                                The middle zone of a tidal marsh occurs from approxi-
Wetlands are broadly dened as the transitional lands     mately the line of mean high tide to the mean higher high
that occur between the terrestrial and aquatic systems    tide line and is characterized by the occurrence of pickle-
where the water table is usually at or near the surface,   weed (Salcornia sp.). Pickleweed is less tolerant of tidal
or the land is covered by shallow water. There are ve    inundation than cordgrass, but is the most dominant plant
major systems of wetlands — marine, estuarine, riverine,   of California tidal wetlands. Jaumea (Jaumea carnosa) also
lacustrine (lake), and palustrine (freshwater marsh). This  occurs, but to a lesser extent within the middle zone of
paper discusses California’s marine and estuarine wetland   California’s coastal marshes.
systems. However, it should be noted that all ve systems
                                The upper zone of a tidal marsh is dened by the line of
occur in the state, all of which serve important roles as
                                mean higher high tide to extreme high tide. This upper
sh and wildlife habitat and in many ways are ecologically
                                zone of a salt marsh may only be inundated infrequently,
tied to one another.
                                in some locations as little as once or twice annually. Such
One of the most widely used and comprehensive wetland     innundation usually occurs during the spring tide cycle
classication system was developed for the U.S. Fish and   (highest annual tides) and during severe storm events.
Wildlife Service and is referred to as the Cowardin deni-  The upper zone of the tidal marsh is characterized by
tion. This classication system denes wetlands as having   the dominance of salt grass (Distichlis spicata) which toler-
one or more of the following three attributes: 1) at     ates only occasional tidal inundation. This upper area
least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydro-  of marshes contains the largest plant species diversity
phytes; 2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric  of the three zones. Species such as fat hen (Atriplex
soil; and 3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with  patula), sand spurrey (Spergularia marina), marsh rose-
water or covered by shallow water at some time during     mary (Limonium californicum), brass buttons (Cotula cor-
the growing season of each year. Although this system     nopifolia), can be found within the upper zone of salt
is commonly used to classify wetlands, regulatory agen-    marshes throughout California. In the southern portion of
cies such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the      the state, species such as Australian salt bush (Atriplex
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and other public    semibaccata), sea-bite (Suaeda californica and Suaeda fru-
agencies use varying denition when regulating the dis-    ticosa), shoregrass (Monanthochloe littoralis), and salt
charge of dredged or ll material or other alterations to   marsh bird’s beak (Cordylanthus sp.) can be found within
wetland areas.                        the upper salt marsh zone.
The term “tidal wetland” refers to areas that are covered   The zonation of marshes in southern California is some-
with shallow intermittent tidal waters. Coastal tidal wet-  what more complex than that described above. Southern
lands in the California include a number of natural com-   California salt marshes lack expansive stands of cordgrass;
munities that share the unique combination of aquatic,    instead they are dominated by succulents. Within the
semi-aquatic, and terrestrial habitats that result from    Mugu Lagoon, Anaheim Bay, Newport Bay, Mission Bay,
periodic ooding by tidal waters, rainfall, and runoff.    San Diego Bay, and the Tijuna River estuary, zones of
These coastal wetlands, also referred to as salt marshes,   saltwort (Batis maritima) and annual pickleweed (Salcor-
provide a vital link between land and open sea, exporting
nutrients and organic material to ocean waters. Wetlands
also help to improve water quality, protect lands from
ooding, provide energy to the estuarine and marine food
webs, and help stabilize shorelines against erosion.
Tidal wetlands are dominated by a community of plants
that are tolerant of wet, saline soils, and are generally
found in low-lying coastal habitats which are periodically
wet and usually saline to hypersaline. In fact, no other
feature denes a salt marsh better than the plant com-
munities that form there. The location of plant species
within a salt marsh is dened by zone, with cordgrass
(Spartina foliosa) forming the most seaward edge of the
emergent marsh plant community. Of the thousands of                      Carpinteria Salt Marsh, Santa Barbara Co.
plant species in North America, only cordgrass thrives in                             Credit: USEPA, 1995


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                         483
                                                           Status of Biological Knowledge
                   nia bigelovii) integrate with cordgrass in the lower zone
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes



                   and perennial pickleweed (Salcornia virginica) and other
                                                           Literature on wetland science addresses a broad range
                   middle zone plant species occur at higher than normal
                                                           of topic and setting, and much has also been written
                   elevations in these and other southern California marshes.
                                                           specic to California’s estuarine and coastal wetlands.
                   In addition to the plant communities, other dening char-
                                                           Programs such as the San Francisco Bay National Estuary
                   acteristics often associated with California’s tidal wet-
                                                           Project, San Francisco Bay Baylands Ecosystem Habitat
                   lands include mudats, tidal creeks, intertidal channels
                                                           Goals Project, and organizations such as the Pacic Estua-
                   and sloughs, salt ats, and shallow pannes. Fresh water
                                                           rine Research Laboratory, state and private universities,
                   inows are also often found in many of the state’s coastal
                                                           and numerous state and federal resource agencies have
                   wetland areas, adding to the diversity of habitat types and
                                                           contributed extensively to the knowledge base of Califor-
                   associated species use.
                                                           nia’s coastal wetland ecosystems. This is not to say that
                   Many of California’s coastal wetlands are estuarine salt
                                                           questions do not remain about the functions and science
                   marshes. These salt marshes, associated mudats, and
                                                           of the state’s coastal wetlands.
                   eelgrass beds develop along the shores of protected estua-
                                                           Scientic study in the eld of wetland science is ongoing.
                   rine bays and river mouths, as well as in more marine-
                                                           The role that the state’s coastal wetland habitats play
                   dominated bays and lagoons. Overall, the state’s tidal
                                                           in the support of sh and wildlife resources is an area
                   and estuarine wetland ecosystems provide some form of
                                                           of extensive research, particularly in the effects of, and
                   food, shelter, or other benets to nearly a thousand spe-
                                                           techniques for enhancement and restoration. Many of the
                   cies of sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and a
                                                           coastal wetland restoration projects undertaken within
                   multitude of invertebrates. During peak annual migration
                                                           the state include research and monitoring aspects within
                   periods, hundreds of thousands of birds migrating along
                                                           the project designs. Such analyses are vital to the overall
                   the Pacic Flyway descend upon the state’s estuarine
                                                           knowledge base of wetland science and are critical to the
                   wetlands in search of refuge and food.
                                                           improvement of subsequent wetland restoration activities.
                   California’s tidal wetlands also provide habitat for an array
                   of endangered species, including the salt marsh harvest
                                                           Status of the Habitat
                   mouse, California clapper rail, certain runs of salmon, and
                   wetlands plants such as a species of salt marsh birds peak.
                                                           Human inuence along California’s coastline has a long
                   Wetlands produce an abundant yield of vegetation, which
                                                           history. The effect of this history is evidenced by the
                   in turn provides the basis for a complex food chain nour-
                                                           profound alteration of the natural environment, most pro-
                   ishing a rich assortment of living organisms. The diversity
                                                           nounced of which are the modication of the shallow-
                   and abundance of organisms in coastal wetlands is remark-
                                                           water habitats within the state’s bays and estuaries and
                   able, given the often extreme and variable conditions
                                                           the staggering loss of coastal wetlands. The total loss
                   that can occur. Bacteria, protozoa, algae, vascular plants,
                                                           of California coastal wetlands is estimated at ve million
                   invertebrates, amphibians, sh, birds, and mammals can
                                                           acres. This represents some 91 percent of the historic
                   all be found within the state’s coastal wetland ecosys-
                                                           wetland acreage present before 1850. Although the entire
                   tems, and together comprise the biotic community of the
                                                           coastline of the state has experienced losses of coastal
                   wetland. Many of these organisms are dependent on the
                                                           wetland habitat, the largest losses are believed to have
                   wetland for their existence, either spending their entire
                                                           occurred in the San Francisco Bay estuary and along the
                   lives in the wetland, or spending a critical portion of their
                                                           southern coast of the state.
                   life cycle in the wetland.
                                                                  A variety of activities have contributed to the dramatic
                                                                  loss of California’s wetlands. These include diking, lling,
                                                                  draining, and vegetation removal for agricultural uses;
                                    Estimated       Estimated     Estimated
                                    Original       Remaining      Percent
                                                                  diking and lling for residential, commercial, and indus-
                                     Acreage        Acreage     Reduction
                         Region
                                                                  trial development; placement of ll material for road and
                    Northern Coast          unknown         31,300     unknown
                                                                  pad construction associated with oil and gas exploration
                    Central Coast          unknown         3,800     unknown
                                                                  and development; lling and other associated construction
                    San Francisco Bay                    93,000       54%
                                                                  for roads, highways, and railways; dredging and lling
                                             (tidal and mudflat)
                                     200,000

                                                                  for port and marina development; and channelization and
                    Southern Coast           53,000        13,100       75%

                                                                  lling for ood control purposes. Coastal wetland losses,
                    Statewide            5,000,000       450,000       91%

                                                                  including those historically occurring within bays and estu-
                                    Historic Losses of California Coastal Wetlands
                                                                  aries, throughout the state are primarily attributed to
                   Historic Losses of California Coastal Wetlands
                        Source: Procedural Guidance for the Review of Wetland Projects in California’s
                                             Wetland Projects in California’s Coastal urban development. Although state and federal regula-
                   Source: Procedural Guidance for the Review of Zone, California Coastal Commision.
                                         Coastal
                        Zone, California Coastal Commission.


                      California’s Living Marine Resources:                    CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                           A Status Report                                December 2001
484
                                                                      Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
                                                Principle Coastal Wetlands of California

tions, as well as social pressures have reduced activities   alteration of natural fresh and salt water inows to the
that cause wetland losses, many are still occurring. Much   state’s estuaries and wetland areas.
of the current loss of wetlands is attributed to a lingering  The Bolsa Chica wetlands in the Huntington Beach commu-
legacy of past development, such as continued use of      nity is a site of recent controversy over wetland develop-
wetland areas for agriculture, or expansion of existing    ment and is an example of one of southern California’s
urban and industrial complexes within wetland habitats.    continuing struggles with the preservation of remnant
Secondary or indirect impacts also have contributed to     coastal wetlands. The Bolsa Chica wetlands are the largest
the continued loss of coastal wetlands, including point and  stretch of unprotected coastal marshland south of San
non-point source storm and wastewater discharges, and     Francisco, and provide 1,100 acres of wetland habitat, sup-


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                         485
                   porting many species of plants, sh, and wildlife, includ-    them, and as aesthetic, functional, environmentally nec-
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes



                   ing several endangered species of birds, such as the Cali-    essary elements. In fact, tidal wetland protection and res-
                   fornia least tern, light-footed clapper rail, Belding’s Savan-  toration activities have become front-page news in many
                   nah sparrow, and peregrine falcon. Southern California      areas of the state and funding sources, once unobtainable,
                   once had over 53,000 acres of coastal wetland areas.       are now becoming increasingly available. Even with such
                   This number is now down to approximately 13,000 acres.      changes in the political, economical, and environmental
                   Such wetland losses have contributed to a decline in       settings, much work needs to be done to recapture
                   California’s wintering bird population. Once estimated to    and protect California’s tidal wetland habitats. Additional
                   be about 60 million, yway populations now uctuates       research and continued monitoring of existing wetland
                   between two and four million waterfowl, one and two       restoration projects are needed to build and contribute to
                   million shorebirds. For the Pacic Flyway as a whole,      the database on how best to address and undertake these
                   there has been some improvement in recent years, partly     activities. Additionally, methods need to be developed to
                   because of the end of a multi-year drought in the northern    address problems which could lead to the further loss of
                   breading areas, but also because of the efforts made at     coastal wetland areas due to the anticipated rising sea-
                   restoring California’s coastal and inland wetlands.       level, and other factors such as invasive species. Further
                                                    public education, community involvement, and political
                   In many ways, the degree and type of tidal wetland
                                                    action are needed.
                   habitat losses within the San Francisco Bay estuary reect
                   what has occurred in the state. Early reclamation activi-
                   ties resulted in the draining and diking of tidal, freshwa-   Eric J. Larson
                   ter, and brackish marshes in the San Francisco Delta, as     California Department of Fish and Game
                   well as around Suisun Bay and San Pablo Bay. Much of this
                   reclaimed land was cultivated for agricultural purposes.
                                                    References
                   Additionally, the construction of salt production facilities
                   resulted in the conversion of thousands of acres of tidal
                                                    California Coastal Commission. 1987. California coastal
                   marsh to permanent salt pond operations. At the end of
                                                    resources guide. 384 pp.
                   World War II, urbanization of the San Francisco Bay Area
                   resulted in the conversion of intertidal and subtidal habi-   Faber, P.M. 1990. Common wetland plants of California: a
                   tats to urbanized uplands. As a result of these wetland     eld guide for the layman. Pickleweed Press. 110 pp.
                   conversion activities, it is estimated that 95 percent of
                                                    Goals Project. 1999. Baylands ecosystem habitat goals. A
                   the estuary’s tidal marshes have been leveed or lled.
                                                    report of habitat recommendations prepared by the San
                   Some of the converted wetland areas, such as salt ponds
                                                    Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project.
                   and diked lowlands, remain as wetland habitat, but of
                                                    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, CA.
                   a different type, offering substantially altered functions
                                                    and San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
                   than that which existed before conversion. At present,
                                                    Board, Oakland, CA.
                   it is estimated that less than 38,000 acres of tidal wet-
                                                    Josselyn, M. 1983. The ecology of San Francisco Bay tidal
                   lands remain in the San Francisco Bay estuary, with an
                                                    marshes: a community prole. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                   additional mudat habitat of approximately 65,000 acres,
                                                    vice, Biological Services Program. Washington D.C. FWS/
                   diked seasonal wetland habitat of approximately 58,000
                                                    OBS-82/23.
                   acres, and salt ponds and salt crystallization facilities of
                   approximately 36,500 acres of non-tidal wetland habitat.     Josselyn, M., L. Handley, M. Quammen, and D. Peters.
                                                    1994. The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitat
                   Losses and alteration impacts of tidal wetland habitat
                                                    in San Francisco Bay Region. NWRC Open File 94-04. U.S.
                   associated with coastal inlets and riverine estuaries along
                                                    Department of Interior National Biological Survey, Wash-
                   the California coast have also been great. Many of the
                                                    ington D.C.
                   state’s historical wetland areas of this type have been lost
                   or reduced in size due to direct impacts such as channel-    Resources Agency of California. 1997. California’s ocean
                   ization, dredging and continued breaching of outer sand-     resources: an agenda for the future. State of California,
                   bars for ood control, and marina and harbor construc-      Resources Agency, Sacramento.
                   tion. However, off-site activities including water diversion
                                                    Zedler, J.B. 1982. The ecology of southern California
                   and sediment inputs associated with watershed alterations
                                                    coastal salt marshes: a community prole. U.S. Fish and
                   including logging and agricultural cultivation also have
                                                    Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program. Washington
                   signicantly impacted California’s coastal tidal wetlands.
                                                    D.C. FWS/OBS-81/54.
                   California’s remaining coastal wetlands are highly valued
                   as habitat for the multitude of species that depend on



                     California’s Living Marine Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                           A Status Report                         December 2001
    486
Submerged
Aquatic Plants                        nutrients. Organic material from natural decomposition




                                                                  Submerged Aquatic Plants
                               processes or human inuences are ltered and collected
                               by eelgrass leaves and turions, providing a nutrient source
Eelgrass                           for the eelgrass bed community. Nutrients that otherwise
                               would accumulate in the sediments or be ushed out
                               to sea may thereby be retained and recycled within the
Introduction                         estuarine ecosystem.
Worldwide there are more than 50 species of vascular
                               The decline in eelgrass communities during the 1930s
plants capable of inhabiting the shallow saline waters of
                               and 1940s encouraged the initiation of studies to gain a
the estuarine environment. The most common of these
                               better understanding of this vital estuarine habitat. In
species, occurring in full-strength seawater, are the sea-
                               recent years, the importance of eelgrass communities has
grasses. One of the most studied seagrasses in temperate
                               resurfaced as a signicant measure of the health of bays
and tropical regions is eelgrass (Zostera spp.). The eel-
                               and estuaries. Some protection of this ecosystem has been
grass commonly found in North America, Z. marina, is
                               afforded over the years through management practices
widely distributed in the temperate zones of both coasts.
                               that protect it through disturbance avoidance or in-kind
Along the U.S. Pacic Coast, Z. marina occurs from Alaska
                               replacement mitigation. In southern California further pro-
to Baja California. Another species, Z. asiatica, is also
                               tection as also been provided by the implementation of
found in a number of locations on the west coast of North
                               the multi-agency Southern California Eelgrass Mitigation
America including offshore of the Santa Barbara area in
                               Policy of 1991 which is routinely included within permit
California at depths up to 45 feet.
                               conditions of both the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
Eelgrass beds are generally regarded as highly productive  California Coastal Commission. While this policy was spe-
habitats that support a rich assemblage of sh species    cically designed to address eelgrass impacting projects
and provide a refuge area for larval and juvenile shes.   in southern California, its principals have, at times, also
Eelgrass habitat is also a very important resource for    been applied permit conditions for projects occurring in
a variety of birds. It is associated with rich bottom
fauna important to waterbirds, especially diving birds
and mollusc-eaters. In California’s bays and estuaries
north of Monterey Bay, eelgrass provides spawning habi-
tat for Pacic herring. Large numbers of waterbirds
such as scoters, bufehead, scaup, goldeneyes, Ameri-
can coots, eat eggs deposited onto eelgrass by Pacic
herring during the mid-winter spawn. In addition, many
birds such as surface-feeding ducks and other waterfowl,
including the black brant, feed directly on eelgrass.
The location, abundance and health of eelgrass appear
to be highly sensitive to changes in environmental condi-
tions. For example, in the decade of 1935 to 1945,
eelgrass beds on the north coasts of America and Europe
suffered a substantial decline in abundance. The cause
of this decline remains unknown but has been ascribed
to a variety of causes ranging from parasitic infection by
slime mold and fungus to greater than normal changes in
rainfall or seawater temperature. A population decline
in a wide variety of marine organisms dependent on
eelgrass habitat was also seen during this period. Addi-
tionally, changes in bottom topography occurred in the
affected eelgrass bed areas as currents and wave action
reworked formerly stable bottom sediments. Recovery
occurred slowly, due to the diminished and scattered
distribution of individual plants resulting in reduced
vegetative propagation and seed production.
Aside from its interaction in the marine and estuarine
                                                     Eelgrass, Zostera marina
food webs, eelgrass assumes an important role in cycling
                                                           Credit: DFG


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                           A Status Report                    487
              northern California. The continued decline of important    in Agua Hedionda Lagoon in southern California has
Submerged Aquatic Plants



              sh species may serve to offer additional protection for    also demonstrated the ability of an invasive species to
              the state’s eelgrass communities by designation of this    displace eelgrass.
              habitat type as critical habitat under federal laws, admin-  Once disturbed, eelgrass bed recovery or recolonization is
              istered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the     slow and may not be possible without reestablishment
              National Marine Fisheries Service.               of favorable growth conditions. The decline of seagrass
                                             and related aquatic vegetation has reached and alarming
              Status of Biological Knowledge                 state worldwide. Studies show documented plant losses
                                             in the United States that have approached or exceeded
              The recognition of the importance of eelgrass within the
                                             three-quarters of the historic distribution. Further, the
              bay and estuarine ecosystem has provided a focus of
                                             importance of genetic distribution in the population
              scientic research and resource management for several
                                             dynamics of aquatic plants has in the past largely been
              decades. Early last century researchers on both coasts col-
                                             ignored in restoration and conservation efforts. Studies
              lected an array of information on water and air tempera-
                                             in southern California found signicantly reduced genetic
              tures along with plant data over a several year period.
                                             diversity in eelgrass beds that were reestablished through
              Additionally, measurements of eelgrass standing stock
                                             transplants or that otherwise became established in previ-
              have been conducted throughout the Northern Hemi-
                                             ously disturbed locations. Reduced genetic diversity in the
              sphere including the West Coast of North America.
                                             transplanted sites corresponded in general to a smaller
              The distribution of eelgrasses within bay and estuarine    size and younger plant age than in undisturbed sites,
              ecosystems is dependent on a variety of parameters,      although this characteristic effect on the eelgrass com-
              including light, temperature, salinity, substrate, waves and  munity is not fully understood. However, there was no
              currents, nutrients, and availability of seed. Most com-    evidence that genetic diversity increased in transplanted
              monly, estuarine seagrasses are found in soft sediments    sites over time. It is likely that this genetic diversity
              of semi-sheltered areas where depth and turbidity condi-    problem occurs in many areas of the state where eelgrass
              tions allow sufcient light. The typical depth distribution  bed disturbances commonly take place.
              of eelgrass is throughout the inter- and subtidal-zones.
              The maximum standing crop occurs just below mean low
                                             Status of the Beds
              water. Maximum biomass occurs at depths corresponding
              to 20 to 30 percent surface-light intensity. Distribution   Along the Pacic coastline of California, eelgrass is found
              and abundance of eelgrass also appear to be inuenced     to some degree in all of the larger bays and estuaries,
              along the land-sea axis of estuaries by the relative abun-   from the Oregon border to San Diego, including Humboldt
              dance of nutrients. Nutrient availability is higher at the   Bay, Tomales Bay, San Francisco Bay, Monterey Bay, Morro
              riverine end of an estuary. However, the mixing zone      Bay, and San Diego/Mission Bay. Additionally, eelgrass is
              within estuaries also tends to be more turbid. Thus,      well established in several of the smaller open estuarine
              the relationship between light penetration and nutrient    embayments along the state’s coastline. The historical
              availability acts with other factors to dene the areas    presence of eelgrass along the California coast was much
              within estuaries where eelgrass beds become established    greater than it is today. Although few records exist that
              and thrive.                          measure the areal extent of eelgrass within the state’s
                                             small coastal estuaries, the condition that existed prior to
              Eelgrass is a owering marine plant that grows from rhi-
                                             human disturbances in many of these locations were no
              zomes in soft sediment. The establishment and expansion
                                             doubt favorable to eelgrass bed communities.
              of eelgrass beds occur through seed production and asex-
              ual rhizome propagation. Although their roots and rhi-
                                             Humboldt Bay
              zomes help to stabilize sediments where they are estab-
              lished, eelgrass beds are highly susceptible to anthro-
                                             Measurements of eelgrass standing stock in Humboldt Bay
              pogenic disturbances, particularly substrate disturbances
                                             were conducted in 1972. Distribution was determined
              and reduced light penetration. Eelgrass beds are also
                                             by mapping the eelgrass beds through eld surveys and
              susceptible to adverse impacts from non-native invasive
                                             light aircraft. Eelgrass standing stock values determined
              species. Studies looking at the response of eelgrass to a
                                             through density analyses ranged from 3.1 million pounds
              non-indigenous mussel (Musculista senhousia) found that
                                             dry weight in April 1972, to 15.2 million pounds dry weight
              eelgrass beds showed a negative response to colonization
                                             in July 1972, with South Humboldt Bay accounting for 78
              of this invasive bivalve, particularly where the eelgrass
                                             to 95 percent of the total eelgrass stock. These results
              bed was sparse or fragmented, or in beds that
                                             were similar to an earlier assessment in 1962.
              had been reestablished. The recent discovery of the
              invasive algae Caulerpa taxifolia (Mediterranean strain)


                California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                        December 2001
  488
The differences in densities between the north and south    The general locations of the Tomales Bay eelgrass beds




                                                                Submerged Aquatic Plants
bays appear to be persistent. A wet-weight density range    appear to have been consistent since the early 1970s,
(depending on location) of 0.06 to 0.43 pounds per square    although there is some annual uctuation. The density
foot for Humboldt Bay winter eelgrass was estimated in     of eelgrass during the winter of 1987-1988 was 0.04 0.55
1979. The study attributed eelgrass density differences     pounds per square foot. Similar densities were observed
between the two regions of the bay to variations in sedi-    1973 and 1976. Such densities represent between 70 and
ment composition, and dredging activities in North Hum-     100 percent bottom-coverage. The long-term evaluation of
boldt Bay associated with the commercial cultivation and    Tomales Bay eelgrass beds indicates that one bed near the
harvest of oysters, rather than light availability or tidal   mouth of the estuary is more ephemeral than any other.
ushing. Localized eelgrass bed density surveys conducted
                                San Francisco Bay
by the Department of Fish and Game in an effort to
evaluate the biomass of Pacic herring utilizing Humboldt
                                San Francisco Bay, the largest of California’s estuaries,
Bay eelgrass beds for spawning substrate also noted sig-
                                is also the most impacted by human development. An
nicantly lower eelgrass densities in North Humboldt Bay
                                estimated one third of the historic extent of the bay
compared to South Bay during the 2000-2001 commercial
                                has been lost to ll and development. While estuarine sys-
herring season. Total eelgrass coverage within Humboldt
                                tems are by nature highly turbid, poor water clarity within
Bay was determined to be 3,053 acres in 1984. Since that
                                San Francisco Bay is further exacerbated by human activi-
time, a detailed bay-wide eelgrass survey has not been
                                ties including direct treated industrial and wastewater dis-
conducted. However, the California Department of Fish
                                charges, non-point source runoff, urban-associated atmo-
and Game, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Humboldt State
                                spheric deposition, and riverine inow containing urban
University, and others have proposed initiating biannual bay-
                                and agricultural discharges. Data on the historic areal
wide eelgrass surveys to begin during the summer of 2001.
                                extent of eelgrass within San Francisco Bay are limited,
                                although it is believed that it supported extensive eelgrass
Small North Coast Estuaries                   meadows in the past. Reduced light penetration due to
It is likely that at one time eelgrass predominated along    extremely high bay turbidity has been found to limit the
the seaward edge of many of the small estuaries at       development of eelgrass and may be the principal cause
the mouth the north coast river systems. Today, due to     of its decline in San Francisco Bay. Eelgrass beds in the
human alterations, such as channelization, dredging, and    bay today are limited to relatively small patches located in
upstream disturbances that cause increase turbidity and     the central bay, Richardson Bay, and the eastern northern-
siltation, eelgrass is limited to but a few such ecosystems.  most portions of the south bay. In 1989, the areal extent
Remnant populations are documented within the North       of eelgrass beds in San Francisco Bay was estimated to
Coast estuaries that remain open to seawater inuence      be 316 acres. Since that time, some eelgrass beds have
year-round, such as the Big River estuary where eelgrass    increased in size and new patches have been sited.
forms large beds along muddy banks within the rst three    Eelgrass densities are far lower than those of the larger,
miles of the estuary, and the Albion River Estuary, which    healthier beds found in Tomales and Humboldt Bays.
also has a well-established eelgrass community.         Although the eelgrass beds appear to be stressed, they
                                have remained persistent in the bay and are heavily uti-
Tomales Bay                           lized by estuarine organisms.
Eelgrass is the most abundant marine ora in Tomales Bay.
                                Southern California
Surveys conducted by the California Department of Fish
and Game in 1985, determined the areal extent to be 965     The eelgrass communities found south of San Francisco
acres. Although eelgrass distribution is relatively stable   are more heavily impacted by human alteration than those
from year to year in Tomales Bay, densities of eelgrass     in northern California. Historical records suggest that eel-
beds are highly variable within and between individual     grass was a predominant plant species in the state’s south
beds seasonally. The density and distribution of eelgrass    coast estuaries. However, the majority of southern Cali-
within Tomales Bay are determined annually by the Cali-     fornia’s remaining eelgrass habitat exists primarily due
fornia Department of Fish and Game as part of the sea-     to replanting or recolonization of eelgrass beds in new
sonal herring spawning-ground surveys. Extensive eelgrass    or historic locations. Patchy eelgrass communities found
beds are located within Tomales Bay throughout the inter-    within the Monterey Bay Area and Morro Bay are two
tidal and subtidal areas, generally in waters less than 12   exceptions. The eelgrass beds within the Monterey Bay
feet mean lower low water between Sand Point and Nicks     Area are limited to the estuarine environment of Elkhorn
Cove, and around the immediate bay perimeter on both
shorelines to the vicinity of Millerton Point.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                489
                                             References
              Slough and its entrance to the bay. These areas make up a
Submerged Aquatic Plants



              total of approximately 50 to 75 acres of eelgrass habitat.
                                             Harding, L.W. and J.H. Butler. 1979. The standing stock
              Eelgrass remains the dominant plant in the beds of Morro
                                             and production of eelgrass, Zostera marina, in Humboldt
              Bay. The beds there are the largest and least impacted
                                             Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 65(3): 151-158.
              of any in the southern portion of the state. Nevertheless,
                                             Hoffman, Robert F. 1986. Fishery utilization of eelgrass
              there are wide uctuations in areal extent. By 1997, eel-
                                             (Zostera marina) beds and non-vegetated shallow water
              grass distribution reached a historic low of 50 total acres.
                                             areas in San Diego Bay. National Marine Fishery Service,
              Further studies in 1998 showed an improvement in eel-
                                             Southwest Region. Administrative Report SWR-86-4.
              grass distribution ranging from 81 to 120 acres, depending
                                             Merkel, K.W. and R. S. Hoffman. eds. 1990. Proceedings of
              on the season of survey.
                                             the California eelgrass symposium: May 27 and 28, 1988,
              Eelgrass bed communities also exist in Los Angeles Harbor,
                                             Chula Vista, California. Sweetwater River Press. 78pp.
              Huntington Harbor, and in adjacent coastal areas. Many of
                                             Thayer, G. W, D.A. Wolfe, and R.B. Williams. 1975. The
              these have been established through transplant activities
                                             impact of man on seagrass systems. Am. Sci. 63: 288-296.
              associated with specic development mitigation require-
              ments. Due primarily to suitable light conditions, many    Williams, S.L., and C.A. Davis. 1996. Population genetics
              of the reestablished areas have met their intended miti-    analyses of transplanted eelgrass (Zostera marina) beds
              gation goals. However, some reestablishment attempts      reveal reduced genetic diversity in southern California.
              have been unsuccessful. A complete survey of the areal     Restoration Ecology. 4 (2), pp. 163-180.
              extent of eelgrass and associated density assessments
                                             Wyllie-Echeverria, S., A.M. Olson, and M.J. Hershman
              within this location of the state has not been conducted.
                                             (eds). 1994. Seagrass science and policy in the Pacic
              The National Marine Fishery Service and other state and
                                             Northwest: proceedings of a seminar (SMA 94-1). U.S. EPA,
              federal resource agencies have conducted cursory surveys
                                             Water Division, Wetlands Section. EPA 910/R-94-004. 63 pp.
              of eelgrass in these locations. While formal surveys and
                                             Zimmerman, R. C., J. L. Reguzzoni, S. Wyllie-Echeverria,
              reports have not been completed, areas that support
                                             M. Josselyn, and R. S. Alberte. 1991. Assesment of envi-
              eelgrass have been identied.
                                             ronmental suitability for growth of Zostera marina L. (eel-
              The eelgrass bed communities within San Diego County
                                             grass) in San Francisco Bay. Aquatic Botany. 39: 353-366.
              coastal areas have been heavily impacted by urbanization.
              All of the bays in this area of the state have been inten-
              sively modied. Attendant stresses are evidenced by very
              low eelgrass densities. Additionally, many of the eelgrass
              communities in San Diego County coastal areas have been
              derived through reestablishment efforts or, as in Mission
              Bay, through natural colonization of dredged sediments.
              The most comprehensive survey conducted for eelgrass in
              the San Diego Bay was completed in 2000. This survey fol-
              lowed an early bay-wide survey conducted in 1994. Similar
              surveys have been completed for Mission Bay, Batiquitos
              Lagoon, and Agua Hedionda. The location of eelgrass pres-
              ent within Oceanside Harbor has also been documented by
              the National Marine Fishery Service.


              Management Considerations
              See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
              ther information.


              Eric J. Larson
              California Department of Fish and Game




                California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                     A Status Report                        December 2001
  490
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis                 appear to be among the preferred spawning substrates for




                                                               Submerged Aquatic Plants
                                Pacic herring in California waters and may be essential
                                to herring when other aquatic vegetation is not available.
History of Harvest                       These beds with herring eggs are an important feeding
                                area for a variety of marine animals.
Although species in the red algal genera Gracilaria and
Gracilariopsis have been harvested throughout the world
                                Management Considerations
for agar production and as a food source for humans
and cultured shellsh, only small amounts have been har-    See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
vested from the wild in California during the last few     ther information.
decades. Between 1965 and 1970, several applications
were made to the Fish and Game Commission for permis-
                                John Mello
sion to harvest Pacic herring eggs deposited on edible
                                California Department of Fish and Game
seaweeds for export to Japan, where it is considered a
luxury food item. In 1970, Department of Fish and Game
                                References
divers conducted a survey to determine the quantity and
composition of the aquatic vegetation in Tomales Bay.
                                Abbott, I.A. and G.J. Hollenberg. 1976. Marine Algae of
The commission decided to establish one ve-ton harvest
                                California. Stanford University Press. Stanford.
permit each for Tomales and San Francisco bays. However,
                                Hardwick, J.E. 1973 Biomass estimates of spawning her-
siltation, which occurs in both bays during the winter
                                ring. Clupea harrengus pallasii, herring eggs, and associ-
months, lowered the market quality of a large portion
                                ated vegetation in Tomales Bay. Calif. Fish Game, 59(1)
of the eggs-on-seaweed harvest; as a result, the ve-ton
                                :36-61
quota was never reached in either bay. The harvest of
herring eggs on wild edible seaweed in Tomales and San     Langtry, S.K. and C.A. Jacoby. 1996. Fish and decapod
Francsico bays is now prohibited.               crustaceans inhabiting drifting algae in Jervis Bay, New
                                South Wales. Aust. J. Ecology, v. 21,( n. 3),: 264-271.
Status of Biological Knowledge                 Spratt, J.D. 1981. The status of the Pacic herring, Clupea
                                harrengus pallasii, resource in California 1972 to 1980.
Gracilaria pacica and Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis are
                                Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.171. 107 p.
commonly found in California’s bays and estuaries. Both
species have numerous brownish-red thin branches loosely
connected to the substrate by a small holdfast and grow
to a maximum height around three feet. Because they
are so similar in appearance and frequently found growing
in the same area, they are often difcult to distinguish.
Gracilaria pacica is commonly found in sheltered inter-
tidal to subtidal locations from Alaska to the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, Mexico. Gracilaria lemaneiformis occurs in areas
exposed to ocean currents as well as protected intertidal
and subtidal areas from Vancouver Island, British Colum-
bia, Canada, to Santa Catalina Island in the Southern
California Bight. Both species are fast growing and, when
detached from the substrate, often form large dense
mats in estuarine areas protected from strong currents. In
Tomales and San Francisco bays, where annual vegetation
density studies are conducted in conjunction with Pacic
herring spawning surveys, Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis
densities uctuate considerably from year to year.
Little is known about the signicance of these species
in bay and estuary ecosystems. One study conducted in
Jarvis Bay, Australia, found relatively low numbers of sh
and decapod species inhabiting drifting Gracilaria spp.
beds when compared to adjacent seagrass beds, suggest-
ing that these beds may not be a critical habitat for estua-
rine macrofauna. However, Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report               491
Submerged Aquatic Plants




              California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report              December 2001
  492
Aquaculture:
Overview                            by a signicant summer-time mortality of unknown cause.




                                                               Aquaculture: Overview
                                Abalone production has been inuenced by mortality


T
                                from withering syndrome and hampered by regulatory
   he commercial culturing of marine species in Califor-
                                requirements intended to prevent the spread of an exotic
   nia is limited primarily to the production of shellsh
                                parasitic worm. Large numbers of juvenile white seabass
such as oysters, mussels, and abalone. While the culturing
                                have been destroyed to address disease concerns. In
of nsh for enhancement purposes is well established
                                each instance, the industry made positive contributions
in California, commercial culturing has been limited in
                                to cooperative efforts among resource agency disease-
scale and remains focused on solving technical questions
                                management researchers.
through research. The commercial production of most
cultured shellsh has declined from recent peaks. Oyster   Taken as a whole, the industry has ardent entrepreneurial
production is down from a peak in 1994; abalone produc-    support, has great economic potential, and has been
tion is down from a peak in 1996; and mussel production    a source of signicant positive societal benet. If not
is down from a recent peak in 1997. In several instances,   conducted in a resource-sensitive manner, aquaculture
demand exceeded production and the declines reected     can also cause negative environmental impacts, by intro-
several ongoing challenges faced by these industries in    ducing exotic species, by introducing or contributing to
their efforts to maintain production. More information on   the spread of disease, or by altering the natural systems
production levels can be found in the specic sections    within which production facilities are located. The key
that follow.                         to achieving the positive aspects of aquaculture while
                                minimizing negative ones rests in how effectively the
Developing and maintaining production of cultured marine
                                industry, the research community, and regulatory agen-
species is still inuenced by technical problems, in some
                                cies can work together. Industry leaders are now focusing
cases in spite of a well-established production history.
                                on developing best management practices to ensure that
Fledgling industries, such as those engaged in scallop
                                shellsh culture does not impact the health of ecosystems
and nsh production, face technical challenges in devel-
                                upon which they depend. A common goal will be to ensure
oping breeding and rearing techniques. The well-estab-
                                that the industry achieves its successes in resource sensi-
lished industries, such as oyster and abalone culture, face
                                tive ways without having to do so under an undue regula-
technical challenges in maintaining production when faced
                                tory burden. Our ability to achieve that goal may hinge on
with environmental change or disease impact. Human-
                                developing trust through effective communication.
caused changes in water quality, for example, present
signicant challenges to culture facilities that are sited
in bays and estuaries. In order to address product safety   Fred Wendell
concerns in these areas, the production of mussels, oys-   California Department of Fish and Game
ters, and clams are often subject to closures or depura-
tion requirements. The presence of a shellsh aquaculture
facility in an area can, as a consequence, provide a con-
tamination early-warning system for sport-harvest of shell-
sh and an assessment of the biological conditions in the
general area. With the exception of concerns related to
the accumulation of biotoxins, changes in water quality do
not present signicant technical challenges in the cultur-
ing of scallops because of the tendency in that industry
to site in offshore areas. Natural changes in water quality
have also hampered shellsh production. Much of the
recent decline in production can be attributed to El Niño-
related impacts, particularly in the culturing of mussels
and abalone. A broader discussion of these technical chal-
lenges can be found in the specic sections that follow
this overview.
Development of a technical response to disease, and con-
forming to regulatory requirements related to disease
control have both inuenced production in the oyster
and abalone industry and have inuenced the success of
white sea bass enhancement efforts. Oyster production
in Tomales Bay, for example, continues to be inuenced



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                493
   Culture of Abalone
    History                                    production then declined slightly through 1998 when 22
                                           aquaculturists produced 162,000 pounds of product valued

    P  ioneering efforts to mass cultivate abalone in Califor-          at $2.4 million. Only 13 of the 22 abalone aquaculturists
      nia began about 35 years ago. Three abalone species,           registered in 1998 were actively producing abalone and
    the red (Haliotis rufescens), the green (H. fulgens), and           most of the production came from four or ve growers.
    the pink (H. corrugata) have been farmed, and research            The decline in participation and production since 1996
    into cultivation techniques has been conducted on the             is attributable, at least in part, to disease impacts exac-
    black (H. cracherodii) and white abalone (H. sorenseni).           erbated to some extent by a signicant El Niño event.
    The red abalone, however, is the mainstay of the industry           Until recently, cultivated abalone had been considered
    and comprises more than 95 percent of total production.            relatively disease-free. The bacterium Vibrio sp. infected
    Abalone are grown in either land-based tanks or in cages           larval cultures, but it was typically suppressed by using
    suspended in the water column. The cages are typically            ltered, ultraviolet treated seawater. That perspective
    tethered from a raft but have also been suspended               changed with the introduction of a parasitic sabellid poly-
    beneath a wharf. Aquaculturists that operate these in-            chaete worm from South Africa. By the mid-1990s, the
    water systems typically obtain small seed abalone from            parasite had spread to virtually every abalone aquaculture
    land-based hatcheries for grow-out.                      facility in the state. The worm induces the infested aba-
    In a typical hatchery operation, ripe brood stock abalone           lone to form a tube for it out of nacreous material. With
    are induced to spawn using hydrogen peroxide or ultravio-           heavy infestations, the abalone shell is brittle and very
    let light treated seawater. Fertilized eggs that successfully         deformed and abalone growth is stunted. Impacts to the
    develop to the veliger swimming stage are transferred to           industry included loss from voluntary stock destruction
    through-owing larval rearing tanks. In about six days at           and reduced income from marketing deformed product.
    59° F, larvae are ready to settle from the planktonic to           Cooperative efforts by the industry, the Department of
    the benthic stage. They are transferred to nursery tanks,           Fish and Game (DFG), and Sea Grant sponsored university
    and commence to feed on diatoms. After six months of             researchers have almost completely eradicated the worm
    growth, half-inch abalone are then transferred to plastic           from California.
    mesh baskets suspended in larger tanks. At this point, the          Unfortunately, the industry also started experiencing ele-
    abalone begin feeding on macroalgae. An additional six            vated losses of cultured product from withering syndrome
    to eight months are required before they reach the size            (WS) during this same time frame. This disease, caused
    where they are transferred to grow-out tanks or in-water           by a rickettsia-like prokaryote, is characterized by a dras-
    systems. After growing in these tanks or in-water systems           tic shrinkage of the abalones’ foot and is always fatal.
    for 20 months or longer, they attain the typical three- to          However, red abalone can be infected by the bacterium
    four-inch shell length preferred by the market.                without showing clinical signs of disease. Research sug-
    The number of participants in this industry and their total          gests that a stress trigger is necessary to induce clinical
    production have increased through time, peaking in 1996.           signs of the disease in this specie. The only recognized
    In 1991, 15 registered abalone aquaculturists in California          stress trigger is elevated water temperature. With the El
    produced an estimated 175,000 pounds of abalone in the            Niño event, many facilities experienced elevated water
    shell. By 1996, 27 registered abalone aquaculturists pro-           temperatures that triggered WS, resulting in elevated
    duced over 292,000 pounds of product. Participation and            mortality in their cultured stock.
                                           The dedicated entrepreneurs at the core of this industry
                                           have achieved their successes despite these challenges
                                           and interest in abalone aquaculture remains high,
                                           prompted in part by the closure of the commercial aba-
                                           lone shery in 1997. Presently, abalone are available to
                                           meet market demands only through importation or the
                                           purchase of cultured abalone. Consequently, there is a
                                           high market demand and a good price to growers for the
                                           farmed product.
                                           A more recent positive development in abalone aquacul-
                                           ture is the production of cultured abalone pearls. The
                                           product is produced by inserting a nucleus into the aba-
                                           lone. Given time, nacre is laid over the nucleus to form
                                           a semi-spherical pearl that has all the lustrous hues of
                                           the shell interior. Once extracted, these pearls are set in
                 Red abalone being grown out on plastic substrate.


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                               December 2001
494
                               References
jewelry and the meat is processed for sale to restaurant




                                                               Culture of Abalone
trade as either a fresh or frozen product.
                               Ebert, E.E. and J.L. Houk. 1984. Elements and innova-
                               tions in the cultivation of red abalone Haliotis rufescens .
Status of Biological Knowledge                Aquaculture 39:375-392.
                               Ebert, E.E. 1992. Abalone aquaculture: a North Amercial
A  considerable amount of research on abalone aquacul-
                               regional review. In, Abalone of the World: Biology, Fish-
  ture has been accomplished by the private sector,
                               ereis, and Culture. S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner, and S.A.
particularly with respect to systems design and overall
                               Guzman del Proo (eds.) Pp. 571-582. Fishing News Books,
technology. University and DFG scientists have also
                               Oxford, United Kingdom.
made major contributions. Sea Grant-funded research has
                               Hahn, K.O. (Editor). 1989. Handbook of culture of aba-
greatly increased our understanding of abalone develop-
                               lone and other marine gastropods. CRC press, Inc., Boca
mental biology. Spawning induction procedures, larval set-
                               Raton, FL.
tlement inducers, and larval rearing systems were devel-
oped by researchers funded through this program. Sea     Leighton, D.L. 1989. Abalone (genus Haliotis) mariculture
Grant-funded research has also contributed signicantly to  on the North American Pacic coast. Fish. Bull., U.S.
our understanding of abalone diseases.            87:689-702.
The DFG began abalone culture investigations in 1971     McBride, Susan C. 1998. Current status of abalone
at its Granite Canyon Laboratory near Monterey. That     aquaculture in the Californias. Jour. Of Shellsh
effort led to the development of a through-owing larval   Research, Vol. 17, No. 3, 593-600.
rearing system and the development of a ush-ll tank
system that have been adopted by the industry. The DFG
subsequently developed a pilot production hatchery at
Granite Canyon that provided training opportunities and
resulted in the production of seed abalone for enhance-
ment research.
The DFG’s Marine Region shellsh pathology laboratory in
Bodega Bay has expanded our knowledge of the biology
of the parasitic sabellid worm that has contributed signi-
cantly to the success that has been achieved in the coop-
erative eradication efforts. That laboratory also identied
the causative agent for WS and has conducted extensive
research into questions related to transmission and control
of this pathogen.
Two principle areas for research, nutrition and genetics,
may provide signicant benets to the industry in the
future. Prepared diets have been developed and are being
used widely for juvenile stages. However, most prepared
feeds are expensive and not readily accepted by adult
abalone in comparison to giant kelp. Less progress has
been made in genetics research. Most growers use a
selection process where brood stock is selected based on
growth rates. Wild broodstock is also used to maintain
genetic diversity in cultured stocks. Some research has
been done with triploidy as a means of enhancing abalone
growth rates. While encouraging, the results have not
been applied broadly within the industry.


Earl Ebert
US Abalone




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                495
   Culture of Mussels
    History                             lagoon and relatively fast growth of juveniles, the shellsh
                                    rm began to culture mussels in 1985. It obtained a

    M  ussels of the genus Mytilus have uctuated in       ve-acre lease for use of the lagoon and began a com-
      importance in California’s commercial and sport      mercial operation following modied Italian longline tech-
    shellsh sheries for food and bait since the early       niques. Mussel seed was placed in a tubular net “stock-
    1900s. Experiments in culturing wild seed stock and       ing” designed specically for mussel growing. The stock-
    in developing hatchery and grow-out methods in the       ing or “reste” was originally imported from Italy, but is
    1980s have increased the economic potential of mussels,     now available to growers from U.S. suppliers. The stock-
    particularly Mytilus galloprovincialis (the Mediterranean    ings were suspended from longlines fty yards long and
    mussel), which occurs primarily in southern and south-     supported by small buoys to keep the stockings off the
    central California.                       bottom. Mussel production at the Carlsbad farm peaked
                                    in 1989, second only to the offshore platform harvest in
    A related species, Mytilus trossulus (the “foolish mussel”)
                                    the Santa Barbara Channel. However, the following year
    is sport-harvested in northern California and hybrids of
                                    the State Department of Health decertied the shellsh
    M. trossulus and galloprovinciallis are commonly found
                                    growing area due to rising coliform counts in the lagoon.
    between Cape Mendocino and Monterey Bay.
                                    Production ceased in 1990 and remained static until a
    The sea mussel, Mytilus californianus, is of minor eco-
                                    certied depuration system, required by the state, was
    nomic importance in California at present, though it is
                                    put into operation in 1992.
    taken by sport harvesters and it is periodically sold by a
                                    In 1985, approximately 104,000 pounds of mussels were
    southern California harvester to restaurants. It is primarily
                                    harvested, primarily from offshore platforms, but by this
    used as bait along the West Coast, but in the 1980s, wild
                                    time a farm in Tomales Bay also had begun to utilize
    harvested sea mussels, highly esteemed by gourmet chefs
                                    European longline methods to grow mussels. Over the
    in Oregon, were sold to ne restaurants in Portland and
                                    next seven years, three to ve other Tomales Bay oyster
    still may have a future in California.
                                    growers diversied into mussel production. These growers
    Between 1916 and 1927, a total of over 470,000 pounds
                                    utilized wild-caught and hatchery reared seed, with the
    of mussels, ranging from 9,000 to 69,000 pounds per
                                    latter being relied upon more in the late 1980s, as natural
    year, were landed in California. After 1927, most areas
                                    recruitment during this period was often erratic and unre-
    were closed to harvest by the California Department of
                                    liable. After a brief period of expansion, several Tomales
    Health Services due to a major outbreak that year of
                                    Bay growers ceased all but minimal production in the mid-
    paralytic shellsh poisoning. Mussel landings declined to
                                    1990s to concentrate on oyster culture. By the fall of
    1,610 pounds in 1928 and stayed depressed until 1972,
                                    2000, only one company was producing commercial quan-
    when a record 111,000 pounds were landed, primarily
                                    tities of mussels. These are sold exclusively to local
    for bait. Bait sales continued to be the most signicant
                                    restaurants around Tomales Bay. At least three other
    commercial activity for California mussels until improved
                                    growers have the capability to produce commercial quan-
    methods of harvesting wild stocks were developed, new
                                    tities and may scale up their operations again if market
    culture methods were adopted, and West Coast markets
                                    conditions improve.
    began developing for this tasty shellsh in the early 1980s.
                                    On the north coast, an oyster grower operating in Mad
    Research on harvesting wild-set Mediterranean mussels
                                    River Slough, Humboldt County, began farming mussels in
    from offshore oil-production platforms for food was initi-
                                    1992 using the oating raft culture method. Seed mussels,
    ated in the Santa Barbara Channel in 1979. Divers rou-
                                    attached to a line inside exible plastic mesh netting, are
    tinely removed fouling organisms from the submerged
                                    suspended from the raft during grow-out. Cultured mus-
    support structures of offshore platforms at considerable
                                    sels from Humboldt Bay were initially used, but since the
    expense to oil companies. An ecological consulting rm,
                                    mid-1990s, wild juvenile mussels collected from the bay
    hired to suggest ways to control the biofouling, found that
                                    have been the primary source of seed. The mature
    various stages of the succession of organisms included
                                    mussels are sold locally at farmers’ markets and restau-
    settlement and growth of edible mussels, both M. gal-
                                    rants. One other Humboldt Bay operation began experi-
    loprovincialis and M. californianus. Recognizing the poten-
                                    menting with mussel grow-out in 2001, using wild seed
    tial for food production and increasing market demand for
                                    stock and following the raft culture method used in Mad
    high quality shellsh, the owners of the rm contracted
                                    River Slough.
    with various offshore oil companies to test the feasibility
                                    The total state mussel production tripled in 1986, reach-
    of harvesting and marketing the mussels.
                                    ing more than 334,000 pounds, with over 90 percent
    Experimental mussel, oyster, and clam culture also began
                                    harvested from platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel
    in 1983 in Aqua Hedionda Lagoon near Carlsbad. Taking
                                    and the remainder from Tomales Bay. Statewide produc-
    advantage of excellent natural mussel spatfalls in the


      California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                        December 2001
496
tion dropped slightly in 1987 to approximately 286,000     a cooperative effort was initiated by a Humboldt County




                                                                Culture of Mussels
pounds and decreased further in 1988 to 151,000 pounds,     shellsh nurseryman to produce the rst commercial
due to major winter storms, which dislodged market-ready    quantities of hatchery-reared mussel seed on the West
mussels from platform structures. Production jumped to     Coast. Growers utilized a variety of substrates and set
over 300,000 pounds in 1989 but dropped to 130,000       the spat at different densities. A wide range of results,
pounds in 1990 when the Carlsbad rm ceased production,     from zero survival to excellent survival and growth were
continuing a slide in 1991 to a low of only 47,000 pounds.   reported. The methods of growing out seed evolved and
During the next six years (1992 through 1997), with the     matured in Tomales Bay and in the Puget Sound area of
Carlsbad rm back in production, increasing harvest from    Washington state but were not proven on a commercial
offshore platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel, and      scale in south-central and southern California as growers
steady production in Tomales Bay, the statewide total rose   continued to utilize natural seed.
from 187,000 pounds to 471,000 pounds. Strong winter      The ve participating growers in Tomales Bay purchased
storms following warm El Niño seawater conditions in the    larger (0.5-1.0 inch) seed, which could be grown to market
fall of 1997 caused havoc to mussel production throughout    size in six to nine months. Excessive predation on matur-
the state the following year. An economically devastating    ing mussels by scoter ducks and on small natural-set seed
drop in production of nearly 50 percent, to 256,000       by schools of perch over time proved burdensome to
pounds, occurred in 1998. One of the large southern Cali-    most of the shellsh growers who were concentrating on
fornia growers stated that spawning and recruitment were    oysters as their primary product. All but one company in
both affected by these events. A colder water regime in     Tomales Bay ceased or minimized their mussel operations,
1999 - 2000 improved the recruitment situation and has     citing competition from low-cost imported mussels as
been encouraging to growers.                  the reason.
Mussels harvested during the ve years between 1986       Southern California mussel companies also face stiff com-
and 1990 provided a return of $1.17 million to California    petition from imports, and also must cope with water
growers. Steady expansion of production during the fol-     quality uctuations, especially in nearshore areas or
lowing ve years between 1991 to 1995 increased state-     embayments. One south-coast aquaculturist has built a
wide returns to $2.06 million. Return to growers dipped     depuration system for bivalve shellsh, one of the rst in
in 1996 and 1997 to about $500 thousand per year with a     California. The grower has been able to use a protected
critical drop in 1998 to $280 thousand.             lagoon to grow mussels, which are relayed to the onshore
The wholesale price has not changed signicantly over the    depuration system prior to sale. By utilizing seawater
past 15 years still ranging from $1.10 to $1.25 per pound.   treated with ultraviolet violet light to eliminate harmful
Retail/restaurant prices have increased slightly from $2.00   bacteria, he can produce wholesome, high quality mussels.
in 1990 to $2.25 in 2000. Direct sale prices to the public at
farmers markets and retail shellsh farms has increased,
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
varying between $2.50 per pound in southern California
and $4 per pound in the Tomales and San Francisco Bay

                                G  enetic studies utilizing protein electrophoresis in the
area. The retail/restaurant price in Humboldt County is
                                   late 1980s showed that there were two distinct forms
slightly higher at $2.50 per pound and direct sales at
                                of edulis-like mussels on the West Coast that are mor-
farmers’ markets are intermediate at $3.00 per pound.
                                phometrically similar. One of these forms is electropho-
California growers continue to face stiff competition from   retically indistinguishable from M. galloprovincialis, the
mussels imported from eastern Canada, New Zealand,       Mediterranean mussel, which is known to have recently
Maine, and Washington due to the advent of low cost air     colonized many disparate shores around the world. The
transport of fresh shellsh and individual ash freezing    other form is also distinct from the Atlantic M. edulis
methods. Competing on the world market is a challenge      and was designated M. trossulus, the Pacic Northwest
to California producers, because of massive production     mussel. It was found from Alaska to central California.
of mussels in China, Korea, New Zealand, Australia, and     The two forms occur together and are reported to hybrid-
other Pacic Rim countries. Expansion of the industry is    ize with one another. Several genetic studies in the late
dependent on the maintenance of clean growing areas,      1990s have conrmed that M. galloprovincialis is found
a supportive regulatory environment, aggressive market-     principally south of the Monterey Peninsula and M. tros-
ing, and dependable sources of seed. Climatic and oceano-    sulus is found primarily north of Cape Mendocino. A zone
graphic events have also had signicant impacts on the     of hybridization has been documented between these two
economic health of this industry.                distinct coastal features.
Until 1986, all mussels grown commercially in California
were set or collected as wild or natural seed. In 1985,


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                497
           The hybridization and geographic range issues regarding     considered to be the main food item providing energy for
Culture of Mussels



           M. trossulus in central and northern California confound    rapid growth.
           the interpretation of earlier life history studies of mussels  Competition for space is an important factor inuencing
           taxonomically classied as M. edulis, but, regardless of    growth and survival of mussels, both in wild and cultured
           the taxonomic issue, all mussels share many common bio-     populations. Mytilids of the same and different species
           logical traits as they are all members of the bivalve class   compete for limited space in the rocky intertidal and
           Pelecypoda (hatchet feet). Mussels have separate sexes,     subtidal growing areas. Cultured mussels on articial sub-
           though some hermaphrodism occurs. There is evidence       strates also can become overcrowded if seed stocking den-
           that changes in water temperatures, physical stimulation    sities are too high. Crowding causes instability of mussel
           (such as disturbance by winter storms), variation in light   masses and, when coupled with high current speeds, tur-
           levels, or phytoplankton blooms may stimulate spawning.     bulence, and drifting materials, losses frequently occur.
           Spawning in M. californianus occurs throughout the year     Barnacles and sea anemones also compete for space
           at a very low level, with peaks in July and December.      with mussels.
           The spawning and recruitment of M. galloprovincialis also    Predators of California mussel species are abundant. They
           occurs year round, although it is heaviest in February,     include two sea stars, ve species of muricid gastropods,
           March, and April and again in September and October in     and three crabs. Scoter ducks, the black oyster- catcher,
           southern California. Mussels reaching 1.6 inches are found   shiner perch, and the sea otter are also important preda-
           to have gonads in various stages of development and are     tors in coastal waters.
           able to spawn.
                                           An invasive species of algae, Caulerpa taxifolia, recently
           When spawning occurs in the natural environment, eggs      found in a southern California lagoon is another concern of
           and sperm are discharged through the excurrent chamber     both mussel growers and resource managers. Known for its
           and fertilization takes place in the open ocean or estuary.   progressive smothering of the Mediterranean seaoor, the
           Within 24 hours, the embryo develops into free-swimming     alga is the focus of an intensive effort by state and federal
           trochophore larva that grows into a more advanced veliger    regulators to eradicate the species before it spreads.
           stage, again, within 24 hours. The development of the
                                           Mussels are used in California and other parts of the world
           ciliated velum (approximately 48 hours after fertilization)
                                           as sentinel species in “mussel watch” programs to monitor
           gives the larvae more control in swimming and in gather-
                                           various organic and inorganic pollutants. As lter feeders,
           ing food. The veliger is also known as the “straight-hinge”
                                           mussels also ingest and concentrate toxin-producing spe-
           stage, denoting the appearance of the rst shell. In two
                                           cies of phytoplankton that periodically bloom along
           to three weeks, veligers begin metamorphosis, a stage
                                           the Pacic coast. The California Department of Health
           preceded by the development of an eyespot (a photo-
                                           Services utilizes mussels as bio-toxin indicators in a state-
           sensitive organ) and a foot. This is the pediveliger stage,
                                           wide monitoring program staffed by volunteers. A quaran-
           during which the veliger changes from a swimming larva to
                                           tine on sport harvest is imposed between May 1 and
           a bottom dwelling juvenile mussel or spat (seed).
                                           October 1 when the probability of toxic phytoplankton
           Newly settled mussels attach to substrates with protein-    uptake in mussels is high. However, commercially grown
           aceous threads (byssus or byssal threads) that are secreted   mussels may continue to be harvested during this period
           by the postlarvae. Young mussels have the unique ability    as long as constant testing assures that only a safe, whole-
           to detach their byssus, crawl to a different location, or    some, and non-toxic product is available to the consumer.
           drift away in a current to seek a more favorable substrate,
           and reattach. This trait is considered to be a signicant
           problem for growers, as postlarvae have disappeared from
           various substrates soon after placement in open water.
           Growth rates of both M. galloprovincialis and M. califor-
           nianus have been reported to be at least 0.25 inch per
           month and as high as 0.5 inch per month in the Santa
           Barbara Channel. Growth rate is inuenced primarily by
           the quantity and quality of food, rather than temperature,
           and mussels achieved a two-inch shell length in six to
           eight months.
           Food consumed by mussels includes dinoagellates,
           organic particles, small diatoms, zoospores, protozoa, uni-
           cellular algae, bacteria, and detritus. Phytoplankton is



             California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                        December 2001
498
                                                                    Culture of Mussels
                500
thousands of pounds harvested


                400                                Commercial Harvest
   Cultured Mussels




                                                  1986-1999, Cultured Mussels
                                                  Annual pounds of cultivated
                300
                                                  mussels landed by State aquacul-
                                                  ture producers. Harvest data for
                200                                1997-1999 include only mussels
                                                  cultivated in Tomales Bay and
                                                  Drakes Estero. Data Source:
                100
                                                  California State Tax records
                                                  (royalties reports) and DFG Aqua-
                 0  1986  1990                  1999     culture Harvest Survey Database.




                             References
Management Considerations
                             Coan, E.V., P.V. Scott, and F.R. Bernard. 2000. Bivalve
See the Management Considerations Appendix for further
                             seashells of the western North America: marine bivalve
information.
                             mollusks from Arctic Alaska to Baja California. Santa Bar-
                             bara Museum of Natural History Monographs No 2; Studies
John B. Richards                     in Biodiversity No. 2 Santa Barbara, CA. 746 p.
University of California, Santa Barbara
                             McDonald, J.H. and R.K. Koehn. 1988. The mussels Mytilus
George A. Trevelyan                   galloprovincialis and M. trossulus on the Pacic coast of
Abalone Farms, Inc.                   North America. Mar. Biol. 79: 117-176.
Revised by:                       Price, R.J. 1989. Paralytic shellsh poisoning and red
John B. Richards                     tides. California Sea Grant Extension Program 89-1, Univer-
University of California, Santa Barbara         sity of California, Davis. 2 pp.
                             Rawson, P.D., V. Agrawal, T.J. Hilbish. 1999. Hybridization
                             between Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus along
                             the Pacic coast: evidence for limited introgression. Mar.
                             Biol. 134(1):201-211.
                             Suchanek, T.H.; J.B. Geller, B.R. Kreiser, and J.B. Mitton.
                             1997. Zoogeographic distributions of the sibling species
                             Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus (Bivalvia: Mytili-
                             dae) and their hybrids in the North Pacic. Biol. Bull.
                             193(2): 187-194.
                             Trevelyan, G.A. 1991. Aquacultural ecology of hatchery-
                             produced juvenile mussels, Mytilus edulis L. Ph.D. Dis-
                             sertation, University of California, Davis.




   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                       A Status Report                        499
   Culture of Oysters
    History                                California by sailing ships. Successful transport of oysters
                                       was achieved only after the completion of the trans-

    C  alifornia’s oyster shery and oyster aquaculture indus-      continental railroad in 1869. Shipments of juvenile and
      try have had a rich and colorful tradition. American        market-sized oysters were transported by rail in barrels of
    Indians harvested the oyster resource for thousands of         sawdust and ice and transplanted into San Francisco Bay.
    years before Spanish, Tsarist Russian, and European set-        Cool summer water temperatures, however, prevented
    tlers occupied the West Coast. A substantial commercial        successful natural reproduction of the Eastern oyster.
    oyster shery began in the 1850s, when settlers from          Transcontinental trade for Eastern oyster seed was fully
    the East Coast attracted to California by the prospect         established by 1875. Small, one-inch seed was trans-
    of gold and new opportunities created larger markets for        planted in San Francisco Bay for further growth. The
    oysters. The increased population and market pressure         Shoalwater Bay trade for Olympia oysters was gradually
    for oysters had an immediate impact on the state’s shell-       terminated, and from 1872 until the early 1900s Califor-
    sh resources. The only available oyster was the Native        nia’s San Francisco Bay Eastern oyster industry was the
    oyster (Ostreola conchaphila; previously O. lurida; also        largest oyster industry on the West Coast. Maximum pro-
    called Olympia oyster in the Pacic Northwest), which was       duction was reached in 1899 with an estimated 2.5 million
    intensively shed, causing a rapid decline in the natural       pounds of oyster meat.
    population. In response, Native oysters were transported
                                       With California’s population and industrial growth came
    from Shoalwater Bay, Washington (Willapa Bay), and later
                                       a degradation of water quality in San Francisco Bay. By
    from other bays in the Pacic Northwest and Mexico,
                                       1908, Eastern oyster production had fallen by 50 percent.
    representing the initial attempts at oyster culture on the
                                       By 1921, oyster meat quality declined to the extent that
    West Coast. Oysters were transplanted into San Francisco
                                       shipments of seed from the East Coast were terminated,
    Bay, where they were maintained on oyster beds and then
                                       and by 1939 the last of the San Francisco Bay oysters were
    marketed throughout central California. The Shoalwater
                                       commercially harvested. Oysters were still transported
    Bay trade of Olympia oysters dominated the California
                                       and held in Tomales Bay until they could be marketed
    market from 1850 through 1869. Market demand for a
                                       in San Francisco, but the industry based on the Eastern
    larger, half-shell product stimulated experiments in trans-
                                       oyster did not recover. The industry and state began re-
    porting the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) from the
                                       examining earlier experimental plantings using the Pacic
    Atlantic states to the West Coast. Several failed attempts
                                       oyster (Crassostrea gigas), which originated in Japan.
    were made to establish transport of the Eastern oyster to
                                       The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) and
                                       commercial growers conducted experimental plantings of
                                       Pacic oysters in Tomales Bay and Elkhorn Slough in 1929.
                                       Experimental plantings continued in a number of bays,
                                       including Drakes Estero, Bodega Lagoon, and Morro, New-
                                       port, and San Francisco bays, throughout the 1930s. Hum-
                                       boldt Bay was excluded from plantings while the DFG
                                       tried to re-establish natural populations of Native oysters.
                                       Several Pacic oyster plantings proved successful, dem-
                                       onstrating that imported Pacic oyster seed could be
                                       grown commercially in California. Shipments of seed from
                                       Japan were made through the 1930s, suspended from 1940
                                       through 1946, and increased signicantly in 1947. The
                                       imported seed was inspected in Japan by both DFG per-
                                       sonnel and commercial producers prior to shipment. DFG
                                       personnel examined the shell for organisms considered
                                       harmful if introduced into state waters.
                                       Boxes containing oyster shell with attached young oysters
                                       (spat) were transported by ship in wooden crates kept
                                       moist with seawater. With the inux of seed oysters, the
                                       industry began its recovery in California and on the West
                                       Coast. The DFG lifted its restriction on Pacic oyster seed
                                       in Humboldt Bay in 1953, and in the next 30 years, the
                                       California industry showed rapid growth with production
                      Growing Oysters in Tomales Bay
                             Credit: Fred Conte


      California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                            December 2001
500
                                                                 Commercial Harvest*




                                                                                     Culture of Oysters
                2.00                                                1960-1999, Cultured Oysters
millions of pounds harvested

                                                                 Annual pounds of cultivated
                1.75
                                                                 oysters harvested by State aqua-
                1.50
   Cultured Oysters




                                                                 culture producers. Data Source:
                                                                 California State Tax records
                1.25
                                                                  (royalties reports) and DFG Aqua-
                1.00                                                culture Harvest Survey Database.
                                                                 * Packed weight is estimated to
                0.75
                                                                 be 15.5 percent of live weight
                0.50
                                                                 for C. gigas and 10.9 percent for
                                                                 C. virginica. Shucked gallons are
                0.25
                                                                 calculated as 8.6 pounds/gallon
                0.00  1960  1970   1980            1990              1999      for C. gigas and 8.5 pounds/gallon
                                for C. virginica. Cultchless oysters, C. sikamea and a large portion of C. gigas are sold as shellstock.


centered in Humboldt Bay, Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay,     water. Other less prominent species produced by hatcher-
Elkhorn Slough, and Morro Bay.                 ies have included the European oyster (O. edulis) and
                                some Eastern oyster (C. virginica). The ability to ship
The West Coast oyster industry initiated other signicant
                                oyster larvae long distances and set the spat at the
changes in the early 1980s, which have had a signicant
                                growout areas has signicantly reduced the cost of seed.
impact on the industry nationally. These changes include
                                The last shipment of Japanese seed to California was
the development of U.S. based shellsh hatcheries for the
                                in 1989.
domestic production of Pacic oyster seed, and the ability
to ship advanced hatchery-produced oyster larvae (swim-    The level of oyster production within the various bays
ming stage) to growout sites where the larvae are placed    has uctuated throughout the years, primarily because of
in tanks containing cleaned shell and heated seawater for   water quality, the bay’s ability to produce good standing
spat production. In this process called remote setting,    crops of algae on which oysters feed, the adequacy of
the larvae settle on clean oyster or scallop shell, called   selected sites, and the nancial viability of the various
mother shell or cultch, attach and metamorphose into the    oyster operations. All growing areas are classied and
more familiar at young oyster called spat. Spatted cultch   certied by the California Department of Health Services
ultimately results in about nine to 13 market-sized oysters  (CDHS) based on health-related water quality standards
clustered on remnants of the old mother shell.         established and regulated by the Interstate Shellsh Sani-
                                tation Conference (ISSC) and the National Shellsh Sanita-
Another hatchery product is cultchless oyster seed that
                                tion Program (NSSP). Water-bottom and offshore growout
are grown out as individual oysters exclusively for the half
                                areas are leased from the state through the Fish and Game
shell market. Cultchless seed are produced by setting the
                                Commission, harbor and recreation districts, or belong to
larvae on sand or nely crushed oyster shell, resulting
                                private corporations.
in unattached, individual oysters. Many California growers
purchase cultchless seed from California-based advanced    The industry uses a variety of oyster culture methods
seed producers. These producers receive 3.0 to 5.0       depending on the targeted market, the physical character-
mm cultchless seed from a hatchery, then use oating      istics of the production bay and the need to protect the
upweller systems (FUS) to hold the seed in ow-through     younger oysters from predators such as bat rays, rock
containers receiving bay water containing algae. The      crabs, and drills (snails). Culture methods are also inu-
oyster seed increases in size and is more easily handled in  enced by factors such as substrate type, current velocity,
mesh bags used by the end producer. Individual growers     tidal range, and phytoplankton productivity. California
are also adopting and expanding their own land-based FUS    oysters are grown from spat to market size in about 13
and downwellers to cut the cost of seed and assume the     to 18 months, depending on the bay and the culture
responsibility of early seed growth. All oysters grown in   method used.
California currently are produced from hatcheries located   California oyster production is currently centered in four
in Washington, Oregon and Hawaii.               areas, Arcata Bay located in the North Humboldt Bay
The hatchery systems primarily produce two species of     complex, Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay and Morro Bay. Morro
Pacic oysters; the Pacic oyster (C. gigas) and the Kuma-   Bay oyster production has declined in recent years, but
moto oyster (C. sikamea) which also originated in Japan    techniques have included bottom, rack-and-bag, and stake
and does not reproduce in California’s cooler summertime    culture. Shellsh producers in the Santa Barbara Channel


   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December 2001                             A Status Report                                    501
           have used a system of longlines with attached bags of     to an anchored line which suspends the bags vertically in
Culture of Oysters



           European oysters suspended from offshore rafts in the     the water or secures the bags on a stable, hard bottom,
           deep waters, but have discontinued production in recent    intertidal area. Bags can also be maintained horizontally
           years. Shellsh producers also cultured cultchless oysters   at the surface using oats. To maintain the prime oyster
           in Agua Hedionda Lagoon, located north of San Diego, but    shape for the half shell market, the bags must be moved
           have switched to mussel production which was considered    frequently to prevent the individual oysters from growing
           more suitable to the area.                   together and resulting in an irregular shape.
           Humboldt Bay growers use a variety of oyster culture      Total annual oyster production for California has uctu-
           methods, but the predominate method has been bottom      ated throughout the industry’s history, reecting cyclic
           culture of Pacic oysters. In bottom culture, cultch with   shellsh mortalities (“Summer Mortality Syndrome”, SMS),
           attached spat is spread over leased areas in the bay,     availability of seed oysters, economic conditions, and the
           the oysters are grown to about four inches and are then    nancial stability of individual companies. With the advent
           harvested by hand picking and hydraulic dredge. Most of    of hatchery technology and remote setting of oyster seed,
           California’s shucked oyster product is from bottom culture   the industry demonstrated signicant growth from the
           in Humboldt Bay. Because of environmental concerns and     mid-1980s to a second post-1960s peak in the mid-1990s.
           the impact of hydraulic dredging on eelgrass, growers     Reduced production after 1994 directly reects several
           are currently changing about 85 percent of their bottom    industry setbacks, which include nancial restructuring
           culture production over a period of about three years     after the 1990s recession, extended bay harvest closures
           to off-bottom, longline culture of the Kumamoto oyster.    due to sanitary degradation and oil spills, and recurrence
           The Kumamoto oyster derives a higher market price as      of cyclic SMS. Several of these factors have been resolved,
           non-shucked shellstock, and the remaining bottom culture    and production increases are expected. The data repre-
           will be targeted for the peak shucked-oyster market in     sents a conversion of all oyster products to a common
           November and December. Environmental and economical      denominator of shucked pounds of oysters expressed as
           studies are being conducted to determine the impacts of    packed weight. Total production in recent years is primar-
           these changes on both the health of the bay and the      ily Pacic and Kumamoto oysters. Annual Eastern oyster
           economic health of the industry.                production has been 20 pounds or less for the past
                                          three years.
           Longline culture primarily consists of a series of notched
           PVC pipe set in the substrate with twisted line stretched   Oyster products are marketed as shucked meat in gallons
           over the apex of the poles. Spatted cultch is inserted     and 10-oz jars, and as shellstock for the half-shell and bar-
           at intervals between the strands of the line which hold    becue markets. The shucked product is marketed as small
           the growing oysters above the substrate. The lines con-    (200/gallon), medium (140/gallon), and large (100/gallon).
           taining the clustered oysters are harvested on a ood tide,  Shellstock is marketed as small (2.5-3.5 inches), medium
           thereby reducing disturbance to the substrate or associ-    (3.5-4.5 inches), large (4.5+ inches) sold by the dozen,
           ated eelgrass. Other forms of culture are off-bottom tech-   and clusters (attached, mixed). The demand for oyster
           niques, including bags of cultchless oysters supported by   products far exceeds the state’s production level, and the
           low racks and oating oyster bags attached to longlines.    majority of shellsh products consumed in the state are
                                          imported from the Pacic Northwest and the Atlantic and
           Drakes Estero has one of the largest off-bottom, rack
                                          Gulf states. California’s product is considered prime, and
           culture systems in the west. Like all off-bottom culture,
                                          its production areas are among the best in the country.
           the method is used primarily to avoid predators, use more
           of the water column, and avoid siltation that occurs when   The CDHS has regulatory responsibility over shellsh prod-
           the oysters rest on the substrate. The rack culture system   uct safety and periodically conducts sanitary surveys with
           uses spatted mother shells strung on short lines with a    the Federal Food and Drug Administration under worst-
           tube spacer separating each mother shell. The short lines   case scenarios such as heavy rain to determine growing
           are hung in an inverted u-shape over the horizontal rails of  area water quality and sanitation conditions. Two essential
           wooden racks set in the bay.                  programs are the monitoring of the bays for indications
                                          of contamination, including human sewage, and for the
           Tomales Bay growers also use a variety of off-bottom tech-
                                          occurrence of natural biotoxins such as paralytic shellsh
           niques including rack-and-bag, stick and bag, and bag and
                                          poison produced by toxic phytoplankton. The programs
           longline culture. Rack-and-bag culture uses cultchless seed
                                          are designed to provide a safe product for the consumer
           that is rst grown in trays, upwellers and downwellers, or
                                          and an early warning system for people sport-harvesting
           oating, rotating, mesh cylinders. After initial growth, the
                                          shellsh in noncommercial areas. The water and meat
           small oysters are transferred to a series of different sized
                                          quality monitoring programs conducted by the CDHS also
           mesh bags positioned on low racks in the bay. Bag and
                                          provide an assessment of the biological condition of the
           longline culture use cultchless seed in mesh bags attached


             California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                        December 2001
502
bays, which is essential information used by all agencies    blades and incubate for about 10 days before release.




                                                               Culture of Oysters
to prevent a reoccurrence of events which led to the      Once expelled, the advanced larvae swim freely and feed
contamination of San Francisco Bay.               on phytoplankton before settlement and metamorphosis
                                (Native, 14-18 days; European, 10-14 days).
                                The Pacic, Kumamoto and Eastern oysters are alternative
Status of Biological Knowledge                 hermaphrodites; sex change occurs, but its timing is


O
                                erratic. They have a tendency for protandry in their
   ysters are bivalve mollusks that exhibit a variety of
                                rst year, but the tendency is not as strong as that of
   sizes, shapes, shell textures and colors, and vary in
                                Native and European oysters. They are oviparous (broad-
their mode of reproduction and sexual expression. These
                                cast spawners); the eggs are immediately released and
biological and physical features inuence where they grow
                                fertilization takes place in the environment. Mature, egg-
and how they reproduce, which in turn inuence com-
                                carrying females spawn at about 63-77˚ F, depending on
mercial aspects such as culture practices and marketing
                                the species, variety, and latitude. Water temperatures
strategy. The depth of the shell cup and the shape of
                                required to establish a natural population are higher
the oyster inuence market price of shellstock. Individual
                                than those consistently found in California. Since natural
oysters conform to the shape of the substrate to which
                                spawning and successful reproduction rarely take place in
they are attached and are therefore highly variable in
                                California, the oysters are spawned and reared in shellsh
shape. In addition, shell shape, texture, and color are all
                                hatcheries at about 77˚ F. The eggs hatch into free-swim-
inuenced by the oyster’s genetics and physical environ-
                                ming trochophores, then become veliger larvae. Within
ment such as salinity, attachment substrate, crowding
                                three to ve days these larvae settle, attach to a sub-
by other oysters and food. They feed on phytoplankton
                                strate, and metamorphose to spat.
and nutrient-bearing detritus by pumping water over
their gills, ltering the food material and passing it into   The Native oyster is California’s only indigenous oyster
the mouth.                           species and occurs along the Pacic coast from Sitka,
                                Alaska to Cape San Lucas, Baja California. The largest con-
All oysters have a typical molluscan trochophore larva
                                centrations occur in the Pacic Northwest along the coast
that develops into a veliger larvae capable of ltering
                                of Washington’s Puget Sound and in Willapa Bay. Although
food, swimming, and selecting a suitable substrate for
                                still grown commercially in Washington in specially con-
attachment. The microscopic veliger settles, cements its
                                structed beds, natural concentrations are not abundant
left valve to the substrate, and undergoes metamorphosis
                                enough to support commercial endeavors. Populations of
into an oyster spat. For the rest of its life the attached
                                the Native oyster are still relatively low in California.
spat will compete for space and nutrients and, if it sur-
                                Some protection of existing populations is provided by
vives, will grow into the adult form. The ve oysters
                                sport shing regulations, which allow a daily harvest of 35
now found in California belong to the family Ostreidae.
                                native oysters under the general invertebrate bag limit.
They represent two groups characterized by biological
                                The adult is about one to three inches in length and more
variations, including different modes of sexual expression,
                                often irregular in shape. Shell textures vary from smooth
reproduction, and dispersal of young. The exact tempera-
                                to rough with concentric growth lines, and the exterior
ture at which the oysters will spawn and the rate of larval
                                has purple-brown to brown axial bands. The two shell
development and growth depend on a variety of factors,
                                valves are symmetrical; their interior is shades of olive-
including species, genetics and latitude of the breeding
                                green and can have a metallic sheen. The internal shell’s
population. Natural spawning is also inuenced by lunar
                                muscle scar in adults is usually centrally located and
periodicity and tides.
                                unpigmented.
The Native and European oysters are rhythmical consecu-
                                The Native oyster is found in many of California’s coastal
tive hermaphrodites; they can change sex either annually
                                inlets, especially mudats and gravel bars located near
or at closer intervals. In their rst year, they are strongly
                                the mouth of small rivers and streams. It cannot withstand
protandric; the rst expression of sex at maturity is male.
                                high temperatures or frost when exposed, and does not
They may become female in the same year or in the
                                survive low salinity or turbid water. The natural beds
following year if environmental conditions are good and
                                are invariably located in the low intertidal and subtidal
food is plentiful. They are also larviparous (brooders);
                                zone of bays, where the oyster is better protected from
fertilization of eggs is internal, and the larvae are held
                                both prolonged hot summer surface water temperatures
for a period of time before release. Mature, egg-carrying
                                and extreme cold winter water conditions. The oysters
females spawn at about 59-63˚ F. The eggs are released
                                are often found clinging to rocky outcroppings or other
into the female’s own mantle cavity and are fertilized as
                                structures that offer protection from rays and other
she takes in water containing the male’s sperm. When
                                predatory sh.
the eggs hatch, the veliger larvae are held by the gill-


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                503
           Adult European oysters are about three to four inches in   ciated oyster diseases are usually conned within the
Culture of Oysters



           length, with a poorly developed beak that gives the valves  hatchery. When identied, the stocks are destroyed and
           an oval to round shape. The left or attachment valve     systems disinfected. This is a protective measure for the
           is larger and more deeply cupped than the right valve,    natural resource and considered the most economically
           with 20 to 30 ribs and irregular, concentric lamellae. The  practical approach by the industry.
           upper, smaller valve is at, with numerous concentric     Field-associated oyster diseases are not common, but they
           lamellae but no ribs. The hinge ligament consists of three  do occur. Two examples of the most signicant of these
           parts: a middle, at part on the left valve and two projec-  diseases for the West Coast are “Summer Mortality Syn-
           tions on the right. The internal valves are white, and the  drome” (SMS) of Pacic oysters, and “Bonamiasis” of Euro-
           muscle scar is eccentrically positioned and unpigmented.   pean oysters. Summer mortality of Pacic oysters was rst
           Adult Eastern oysters may vary in length from two to six   reported in the 1960s with mortality levels as high as 65
           inches. The shells are asymmetrical, highly variable in    percent of adult Pacic oysters. Oyster losses attributed
           texture and shape, and greatly inuenced by environmen-    to SMS have uctuated over the years, and studies have
           tal conditions. The external shell is usually a shade of   addressed the initiating agent as possible unknown patho-
           gray, and the internal valves white with a variable-colored  gens, environmental factors and impacts, and stressors
           muscle scar, usually deep purple. The left valve is longer  such as the combination of depleted energy reserves and
           than the right, not deeply cupped, and the beak is usually  attempted gonadal maturation. SMS was researched for
           elongated and strongly curved. The shell margins are usu-   decades without resolving the cause. In 1993 and 1994,
           ally straight or only slightly undulating, and the inner   summer mortalities of Pacic oyster seed in Tomales Bay
           margins of the valves are smooth.               reached 52 and 63 percent respectively, and were associ-
                                          ated with elevated water temperatures above 20˚C and
           The adult Pacic oyster ranges from about four to six
                                          a dinoagellate bloom. Pathological examination and his-
           inches in length. The shell is coarse, with widely spaced
                                          tology suggested that these mortalities were related to
           concentric lamella and ridges. The shell is thinner than
                                          environmental causes and not an infectious agent. SMS
           that of Eastern oysters yet more deeply cupped. The
                                          appears to be cyclic, may be related to decadal cycles,
           Kumamoto oyster is smaller but is prized for its deeper
                                          and is the most signicant mortality-related event experi-
           cup. It spawns in the fall in nature and grows more
                                          enced on the West Coast of the United States. In addition,
           slowly than the Pacic. The Miyagi is the principal variety
                                          as the losses are a “syndrome” and are not caused by a
           of Pacic oyster grown on the West Coast. The Pacic
                                          specic pathogen, multiple etiologies may result in oyster
           oyster’s shape may be highly variable and greatly inu-
                                          deaths during the summer. The type of stress that results
           enced by environmental conditions. The upper, at, right
                                          in losses may also uctuate over time, making diagnosis of
           valve is smaller than the left, and the inner surface of
                                          the cause(s) and management of losses difcult. Growers
           the valves is white with a faint purple hue over the
                                          are attempting to circumvent the problem by not planting
           muscle scar.
                                          Pacic oyster seed during the warmer months from May
           Oyster disease and shellsh pests are a major concern
                                          to October. However, seed availability during the cooler
           to the state resource agencies and the oyster industry.
                                          months has been a problem. Growers report that cooler
           Because the West Coast industry depends on the move-
                                          bay water temperatures in 1999 appear to have moderated
           ment of animals across state lines, the industry is subject
                                          the mortality rate from that experienced previously.
           to regulations established through cooperative agree-
                                          Bonamiasis of the European oyster, caused by a parasite,
           ments between resource agencies. All oyster seed and
                                          has impacted the oyster industry to the same extent as
           shellstock not destined for a terminal market that cross
                                          SMS, as it has contributed to the inability to establish
           state lines are examined for the presence of disease and
                                          European oyster culture in California. The parasite infects
           exotic “hitchhikers” (pests) which could be harmful to nat-
                                          the oyster’s blood cells, destroys its immune system, and
           ural resources and commercial interests. Seed and shell-
                                          impacts other physiological processes.
           stock that do not pass certication are destroyed through
           cooperative agreements with the state and the industry.    Of recent concern is the 1980s discovery in California
           The various state natural resource agencies have a coop-   of a haplosporidium similar to that which causes MSX
           erative program which regulates the interstate movement    or Delaware Bay Disease on the East Coast. West Coast
           of shellsh seed and seedstock.                producers have not experienced the cyclic, catastrophic
                                          haplosporidia diseases that have occurred on the East
           Oyster diseases on the West Coast most frequently occur
                                          Coast, despite movement of Eastern oysters between the
           in hatcheries, but a few signicant oyster diseases have
                                          coasts. It has been conrmed that the organism is the
           been reported from the eld. Hatchery conditions are
                                          causative agent of MSX of Eastern oysters. The organism
           articial environments which can stress oysters and render
                                          is found among Pacic oysters in one bay in California
           them susceptible to an array of infections. Hatchery-asso-


             California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                       December 2001
504
                                Future Trends
but is not associated with signicant mortalities. Morpho-




                                                               Culture of Oysters
logically similar haplosporidians have also been reported

                                O  yster hatchery and production seed technology has
from Washington state. Recent studies suggest a common
                                  rapidly expanded in the past ten years. This has
ancestry for the organism on both coasts and that the
                                included application of remote setting of oyster seed as an
haplosporidian was not endemic to the East Coast but
                                industry standard, and the production and use of triploid
originated in Pacic oysters from Japan. Hypotheses for
                                (3n) oysters containing an extra set of chromosomes. The
the introduction of the disease to Eastern oysters include
                                3n condition prevents the onset of maturation and results
importation of infected Pacic oysters to the East Coast,
                                in oysters characterized by year-round production of high
ballast water containing the infective agent, or intro-
                                quality meat. Although triploid production was a positive
duction of an unknown intermediate host. In any event,
                                technical breakthrough, the sterile 3n oyster does not
the ultimate result has been catastrophic for the Eastern
                                reproduce and therefore can not be improved through
oyster and the East and Gulf coast industries. The result of
                                genetics. To overcome this, the industry now applies
these studies demonstrates the rst molecular conrma-
                                high pressure following fertilization to retard both polar
tion of the introduction of an exotic marine pathogen
                                bodies. The resultant tetraploids (4n) are then articially
and emphasizes the need to adhere to strict importation
                                crossed with diploids (2n), thereby producing sterile trip-
guidelines as established by the International Council for
                                loids (3n) that are used as production oysters while main-
the Exploration of the Seas (ICES).
                                taining a viable genetic line in the diploid broodstock.
                                This technology, coupled with the more recent establish-
Shellfish and the Environment                 ment of broodstock genetic programs, will be a major
                                industry thrust.

O  ne of the more signicant challenges to aquaculture
                                Oyster genomic research is an industry priority and a
   in the next decade will be the industry’s ability to
                                regional cooperative effort involving university and indus-
position itself within the environmental framework and
                                try geneticists and oyster hatchery managers.
philosophy of natural resource management. Environmen-
                                The establishment of a national Molluscan Broodstock Pro-
tal issues are a concern nationally and are paramount
                                gram (MBP) and the Molluscan Broodstock Center on the
in California.
                                West Coast mark the true beginning of an oyster genetics
Immediate environmental concerns relative to shellsh
                                program which fosters cutting edge genetics research.
culture are the potential biological and physical impacts of
                                Using a mix of regional and national grants, geneticists are
culture technology on sensitive components of the marine
                                utilizing cooperative regional research to develop geneti-
ecosystem. These sensitive components include eelgrass
                                cally marked family lines that are tested and selected for
as essential habitat for salmonid and other nsh, and
                                high yield and survival. Scientists are exploring the alter-
the invertebrate assemblage present on and within the
                                native strategy of crossbreeding and have demonstrated
substrate that is essential to the food web of birds and
                                at the larval and market sizes that hybrid Pacic oysters
other marine species. Also included are the impacts on
                                have dramatically higher yield and superior metabolic per-
the life habits of birds and marine mammals and on the
                                formance than their inbred parents. This striking hybrid
physical structure of the bay. It will be essential that
                                vigor or heterosis suggests that crossbreeding, in addition
shellsh technology not have signicant impact upon the
                                to traditional selection as practiced by the MBP, could
health of the ecosystem on which it also depends. Shell-
                                improve oyster yield dramatically and quickly. Technology
sh culture and our living marine resources depend upon
                                is also being developed to measure and more readily
excellent water quality and a healthy environment and,
                                dene “future performance” at the larval stage, thereby
therefore, these concepts are not mutually exclusive.
                                avoiding costly growout trials and stock maintenance.
In response to these concerns, long-term federal and state
                                Current and future trends of the oyster industry are
supported regional research has been initiated to study
                                reected throughout the West Coast and the Pacic Rim
shellsh culture impacts. This research is being conducted
                                because of the industry’s regional infrastructure and mar-
by university and state research agency personnel, focuses
                                kets. Industry shellsh hatcheries which were concen-
on the industry in California, Washington, and Oregon,
                                trated in the Pacic Northwest have opened in Hawaii,
and is monitored continuously to identify areas that
                                thereby taking advantage of stable water quality and con-
may need immediate alteration. In addition, federal and
                                sistent solar radiance used in energy-efcient algal cul-
state funding, coupled with industry resources, is being
                                ture. The primary markets for seed are West Coast pro-
directed toward the development of industry best man-
                                ducers who will expand into more international markets.
agement practices to guide the industry in its present and
                                The industry is rapidly expanding Kumamoto oyster pro-
future development.
                                duction because of its higher value and half-shell market



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                505
                                          References
           demand, and greater market attention will be given to
Culture of Oysters



           value-added shellsh products such as ash-frozen half-
                                          Barrett, E.M. 1963. The California Oyster Industry. Calif.
           shell products for international Pacic Rim markets.
                                          Dept. Fish and Game Bull. No. 123, 103 pp.
           The oyster industry will concentrate on developing more
                                          Bonnot, P. 1935. The California Oyster Industry. Calif.
           efcient methods of off-bottom culture and culture tech-
                                          Dept. Fish and Game. 21(1):65-80.
           niques that are less intrusive and result in fewer environ-
           mental impacts. The greater adaptation of off-bottom cul-   Burreson. E.M., N.A. Stokes and C.S. Friedman, 2000.
           ture, coupled with the higher valued half-shell Kumamoto   Increased virulence in an introduced pathogen: Haplospo-
           oyster, is a potential that may offset the loss of shucked  ridium nelsoni (MSX) in the Eastern oyster Crassostrea
           product produced in bottom culture. The development      virginica. J. Aquatic Animal Health12:1-8.
           and adaptation of more environmentally sound practices
                                          Conte, F.S. and J.L. Dupuy. 1982. The California Oyster
           will remain an industry priority.
                                          Industry. Proc. North American Oyster Workshop, World
                                          Mariculture Society, Special Publication No. 1: 43-63.
           Fred S. Conte                         Conte, F.S., S.C. Harbell and R.L. RaLonde. 1994. Oyster
           University of California, Davis                Culture: Fundamentals and Technologies of the West Coast
                                          Industry. WRAC Publication No. 94-101 Sectional: 1994 and
           Tom Moore
                                          1996.
           California Department of Fish and Game
                                          Elston, R.A. 1990. Mollusc Diseases: Guide for the shellsh
                                          farmer. University of Washington Press. 73 pp.




             California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                       December 2001
506
Culture of Salmon
History                            culturists, whereas coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)




                                                               Culture of Salmon
                                and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) eggs or ngerings were

D  ifferent methods are used for aquaculture production   imported from out of state to California farms. Salmon
   of salmon. The three major techniques are salmon     culture has not been a major component of the state’s
ranching, land-based tank operations, and net-pen rear-    private aquaculture sectors and never contributed as
ing. At salmon ranch hatcheries, adult sh are spawned,    much as ve percent to the total value of the
the eggs are hatched, and the young are reared in tanks to   industry’s production.
increase their size and chances of survival in the wild. The  Conversely, public salmon hatchery operations play a key
salmon smolts are then released and grow to market size    role in the management of California’s natural resources.
while at liberty in the ocean. After maturing at sea, the   Hatcheries are built and operated to supplement natural
salmon return to the hatchery, where they are harvested.    salmon resources or to mitigate for the loss of natural
If at least three to ve percent of the released salmon    production that occurs when water and power generation
return to be harvested, a private salmon ranch may be     projects eliminate salmon spawning habitat. Thus, hatch-
protable. However, it is not uncommon for 98 to 99      eries help provide for the multiple benecial use of the
percent of the salmon to be lost to natural and shing     state’s water resources. Public hatcheries produce approx-
mortality before they can return to the hatchery.       imately 40 million sh each year and are critical to main-
Land-based tank operations maintain all of the sh at     taining the state’s sport and commercial salmon sheries.
the facility until harvest. Fish are kept in tanks made of   Over ninety percent of California’s salmon harvest comes
concrete, berglass, or other materials. Round tanks are    from south of Point Arena, where hatchery-produced sh
often in the range of 30 to 40 feet in diameter. Water is   generally make up over half of the catch.
pumped through the tanks to maintain good water quality,    Public hatchery production of salmon in California dates
and growth comes from manufactured feed provided by      back to 1872 with the establishment of Baird Hatchery
the aquaculturist.                       on the McCloud River in the upper Sacramento River
Net pen facilities use young sh produced in hatcheries,    drainage. Several other salmon hatcheries and egg taking
which are then placed into pens where they are fed until    stations also began operations in the late 1800s and
grown to market size. The pens are made from exible      early 1900s. Baird originally operated as an independent
netting material suspended from oats and are generally    hatchery, then as an egg collecting station for salmon
a few hundred square feet at the surface. Pens are often    and trout reared at Mount Shasta Hatchery (then called
linked together to form large units of up to many acres.    Sisson Hatchery). After the construction of Shasta Dam,
The net-pens are usually placed in sheltered salt-water    Mount Shasta Hatchery and the upper Sacramento spawn-
areas where protection from ocean storms is provided and    ing grounds were separated from the lower Sacramento
good water quality is maintained by natural currents.     River and the Pacic Ocean. Coleman National Fish Hatch-
                                ery was built in 1942 to mitigate for those losses. It
Salmon have been produced in California by both private
                                replaced many of the early hatcheries, including most of
and public hatcheries. While the history of private trout
                                the salmon operations at Mount Shasta. Coleman Hatchery
production in California is strong and dates back to the
                                is on Battle Creek, a tributary of the Sacramento River
1800s, private commercial production of salmon in Cali-
                                at Anderson (south of Redding). It is the only federally
fornia has been intermittent and never very substantial.
                                operated sh hatchery in California.
The beginning of recent interest in commercial salmon
production was the authorization by the California Legis-   Today there are seven California Department of Fish
lature in 1968 for the rst (and only) private salmon     and Game-operated salmon mitigation hatcheries and
ranching operation. In 1979, the legislature authorized the  two state-operated salmon restoration and enhancement
operation’s move to its current site on Davenport Landing   hatcheries. All nine of these state-operated hatcheries
Creek (Santa Cruz County), where the operation has been    have been built since 1955. The mitigation hatcheries
inactive for several years.                  are located on central valley and north coast rivers
                                downstream from dams constructed for water or
In California, land-based tank operations were tried in
                                power development.
the 1980s and 1990s, and accounted for some limited
private aquaculture production of salmon. Most commer-
cially produced salmon were from tank-rearing operations
located in northern California, where cold water suitable
for salmon culture is more readily found. Fish were grown
to market size in tanks using either fresh or salt water.
Steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were produced
from domestic brood stock maintained by California aqua-


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report              507
          Hatchery                Location          not cause signicant negative impacts on adjacent native
Culture of Salmon



                                            sh and wildlife. Private salmon culture may be permitted
          Iron Gate ...............................On the Klamath River
                                            throughout California where negative impacts will not
                               below Copco Lake
                                            result, except that commercial salmon farming is prohib-
          Trinity...................................On the Trinity River
                                            ited from the Smith River watershed.
                               below Clair Engle Lake
                                            The lone California commercial salmon ranching project
          Feather River ..........................Below Lake Oroville
                                            (Davenport Landing) is required to operate under an
          Mokelumne River Fish Installation .Below Camanche         annual permit from the Fish and Game Commission.
                            Reservoir            Commission authority to issue the salmon ranching
                                            permit is granted by the California Legislature. The legis-
          Nimbus..................................On the American River
                                            lature reviews the authorization periodically and in 1995
                              below Folsom Lake
                                            extended authority to issue the permit to January 1, 2001.
          Van Arsdale Fisheries Station .......On the Eel River below
                                            While the project does not have a current permit, it
                             Van Arsdale Reservoir
                                            historically has been authorized to ranch chinook salmon,
          Warm Springs ..........................On a tributary to the    coho, and steelhead.
                              Russian River below
                                            State and federal hatcheries produce chinook and coho
                              Lake Sonoma
                                            salmon and steelhead using the same production tech-
                                            niques as other salmon ranching operations. Returning
                                            adults are articially spawned and the offspring are reared
          The DFG’s two restoration and enhancement hatcheries
                                            to smolt or yearling size before they are released at the
          are the Mad River Hatchery near Eureka and the Merced
                                            hatchery (or at other freshwater sites) to migrate to the
          River Fish Installation below Lake McClure. There is also
                                            ocean where they grow to adults. Chinook salmon return
          a non-prot salmon and steelhead enhancement hatchery
                                            to be spawned, usually three or four years after release.
          in California on the Smith River. The Rowdy Creek Fish
                                            Coho generally spend one year in freshwater and return
          Hatchery is located in the town of Smith River and began
                                            from the ocean to spawn as three-year olds. Hatchery
          in 1967 as a Kiwanis Club project. It operates under an
                                            steelhead spend one or two seasons in fresh water and
          individual category in the California Fish and Game Code.
                                            one to three seasons in the ocean and can repeat spawn
          In addition, public or privately funded nonprot salmon
                                            after release.
          restoration and enhancement projects use a variety of
                                            Public hatchery production remains relatively constant;
          habitat improvement, articial spawning, and rearing
                                            therefore, years of low natural production result in
          techniques to improve runs of wild sh or to contribute
                                            harvests with a larger proportion of hatchery sh.
          additional sh to the shery. Most are located on coastal
                                            Depending upon the success of each year’s natural produc-
          streams in northern and central California. Saltwater pen-
                                            tion, Department of Fish and Game biologists estimate
          rearing operations have been located at Tiburon, Port San
                                            that hatchery-produced sh generally contribute from
          Luis, and Ventura. In 1998-1999, a total of twelve projects
                                            50 to 60 percent of California’s sport and commercial
          planted an average of 30,000 sh per project.
                                            salmon harvests.
                                            Most of the public hatchery production of salmon in Cali-
          Status                               fornia is intended to mitigate for the loss of habitat caused
                                            by construction of dams for water and power develop-
          C  urrently, there is no private for-prot aquaculture pro-
                                            ment. The concept of providing mitigation for losses to
            duction of salmon in California. Nationally, and inter-
                                            sh and wildlife caused by the building of a government
          nationally, net pen rearing of salmon has proven to be the
                                            project was originally established by the U.S. Congress
          most successful method of private aquaculture production
                                            when it enacted the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of
          of salmon for the seafood market. The only net-pen rear-
                                            1934. The need to replace the natural shery resources
          ing of salmon in California has been some small sport
                                            eliminated by these projects continues to have high prior-
          shing salmon enhancement projects. Commercial net-pen
                                            ity with the people of California.
          rearing is not prohibited, in part because no suitable sites
          have been identied or developed which do not conict
          with other established uses.                    Bob Hulbrock
                                            California Department of Fish and Game
          Every private aquaculture operation in California is
          required to register with the Department of Fish and
          Game. Before approving an application for registration,
          the department must determine that each facility will



             California’s Living Marine Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                  A Status Report                         December 2001
  508
References




                                                                                Culture of Salmon
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead
Trout. 1988. Restoring the balance: 1988 Annual Report.
84 pp.
Leitritz, E. 1970. A history of California’s sh hatcheries
1870-1960. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 150. 86
pp.
Leitritz, E. and R.C. Lewis. 1976. Trout and salmon cul-
ture-hatchery methods. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull.164. 197 pp.
Thorpe, J.E. (Editor). 1980. Salmon Ranching. Academic
Press, New York, New York. 441 pp.




                        Weighing and spawning of Chinook salmon at Rowdy Creek Hatchery, a community-run hatchery near Crescent City.
                                                           Credit: CA Sea Grant Extention Program


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                       California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                                   A Status Report                          509
   Culture of
   Marine Finfish                          The species described in this chapter are native to Cali-
                                    fornia and have historically represented important sher-
                                    ies to the region. Detailed descriptions of the natural
    History of Finfish Culture                   history and sheries for each are provided elsewhere in
                                    this volume.

    T  he impetus to develop marine aquaculture in the U.S.
      is strong. In 1998, the U.S. imported $8.2 billion in
    edible shery products. During the past 15 years, produc-
                                    Culture, Facilities and Systems
    tion of food sh by capture sheries reached a plateau


                                    I
    of 66 million tons per year. Similarly, FAO statistics report   n California, land-based research facilities (hatcheries)
    that 60 percent of marine sheries are fully or over-       are used for broodstock holding and maturation, and for
    exploited. Under these conditions, and with a growing      larval rearing of marine nsh. Juvenile culture has been
    human population, it is estimated that aquaculture pro-     conducted on a limited scale for white seabass in cages,
    duction will have to increase by 140 percent from 1995     pools and raceways, and with California halibut in race-
    levels by the year 2025.                    ways. Seawater is pumped into land-based facilities from
                                    nearshore areas, (typically lagoons, harbors, or embay-
    Marine nsh farming in California and the United States
                                    ments) where water quality may be highly variable.
    is in its infancy. In California, with the exception of anad-
    romous species, no marine nsh are being produced       Broodstock maturation systems are typically recirculated
    on a commercial scale. In the United States, specically    so that water temperature can be controlled and used
    Texas, only red drum are cultured in large numbers. How-    to induce spawning. Pool volumes range from 5,000 to
    ever, the red drum ngerlings being produced are used      11,500 gallons. Egg hatching and early larval rearing sys-
    primarily for stock enhancement and not grown out and      tems require ne control over water quality parameters.
    marketed for direct human consumption. Like the Texas      Low ow requirements make ow-through systems practi-
    stocking program for red drum, California has been evalu-    cal, but recirculating systems are generally recommended.
    ating the efcacy of marine stock enhancement since the     Pool volumes for egg hatching and early larval rearing
    early 1980s. This research has been conducted largely      range from 80 to 450 gallons. Juvenile growout has been
    under the auspices of the Ocean Resources Enhancement      conducted in ow-through systems (pools and raceways)
    and Hatchery Program (OREHP). In recent years, the stock    up to 8,000 gallons in volume and nearshore cages up to
    enhancement research has lead to projects designed to      145,000 gallons.
    evaluate the feasibility of commercial growout in near-
                                    California’s OREHP maintains one of the largest breeding
    shore cages. The two primary species that have been
                                    populations of a single species of marine nsh, white
    investigated in California are the white seabass (Atrac-
                                    seabass, in the world. More than 250 adult sh are main-
    toscion nobilis) and the California halibut (Paralichthys
                                    tained in captivity either in breeding pools or support
    californicus). Giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) have also
                                    facilities. The need for this large number of individuals
    been studied but to a much lesser extent.
                                    stems from the stock enhancement objectives of the
                                    program and the desire to ensure genetic diversity of
                                    released animals. However, the large broodstock popula-
    History of the Ocean Resources Enhance-             tion also results in a surplus of egg production that could
    ment and Hatchery Program (OREHP)                help support a developing commercial culture industry.
                                    Spawning of marine nsh, including white seabass and
    T  he OREHP began in 1982 and has since been reautho-
                                    California halibut is often allowed to occur naturally or is
      rized with minor modications. This program funds
                                    induced semi-naturally using photo-thermal manipulation.
    research through the sale of recreational and commercial
                                    That is, seasonal cycles are either natural (ambient water
    marine enhancement stamps for all saltwater anglers
                                    temperature and photoperiod) or controlled to promote
    south of Point Arguello. The California Department of Fish
                                    spawning out of season. Hormone-induced spawning has
    and Game manages the OREHP with the assistance of an
                                    not been investigated thoroughly and the few attempts
    advisory panel that consists of academic and management
                                    to induce spawning have been largely unsuccessful. The
    agency scientists, representatives of both commercial and
                                    disposition and general hardiness of California halibut and
    recreational shing groups, and the aquaculture industry.
                                    giant sea bass makes them potentially better suited to
    Since 1995, OREHP has supported operation of the Leon
                                    the extra handling required for hormone injections, while
    Raymond Hubbard, Jr. Marine Fish Hatchery in Carlsbad,
                                    white seabass are not.
    California. This research facility is dedicated to improving
                                    Female white seabass and California halibut are reported
    our understanding of marine sh culture.
                                    to mature in the wild at four to ve years. For white



      California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                        December 2001
510
seabass, this represents a size of 27 inches and for Califor-  Cannibalism can be a signicant problem among younger




                                                                 Culture of Marine Finfish
nia halibut, 18.5 inches. Eggs from each of these species    life stages of marine sh before grading is practical. Can-
are pelagic. Females are batch-spawners, with each batch    nibalism can be reduced by optimizing feeding and nutri-
typically yielding hundreds of thousands to more than a     tion and by grading the sh. In outdoor rearing pools,
million eggs.                          birds such as herons are known to prey on cultured sh.
                                These predators can effectively be excluded using inex-
Growth of each of these species is highly dependent
                                pensive netting. In cages, marine mammals such as Cali-
on water temperature. White seabass and California hali-
                                fornia sea lions and harbor seals can be a problem if given
but are physiologically adapted to estuarine conditions
                                the opportunity. Birds, both diving and non-diving, can
as juveniles and therefore can tolerate (and may prefer)
                                also prey on caged sh. To prevent predation on caged
higher temperatures (71-81º F) associated with embay-
                                sh, extra netting (i.e., in addition to the sh containment
ments. Furthermore, the southern range for these species
                                net) should be employed above and below the water.
near Magdelena Bay in Baja California, Mexico where
water temperatures can be expected to be even warmer
than those in California.
                                Aquaculture Potential
White seabass have been cultured in raceways to a size

                                T
of 3.3 pounds in two years at temperatures of 56-79º F. A      he aquaculture potential for white seabass and Califor-
similar growout period in cages yielded only a 1.75 pound      nia halibut should be excellent. The potential for giant
white seabass, but water temperature was considerably      sea bass culture appears to be less promising, although
lower (52-72º F). California halibut cultured in raceways    further research is warranted for this species. White sea-
exhibited slow growth, reaching a maximum of 0.9 pound     bass and California halibut are popular, high-value species.
in two years under conditions of 55-77º F. It should be     Wild white seabass are available seasonally and at a large
noted that these data are preliminary and that growth      size of more than six to seven pounds. Wild halibut are
will likely be improved as the nutritional requirements     available year-round and there is a growing market for
and the potential for selective breeding are investigated    live sh.
more fully.                           In other regions, species similar to white seabass and
White seabass begin feeding at an age of four to ve      California halibut are being cultured successfully -- in
days (post hatch). Their relatively large size allows them   some cases on a truly commercial scale. Among some of
to feed successfully on newly hatched Artemia. California    the croaker species (related to white seabass), red drum,
halibut and giant sea bass both require smaller prey items   and seatrout are being cultured in the United States.
such as rotifers for the rst week of feeding, before      Totoaba, corvina, and maigre (all members of the croaker
transitioning to Artemia nauplii. Beginning at 20 days, dry   family) are being evaluated for culture in Mexico, Argen-
feed is offered to the sh along with the Artemia. In order   tina, and the Mediterranean, respectively. Several species
to help the sh wean from a live prey diet to dry feed,     of atsh are also being cultured. On the East Coast
frozen zooplankton (adult Artemia, krill or mysids) is also   of the United States, the summer ounder and southern
fed to the sh. The amount of live food (Artemia nauplii)    ounder are being evaluated for culture. In Japan, a oun-
and frozen feed is slowly reduced as sh begin feeding on    der has been cultured on a commercial scale for many
the dry feed. Once on dry feed, the feed size is increased   years, and two species of ounders are being cultured in
as the sh grow. The feed type, characterized by the      South America.
protein and fat content, may also be adjusted to reduce
costs and improve llet quality.
                                Conclusions
Among the more common infectious diseases affecting


                                A
white seabass and California halibut are: 1) protozoans;      quaculture of marine nsh is in its infancy in the
2) bacteria; and 3) invertebrate parasites. Among these       United States, and California has not contributed
pathogens, the bacterium Flexibacter maritimus is the      signicantly to its development. With 1,200 miles of
most common and difcult to eradicate. Infections by this    coastline, opportunities to farm the ocean should be
organism occur frequently after handling the sh and may    readily available. Unlike the agriculture industry in Califor-
result in lesions and n rot. Among the non-infectious     nia, which consistently ranks number one in the nation
diseases, gas bubble disease is often severe among white    (greater than $26 billion in 1997), mariculture opportu-
seabass cultured in shallow water systems that are not     nities in California are impeded by competing uses for
adequately degassed, including oating raceways in natu-    coastal resources and a restrictive regulatory environ-
ral water bodies. Nutritional deciencies are also likely    ment. In addition to the typical burdens associated with
in cultured marine sh, although the effects are not      bureaucracies, California regulatory agencies often over-
well understood.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                  511
                                            References
              lap in authority, lack a clearly dened process, and are
Culture of Marine Finfish



              often poorly educated about the need for aquaculture and
                                            Bartley, D. M., D. B. Kent, et al. 1995. Conservation
              what is involved with mariculture activities.
                                            of genetic diversity in a white seabass hatchery enhance-
              There is a clear need for aquaculture development world-
                                            ment program in southern California. Uses and effects
              wide and California has access to the coastal resources
                                            of cultured shes in aquatic ecosystems, Bethesda, MD,
              and high value marine species necessary to compete
                                            American Fisheries Society.
              in the world seafood market. A proactive approach is
                                            Drawbridge, M. A., D. B. Kent, et al. (in review). Commer-
              required to make this a reality.
                                            cialization of White Seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) Aqua-
                                            culture in Southern California: Biological and Technical
              Mark A. Drawbridge and Donald B. Kent
                                            Feasibility of Cage Culture. Aquaculture.
              Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute
                                            Kent, D. B., M. A. Drawbridge, et al. 1995. Accomplish-
                                            ments and roadblocks of a marine stock enhancement
                                            program for white seabass in California. Uses and effects
                                            of cultured shes in aquatic ecosystems, Bethesda, MD,
                                            American Fisheries Society.
                                            New, M. B. 1997. Aquaculture and the capture sheries -
                                            balancing the scales. World Aquaculture: 11-30.




                California’s Living Marine Resources:          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                      A Status Report                      December 2001
512
Invasive Species
History                             Bay has increased from an average of one every 55 weeks




                                                                 Invasive Species
                                 before 1960, to one every 14 weeks between 1961 and

I nvasive species are the number two threat to rare,       1995. Invasive species that have been positively identied
  threatened or endangered species nationwide, second      as permanent residents of the Bay include Asian clam,
only to habitat destruction. Commercial shermen nation-     the European green crab, the New Zealand sea slug, the
wide are seeing signicant impacts on local sh popula-     Chinese mitten crab, and several species of sponges, jelly-
tions from invasive marine life. Indeed, coastal systems,    sh, sh, anemones, snails, mussels, clams, and barnacles.
including tidal ats and salt marshes, have been particu-    Indeed, San Francisco Bay is likely the most invaded estu-
larly susceptible, possibly because they are typically high-   ary in the world.
stress, species-poor environments. California water agen-    The discharge of ships’ ballast water from foreign ports
cies have expressed alarm at the “potentially devastating”    is currently the single largest source of coastal, aquatic
impacts that invasive species can have on California’s      invasive species. A recent survey found that 53-88 percent
waters. Unlike threats posed by most chemical or other      of the aquatic invasive species introduced into San Fran-
types of pollution, biological pollution by invasive species   cisco Bay in the last decade originated in ballast water
normally will have permanent impacts, as they are virtu-     discharges, and there is evidence that the number of
ally impossible to eradicate once established.          ballast-related introductions of aquatic invasive species
Specic environmental threats from invasive organisms      is steadily growing. According to estimates by the San
include consumption of natives and their food sources,      Francisco Estuary Institute, between half a billion and a
genetic dilution of native species through cross-breeding,    billion gallons of ballast water are discharged into the San
alteration of the physical environment, introduction of     Francisco Bay/Delta Estuary each year by ships arriving
non-native parasites and diseases, and poisoning of native    from foreign ports. Aquaculture, unintentional introduc-
species through bioaccumulation of toxics that are passed    tions via recreational vehicles, deliberate introductions
up the food chain. For example:                 (i.e., to establish a shery), and importation of live marine
                                 organisms for human consumption, bait, pets or research
•   In the former Soviet Union, a species of comb jelly
                                 are other important vectors of aquatic invasive species.
    was introduced into the Black and Azov Seas through
    ships’ ballast and played a signicant role in virtually
    destroying an entire shery. Since the introduction
                                 Examples of Significant Invasive Species
    of this species, shing harvest in those seas dropped
    200,000 tons in a ve-year period.
                                 N  umerous invasive species threaten the health of
•   Microscopic neurotoxin-producing organisms called       marine life both directly and indirectly through altera-
    dinoagellates have been transported in the sedi-     tion of coastal ecosystems and habitats. This section
    ments carried with ballast water and discharged into    highlights three of the more signicant species, which
    new regions of the world, where they have produced     are a particular problem in the San Francisco Bay and
    toxic red tides, including red tides in southern Austra-  surrounding areas, and reviews the status of invasions
    lia that probably originated in ballast water.       elsewhere in the state.
•   Scientists have warned that a non-native goby now
                                 The European Green Crab
    found in the Great Lakes raises toxin levels in indig-
    enous sh and could pose a serious health risk to
                                 (Carcinus maenas)
    humans who eat game sh.
                                 The green crab, native to the Atlantic coasts of Europe
•   Microbial studies conducted in Canada on ships arriv-
                                 and northern Africa, occupies protected rocky shores,
    ing in winter from Europe found that more than 50
                                 sandats and tidal marshes. In 1989-1990, it was dis-
    percent of the ships carrying ballast water violated
                                 covered in San Francisco Bay, and has since spread as
    water discharge standards with fecal coliform bacte-
                                 far north as Washington and southern British Columbia
    ria. The authors surmised that ships arriving in the
                                 and south to Morro Bay. It may have entered California
    summer, or from Asian ports, would be likely to have
                                 through the discharge of ballast water from trans-oceanic
    substantially higher rates of contamination.
                                 ships, although spread is also possible through discard of
Here in California, numerous studies indicate that San      seaweed packing material used in shipping live shellsh
Francisco Bay is already severely impacted by harmful      and the interstate transport of shellsh aquaculture prod-
non-native species. These studies have identied at least    ucts and equipment.
234 nonindigenous plant and animal species that now live
                                 The green crab is a voracious predator that feeds on
in San Francisco Bay. Moreover, the rate at which aquatic
                                 many types of organisms, particularly bivalve mollusks,
invasive species are becoming established in San Francisco
                                 polychaetes, and small crustaceans. The green crab is


   CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
         December, 2001                            A Status Report                513
                                              A single female can carry 250,000 to a million eggs. After
Invasive Species



                                              hatching, larvae are planktonic for one to two months.
                                              The small juvenile crabs settle in salt or brackish water
                                              in late spring and migrate to freshwater. Young juvenile
                                              mitten crabs are found in tidal freshwater areas, and usu-
                                              ally burrow in banks and levees between the high and low
                                              tide marks. In China and Europe, older juveniles have been
                                              reported several hundred miles from the sea. Maturing
                                              crabs move from shallow areas to the channels in late
                                              summer and early fall and migrate to salt water in late fall
                                              and early winter to complete the life-cycle.
                                              Mitten crabs are adept walkers and readily move across
                                              banks or levees to bypass obstructions such as dams or
                                              weirs. They are omnivores, with juveniles eating mostly
                          European Green Crab, Carcinus maenas
                                       Credit: DFG  vegetation, but preying upon animals, especially small
                                              invertebrates, as they grow.
          capable of learning and can improve its prey-handling
                                              Mitten crabs pose several possible threats. Their bur-
          skills while foraging. The crab is quicker, more dexterous
                                              rowing activity may accelerate the erosion of banks and
          and can open shells in more ways than other types of
                                              levees, disturbing local habitat. In addition, the crab can
          crabs. In its native range, the green crab feeds heavily on
                                              disrupt needed water deliveries to estuarine habitats by
          mussels. On the East Coast, the crab is believed to have
                                              clogging the pumps that deliver the water. The mitten
          played a role in the demise of Atlantic soft-shell clam sh-
                                              crab also has become a nuisance for commercial bay
          eries in the 1950s. In Bodega Harbor, California, records
                                              shrimp trawlers in south bay, who have reported mitten
          show a signicant reduction in clam and native shore crab
                                              crabs damaging nets and killing shrimp. The crab may
          population abundance since the arrival of green crabs in
                                              also compete in the delta with an exotic craysh that is
          1993. Furthermore, laboratory studies show that the green
                                              the basis for a small commercial shery. The mitten crab
          crab preys on Dungeness crab of equal or smaller size.
                                              may also be the secondary intermediate host for the Ori-
          Dungeness crab spend part of their juvenile life in the
                                              ental lung uke, with mammals, including humans, as the
          intertidal zone, and may therefore be at risk from green
                                              nal host.
          crab predation. Besides its threat as a predator, the green
          crab may carry a parasite, the acanthocephalan worm,           The ecological impact of a large mitten crab population
          which can infect local shore birds.                   is the least understood of all the potential impacts. It
                                              could reduce populations of native invertebrates through
          The Chinese Mitten Crab                         predation and change the structure of the estuary’s fresh
                                              and brackish water benthic invertebrate communities.
          (Eriocheir sinensis)
          The Chinese mitten crab is native to the coastal rivers
          and estuaries of the Yellow Sea. It was rst collected in
          the San Francisco estuary in 1992 by commercial shrimp
          trawlers in South San Francisco Bay and has since spread
          rapidly throughout the estuary. Mitten crabs were rst
          collected in San Pablo Bay in fall 1994, Suisun Marsh in
          February 1996, and the delta in September 1996. The
          Chinese mitten crab now extends at least from north of
          Colusa in the Sacramento River drainage, east to eastern
          San Joaquin County near Calaveras County, and south in
          the San Joaquin River near the San Luis National Wildlife
          Refuge. The most probable mechanism of introduction to
          the estuary was either deliberate release to establish a
          shery or accidental release via ballast water. In Asia, the
          mitten crab is a delicacy and crabs have been imported
          live to markets in Los Angeles and San Francisco.
          The mitten crab is catadromous - adults reproduce in salt
                                                               Chinese Mitten Crab, Eriocheir sinensis
          water and the offspring migrate to fresh water to grow.                                        Credit: DFG


            California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                            December, 2001
514
An Asian Clam




                                                                     Invasive Species
(Potamocorbula amurensis)
In October 1986, the rst Asian clams found in California
were collected in San Francisco Bay by a community col-
lege biology class. Just nine months later, the Asian clam
had become the most abundant clam in the northern part
of the bay, averaging over 2000 clams per square meter.
The clam is a highly efcient lter feeder, ingesting bacte-
ria and small zooplankton as well as phytoplankton. At
year 2000 densities in the bay, virtually the entire water
column may pass through the ltering apparatus of these
clams between once and twice a day. Since its arrival,                       Asian Clam, Potamocorbula amurensis
the clam has eliminated annual phytoplankton blooms that                                  Credit: DFG
had previously characterized this ecosystem, disrupted
                                The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has
food webs, reduced the populations of native zooplankton
                                established inspection requirements for abalone stock
species, and possibly increased the vulnerability of the
                                transfers, required detailed clean-up plans from all
ecosystem to invasions by exotic zooplankton, many of
                                infested aquaculture facilities, prohibited out-planting,
which have since occurred. This clam is also thought
                                and added the sabellid to the Fish and Game Commission’s
responsible for a reduction in particulate organic carbon.
                                signicant disease list. Such controls appear to be having
With less food available for larval and other benthic
                                some effect, as most abalone culture facilities report
lter feeders, the relative populations of native species
                                some level of control and eradication of this worm. How-
could shift.
                                ever, there have been reports of re-infestation by abalone
The clam may also be acting as an accumulator of con-
                                shipments that had been inspected and certied by the
taminants, concentrating selenium in bottom-feeding sh
                                DFG. The inspection protocols used have been mathemati-
and birds at levels that are high enough to cause reproduc-
                                cally demonstrated to be unlikely to detect a low level
tive defects. This magnication of selenium concentra-
                                of infestation in transferred abalone, such as one to ve
tions in the food chain could also affect sh- and shellsh-
                                percent or lower. Moreover, the mesh on the screens of
eating marine mammals such as harbor seals, sea lions,
                                the discharge pipes of onshore culturing facilities are far
and the sea otters, which are returning to the bay.
                                too large to prevent the release of eggs or larvae, and
                                the openings in offshore barrel and cage culture are even
A South African Sabellid Worm                  larger. Subtidal inspection of possible release sites for the
(Terebrasabella heterouncinata)                 sabellid worm has been very limited, and the locations of
                                some of these possible release sites are simply unknown.
The South African sabellid worm is a parasitic polychaete
                                Further work is needed to ensure that all infestations are
worm that infests mollusks. It was introduced into Cali-
                                removed and effective controls are in place to prevent
fornia waters in the mid-1980s with abalone imported
                                reinfestation.
into a California aquaculture facility. The worm spread
rapidly among abalone facilities through the transfer of
                                A Tropical Seaweed
infested seed stock and proved difcult to control once
                                (Caulerpa taxifolia)
established. The worm infests only the abalone’s shell,
signicantly reducing the growth rates of cultured aba-
                                An invasive green algae dubbed the “killer algae,” was
lone. A heavy infestation can cause shell deformation,
                                discovered in the waters of southern California off Carls-
elevate mortality as the shell becomes brittle, and reduce
                                bad in early 2000. Native to tropical waters, it became
reproductive capacity as more energy is channeled into
                                popular in the aquarium trade in the late 1970s and either
shell production.
                                escaped or was released into the Mediterranean Sea in
Introduction in state waters is highly likely, given the spe-
                                the mid-1980s. It is now widespread throughout much of
cies’ broad host specicity. Sabellids have been detected
                                the northwestern Mediterranean. It appears that the algae
in a native gastropod mollusk, in the intertidal zone adja-
                                found off southern California is a clone of the released
cent to the discharge pipe from an abalone facility in
                                Mediterranean plant, and can grow in deeper and colder
central California. Attempts to eradicate this invasive spe-
                                waters than the tropical populations. Its impacts have
cies at this site and at culture facilities are ongoing.
                                been compared to unrolling a carpet of Astroturf across



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                             A Status Report                     515
          the sea bed. In areas where it has become well-estab-     years, there are currently no criteria in the statute or
Invasive Species



          lished, it has caused economic and ecological devastation   accompanying regulations to guide that decision. More-
          by overgrowing and eliminating native seaweeds, seagrass   over, it addresses only vessels entering the U.S. from
          reefs, and other communities.                 outside the EEZ, and ignores, for example, coastwise traf-
                                         c from areas contaminated with problematic invasive
          In southern California, the algae poses a signicant threat
                                         species (such as the San Francisco Bay area).
          to eelgrass meadows and other benthic environments that
          are essential to the survival of native invertebrates, sh  NISA requires annual reporting to assess the ongoing effec-
          and aquatic birds. If the algae spread from the coastal    tiveness of the program. The rst interim report by
          lagoons to the nearshore reefs, it could inhibit the estab-  the National Ballast Information Clearinghouse, issued in
          lishment of juveniles of many species, including kelp and   October 2000, found that over the rst 12 months (July
          the biota associated with kelp beds. Efforts to destroy    1999-2000) that the rule was in effect, only 20.8 percent
          this patch of algae have involved tarping off the area and  of the vessels that entered U. S. waters from outside the
          injecting chlorine under the tarp.              EEZ led the mandatory reports required under NISA and
                                         pursuant to U.S. Coast Guard regulations. For the entire
          Other Invasives                        U.S., compliance with reporting improved only slightly
                                         over the 12-month period, remaining between 23 percent
          Invasive species are present not only in San Francisco    and 29 percent from October 1999 through June 2000.
          Bay but are common as well in other harbors and bays     Only for the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. did compli-
          in California and along the Pacic Coast. For example,    ance with the reporting requirement increase markedly
          recent compilations list about 25 invasive species in Morro  over time, primarily from an increase in California, which
          Bay in central California, and about 80 invasive species   receives the most ship arrivals. This increase coincided
          in the bays and harbors of southern California. One such   with implementation of a 1999 California state law that
          organism is an Australasian isopod that signicantly erodes  requires submission of copies of the federal ballast water
          the banks of salt marsh channels and marsh edges in      management reports to the State Lands Commission,
          San Diego Bay, resulting in reduction of already-limited   authorizes monetary and criminal penalties for noncompli-
          coastal habitat.                       ance, and utilizes an active boarding program that targets
          Once established in one area, exotic organisms may      20-30 percent of arrivals. As a result, compliance with
          quickly spread to another through either natural or      reporting in California increased over the past 12 months
          anthropogenic transport. Invasive species initially estab-  to approximately 75 percent.
          lished in bays may subsequently invade the open coast.    The report concluded that due to the poor nationwide
          A predatory New Zealand sea slug that was collected      reporting rate (20.8 percent), it is difcult to estimate
          in San Francisco Bay in 1992 may have spread north to     reliably (a) the patterns of ballast water delivery and
          Bodega Bay and south to near San Diego, though further    (b) the compliance with NISA’s voluntary guidelines for
          taxonomic work is needed to identify which of the two     ballast water management. Based on the information that
          to four species of invasive sea slugs are involved and the  was submitted, the report found that nationwide, approx-
          locations of their spread.                  imately 42 percent (10.2 million metric tons) of the for-
                                         eign water reported discharged into the U. S. had not
                                         been exchanged completely as requested in the voluntary
          Existing Regulatory Regime and                guidelines. The report also noted that although it is clear
          Regulatory Gaps                        that many vessels that discharge ballast water in the U.S.
                                         are not in compliance with voluntary guidelines, based
                                         upon their reports, the extent of non-compliance with
          National Invasive Species Act of 1996             these guidelines simply cannot be estimated accurately
                                         due to the very low rate of reporting.
          Existing regulation of the major vector of invasive species
          introduction - ballast water discharges - is generally lim-
                                         Clean Water Act
          ited in its reach. The primary federal law regulating
          ballast water discharges, the National Invasive Species
                                         The Clean Water Act prohibits the discharge of “any pol-
          Act (NISA), calls primarily for voluntary ballast water
                                         lutant by any person” into waters of the United States,
          exchange by vessels entering the U.S. after operating
                                         unless done in compliance with specied sections of the
          outside of the EEZ (mandatory ballast water exchange
                                         Act, including the permit requirements in Section 402.
          requirements exist only in the Great Lakes). Some of
                                         National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
          the limitations of NISA are that while it states that the
                                         permits issued to discharges into the territorial sea also
          voluntary program could become mandatory after several
                                         must comply with “ocean discharge criteria” specically


            California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                       December, 2001
516
                               Endangered Species Act
designed to prevent the degradation of those waters,




                                                              Invasive Species
pursuant to Clean Water Act Section 403.
                               Under Section 7 of the federal Endangered Species Act
Currently, an EPA regulation adopted in the 1970s speci-
                               (ESA), federal agencies must ensure that their actions
cally exempts ballast water from the NPDES permit pro-
                               are “not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
gram. In January 1999, a petition was made to the EPA
                               any endangered species or threatened species or result
by the Pacic Environmental Advocacy Center, on behalf
                               in the destruction or adverse modication of habitat of
of conservation groups, commercial and recreational sh-
                               such species…” In addition, federal agencies must consult
ing interests, American Indian tribes and California water
                               with the Secretary of the Interior and/or Commerce, as
agencies, to regulate ballast water discharges under the
                               appropriate, “on any agency action which is likely to jeop-
NPDES permit program in Section 402, arguing that the
                               ardize the continued existence of any species proposed to
regulatory exemption adopted by EPA exceeded their
                               be listed…or result in the destruction or adverse modica-
authority and violated the mandates of the Clean Water
                               tion of critical habitat proposed to be designated for
Act. Moreover, the assumption that ballast discharges are
                               such species.”
harmless is clearly no longer the view of the EPA or other
                               Section 7 of the ESA should be used to examine
federal agencies. After two years of waiting, the petition-
                               the impacts of a federal project that may result in
ers led suit against EPA in January 2001 to respond to
                               increased discharges of ballast containing invasive spe-
the 1999 petition.
                               cies, where such discharges may affect endangered or
If a pollutant is threatening or impairing use of a water
                               threatened species.
body, the water body violates water quality standards
and must be listed under Section 303(d) of the Clean
                               Presidential Executive Order 13112
Water Act as “water quality limited” for that pollutant.
EPA or the state then must establish the “total maximum    On Feb. 3, 1999, President Clinton issued an Invasive
daily load” (TMDL) of the offending pollutant that can be   Species Executive Order creating a Cabinet-level National
released into the water body and still ensure that the    Invasive Species Council. The Council was charged with
water meets water quality standards, within a “margin of   creating a National Invasive Species Management Plan that
safety.” A water body whose use is impaired by aquatic    would address all types and sources of invasive species,
invasive species could be “listed” under Section 303(d);   including aquatic invasive species in ballast water. An
if so, EPA or the state must identify the maximum load    Invasive Species Advisory Committee made up of a range
of problem aquatic invasive species that can be safely    of stakeholders has been working with the Council on a
discharged into that water body. Given the signicant and   draft management plan. The draft management plan was
ongoing impacts associated with numerous aquatic inva-    released for review in October 2000 and was nalized in
sive species, it may be difcult for the applicable agency  early 2001.
to set a TMDL for aquatic invasive species other than
zero and still meet Section 303(d)’s “margin of safety”
                               California Environmental Quality Act
requirement. Currently, many reaches of the San Fran-
                               The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires
cisco Bay are listed as impaired by invasive species under
                               appropriate mitigation of projects that contain signicant
Section 303(d).
                               environmental impacts. A “signicant” impact is a “sub-
                               stantial, or potentially substantial, adverse change in any
National Environmental Policy Act               of the physical conditions within the area affected by the
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires     Project including land, air, water, minerals, ora, [and]
that federal agencies prepare an Environmental Impact     fauna…” The documented adverse impacts associated
Statement (EIS) for “major federal actions signicantly    with invasive species appear to t this broad denition. In
affecting the quality of the human environment.” NEPA     addition to meeting the general denition of “signicant
may be used to require further examination of federal     effect,” the impacts associated with increased discharges
projects that may result in increased discharges of ballast  of invasive species may require a mandatory nding of
water containing invasive species. At least one circuit    signicance under CEQA, thus mandating feasible mitiga-
court has recognized that NEPA requires federal agencies   tion of those impacts or an alternative project.
to evaluate a project’s indirect impacts on the spread and
introduction of aquatic invasive species.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                            A Status Report               517
          California Porter-Cologne Water Quality            Public Resources Code
Invasive Species



          Control Act                          In 1999, California became the rst state in the nation
                                         to enact legislation mandating exchange of ships’ ballast
          Under California’s Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
                                         water in an effort to control the introduction of invasive
          Act “any person discharging waste, or proposing to dis-
                                         species. The Public Resources Code requires vessels carry-
          charge waste, within any region that could affect the qual-
                                         ing foreign ballast to exchange that ballast in open seas. It
          ity of the waters of the state” must le with the appropri-
                                         also requires specied state agencies to analyze the status
          ate Regional Water Quality Control Board a report of the
                                         of invasions, the effectiveness of the ballast exchange
          discharge. Pursuant to the act, the regional board then
                                         program, and alternatives for ballast treatment; sets pen-
          prescribes “waste discharge requirements” related to con-
                                         alties for noncompliance; and levies fees on regulated
          trol of the discharge. The act denes “waste” broadly and
                                         vessels to pay for the program. Washington state passed a
          the term has been applied to a diverse array of materials.
                                         mandatory ballast water exchange law modeled on Califor-
          The San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
                                         nia’s law in 2000. California’s mandatory law, clear penal-
          Board has determined that “ballast water and hull fouling
                                         ties, and an active ship boarding program has resulted in
          discharges cause pollution as dened under the Por-
                                         its taking the lead in the nation on the control of ballast
          ter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act,” raising the pos-
                                         water, as the Clearinghouse report conclusively found.
          sibility that the act may be actively used to regulate
                                         Controlling the introduction of invasive species is well
          such discharges.
                                         within the traditional police powers of the states. As
                                         long as the proposed legislation does not dictate the
          California Fish and Game Code                 specic type of ballast water treatment techniques that
          State sh and wildlife laws contain provisions that relate  vessels must use and does not favor “local” shipping
          to the control of aquatic invasive species from a variety   over “foreign,” then state ballast water management laws
          of vectors. Some examples in the California Fish and Game   do not appear to be preempted by constitutional law or
          Code include the following:                  by NISA.
          •  Section 2271. “No live aquatic plant or animal may
                                         Local Application of State and
            be imported into this state without the prior written
            approval of the department.”
                                         Federal Laws
          •  Section 6603. “All sh, amphibia, or aquatic plants
                                         Place-based management of invasive species introductions
            which the department determines are merely delete-
                                         can occur where agencies implement state and federal
            rious to sh, amphibia, aquatic plants or aquatic
                                         laws on a local level. For example, in response to a
            animal life, shall be destroyed by the department,
                                         petition from conservation groups, the San Francisco Bay
            unless the owner or the person in charge . . . ships
                                         Regional Water Quality Control Board identied invasive
            them out of the state . . . .”
                                         species as “pollutant stressors” subject to Clean Water
          •  Section 6400. “It is unlawful to place, plant, or cause
                                         Act Section 303(d) in lower, south and central San Fran-
            to be placed or planted, in any waters of this state,
                                         cisco Bay, Richardson Bay, Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay,
            any live sh, any fresh or salt water animal, or any
                                         Carquinez Strait and the delta. The regional board ranked
            aquatic plant, whether taken without or within the
                                         invasive species as a high priority for action in all affected
            state, without rst submitting it for inspection to,
                                         water bodies. The listing was approved by the State Water
            and securing the written permission of, the depart-
                                         Resources Control Board and U.S. EPA (see above discus-
            ment.”
                                         sion of TMDL requirements).
          •  Section 15200. “The commission may regulate the
                                         The regional board approved a resolution to transmit to
            placing of aquatic plants and animals in waters of
                                         U.S. EPA an Exotic Species TMDL Report on impairment of
            the state.”
                                         the San Francisco Bay estuary by invasive species. Among
          •  Section 15600. “No live aquatic plant or animal may    other things, the regional board asserts in its report that
            be imported into this state by a registered aqua-     a water quality-based endpoint to achieve the estuary’s
            culturist without the prior written approval of the    water quality standards is no exotic species introductions.
            department pursuant to the regulations adopted by     In other words, an acceptable TMDL of exotic species or
            the commission.”                     organisms is zero.




            California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                       December, 2001
518
Conclusions




                                                   Invasive Species
The legal frameworks that apply, and may apply, to con-
trol of aquatic invasive species introductions are broad
and varied. Many of these legal tools are just beginning
to be utilized. As the costs associated with aquatic inva-
sive species continue to mount, it appears likely that
additional research and regulatory actions will be taken to
reduce such discharges. To maximize the effectiveness of
regulatory regimes, stakeholder input - from the conser-
vation, shipping, port, shing, utility and other communi-
ties - should be encouraged and carefully considered.
In spite of the signicance of the impacts of invasive
species, relatively little research has been done to date
on the status of current invasions (particularly outside
of San Francisco Bay). Research is also needed on the
potential for new invasions and on methods for preventing
and addressing invasions. California’s 1999 ballast water
exchange law requires the state to complete, by 2002,
research and reports on existing coastal aquatic invasions,
the effectiveness of ballast water exchange in controlling
invasions, and the potential for other methods to control
the discharge of invasives in ballast water.
The San Francisco estuary Institute, under an array of
federal and state grants, is taking a lead on needed
research. They have received funding to investigate and
report on invasions in southern California marine waters
and to sample ballast water coming into the San Francisco
estuary for invasive species. They are examining ballast
water treatment through two projects: one with the city
and county of San Francisco and the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering to research treatment of ballast water in
municipal wastewater systems, and one to analyze more
generally the potential for onshore treatment of ballast
water in municipal and industrial treatment plants and
ballast-specic treatment plants.


Linda Sheenan
The Ocean Conservancy
Francis Henry
California Department of Fish and Game




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME            California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                       A Status Report         519
Invasive Species




          California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report             December, 2001
520
Marine Birds and
Mammals: Overview                        normally, such places provide easy access to the sea and




                                                                     Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview
                                 have no naturally occurring land predators.
                                 For as long as humans have lived along the California (or

U  sing a loose denition of deriving some of their annual
                                 any) coast, seabirds have been important and are part of
   needs from the ocean, marine birds comprise an
                                 the culture. Initially, they were used as sources of food
abundant and diverse group in California waters. Included
                                 and clothing (feathers) during the short times annually
would be about 70 regularly-occurring species: divers
                                 when thousands gather to breed and lay eggs. Nowadays,
(loons and grebes), albatrosses, shearwaters, fulmars,
                                 most human uses are recreational although since seabirds
storm-petrels, certain waterfowl (scoters, brant), phala-
                                 nd sh more quickly than humans do, their feeding con-
ropes, skuas, gulls, terns, and auks (murres, pufns, guil-
                                 centrations serve as beacons to commercial shermen.
lemots, auklets, and murrelets). Infrequently occurring
                                 The slow reproductive rates of seabirds make them vulner-
species would bring the total near 100. And that does
                                 able to human factors that lead to mortality - especially
not include any estuarine species, which certainly feed on
                                 of adults and subadults (pollution, entanglement in shing
“marine” sh and invertebrates (herons, egrets, curlews,
                                 gear). The fact that they mostly eat the same sh prey
godwits, plovers, and sandpipers). Peregrine falcons, bald
                                 as humans makes them vulnerable to over-exploitation of
eagles, and ospreys could also be considered as marine
                                 sh populations, showing signs of prey depletion (reduced
species as their prey often are marine organisms.
                                 growth of populations) before humans do.
A true seabird never comes to land except to raise its
                                 The marine mammals of California include cetaceans
young (incubate eggs, bring food to chicks), and most
                                 (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, fur
spend about 90 percent of their lives at sea. Using such
                                 seals, and sea lions), and sea otters. Some are residents,
a denition reduces the California species list of marine
                                 while others pass along the coast during great migrations.
birds to a few dozen. Notable examples are albatross,
                                 Gray and humpback whales, for example, feed in Alaskan
storm-petrels, murres, and murrelets. Most divers, water-
                                 waters and migrate along the coast on their way to Mexi-
fowl, and gulls would drop from the list. Unlike most
                                 can waters to breed and calf. Blue whales visit during
marine sh and invertebrates, true seabirds are long lived
                                 summer to feed on rich concentrations of krill.
and produce very few offspring. They lay but one or
                                 Marine mammals have been an important part of the
two eggs each year or every other year, and guard them
                                 coastal commerce off California for centuries. Native
closely. Their strategy, unlike sh and invertebrates, is
                                 tribes used furs, teeth, and bones in different ways, and
to take care of a few young for a long time until they
                                 ate the esh of various species of marine mammals. By
become independent and have a pretty good chance for
                                 the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the harvest
future survival. For many, care of young continues after
                                 of seals, whales, and sea otters was such a protable
departure from the nest. The reason for being so careful
                                 undertaking that many populations of marine mammals
of young is that it is difcult for air-breathing vertebrates
                                 became depressed to levels from which some are still
(including humans) to derive food from the sea.
                                 recovering. Off California, New England and Russian hunt-
Seabirds are highly evolved to exist at sea. They are
                                 ers captured sea otters for their furs until, on the brink
among the most efcient yers of all birds, and derive
energy not just from food but also, in a way, from the
winds. In fact, many species prefer to sit on the water
if there is no wind. Using the wind, they can search huge
expanses of ocean for prey and consume very little energy
in the process. By and large, they take the most abundant
and energy rich prey available, including small sh (ancho-
vies, sardines, smelt, herring, and the juveniles of much
larger prey: salmon, rocksh), squid, and crustaceans.
For most species, the preferred prey are found in large
schools near the surface. Some marine birds, however, can
dive to depths greater than 300 feet (auks, loons). In their
ights, marine birds seek areas where ocean processes
concentrate their prey, for example where ocean waters
of differing properties (warm vs. cold) meet (fronts).
Another unusual characteristic of seabirds is that they
have almost no defense against land mammals. This is
                                             California Sea Lions, Zalophus califonianus
because they evolved using offshore islands for nesting;
                                                         Credit: Lillian Smith


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                             A Status Report                       521
                   of extinction, the International Fur Seal Treaty protected  Endangered Species Act. The Guadalupe fur seal, believed
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview



                   them in 1911. Now they have repopulated most of the      until 1926 to be extinct, is making a very gradual recov-
                   California coast north of Point Conception. For a number   ery. Among baleen whales, the humpback, blue, and n
                   of years in the 1900s, whaling was a protable business    whales have shown little recovery and are listed. On
                   in parts of California, but the loss of whales and, sub-   the other hand, the gray whale was the rst marine
                   sequently, their protection made whaling unprotable.     mammal species to be removed from the list of endan-
                   Nowadays, boat excursions carrying enthusiasts to view    gered and threatened wildlife. The sperm whale, the only
                   whales are more protable than direct exploitation in past  non-baleen great whale is still listed as endangered.
                   days. As examples of current use of marine mammals,      Meanwhile, populations of some pinniped species have
                   the passage of gray whales by the Point Reyes Headlands    ourished from their protection to the extent that their
                   during early winter requires shuttle buses by the National  interactions with humans again have become controver-
                   Park Service to avoid the trafc jams that otherwise     sial. The state depleted their populations signicantly
                   would ensue. The Año Nuevo State Reserve attracts many    during the early 1900s through direct slaughter. Now, the
                   thousands of visitors annually to observe the elephant seal  individual sea lion that feasts on the sherman’s catch
                   rookery there. Hundreds of tourists each weekend stop     and/or destroys gear can be shot only when caught in
                   at turnouts along California Highway 1 to observe harbor   the act. Unintended entrapment or hooking of pinnipeds,
                   seals hauled out nearby on Bolinas Lagoon mud ats,      sea otters, and porpoises has become a problem in some
                   and other thousands observe sea lions at Pier 45 in San    areas, where subsequently the use of gillnets has been
                   Francisco. Sea otter exhibits at such places as Monterey   restricted or stopped. The population increase and spread
                   Bay Aquarium and displays of other marine mammals at     of sea otters have impinged on the sheries for abalone
                   Sea World are major attractions.               and sea urchins, which are commercially protable only
                   The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 placed a mora-    in the absence of the otters. Whether or not the otter
                   torium on taking marine mammals. The act has since been    population will be allowed to recover further is a source of
                   amended several times to better dene how it should      conict that needs continual attention.
                   function in concert with other legislation. The focus now
                   is to reduce the incidental take of some species. In
                                                  David Ainley
                   response to protection, many populations of marine mam-
                                                  Point Reyes Bird Observatory
                   mals have increased to levels that existed prior to their
                                                  William S. Leet
                   exploitation. Some populations, while expanding, are still
                                                  National Marine Fisheries Service (retired)
                   listed as endangered or threatened under the federal




                     California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                          A Status Report                       December, 2001
522
Pinnipeds
History                            pinnipeds in spite of the damage and economic losses




                                                               Pinnipeds
                                they cause.

T  here are six pinniped species inhabiting the California  It is unclear whether foraging by pinnipeds is impacting
   coast and offshore islands: the California sea lion    the abundance of marine species harvested by man. Cur-
(Zalophus californianus californianus), Steller (or north-  rent research data are insufcient to answer this ques-
ern) sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus), Pacic harbor seal    tion. Ecological interactions between pinnipeds and sh-
(Phoca vitulina richardsi), northern elephant seal (Mir-   ery resources are complex and poorly understood. Food
ounga angustirostris), northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursi-  habits studies on California sea lions and Pacic harbor
nus) and Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus townsendi).    seals indicate a broad range of prey species are consumed.
The ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata) and the hooded seal (Cys-  The opportunistic feeding nature of pinnipeds means food
tophora cristata) have been reported in California waters,  habits can change dramatically between areas and years
but these were extremely rare events and they are not     in response to changes in the abundance of different prey
considered normal California visitors.            species. Research in this area is difcult because of the
The California sea lion and Pacic harbor seal are prob-   great complexities of interactions. Though we do know
ably the best known and most often seen pinnipeds in     their diets often include sh such as anchovies, mackerel,
California waters. Californians and visitors from around   herring, hake, rocksh, salmon, and cephalopods, such as
the world enjoy watching the playful behavior of these    squid and octopus.
animals cavorting in the water near shore or hauled out    In the 1860s and 1870s, many pinnipeds were killed for
to rest on buoys, rocks, and other solid objects. They also  their oil or body parts and many females were captured
enjoy seeing them in public display aquaria or as perform-  for displays or animal acts. Pinnipeds were hunted com-
ers in animal shows at zoos and parks. Pinnipeds are     mercially until 1938, when California law gave them com-
amusing and intelligent entertainers, but there is another  plete protection from hunting. Nevertheless, sport and
aspect of the pinniped story which is related to their diet  commercial shermen were free to kill sea lions and
of sh and their expanding populations.            harbor seals that were destroying gear or otherwise inter-
In recent years, California sea lions and, to a lesser    fering with shing operations. In 1972, the Marine Mammal
degree, Pacic harbor seals have gained notoriety by     Protection Act was passed by Congress prohibiting the
taking over portions of marinas, bathing beaches and by    take (pursuit, harassment, capture, or kill) of marine
eating endangered or threatened salmon and steelhead     mammals except under special permitted conditions. The
moving upstream to spawn. Marina operators and boat      act was renewed and revised in 1994. From its inception,
owners consider them a major nuisance, and potentially    the act specied that marine mammals should be pro-
dangerous. Some seals react aggressively when people     tected as functioning elements of the ecosystem. The
approach. Some who sh commercially or for sport believe   1994 amendments to the act established a new system
that pinnipeds compete for sh and are costly pests con-   to reduce the injuries and mortality of marine mammals
suming tons of valuable sh, destroying valuable shing    involved incidentally in commercial shing operations to
gear and interfering with shing operations. They com-    insignicant levels approaching zero.
plain that any sea lion is attracted to shing operations   Research has been conducted in the past on methods of
and that the mere presence of a sea lion scares sh away   reducing the impacts that pinnipeds have on certain sh-
from the shing area. Research biologists speculate that   eries (e.g., various taste aversion substances and acoustic
most of those problems are caused by a relatively few     harassment devices), but with little success. In most
“rogue” pinnipeds. The rogues have learned that a sh     cases, the animals appeared to acclimate to the deter-
caught in a net or hooked on a line is an easier meal     rents, and sometimes used the purported scare devices as
than a free-swimming sh, and some actually target these   “dinner bells” signifying active shing boats and an easy
sheries on a regular basis. A major concern is that this   food source. Long-term solutions remain illusive.
behavior will spread as the pinniped populations grow.
Resolving pinniped conicts with human activities is a con-
                                Status of Biological Knowledge
troversial issue. Faced with decreasing catches, increasing
marine mammal populations, and increasing shery inter-
actions, some sport and commercial shermen contend
                                California Sea Lion
that some pinniped populations have reached the point
where population control and management efforts should    The California sea lion ranges from British Columbia south
be implemented. This would include the lethal removal     to Tres Marias Islands off Mexico. Breeding grounds are
of nuisance animals. Others will argue for protection of   mainly on offshore islands from the Channel Islands south
                                into Mexico. Breeding takes place in June and early July



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                            A Status Report               523
                                           from the Pribilof Islands to Año Nuevo Island. The largest
Pinnipeds



                                           breeding colonies in California are at Point St. George, Año
                                           Nuevo, and the Farallon Islands. Breeding is in late June,
                                           after which the animals migrate northward. This species is
                                           a tawny or yellowish-brown color in contrast to the darker
                                           reddish color of the California sea lion. Grown males are
                                           1,500 to 2,200 pounds and reach a length of 13 feet.
                                           Females usually weigh between 600 and 900 pounds and
                                           reach a length of nine feet. Food of the Steller sea lion
                                           consists primarily of squid and sh.


                                           Pacific Harbor Seal
                                           The Pacic harbor seal ranges along the northwest coast
                   California Sea Lion, Zalophus californianus  of America from the Gulf of Alaska to Cedros Island off
                               Credit: Phil Schuyler  Baja California. In California, harbor seals are abundant
                                           along the entire coast. Adult male Pacic harbor seals
      within a few days after the females give birth. The pups
                                           reach a length of six feet and weight of up to 240 pounds,
      are weaned at six months to a year or more. Males
      and females reach sexual maturity between four and ve
      years, although males normally do not achieve territorial
      status until age eight or nine. Males weigh between 500
      and 1,000 pounds and reach seven to eight feet in length.
      Females weigh between 200 and 600 pounds and reach
      six feet. Adult males have a pronounced sagittal crest (a
      ridge on top of the skull extending from the forehead to
      the rear of the skull), a characteristic distinguishing this
      species from the Steller sea lion. Food of the California
      sea lion consists largely of squid, octopus, and a variety
      of shes (anchovies, mackerel, herring, rocksh, hake,
      and salmon).


      Steller Sea Lion
      The Steller sea lion’s distribution partially overlaps that
      of the California sea lion. It ranges from the Bering Strait
                                                       Pacific Harbor Seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi
      off Alaska to southern California. Breeding grounds extend
                                                                   Credit: Phil Schuyler

                                           while females reach 5.5 feet and 275 pounds (when preg-
                                           nant). The coloration patterns of adults vary from black
                                           with white spots to white with black spots. Breeding
                                           season varies with latitude, starting in March to May on
                                           the Channel Islands of southern California and continuing
                                           later up the coast. Age at sexual maturity is three to
                                           four years for females and ve years for males. Newborn
                                           pups are approximately 32 inches long and weigh about
                                           22 pounds. They are weaned at ve to six weeks at an
                                           average weight of 50 pounds. Adult females ovulate and
                                           mate at the end of weaning, with a two-month delayed
                                           implantation of the developing embryo. Their diet consists
                                           of sh such as ounders, herring, tomcod, hake, and
                                           lampreys, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus.


                      Steller Sea Lion, Eumetopias jubatus
                               Credit: Phil Schuyler


        California’s Living Marine Resources:                 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                            December, 2001
524
Northern Fur Seal




                                                                        Pinnipeds
The northern fur seal is one of the best-known seals in the
world because of its valuable fur, for which it was hunted
to near extinction. Historical populations, centered on
the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, are estimated at two million
animals, but in 1911, when international treaties were
established to protect and manage this species, there
were fewer than 125,000 animals. San Miguel Island, off
Santa Barbara, California, hosts a small breeding colony
and is the southernmost extent of its range. It is a rem-
nant of a much larger population that existed in California
in the early 1800s. The peak breeding and pupping period
is in July. After breeding, the males migrate out to sea
where they spend as many as 10 months. The pups are
weaned at four months of age and are left to travel
in the northward migrations on their own. Fur seals are
                                                Guadalupe Fur Seal, Arctocephalus townsendi
distinguished from sea lions by their pelage, composed
                                                            Credit: Phil Schuyler
of a very dense undercoat and a thinner, coarser layer
                                    only occasionally at islands in the Southern California Bight
                                    and the Farallon Islands. They breed only on Guadalupe
                                    Island. They are identied by a “collie-like,” long pointed
                                    muzzle. Males reach up to six feet in length; females are
                                    slightly smaller.


                                    Northern Elephant Seal
                                    The comeback of the northern elephant seal, the largest
                                    of all the seals, is one of the great success stories for
                                    an animal threatened with extinction. Male elephant seals
                                    reach a length of 15 to 16 feet and weight of about 4,000
                                    to 5,000 pounds. Females reach a length of 11 feet and
                                    weigh about 1,700 pounds. The male develops a bulbous
                                    enlargement of the snout from which, along with its size,
                                    it gets its common name. Breeding colonies exist on San
                                    Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Island, San Nicolas Island,
                                    San Simeon Island, Año Nuevo Island, Southeast Farallon
               Northern Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus
                                    Island, and Point Reyes Peninsula. They have also begun
                        Credit: Phil Schuyler
                                    hauling out at several other mainland sites where histori-
                                    cally they did not haul out. The breeding season is from
of guard hairs, and by their relatively long ippers. The
                                    December through March. Breeding groups, or “harems,”
northern fur seal is closely related to the Guadalupe fur
                                    consist of one male and eight to 40 females. The gestation
seal and is distinguished from its close relative by its very
short muzzle. Males reach a length of eight feet and weigh
up to 700 pounds. Females are only four to ve feet long
and weigh about 130 pounds. Sexual maturity is attained
between three and seven years, with longevity reported
to be up to 26 years.


Guadalupe Fur Seal
The Guadalupe fur seal was presumed extinct until 1926,
when a group of 60 animals was discovered on Guadalupe
Island, Mexico. The population is recovering slowly from
near extinction brought about by sealers in the last cen-
                                              Northern Elephant Seal, Mirounga angurstirostris
tury. This is a rare pinniped in California waters, seen
                                                            Credit: Phil Schuyler


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                     California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                                A Status Report                    525
      period is about 11.5 months. Pups are weaned by four       of Steller sea lions throughout most of its range has
Pinnepeds



      weeks but remain on the rookery another eight to 10       prompted its listing as endangered under the Endangered
      weeks, sleeping during the day and gradually starting to     Species Act and depleted under the Marine Mammal Pro-
      enter the water at night. Departure from the rookery       tection Act.
      occurs at an age of approximately three months. Females
                                       Pacific Harbor Seal
      begin breeding as young as two years of age. Males reach
      sexual maturity at ve years; but older, larger males
                                       From aerial census data, the harbor seal population along
      prevent young and socially immature males from mating
                                       the California coast appears to be increasing, and con-
      until they are at least eight or nine years old. Males and
                                       currently, the number of occupied sites has increased.
      females both live about 14 years.
                                       From the last aerial survey (1995), the population was
      Elephant seals do most of their feeding at night and prob-
                                       estimated at 30,293 animals after using correction factors.
      ably in deep water as evidenced by the fact that they have
                                       The population appears to be growing and shery mortal-
      been caught in nets at 2,000-foot depths. Time-depth
                                       ity is declining.
      recorder experiments show that elephant seals can dive to
      5,200 feet, and stay beneath the surface for up to an hour.
                                       Northern Fur Seal
      Stomach content analyses indicate that they feed on small
      sharks, rays, ratsh, rocksh, and squid.            The eastern North Pacic population of fur seals is esti-
                                       mated at over one million animals. The population at San
                                       Miguel Island was estimated in 1999 at 4,336 animals after
      Status of the Populations                    correction factors. The San Miguel Island population has
                                       increased steadily since the 1970s. An annual increase
      The Marine Mammal Protection Act recognizes marine
                                       of eight percent occurred from 1965 through 1996. How-
      mammals as components of the marine ecosystem and
                                       ever, the eastern North Pacic stock of fur seals is
      requires maintenance of stocks above levels at which they
                                       formally listed as depleted under the Marine Mammal
      would lose their function in the ecosystem. In practice,
                                       Protection Act.
      marine mammal management is directed toward maintain-
      ing the optimum sustainable population size (OSP) for
                                       Guadalupe Fur Seal
      each species within its geographical range. To be optimal,
      the population size should be between the rate at which     The historical distribution and abundance of the Guadal-
      maximum growth occurs and the carrying capacity of the      upe fur seal are unknown because commercial sealers
      environment. A variety of procedures are used to assess     and other observers failed to distinguish between it and
      population status.                        the northern fur seal in their records. This species, once
                                       thought to be extinct, has an estimated population of
      California Sea Lion                       7,408 animals. The population is growing at approximately
                                       13.7 percent per year. Although the primary breeding
      California sea lions breeding on U.S. rookeries are
                                       colony is on Guadalupe Island, recent sightings of adult
      assumed to comprise a single stock. The population of
                                       and juvenile seals on some of the Channel Islands suggest
      newborn pups is determined from an aerial census. The
                                       that recolonization of that area may occur in the future.
      size of the entire population is estimated from the number
                                       The Guadalupe fur seal is listed as threatened under the
      of new births and the proportion of pups in the popula-
                                       Endangered Species Act and depleted under the Marine
      tion. Their status was last assessed in 2000. At that time,
                                       Mammal Protection Act.
      the population size was estimated at 204,000 to 214,000
      animals. Recent estimates place the population growth
                                       Northern Elephant Seal
      rate at 6.2 percent per year. Fishery mortality is increasing.
                                       The exploitation and subsequent recovery of the northern
      Steller Sea Lion                         elephant seal population is a remarkable story. Biologists
      Population estimates for northern sea lions are based on     estimate that only 100 to 500 animals were left on Gua-
      counts of animals hauled-out during the breeding season.     dalupe Island before protective legislation was passed.
      A decline of this species is occurring throughout its range,   They claim that the entire current population may have
      including the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands, which     originated from this small group of animals. Based on
      support 75 percent of the world’s population. The current    pup counts, the California breeding stock was estimated
      West Coast population of northern sea lions is estimated     at 84,000 animals in 1996. The apparent growth rate
      at 39,031 animals, which is less than half of the population   since 1980 has been about eight percent annually. Annual
      level from 1956 to 1960. The dramatic decline in numbers     surveys indicate that this species has reoccupied most or



        California’s Living Marine Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                        December, 2001
526
all of its historical rookeries and hauling grounds. The  Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the Pacic harbor seal popula-




                                                              Pinnipeds
population is continuing to grow and shery mortality is  tion on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin.
relatively constant.                    Rep. LJ-88-06. 43 pp.
                              Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the California sea lion popula-
                              tion on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin.
Doyle Hanan
                              Rep. LJ-88-07. 26 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game
                              Hanan, D.A., L.M. Jones, and M.J. Beeson. 1992. Harbor
Joyce Sisson
                              seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi, census in California, May-
National Marine Fisheries Service
                              June 1991. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin. Rpt. LJ-92-03. 68
Revised by:
                              pp.
Robert Read and Carrie Wilson
                              Hanan, D.A. and S.L. Diamond. 1989. Estimates of sea lion,
California Department of Fish and Game
                              harbor seal, and harbor porpoise mortalities in California
                              set net sheries for the 1986-87 shing year. Final Rpt.
                              Cooperative agreement No. NA-86-ABH-00018. Submitted
References                         NOAA/NMFS SWR, January 1989. 10 pp.
Antonelis, G.A., S. Leatherwood, and D. K. Odell. 1981.  Lowry, M.S., C.W. Oliver, C. Macky, and J.B. Wexler. 1990.
Population growth and censuses of the northern elephant  Food habits of California sea lions Zalophus californinus at
seal, Mirounga angustirostris, on the California channel  San Clemente Island, California, 1981-86. Fish. Bull., U. S.
islands, 1958-1978. Fish. Bull., U.S. 79:562-567.     88:509-521.
Anonymous. 1999. Report to Congress: Impacts of Califor-  Miller, D., M. Herder, and J. Scholl. 1983. California marine
nia Sea Lions and Pacic Harbor Seals on Salmonids and   mammal-shery interaction study, 1979-1981. NOAA/NMFS
West Coast Ecosystems. DOC/NOAA/NMFS. 18 pp.        SWFC Admin. Rep. LJ-83-13C. 233 pp.
Barlow, J., et al. 1997. U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock
Assessments: 1996. NOAA/NMFS-SWFSC Tech. Mem. 248.
223 pp.
Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the northern elephant seal
population on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC
Admin. Rep. LJ-88-05. 35 pp.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME               California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                          A Status Report                527
Pinnipeds




      California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
            A Status Report             December, 2001
528
Whales, Dolphins,
Porpoises                           did not join. Several international agreements followed




                                                               Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
                                which attempted to improve upon this initial document.
                                In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was
History                            established, both to ensure the development of the whal-


M
                                ing industry and to conserve the worlds whale stocks for
   arine mammals played an important role in shaping
                                the interests of future generations. For many years, the
   the early history of California. By the late 18th cen-
                                IWC concentrated its efforts on maximizing the level of
tury, English whale ships had voyaged to the waters of
                                removal of whales rather than on whale conservation.
California in search of sperm whales. Portuguese immi-
                                However, in recent years, the IWC has attempted to move
grants from the Azores and Cape Verde followed in the
                                towards whale conservation.
1840s, manning and operating the rst shore-based whal-
                                In 1972, the United States Congress enacted the Marine
ing industry. Shore whaling was distinct from nineteenth
                                Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), which established a com-
century Yankee pelagic whaling, because whales were
                                plex and comprehensive federal policy of marine mammal
pursued from a vessel launched from a nearby coastline.
                                management. The MMPA made it unlawful to take (dened
Deploying rowboats from shore and using harpoons, whal-
                                as kill, capture, pursue, or harass) marine mammals in the
ers typically pursued, captured, and towed whales back
                                waters of the United States and it also prohibited U. S.
to the whaling stations. At shore-based whaling stations,
                                citizens from taking marine mammals on the high seas.
workers extracted oil from the whale’s blubber. The
                                Under limited circumstances, exceptions may be autho-
lure of gold and quick prosperity brought numerous crew-
                                rized for the taking of some marine mammals, provided
men from New England’s whaling industry in the late
                                that the level of removal will not cause the population
1840s and early 1850s. After the gold rush abated, many
                                to decline below sustainable levels. For instance, marine
returned to their previous occupations on whaling ships.
                                mammals may be removed for public display and scientic
The early shore-based whaling industry in California pri-
                                research, or incidental to activities such as shipping and
marily caught gray and humpback whales, because trips by
                                commercial shing.
shore whalers were limited to within 10 miles of the coast-
line. However, whalers occasionally took the right, blue,
and n whales, more highly prized due to the greater oil
                                Current Management
content of their blubber. Until 1901, at least 15 stations
operated at various locations between Crescent City and

                                S  ince the enactment of the MMPA in 1972, the focus of
San Diego.
                                  concern has shifted to the incidental capture of marine
After more than 40 years of whaling along the California   mammals during commercial shing operations. Due to the
coast, whale populations and the demand for expensive     rapid expansion of several of California’s coastal sheries,
whale oil declined, and subsequently the whaling industry   there has been an increase in the incidental capture of
became less protable in the late 1800s. Nevertheless,    marine mammals in recent years. Nonetheless, in Califor-
modern whaling vessels caught some gray whales and      nia, the level of take of cetaceans is lower than it is
many humpback whales in California waters after the      for other marine mammals (e.g., pinnipeds). The National
turn of the century. Powered by engines, modern whaling    Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is currently implementing
vessels hunted whales more efciently through the use     a management regime to govern the incidental taking of
of explosives, mounted cannons, and grenades. Whalers     marine mammals in commercial shing operations. Under
would deliver carcasses to oating processing plants     this program, some marine mammal species may be inci-
where the oil was extracted. Modern catcher boats origi-   dentally taken during commercial shing operations or
nating from shore stations also periodically took whales   during other human-caused activities so long as the level
during this period. The last remaining whaling station    of take will allow the stock to reach and maintain its
in the United States, near Richmond, California, closed    optimum sustainable population. Moreover, the California
in 1971.                           Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has developed regula-
                                tions to help minimize the incidental take of marine mam-
In 1931, 50 nations, including the United States, agreed
                                mals in the coastal gillnet shery.
upon the International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling. This agreement was the rst international effort   Due to the recovery of the gray whale population and
to control the decimation of the world’s whale popula-    accessibility of migrating gray whales along the California
tions. The primary protection measures included full pro-   coastline, a large and diverse whalewatching industry has
tection for right whales and, for all other species, a    developed. Since the 1970s, commercial whalewatching
ban on the killing of calves, suckling whales, immature    has become an important recreational, educational, and
whales, and females with calves. The agreement was      economic activity. The 1983-1984 whalewatching season
ineffective, however, because the major whaling nations    alone generated an estimated total gross income of


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                            A Status Report                 529
               $2.6 million. This estimate did not include regional eco-
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises



               nomic benets from the sale of meals, fuel, lodging,
               whale paraphernalia and other whale-related activities.
               In 1985, the commercial whalewatching industry in Califor-
               nia was the largest in the United States, with 74 boats
               in operation.
               The rapid growth of commercial whalewatching, and
               increased interest by private boaters in observing
               and approaching whales in the wild, have been accom-
               panied by concerns that these activities could cause
               adverse biological impacts to whales. In California, NMFS
                                                           Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae
               adopted whalewatching guidelines that established mini-
                                                                     Credit: Phil Schuyler
               mum approach distances (100 yards) for vessels and air-
                                               to its breeding grounds in Hawaii and offshore islands in
               craft, as well as additional operational guidelines for ves-
                                               Mexico. The California, Oregon, and Washington feeding
               sels. Nevertheless, each year there are numerous reports
                                               populations migrate to coastal Mexico and Central Amer-
               of harassment of whales by commercial whalewatching
                                               ica to breed. During their seasonal migrations, humpback
               vessels and private boaters. NMFS is currently developing
                                               whales may frequently be seen along the California coast
               regulations that will provide mechanisms to enforce mini-
                                               from April through November. Some individuals appear to
               mum approach distances.
                                               remain in California year-round. In the Gulf of the Faral-
               Partly as a result of the protection and management
                                               lones, humpbacks may be observed feeding during May
               achieved from regulatory measures, and partly because
                                               and November. Off southern California, humpbacks often
               of increased public awareness and appreciation of marine
                                               migrate along submarine ridges (e.g., Santa Rosa-Cortez
               mammals, some populations have rebounded since the
                                               Ridge) and occasionally enter the coastal waters of the
               years of commercial exploitation. Marine mammals that
                                               San Pedro and Santa Barbara Channels. They obtain their
               inhabit the coastal waters of California now represent
                                               food by straining krill (small shrimp-like crustaceans) and
               resources that enhance both the wealth and recreational
                                               schools of small sh with their baleen. Humpback whales
               benets of the state. For many people, a commercial
                                               are well known for their complex songs, thought to be
               whalewatching cruise is their rst contact with the marine
                                               used in courtship or competition between males, and their
               environment. Thus, the value of observing marine mam-
                                               leaping out of the water, or breaching behavior. The songs
               mals in the wild not only increases public awareness of
                                               on their breeding grounds can last up to several hours.
               these animals but also contributes to increased public
                                               Near the turn of the century, an estimated 15,000 hump-
               appreciation of the diversity and abundance of other living
                                               back whales inhabited the North Pacic Ocean. Com-
               marine resources.
                                               mercial whaling reduced this population to dangerously
               The waters of California provide essential habitat to a
                                               low levels, and in 1966 the IWC established a moratorium
               large variety and abundance of whales, dolphins, por-
                                               on harvesting them. With this protection, the population
               poises, and other marine mammals. These animals play
                                               has recovered to a size of 8,000 individuals. The California
               an important role in maintaining the balance of marine
                                               feeding population is thought to consist of about 1,000
               ecosystems. Consequently, protecting California’s marine
                                               animals. The California population appears to be growing
               mammals is an integral part of the conservation of all
                                               at about eight percent per year. The humpback whale has
               living marine resources in California.
                                               been listed as an endangered species under the United
                                               States Endangered Species Act (ESA) since 1970.

               Status of Biological Knowledge and
                                               Blue Whale
               Populations
                                               Blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) are the largest ani-
                                               mals in the world, sometimes attaining a size of over 90
               Humpback Whale                         feet. An individual blue whale may consume up to eight
                                               tons of krill in a single day. The majority of the eastern
               Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are distin-
                                               North Pacic population spends the summer on feeding
               guished by their exceptionally long ippers up to 1/3 of
                                               grounds between central California, the Gulf of Alaska
               body length, and robust body that may reach a length
                                               and the Aleutian Islands. Like all baleen whales, the blue
               of over 45 feet and weigh up to 37.5 tons. There appear
                                               whale seasonally migrates to lower latitudes in the winter
               to be two distinct populations of humpback whales in
                                               to calve and breed. Migratory routes generally follow the
               the North Pacic. The Alaska feeding population migrates


                 California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                       December, 2001
530
                                   month of the year in California. Approximately 1,000 n




                                                                      Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
                                   whales are estimated to be off California. There is some
                                   indication that n whales have increased in abundance
                                   in California coastal waters. This species uses its baleen
                                   to lter krill, capelin, sand lance, squid, herring, and
                                   lantern sh from the water. They have been listed as an
                                   endangered species under the ESA since 1970.


                                   Minke Whale
                Blue Whale, Balaenoptera musculus
                       Credit: Phil Schuyler  Minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) inhabit both
continental shelf and slope, but blue whales are occasion-      the high seas and nearshore waters where they are known
ally found in deep oceanic zones and shallow inshore         to enter bays, inlets, and estuaries. This species is the
areas. Blue whales are usually seen off the California coast     smallest of the baleen whales in California waters, attain-
traveling alone or in pairs, from May to January, although      ing a size of up to 32 feet, and is distinguished by a
they have been observed in every month of the year. They       transverse white band on its ippers and its relatively tall
frequently may be seen feeding in the Farallon Islands        and falcate (hooked) dorsal n. In the summer months,
between July and October and occasionally are sighted in       minke whales feed on krill, copepods, sand lance, and
Monterey Bay and over deep coastal submarine canyons         herring in the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean. During the
off central and southern California. Historically, the North
Pacic population may have been comprised of over 5,000
individuals before its severe depletion by modern whaling
operations. An estimated 1,700 to 1,900 blue whales cur-
rently inhabit the eastern North Pacic Ocean. It is esti-
mated that the California feeding population is comprised
of at least 1,700 whales. No information exists on the
rate of growth of blue whale populations in the Pacic.
                                                 Minke Whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata
The blue whale has been listed as an endangered species
                                                          Credit: Phil Schuyler
under the ESA since 1970.

                                   winter months, they migrate south along the North Amer-
Fin Whale                               ica coastline to Mexico. There are some year-round resi-
                                   dents off California. An estimated 400 minke whales live
The n whale (Balaenoptera physalus) is a common, large
                                   off California. Minke whales are occasionally seen from
cetacean occurring off the California coast. Fin whales
                                   whalewatching and sport shing vessels and from shore in
can reach a size of up to 87 feet and weigh up to 76
                                   California.
tons. These whales may be distinguished by the white
coloration of their lower right lip and V-shaped head.
                                   Gray Whale
They are distributed throughout the world’s oceans, but

                                   Gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) are distinguished by
                                   their mottled gray body, narrow head and absence of a
                                   dorsal n. They can reach a length of over 45 feet. The
                                   gray whale undergoes one of the longest migrations in
                                   the animal kingdom. Perhaps the best known of the great




                 Fin Whale, Balaenoptera physalus
                       Credit: Phil Schuyler
little is known of their seasonal movements in the North
Pacic. The North Pacic population reportedly winters
between central California southward to 20o N latitude and
summers from Baja California to the Chukchi Sea north of                        Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus
the Bering Strait. Fin whales have been observed in every                              Credit: Phil Schuyler


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                    California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                                A Status Report                     531
               whales off California, the eastern North Pacic gray whale     sperm whale has been listed as an endangered species
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises



               migrates from its feeding grounds in the Bering Sea and       under the ESA since 1970.
               Arctic Ocean to its calving and breeding areas in the sub-
                                                 Killer Whale
               tropical lagoons along the west coast of Baja California.
               This population generally migrates along the coastline,
                                                 Killer whales (Orcinus orca), actually the largest of the
               often within a few miles of shore. The gray whale migra-
                                                 dolphins, are year-round residents in California. They have
               tion can be observed from several locations in California
                                                 been seen entering kelp beds, bays, or inlets, but are
               such as Point Loma, Point Vincente, Point Sur, and Point
                                                 more common offshore. The killer whale is widely known
               Reyes. They begin to enter California waters in late
                                                 due to its popularity in oceanaria. It is recognized by its
               November and December on their southward migration.
                                                 striking black and white color pattern and erect dorsal n,
               In mid-February, gray whales begin their return migration
                                                 which can be up to six feet tall in adult males. This spe-
               north, passing through southern California waters until
               late May or early June. Some immature whales reportedly
               remain in kelp beds to feed over the winter months
               off California. The northbound cow/calf migration usually
               occurs during April through June. Gray whales use their
               baleen to sift out crustaceans, molluscs, and other inver-
               tebrates, which they suck up from bottom sediments.
               The most recent population estimate is approximately
               23,000 animals. In 1994, the gray whale became the rst
               marine mammal species to be removed from the List of
               Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. The number of gray
               whales is above its unexploited stock size prior to whaling
                                                                        Killer Whale, Orcinus orca
               and is increasing at a rate of 2.5 to 3.2 percent per year.                              Credit: Phil Schuyler

               Sperm Whale                             cies may reach a length of nearly 30 feet. Killer whales are
                                                 top predators in the ocean, using their sharp conical teeth
               Unlike the other great whales, the sperm whale does not       for grasping and tearing prey. They have been observed
               feed with baleen, but is a toothed whale. It is the largest     attacking the largest animal on Earth, the blue whale,
               of the toothed whales with males reaching a length of        and there is one documented kill of a white shark by
                                                 a killer whale. Killer whales were so named for their
                                                 habit of attacking seals and whales; however, sh are
                                                 the most important component of their diet. Small groups
                                                 of sometimes-related individuals (pods) often hunt in a
                                                 coordinated and cooperative manner. Some killer whale
                                                 pods have strong social bonds, remaining in pods of ve
                                                 to 30 individuals for decades. There are 600 to 800 killer
                                                 whales along the coast of California, Oregon and Wash-
                                                 ington. No information is available regarding trends in
                                                 abundance of eastern North Pacic offshore killer whales.
                                 Sperm Whale, Physeter catodon
                                     Credit: Phil Schuyler

               60 feet and females 40 feet. Sperm whales are noted for
               their ability to make deep dives, which can last up to an
               hour and a half and can be as deep as two miles below
               the surface. They feed mainly on squid, including the
               giant squid. Sperm whales are widely distributed across
               the entire North Pacic and are found year-round in Cali-
               fornia waters. They reach peak abundance from April
               through mid-June and from the end of August through
               mid-November. Sperm whale abundance appears to be
               fairly stable with approximately 1,000 to 1,200 sperm
                                                          Shortfinned Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus
               whales estimated to be off the coast of California. The
                                                                          Credit: Phil Schuyler



                 California’s Living Marine Resources:              CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                          December, 2001
532
Shortfinned Pilot Whale                       phins often form groups of over 100 animals, sometimes




                                                                      Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
                                  numbering in the thousands. Population surveys estimate
The shortnned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus)       that over 350,000 common dolphins inhabit the waters
can reach a size in excess of 17 feet, and is distinguished     off southern California between summer and autumn.
by its bulbous forehead and broad based slightly falcate      Common dolphins frequently engage in bow-riding and
dorsal n. In California, these whales are commonly found      aerial acrobatics.
south of Point Conception, but there have been sightings
as far north as the Gulf of the Farallones off San Fran-
                                  Bottlenose Dolphin
cisco. Following movements of local squid populations,
shortnned pilot whales may move seasonally nearshore in      Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are readily recog-
the winter and offshore during other times of the year.       nizable by the public due to their antics on television,
Before the El Niño event in 1982 and 1983, the number        their performances in oceanaria, and because the coastal
of shortnned pilot whales was near 2,000 during peak        form is occasionally seen surng in the waves along popu-
periods off southern California. However their numbers       lated southern California beaches. This species may reach
declined during that El Niño, presumably due to emi-        a size of over 12 feet and is distinguished by its gray color-
gration, and the population has not returned to its previ-     ation, lightly colored belly, and moderately tall and falcate
ous level. One hypothesis for the population’s failure to
rebound is that it was competitively excluded by the
Risso’s dolphin population in California. Currently, the
population size is estimated to be between 700 to
1,000 individuals present in the nearshore waters of Cali-
fornia. This species was the rst “whale” displayed in
captivity and is still seen occasionally in oceanaria around
the world.

                                                 Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus
Common Dolphin                                                   Credit: Phil Schuyler
There are two different species of common dolphin in
                                  dorsal n. South of Point Conception, bottlenose dolphins
California waters. One is called the short-beaked common
                                  are common, whereas few animals are encountered fur-
dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and the other is called the
                                  ther north. In California, both coastal and offshore forms
long-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus capensis). The
                                  are found. The coastal form inhabits shallow water just
long-beaked has a relatively longer beak and more muted
                                  beyond the surf zone, and is known to frequent bays and
coloration. It occurs from offshore southern California
                                  estuaries. Groups of 10 to 25 animals may travel together
waters south to Islas Tres Marias and along the entire
                                  and make regular migrations along the coastline. There
coast in the Gulf of California. The short-beaked has
                                  are reportedly seasonal shifts in their distribution north-
a relatively shorter beak, more contrasting coloration,
                                  ward to San Francisco County. It is estimated that the
and is more common offshore from Isla Cedros north.
                                  coastal form is comprised of approximately 160 animals.
                                  The population estimate for the offshore form is about
                                  3,000 animals. This species often rides the bow wave of
                                  vessels, and swims in the wake of large whales.


                                  Risso’s Dolphin
                                  Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus) are known to reach a
                                  size of over 13 feet, usually have extensive scarring over
                                  their white to light-gray colored body, and lack a beak.
                Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis
                                  The population is estimated to be about 29,000 Risso’s
                      Credit: Phil Schuyler
                                  dolphins residing off California. Since El Niño (1982-1983),
                                  their numbers are believed to have increased. Risso’s dol-
The common dolphin is the most abundant cetacean in
                                  phins normally appear in pods of 25 to 50 individuals and
California. Common dolphins can reach nearly eight feet in
                                  do not usually bow ride but will perform some acrobatics
length and can be distinguished by the unique hourglass
                                  such as spy hopping and breaching. They are distributed
coloration on their sides which appears as a V-shaped
                                  widely, frequently being found in deep water areas with
black or dark gray saddle when they are observed at sea.
                                  warm temperate to tropical water conditions. Risso’s dol-
Among the most gregarious of cetaceans, common dol-



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                               A Status Report                     533
                                                     may reach a size of at least seven feet. The species
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises



                                                     is thought to be the second most abundant dolphin off
                                                     southern California, and the most common off northern
                                                     California. The Pacic white-sided dolphin is seen year-
                                                     round, frequenting the continental shelf and slope waters,
                                                     sometimes appearing in Monterey Bay. They may occur
                                                     in herds of over a few thousand individuals, but groups
                                  Risso’s Dolphin, Grampus griseus
                                                     of several hundred are more common. Recent surveys
                                         Credit: Phil Schuyler
                                                     indicate population sizes of 110,000 animals in California
               phins are occasionally observed in central and northern          waters. This species is known for its acrobatic behavior
               California waters.                             and bow riding abilities. Pacic white-sided dolphins are
                                                     occasionally displayed in oceanaria.
               Northern Right-Whale Dolphin
                                                     Harbor Porpoise
               Northern right-whale dolphins (Lissodelphis borealis) have
               no dorsal n and have a very slim and graceful black body         The harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) is the smallest
               that may attain a length of 10 feet. They appear to prefer         cetacean found in California waters, rarely reaching a
               offshore, cold temperate waters and only occur inshore           length of over six feet. It may be distinguished by its lack
               over deep submarine canyons. The northern right-whale           of a beak and its triangular dorsal n. Harbor porpoises
               dolphin is commonly found in the waters off central and          frequent the cooler waters of central and northern Califor-
               northern California, although they also appear in winter          nia, seldom straying south of Point Conception. Locally
                                                     abundant concentrations exist between Cape Mendocino
                                                     and Point Reyes, and in Monterey Bay. They are not known
                                                     to migrate extensively, but may move between inshore
                                                     and offshore areas. The harbor porpoise occurs primarily
                                                     in relatively shallow nearshore water and, thus, is vulner-
                                                     able to human activities such as the coastal gillnet shery
                                                     in California. In response to the general increase in gillnet-
                                                     ting, DFG has implemented several management mecha-
                         Northern Right-Whale Dolphin, Lissodelphis borealis
                                        Credit: Phil Schuyler

               and spring off southern California. There appears to be
               some seasonal north-south shift in their distribution as a
               result of water temperature changes and prey availability.
               Recent surveys indicate there are between 14,000 and
               20,000 northern right-whale dolphins in California waters.
               This gregarious species sometimes occurs in large herds
               of up to several thousand and is noted for its eetness.                         Harbor Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena
               Northern right-whale dolphins rarely approach vessels.                                  Credit: Phil Schuyler

               Pacific white-sided dolphin                        nisms to reduce the incidental take of harbor porpoises.
                                                     This species never approaches vessels or bow rides. The
               The Pacic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliq-           harbor porpoise population off California may consist of
               uidens) has a short, thick beak, a falcate dorsal n and          over 11,000 individuals.


                                                     Dall’s Porpoise
                                                     The Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) has a stocky
                                                     shape, and the striking white pattern on its belly, ank,
                                                     and tips of dorsal n and tail, contrasts with its generally
                                                     black body. This species may attain a size of over seven
                                                     feet. The Dall’s porpoise inhabits the cooler waters of
                                                     the continental shelf in central and northern California,
                      Pacific White-Sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens   and also frequents a variety of other areas including near-
                                        Credit: Phil Schuyler


                 California’s Living Marine Resources:                  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                       A Status Report                             December, 2001
534
shore deep-water canyons and the open sea. The Dall’s          1980-1983: Status, Abundance, and Distribution, Unpub-




                                                                    Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
porpoise can be found off northern California in autumn         lished Report. MMS Contract #14-12-0001-29090. OCS
and winter, however individuals can also be found in           Study MMS 84-0045. Pacic OCS Region MMS, Los Angeles,
southern California at this time. There appear to be near-        California. 284 pp.
shore-offshore shifts in their distribution whereby they         Forney, K.A., M.M. Muto, and J. Baker. U.S. Pacic Marine
remain inshore in autumn and move northward and off-           Mammal Stock Assessments: 1999. U.S. Dept. of Com-
                                     merce. NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-SWFSC-282.
                                     Haley, D. 1978. Marine Mammals of Eastern North Pacic
                                     and Arctic Waters. Pacic Search Press. 254 pp.
                                     Jones, M. L., S. L. Swartz, and S. Leatherwood. 1984. The
                                     Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus. Academic Press, Inc.,
                                     Orlando. 600 pp.
                                     Leatherwood, S., and R. R. Reeves. 1983. The Sierra Club
                                     Handbook of Whales and Dolphins. Sierra Club Books, San
                                     Francisco. 303 pp.
                 Dall’s Porpoise, Phocoenoides dalli
                                     Leatherwood, S., B. S. Stewart, and P. A. Folkens. 1987.
                         Credit: Phil Schuyler
                                     Cetaceans of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctu-
                                     ary. National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic
shore in the late spring. Dall’s porpoises travel in small
                                     Atmospheric Administration. 66 pp.
groups of 10 to 20 individuals and are known to bow ride
often creating a rooster tail wake when traveling at high        Orr, R.T. and R.C. Helm. 1990. Marine Mammals of
speeds. Recent surveys indicate populations of between          California. New and revised Edition. Calif. Natural History
82,000 to 118,000 individuals inhabit the eastern North         Guides:29. U.C. Press, Berkeley. 93 p.
Pacic.                                 Tilt, W. C. 1985. Whalewatching in California: An industry
                                     prole. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies,
                                     New Haven, CT. 17 pp.
Irma Lagomarsino and Tim Price
National Marine Fisheries Service



References
Barlow, J., K.A. Forney, P.S. Hill, R. L. Brownell, Jr., J.V.
Caretta, D.P. DeMaster, F. Julian, M.S. Lowry, T. Ragen,
and R.R. Reeves. 1997. U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock
Assessments: 1996. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Tech-
nical Memorandum. NMFS-SWFSC-282.
Barlow, J., P.S. Hill, K.A. Forney, and D.P. DeMaster. 1998.
U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 1998. U.S.
Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-
SWFSC-258.
Dohl, T. P., K. S. Norris, R. C. Guess, J. D. Bryant, and M.
W. Honig. 1980. Cetacea of the Southern California Bight,
In: Marine Mammal and Seabird Surveys of the Southern
California Bight Area, 1975-1978. Vol. 3 - Investigator’s
Reports, Part II. NTIS PB81-248-71. 414 pp.
Dohl, T. P., R. C. Guess, M. L. Dunman, and R. C.
Helm. 1983. Cetaceans of Central and Northern California,




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                      California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                                 A Status Report                 535
   Sea Otter
    History                              totaling perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 individuals, survived in
                                     the North Pacic in 1911. Sea otters were widely regarded

    S ea otters (Enhydra lutris) once ranged from extreme      as extinct in California by 1900, but scientists and game
     northern Japan through the Kuril Islands, southern       wardens were aware of a surviving group near Point Sur
    Sakhalin Island, southern Kamchatka Peninsula, Com-        in Monterey County as early as 1914. Rough population
    mander Islands, Aleutian Islands, southern Alaska, British    estimates in the early 1900s ranged from less than 50 to
    Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California, extending      about 100 sea otters in California. Other remnant popula-
    south to about the midpoint of the Pacic coast of Baja      tions were known to exist in 1911 in Mexico, Canada,
    California, Mexico. Prior to 1741, human contact with sea     Alaska and Russia. The remnant populations in Mexico and
    otters was limited to native cultures through much of the     Canada were thought to be extinct by 1920.
    range and to Spanish colonists in California and Mexico.      The International Fur Seal Treaty was signed in 1911 by
    Commercial utilization of sea otters followed the Bering     Canada (for Great Britain), Japan, Russia and the United
    Expedition of 1741 to the mainland of southern Alaska and     States. The Treaty recognized the serious overexploitation
    the Aleutian and Commander Islands. Reports of vast num-     of northern fur seals and sea otters and provided full
    bers of sea otters stimulated the fur trade and contributed    protection for both species. State law has prohibited take
    to the eventual settlement and economic development of      or possession of sea otters or their pelts in California
    the west coast of North America by non-native people.       since 1913. With the termination of the trade in sea
    Russian fur traders developed facilities at several loca-     otter pelts, the California sea otter population began to
    tions on the North American coast, most notably at        grow in numbers and range. State Highway 1 was opened
    Kodiak Island and Sitka. The southernmost outpost, at       between Monterey and San Simeon in 1937, traversing a
    Fort Ross, California, was established in 1812. Russian      coastal segment previously not accessible by automobile.
    hunters worked at least as far south as the islands off      Highway access led to the much-publicized “rediscovery”
    Santa Barbara, but the Russian presence in California was     of California sea otters by the general public at Bixby
    contested by Spanish colonists. Spanish trade in sea otter    Creek in 1938. The sea otter population numbered roughly
    pelts began in 1786 and was the most important industry      300 individuals at that time. The state of California pro-
    in coastal California for several decades.            vided additional protection for sea otters by creating the
                                     Sea Otter Game Refuge, extending along 100 miles of
    The early Russian otter traders utilized enslaved Aleut
                                     coastline from the Carmel River, near Monterey, to Santa
    natives as hunters. The Aleuts worked from native canoes,
                                     Rosa Creek, near Cambria.
    hunting with spears and clubs. Later, American and
    European hunters entered the trade using rearms as        Between the late 1930s and the late 1970s, the California
    primary tools of capture. By the 1840s, the sea otter       sea otter population grew at an average annual rate of
    population in California was greatly reduced as a result     about ve percent, extending its range to more than
    of overexploitation.                       200 miles of coastline from Santa Cruz to Pismo Beach.
                                     Whether this growth occurred smoothly or in pulses is
    Sea otters were approaching extinction at the beginning
                                     not known. In the early 1980s, a cessation of population
    of the twentieth century. Thirteen remnant populations,
                                     growth was recognized, and some argued that the popula-
                                     tion was declining in numbers. Studies by federal and state
                                     agencies determined that the nearshore set-net shery for
                                     halibut was causing signicant mortality of sea otters as a
                                     result of incidental entanglement and drowning. Estimates
                                     of annual mortality in nets ranged as high as 80-100 ani-
                                     mals, a rate perhaps sufcient to account for the cessation
                                     of population growth. Legislation by the state imposed
                                     restrictions on set-net activity, greatly reducing incidental
                                     take of sea otters in nets. By the middle 1980s, it was
                                     apparent that population growth had returned to levels
                                     previously observed. However, in the mid-1990s popu-
                                     lation growth again ceased and by 1999 numbers had
                                     declined by more than 10 percent over a four-year period.
                                     The spring 2000 sea otter count erased most of the
                                     decline of the previous four years and raised hopes that
                                     the population had resumed expansion.
                             Sea otter pup
                         Credit: D. Varonjean

      California’s Living Marine Resources:             CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
           A Status Report                         December, 2001
536
Status of Biological Knowledge                 come into estrus within a few days to a few weeks after




                                                               Sea Otter
                                weaning of pups. Gestation is four to six months and

T  he subspecic status of various populations of the sea  involves delayed implantation. After implantation, devel-
   otter has been in dispute for many years. The most    opment to birth normally requires about four months.
recent studies, based on skull morphology and DNA, sug-    Virtually all births are single. Care of dependent pups
gest the California population is a separate subspecies.    is entirely maternal. The period of pup dependency aver-
It is possible, if not likely, that subspecic differences   ages six months in California, with a range of 4.5 to
have been magnied by separation of northern and south-    9.5 months. Studies suggest that pre-weaning mortality
ern populations brought about by near extermination.      rate for rstborn pups may exceed 50 percent. Survival
Denition of the subspecies of sea otters will likely     of dependent pups improves with the experience of the
remain controversial.                     mother. Most adult females produce one pup per year. In
                                cases of premature death of dependent pups, females may
While sea otters in California occur predominantly along
                                come back into estrus and be reimpregnated within a few
rocky shores supporting forests of the large kelps, in
                                weeks after loss of the pup.
the past decade it has become apparent that signicant
numbers can maintain themselves off sandy shores. Along    In California, rates of pup birth apparently peak in late
the mainland coast, the kelps typically form extensive sur-  winter, with a secondary peak in late summer or early
face canopies in waters less than 80 feet in depth where    fall. Some pupping occurs year round. Sea otters typically
the substratum is rock. Sea otters commonly form resting    weigh four to ve pounds at birth, and 20 to 30 pounds at
groups, known as rafts, particularly in kelp canopies. Rafts  weaning. In most sea otter populations, maximum longev-
typically contain up to 10 individuals, but under certain   ity probably is in the range of 11 to 15 years. Captive
circumstances may include more than 100 otters. Most sea    animals are known to have lived as long as 28 years.
otters remain within one mile of shore, but in some situa-   Known predators of sea otters include sharks, killer
tions, such as in Monterey Bay, Estero Bay and off Pismo    whales, eagles, coyotes and bears. While attack by white
Beach, otters are regularly seen foraging and resting more   sharks probably occurs at a low rate throughout the Cali-
than two miles offshore. Juvenile males tend to range     fornia range, in areas north of Santa Cruz it accounts for a
farther offshore than other age/sex categories. Records    signicant portion of the mortality. Predation generally is
from the fur trade suggest that sea otters once were      regarded as less important than food limitation in control-
abundant in the soft-bottom habitats of San Francisco Bay.   ling the size of sea otter populations. Patterns of activity
Adult male sea otters in California typically weigh 60 to   vary widely among sea otter populations and among indi-
75 pounds, reaching a length of four to 4.5 feet. Adult    viduals within sea otter populations. In California, most
females typically reach a weight of 40 to 55 pounds and    otters forage during morning hours, rest from late morn-
a length of four feet. The largest sea otter recorded in    ing through mid-afternoon and resume foraging in late
California was a male weighing 92 pounds.           afternoon. Sometimes a third period of foraging occurs at
                                night, between about 11 p.m. and 2 a.m. Juvenile females
Sea otter pelage includes outer guard hairs and dense, ne
                                typically spend more time foraging than other age/sex
underfur. Density of sea otter fur is higher than that of
                                categories, often feeding during hours when other otters
any other mammal. Sea otter pelage provides the primary
                                are at rest.
thermoregulatory barrier between the animal and the
chilling effects of seawater. Most other marine mammals    In California, home ranges of adult males during the prin-
rely on subcutaneous fat or blubber rather than pelage     cipal breeding season (summer and fall) have a mean
for thermal protection. The effectiveness of the pelage as   coastline length of about a half mile and an area of
a thermal barrier depends on frequent grooming and con-    about 100 acres. During winter the range approximately
sequent cleanliness. Soiling of the fur largely eliminates   doubles for those individuals that remain in breeding ter-
the insulative qualities, resulting in rapid heat loss. Food  ritories. Long-distance movements among high-use areas
volume equivalent to 25 percent or more of individual     range from 35 to 60 miles and often are seasonal. Males
body weight must be consumed daily to maintain the high    may remain within a high-use area for months at a time,
metabolic rate typical of sea otters.             but travel between such areas rarely requires more than
                                a few days. Females follow the same general pattern as
Male sea otters reach functional sexual maturity at ve to
                                males, but high-use areas are typically 1.5 to two times
six years. In California, adult males establish and defend
                                larger for females than for males. Females also travel
territories in areas of high female density, seasonally
                                long distances in short periods, but such travel is much
in some areas and year-round in others. Younger males
                                less frequent for females than for males. Substantial short-
typically are excluded from breeding areas by territorial
                                term movement of females among high-use areas often
males. Female sea otters become reproductively mature
                                occurs in association with pupping. Juvenile males tend
at three to ve years of age. Mature females typically


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                            A Status Report               537
      to utilize larger areas and travel greater distances than   The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS) in Prince William
Sea Otter



      other age/sex categories. Various studies have shown that   Sound demonstrated the potential vulnerability of sea
      sea otters are capable of homing from distances as great    otter populations to catastrophic oil spills. As many as
      as 300 miles.                         781 spill related sea otter carcasses were recovered after
                                      the spill. Total mortality of sea otters resulting from EVOS
      Sea otters generally feed on large-bodied, bottom dwell-
                                      was much higher. Over 350 sea otters, mostly oiled, were
      ing invertebrates obtained during dives. They are able
                                      captured alive after the spill, but survival was less than
      to dive to at least 320 feet, but most foraging dives in
                                      50 percent despite intensive efforts to treat and rehabili-
      California are in waters less than 80 feet deep. Dive dura-
                                      tate oiled animals. Oiled sea otters died primarily from
      tion may be as long as four minutes, but more typically,
                                      hypothermia resulting from matted pelage, toxic effects
      is 50 to 80 seconds. Individual otters typically feed on
                                      of oil fumes inhaled, oil ingested during futile grooming
      a relatively few species of prey. At the population level,
                                      efforts, and from stress.
      however, sea otters are dietary generalists. More than 160
      species have been reported as sea otter prey. Composition   To deal with potentially catastrophic oil spills impacting
      of sea otter diet relates to patterns of population growth.  sea otters in California, the California Department of Fish
      In California, diet is predominantly sea urchins, abalones,  and Game’s (DFG) Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response
      large crabs and large clams when otters have recently     (OSPR) built and maintains the Marine Wildlife Veterinary
      reoccupied a foraging area. As the period of occupation    Care and Research Center in Santa Cruz. This facility can
      increases, preferred prey decline in availability and the   provide care for up to 120 sea otters as well as oiled
      diet diversies. In cases of occupation by sea otters for   birds and other marine mammals if necessary. It is part
      more than a few years, the most common prey in Califor-    of the larger Oiled Wildlife Care Network (OWCN) run by
      nia are crabs and small snails. Other frequent prey include  the Wildlife Health Center at the University of California,
      octopus, mussels and clams, and at least some otters      Davis, under funding from DFG-OSPR. Smaller numbers of
      eat large quantities of market squid when available. Sea    oiled sea otters may also be cared for at the Monterey
      otters are well known for their abilities in using stones as  Bay Aquarium, the Marine Mammal Center and Sea World,
      tools while foraging. Stones may be used as hammers to     which are afliated with the OWCN and OSPR.
      dislodge prey from the substrate during dives and may be
      used as anvils for breaking shells of prey during surface
                                      Status of the Population
      intervals. Fish are common prey for sea otters at certain
      locations in Alaska and Russia. Consumption of sh by sea

                                      T  he sea otter population in California currently ranges
      otters is rare in California.
                                        along nearly 350 miles of coastline from approximately
      Sea otters have important effects on the character of     Half Moon Bay, San Mateo County to approximately Gavi-
      nearshore biological communities. In a number of circum-    ota, Santa Barbara County. Determination of trends in the
      stances, it has been reported that otters substantially    number of sea otters has been complicated by the variety
      reduce prey abundance and individual size. The best-      of survey techniques used, differing in accuracy and preci-
      known cases involve species such as abalones and sea      sion. However, few would argue that since the late 1960s
      urchins that are sought in commercial or recreational sh-   the population and range have more than doubled. In
      eries. Such interactions have provided grist for intensive   1982, a standard survey method was adopted for assess-
      political discord for many years regarding approaches to    ments of the California population. The most recent count
      management of sea otter populations. Such conicts rst    in California, in the spring of 2000, totaled 2,317 animals,
      arose in regard to the central California abalone       2,053 independent sea otters and 264 dependent pups.
      shery in the 1960s. More recent conicts involve sea
                                      Intensive investigation into the causes of sea otter mortal-
      urchins, Dungeness crabs and several species of clams.
                                      ity in California occurred throughout the 1990s and into
      Human over-harvesting of shellsh populations sometimes
                                      2000. Virtually every fresh dead sea otter received a
      contributes to management difculties and political
                                      detailed necropsy by a veterinary pathologist either from
      controversies associated with conicts of sea otters
                                      the National Wildlife Health Center or the DFG in partner-
      and shellsheries.
                                      ship with the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the
      The control of herbivorous invertebrates by sea otters     University of California, Davis. Several new disease agents
      allows secondary development of dense algal populations,    and disease processes were described. Some of the more
      including kelps, which may substantially alter the struc-   important diseases and parasites of sea otters in California
      ture and dynamics of nearshore ecosystems. Proliferation    include: 1) thorny headed worms of the genus Prolicollis,
      of algae as a consequence of growing sea otter popula-     which when present in high numbers penetrate the gut
      tions has been reported at a number of locations through-   wall causing peritonitis; 2) protozoal encephalitis; 3) bac-
      out the range of the species.                 terial septicemia; 4) biotoxin poisoning from certain “red


        California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December, 2001
538
tide” organisms; and 5) San Joaquin Valley fever. The       The status and future of the sea otter colony at SNI




                                                                 Sea Otter
prevalence of some of these pathogens may be inuenced       remain uncertain.
by human activities within and adjacent to the marine       The federal law (Public Law 99-625) that authorized the
environment of sea otters. If these diseases are          translocation of sea otters to SNI also created a manage-
new to the sea otter population then serious conse-        ment zone (aka the no-otter zone) as a concession to
quences may be in store. However, these may be old dis-      the shellsh industry for sheries expected to be lost due
eases recently discovered. The inuence of contaminants,      to sea otter foraging. This management zone includes all
immune system function, and malnutrition on patterns        California waters south of Point Conception except for
of disease and overall mortality are being investigated.      those surrounding SNI. All sea otters found in the manage-
Diseases and parasites of sea otters in California appear to    ment zone were to be captured by FWS in cooperation
be largely different from those of Alaskan sea otters.       with DFG and returned either to SNI or the mainland
The cessation of population growth centered around         range. Over 20 sea otters were captured in the man-
1982-1983 and 1997-1998, both strong El Niño years,        agement zone between 1990 and 1993 and returned to
suggests to some, that long term cyclic environmental       the mainland range. However, shortly after, two separate
changes resulting in ups and downs in prey availability      otters captured from the management zone and translo-
may be responsible. Others argue that increases in disease     cated back to the Monterey area, were found dead. The
and/or parasite infection rates are primarily responsible     FWS judged that the deaths might have been due to the
for population dips. Still others suspect that bycatch of     stress of capture, transport and relocation. This brought
otters in net and trap sheries may be the major factor.      an end to the “containment program,” as it was called,
It is likely that all of these play a role in regulating popula-  because removals were to be by non-lethal means. Small
tion size. If long-term, more or less permanent, human       numbers of otters remained in the management zone
caused and/or natural environmental change is occurring,      through 1997 with relatively little outcry from opponents
then predicting the future for sea otter populations, or      of this outcome. Then in 1998, over 100 sea otters moved
any living resource, is troublesome.                into the area south of Point Conception. Since that time
                                  the numbers counted in the management zone have sea-
                                  sonally vacillated from less than ve to over 150. The
Current Management                         count south of Point Conception in May 2000 was 79 sea
                                  otters. No action by FWS to remove sea otters from the

P  assage of the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act
                                  management zone has occurred since 1993.
  (MMPA) of 1972 provided new authority for protection
                                  At this writing (June 2000) the FWS is being sued by
of sea otters in all U.S. waters. With the passage of the
                                  the shellsh industry for failure to enforce the manage-
MMPA, management authority for sea otters in California
                                  ment zone as legally mandated by Public Law 99-625.
transferred from the state to the federal government. The
                                  Meanwhile, the Friends of the Sea Otter, a sea otter
managing agency is the United States Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                                  advocacy group, has vowed to sue the FWS if they attempt
vice (FWS). Sea otters were conferred “threatened” status
                                  to enforce the management zone on the grounds that such
under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) in
                                  action would violate the ESA.
1977. The ESA directed the formation of a recovery team
and the production of a recovery plan for California sea      The draft revised recovery plan for sea otters in California
otters. A primary element of the plan, issued in 1982,       was made available for public review in the spring of
was the establishment of a new colony of sea otters        2000. The primary goal of the new Plan, like the old,
by translocation within California. The colony was to be      is attainment of a sea otter population with sufcient
well separated from the existing mainland range, thereby      numbers and range to eliminate the possibility of disasters
reducing the possibility that a single large oil spill or     such as the EVOS exposing all California sea otters to
similar disaster could contaminate all the sea otters       contamination and possible injury or death. Interestingly,
in California.                           the draft revised plan no longer views the process of
                                  translocation as a valuable tool to speed recovery, view-
Between 1987 and 1990, 139 sea otters were translocated
                                  ing natural expansion of the population to be the appro-
from the mainland range to San Nicolas Island (SNI), off
                                  priate approach. According to the recovery team, it will
southern California. The number of sea otters counted at
                                  require the average of three consecutive standardized
SNI through most of the 1990s hovered around 15. The
                                  spring counts to be 2,650 or greater for sea otters to be
most recent survey of the island, in April 2000, found
                                  delisted under ESA (Friends of the Sea Otter is threatening
23 sea otters (21 adult and two dependent pups). While
                                  to sue to increase this number).
over 50 sea otter pups are known to have been born
at the SNI, the population strangely has remained small.      If the sea otter population in California does increase
                                  to the level suggested for delisting, and should delisting


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                   California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                              A Status Report               539
      occur, it will still, in all likelihood, be accorded
Sea Otter



      “depleted” status under the MMPA. Removal from
      depleted status requires the “optimum sustainable popu-
      lation” be attained which is generally regarded as 60 per-
      cent of the “carrying capacity.” If the historical statewide
      population size of 14,000 is used, then the count of sea
      otters in California necessary for removal from depleted
      status under the MMPA is 8,400. Only after this sea otter
      population size and associated range size are achieved will
      real zonal management (separation of sea otter and shell-
      shing areas), which would require lethal take, become a
      possibility. Unlimited expansion is the likely management
      option that will be pursued for the foreseeable future.


      Glenn R. VanBlaricom
      U.S. Geological Survey
      Jack A. Ames, Michael D. Harris and Robert A Hardy
      California Department of Fish and Game



      References
      Estes, J. A. and G. R. VanBlaricom. 1985. Sea otters and
      shellsheries. Pages 187-235 in R. Beverton, J. Bedding-
      ton, and D. Lavigne (eds). Conicts between marine mam-
      mals and sheries. Allen and Unwin, London, England.
      Garrott, R.A., L.E. Eberhardt, and D.M. Burn. 1993. Mortal-
      ity of sea otters in Prince William Sound following the
      Exxon Valdez oil spill. Marine Mammal Science 9:343-359.
      Kenyon, K. W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacic
      ocean. North American Fauna 68. 352 pp.
      Ogden, A. 1941. The California sea otter trade, 1784-1848.
      University of California Press, Berkeley. 251 p.
      Riedman, M. 1990. Sea otters. Monterey Bay Aquarium,
      Monterey. 80 pp.
      Riedman, M. L. and J. A. Estes. 1990. The sea otter
      (Enhydra lutris): Behavior, ecology, and natural history.
      U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 90(14). 126 pp.
      Watson, J. (ed). 1996 Conservation and management of
      the southern sea otter. Endangered Species Update 13
      (12), Special Issue. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
      Michigan.
      Wendell, F.E., R.A. Hardy and J.A. Ames. 1986. An assess-
      ment of the accidental take of sea otters, Enhydra lutris,
      in gill and trammel nets. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar
      Resour. Tech. Rep. 54. 31 pp.




        California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
              A Status Report                       December, 2001
540
Marine Bird
Resources                            Islands (off San Francisco) and Castle Rock (near Crescent




                                                                  Marine Birds
                                 City). The Farallones are the most important single sea-
                                 bird-breeding site in California; these islands are moni-

S  eabirds are a diverse assortment of bird species that    tored and studied each year by the Point Reyes Bird
   inhabit salt or brackish water environments for most of   Observatory and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Large
their annual cycle, but this is no clear denition. Some    seabird populations there are associated with a high avail-
seabird species (such as the double-crested cormorant)     ability of suitable and protected nesting habitat, coupled
have populations that are both saltwater or freshwater     with strong and productive upwelling systems that provide
year-round (even with populations spending part of their    for large prey resources in the same general area.
annual cycles in both environments). Other types of
                                 Many other species are concentrated on the Channel
waterbirds found on salt water also include the classic
                                 Islands, located south of Point Conception in the Southern
waterfowl (ducks, geese, coots, and shorebirds) as well as
                                 California Bight. Most of these islands are within the
those that live on sandy beaches and in coastal marshy
                                 Channel Islands National Park. The Channel Islands harbor
areas or that nest in arctic tundra or inland lakes and
                                 important nesting colonies for some seabirds of northern
marshes (such as loons, grebes, wading birds, and even
                                 afnity (such as Cassin’s auklets), but also the state’s
the well-known seaducks). Loons and grebes are, in fact,
                                 entire nesting population of both brown pelicans (pres-
unique in many ways. They may be encountered during
                                 ently a recovering endangered species under the Endan-
their non-breeding seasons foraging and living miles at
                                 gered Species Act, ESA) and Xantus’s murrelet (about to
sea; yet, they nest inland in fresh water habitats. This dis-
                                 be proposed for endangered species listing; a petition has
cussion is, however, limited to those species of birds that
                                 been recently submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
have breeding populations on offshore islands, coastal
                                 vice for listing under the ESA). Both species have southern
rocks, headlands, and certain coastal old-growth forests
                                 breeding distributions and also nest on islands off Baja
and are part of the neritic (shallow marine waters less
                                 California, but the brown pelican is of tropical afnity
than 200m deep) and pelagic food webs. Our California
                                 (origin), whereas the Xantus’s murrelet is of subarctic
seabird avifauna can also be further divided into resident
                                 afnity. Seabirds are monitored and studied each year
(breeding) and non-resident (non-breeding) species. Birds
                                 in the Channel Islands by biologists from a number
in various ecological categories are very different
                                 of government agencies, universities, and research
in how they affect or are affected by the natural
                                 groups (e.g., University of California, Humboldt State Uni-
environment and human-related events offshore from
                                 versity, U. S. Geological Survey, Channel Islands National
our coast.
                                 Park, U.S. Minerals Management Service, California
There are 29 species of seabirds (according to our def-     Department of Fish and Game, and California Institute of
inition) that breed in the state of California. Point      Environmental Studies).
Conception is generally considered a major area of transi-
                                 Most of the remainder of important seabird breeding sites
tion between characteristically temperate (such as those
                                 are protected by the National Park Service at Point Reyes
found in the Gulf of Alaska and Washington) and subtropi-
                                 National Seashore and by the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage-
cal seabirds (such as those found in the Gulf of California).
                                 ment and State of California, which manage all offshore
North of Point Conception, marine waters are dominated
                                 rocks as the new California Coastal National Monument.
by cold, nutrient-rich water upwelled along the coast.
                                 The marbled murrelet nests on public and private land,
Waters south of Punta Eugenia, Baja California, are gener-
                                 located within privately-owned forests.
ally subtropical. Between is an area of transition that
                                 The marbled murrelet, in fact, is one of the most unique
varies in marine climate depending on the temporal
                                 and interesting breeding seabirds off central and northern
extent and timing of upwelling. For example, well-known
                                 California. It is a small seabird that nests inland on the
El Niño conditions often extend warmer waters northward,
                                 branches of coastal, old-growth coniferous trees, often
while the opposite conditions known as La Niña often
                                 over a hundred feet above the ground. This little bird spe-
move relatively colder waters more southward. Ecologi-
                                 cies, listed as threatened under the Endangered Species
cally, (and including both breeders and non-breeders) this
                                 Act, is very likely to be still declining (our table lists it as
makes California’s marine birds among the most interest-
                                 unknown) because of the loss of its nesting habitat due
ing and taxonomically diverse (for the amount of coastline
                                 to logging and mortality caused by oil spills and, previ-
and area of open ocean) in the Northern Hemisphere.
                                 ously, gillnet shing. Fortunately, because of conservation
In California, many of our breeding seabirds, such as
                                 measures, there has been no known mortality in gillnets
common murres, Brandt’s cormorants, and Cassin’s auk-
                                 for the past 15 or so years, so there is cause for optimism.
lets (all primarily northern species) are concentrated at
                                 Usually by the end of summer (after the upwelling period),
national wildlife refuges, for example, at the Farallon
                                 the California Current system experiences an immigration,


 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                             A Status Report                541
        Table 1. Seabirds which breed off the California coast, their distributional status relative to areas north (Alaska) and
Marine Birds



        south (Baja California) of California, the approximate sizes of their breeding populations in 1989-1991, and their probable
        status in the early 2000s (X indicates presence, 0 indicates absence).

        1989-91 Distribution in:                                  Estimated CA
        Common Name                                        Breeding Pop.    Current Status
        (Scientific Name)         Alaska      California1     Baja Calif. in the early 2000s 2        in CA


        Forked-tailed storm-petrel        X          X          0        300       Unknown
        (Oceanodroma furcata)

        Leach’s storm-petrel           X          X          X       18,300       Declining
        (Oceanodroma leucorhoa)

        Ashy storm-petrel 3           0          X          0      <10,000       Declining
        (Oceanodroma homochroa)

        Black storm-petrel            0          X          0        150       Unknown
        (Oceanodroma melania)

        Brown pelican 3             0          X          X       9,000         Stable
        (Pelecanus occidentalis)

        Double-crested cormorant         X          X          X       1,900   Stable/Increasing
        (Phalacrocorax auritus)

        Brandt’s cormorant            0          X          X       64,200   Stable/Increasing
        (Phalacrocorax penicillatus)

        Pelagic cormorant            X          X          0       15,900   Stable/Increasing
        (Phalacrocorax pelagicus)

        Western gull               0          X          0       51,000       Increasing
        (Larus occidentalis)

        Common murre               X          X          0      363,200   Stable/Increasing
        (Uria aalge)

        Pigeon guillemot             X          X          0       14,700         Stable
        (Cepphus columba)

        Marbled murrelet 3            X          X          0      <10,000       Declining
        (Brachyramphus marmoratus)

        Xantus’s murrelet 3           0          X          X      <10,000   Stable/Declining
        (Synthliboramphus hypoleucus)

        Cassin’s auklet             X          X          X      131,200       Declining
        (Ptychoramphus aleuticus)

        Rhinoceros auklet            X          X          0        400       Increasing
        (Cerorhinca monocerata)

        Tufted puffin              X          X          0        250   Stable/Declining
        (Fratercula cirrhata)

        Number species in common        10           -          7
        Total breeding species      28 (30)        16 (29)       14 (22)
                                                       Note: The estimated total Alaskan breeding seabird population is about 40,200,000
           Some species that breed in Alaska or Baja California are not listed above because
        1


                                                       compared to about 700,000 for California. These numbers represent approximate
           they do not usually breed along the California coast; these species usually occur
                                                       mean levels throughout the 1980s. Ten to 40 percent should be added to include
           only as visitors, but in many cases can occur in very large numbers. Species in
                                                       non-breeders and immatures, a proportion that varies from year to year and species
           this category include white pelicans, black skimmers, at least four other species
                                                       to species. Four species (common murre, Brandt’s cormorant, Cassin’s auklet, and
           of gulls (Heerman’s, laughing, ring-billed, and California), and seven species of
                                                       western gull) comprise almost 90 percent of the total number of breeders. Population
           terns (elegant, royal, Caspian, Forster’s, gull-billed, least, black); numbers in
                                                       numbers given in this column are from the most recent statewide breeding surveys
           parentheses indicate such additions for each area.
                                                       (see Carter et al. 1992).
           Indicates numbers of individuals.
        2


           Updated since 1991.
        3




           California’s Living Marine Resources:                          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                 A Status Report                                      December, 2001
542
emigration, and reshufing of certain species of seabirds   Pink-footed shearwater . . . . Pufnus creatopus




                                                               Marine Birds
from the north, south, and within California. The abun-    Red-billed tropicbird. . . . . . Phaethon aethereus
dance and diversity of seabirds increases immensely at
                                Ringed-bill gull . . . . . . . . . Larus delawarensis
this time. One of the most abundant seabird species in
                                Royal tern. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna maxima
the world, the sooty shearwater, comes through California
waters by the hundreds of thousands, mostly from New      Sooty shearwater . . . . . . . . Pufnus griseus
Zealand breeding colonies. Similarly, thousands of pink-
footed and Bullar’s shearwaters visit from Chile and New
                                History and Utilization
Zealand, respectively. During the summer and late fall,
large numbers of black-footed and smaller numbers of

                                S  eabirds are the most conspicuous and familiar elements
Laysan albatrosses visit from their Hawaii nesting colo-
                                  of marine communities and are a source of pleasure
nies. Occasionally, southern seabirds, such as boobies,
                                and enjoyment for people at sea or along the coast.
red-billed tropicbirds, and magnicent frigatebirds, will
                                They are unique and important biotic elements of marine
provide the highlight of an offshore birding trip. Usually,
                                ecosystems and in the practical sense are a good indicator
beginning in July, several species arrive from the Gulf of
                                of the general health of coastal offshore environments,
California, Mexico, dispersing northward along the Califor-
                                yet people working or recreating at sea often know little
nia coast; these include black-vented shearwaters, least
                                about them. Although often omitted from marine resource
storm-petrels, Heermann’s gulls, elegant terns, and many
                                reference works, seabirds require management and pro-
more brown pelicans than nest in California. Especially
                                tection, just as other elements of marine ecosystems do.
during late fall and winter, we witness the arrival of
northern seabirds, such as northern fulmars, horned puf-    Seabirds are prominent elements in the biodiversity of
ns (plus other species of the “alcid” family), black-legged  marine ecosystems. They perform what ecologist Paul
kittiwakes, and other species. Such diversity and abun-    Ehrlich calls ecological services, such as nutrient cycling
dance certainly adds to the overall richness and ecological  and scavenging of biological waste materials and debris
value of California’s total marine avian resources.      from waters and beaches. They often guide shermen to
                                sh. They are a pleasure to watch, and consequently,
                                contribute signicantly to eco-tourism. A small industry
Table 2. Scientic names of birds mentioned in text but
                                of offshore nature cruises has, in fact, developed in many
not included in Table 1.
                                ports along the California coast. Healthy seabird popula-
                                tions give us the justied feeling that all is well at sea,
                                and a missing, sick, or oiled bird tells us that it might
Albatrosses . . . . . . . . . . . . Family Diomedeidae
                                not be.
Black-legged kittiwake . . . . Rissa tridactyla
                                Like most marine wildlife, marine birds have historically
Black skimmer . . . . . . . . . . Rynchops niger
                                suffered severe and relentless exploitations by man. In
Black tern . . . . . . . . . . . . . Childonias niger     California this was especially true at the Farallon and
Black-vented shearwater . . . Pufnus opisthomelas       other islands during and after the gold rush (from 1850
                                to about 1900), where common murres were heavily
Boobies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sula sp.
                                exploited for their eggs. There was no regulation of take
Bullar’s shearwater. . . . . . . Pufnus bullari
                                and the murre populations declined severely. Numbers
California gull . . . . . . . . . . Larus californicus     had declined by an order of magnitude by the 1900s, and
                                only a few thousand individuals were left by the 1930s.
California least tern . . . . . . Sterna antillarum
                                The Farallon Islands murre population did not recover for
Caspian tern . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna caspia
                                several decades and even now is far below numbers of
Elegant tern . . . . . . . . . . . Thalasseus elegans     the 1800s. Exploitation of seabirds or seabird products is
                                neither a local or recent phenomenon. Recall the ancient,
Forster’s tern . . . . . . . . . . Sterna forsteri
                                managed harvest of guano by the Incas of Peru, or the
Gull-billed tern . . . . . . . . . Sterna nilotica
                                harvest of guano for manufacturing gunpowder by the
Heermann’s gull . . . . . . . . . Larus heermanni       imperialistic navies of Europe in the 16th-18th centuries.
Horned pufn . . . . . . . . . . Fratercula corniculata    Empires were won or lost over control of seabird islands.
                                Early sailors and explorers often utilized seabirds or their
Least storm-petrel . . . . . . . Oceanodroma microsoma
                                eggs for food, driving some species to extinction. In gen-
Magnicent frigatebird . . . . Fregata magnicens
                                eral, however, there has been little success worldwide
Northern fulmar. . . . . . . . . Fulmarus glacialis      in utilizing seabirds for sustainable food or other product
                                sources. The few exceptions include guano harvests in


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                            A Status Report               543
        Peru, harvest of eider down from seaducks in Iceland,         (such as slops and oily bilge waste-water) have become
Marine Birds



        and muttonbird (shearwater) harvests for food in New          increasingly more frequent, and large numbers of seabirds
        Zealand. There has been no successful sustainable harvest       have been killed. An outstanding example of seabird losses
        of seabirds or seabird products in California or along the       by oil spills is the “Point Reyes Tar Ball Incident” in
        West Coast. Since the early days of exploitation, man-         which it is estimated that 10,000 to 20,000 seabirds died.
        agement has usually involved putting the nesting islands        Although acute oiling of seabirds from large oil spills
        into a protection system. This is the case for all islands       receives a great deal more attention, chronic oil fouling of
        off California.                            the offshore environment might cause the most damage to
                                           seabirds and other marine wildlife. Rehabilitation (washing
        After World War II, California’s abundant seabird popula-
                                           and captive care) of oiled birds has so far not been very
        tions began to suffer from new problems. For example,
                                           successful. Most birds die before rehabilitation can be
        populations were depleted as a result of offshore chemical
                                           attempted and many birds that receive care die anyway
        pollutant discharges from industries in southern California.
                                           either before or after their release. It is not likely that
        Most recently, populations have declined as a result of
                                           most birds surviving rehabilitation will go on to breed.
        excessive mortality from entanglement in commercial gill-
                                           Thus, prevention of both oil spills and chronic oiling is
        nets. Bird populations in central and southern California
                                           the best solution. And, in stepping-up prevention activi-
        may have declined because of excessive sardine shing.
                                           ties, California has changed several factors to reduce the
        Most species of seabirds feed on or near the surface,
                                           incidence and spread of spills: oil spill response schemes
        schooling species that are also sought in commercial sh-
                                           in all harbors, ship trafc control systems in all large
        eries. The well-known decline of sardines off Monterey
                                           ports, heavy nes of perpetrators of spills, and double-
        is thought to have had deleterious effects on some spe-
                                           hulls required of all new tankers. In 1994, a multi-million
        cies of seabirds. It is not well known, however, how long
                                           dollar, statewide oil-spill rehabilitation network was initi-
        it takes to bring about a population decline of seabirds
                                           ated by the Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response, Cali-
        from prey depletion. Some species are able to switch
                                           fornia Department of Fish and Game and Oiled Wildlife
        effectively to other prey species, but often there are no
                                           Care Network, University of California, Davis, to provide
        other appropriate prey species to switch to. Since the
                                           the immediate capability to clean oiled marine wildlife
        1950s, large oil spills and chronic waste oil discharges
                                           and to conduct research to improve rehabilitation tech-
                                           niques and survival success. Rehabilitation of individuals
                                           affected by diseases such as botulism or individuals that
                                           have been hooked or otherwise injured by shing gear
                                           have proven to be much more successful. Unfortunately,
                                           funds to implement strategies to prevent birds from con-
                                           tacting oil during the spill response, such as wildlife
                                           hazing programs, have received limited support.
                                           Population restoration and maintenance of populations
                                           into the future are ultimate goals of wildlife managers.
                                           Historically, most seabird conservation and management
                                           measures have been through protection of critical nest-
                                           ing, feeding, and roosting areas from human exploitation
                                           and disturbance, eradication of small populations of intro-
                                           duced predators, protection and recovery of prey species,
                                           and reduction of contaminants (e.g., DDT and PCB com-
                                           pounds). Now, however, more proactive efforts are being
                                           utilized. For example, planned eradication of a large pop-
                                           ulation of rats on Anacapa Island (by the Island Con-
                                           servation and Ecology Group working with the Channel
                                           Islands National Park, USFWS, NOAA, and CDFG) will
                                           hopefully allow re-establishment of large populations
                                           of formerly-abundant crevice-nesting seabird populations.
                                           In another example, old-growth redwood forests have
                                           been preserved because of their importance as nesting
                                           habitat for marbled murrelets. Seabird recolonization is
                                           being achieved through social attraction techniques (using
                       Adult Western Gull, Larus occidentalis
                                           decoys, mirror boxes, and taped calls) to restore breeding
                          Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis


          California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                           December, 2001
544
populations of common murres along the central California   nia Marine Life Protection Act, to help study, conserve,




                                                                    Marine Birds
coast. Using these methods, breeding-age individuals were   and manage marine wildlife. Trust funds established from
attracted to Devil’s Slide Rock in San Mateo County, the    natural resource damage assessments resulting from oil
site of a previously extirpated breeding colony. Since the   spills such as the Apex Houston, the American Trader and
                                                           ,
project was initiated in 1996 (by the USFWS, Humboldt     the Commend oil spills has already resulted in major
State University, and National Audubon Society), a small    new initiatives for seabird conservation; restoration funds
breeding colony soon established itself and increased each   of about $12.5 million have been committed to these
year to over 100 pairs in 2001. Proactive restoration     efforts. And for the rst time, signicant marine bird pro-
and conservation efforts will undoubtedly expand in      tection zones (mainly for nesting areas) are being consid-
the future.                          ered along with marine reserves, which address primarily
                                shery resources.
Since seabirds are visibly affected when people misuse
marine resources, the well-being of our seabird popula-
tions can tell us a great deal about the health of our
                                Seabird Ecology
oceans. Potential effects on seabirds from future develop-


                                A
ment are often examined to help evaluate overall pro-       lmost all important adaptations in body form and
jected effects on the marine environment. Such activities     behavior of seabirds reect specialization for either
include increased levels of offshore oil extraction and    breeding or feeding. Methods of marine bird feeding
transport, mining of other ocean resources, development    depend on types of foods and where these foods are found
of other forms of energy, use of new shing techniques,    in the water column. Seabirds, therefore, are inuenced
sh farming and sh ranching at sea, and new marine      by the environmental factors that inuence the marine
product development and exploitation. Additionally, “eco-   environment. During the breeding season, seabirds are
tourism,” a rapidly growing industry, can itself lead to    conned to feeding within range of their nesting islands.
unregulated intrusion onto islands that are important as    In addition to providing suitable habitat, nesting islands
nesting sites for seabird populations. There is already    must be free of predators and disturbances. Outside the
a long history of disappearance of seabird colonies on     breeding season, when not constrained to tending off-
islands visited too frequently by unsupervised tourists.    spring, many seabird species are highly mobile and can
Global warming may also have detrimental effects on      move long distances to nd food while some species may
sh resources and, ultimately, seabirds. This may be seen   remain in areas of abundant and predictable food sup-
in the form of population declines, changes in behavior,    plies, just like shermen. At sea, distribution of seabirds
and/or shifts in distribution. Often predictive models,    is heavily inuenced by physical oceanographic processes.
based on current research, will be necessary to more      For example, plankton feeders will be found where ocean
adequately predict what changes might be expected from     currents favor growth and accumulation of planktonic spe-
long-term and radical changes in environmental conditions   cies. Such areas, in turn, provide food for shoals of spe-
due to global warming.                     cies such as northern anchovy, Pacic sardine, herring,
The heavy nes and natural resource damage assessments     mackerel, or juvenile demersal shes such as rockshes.
that can be imposed on polluters, as well as recognition    These midwater and epipelagic sh in turn are preyed
of the importance of seabirds as environmental indicators   upon by sh-feeding seabirds.
and of the effects that human activities can have on
them, has led to a surge of activity and interest in seabird
conservation and management. In addition to many gov-
ernmental agencies that are concerned or charged with
seabird conservation, there are at least ve “seabird
groups” that are composed of interested professionals
worldwide who have become organized to study, help
conserve these important elements of marine wildlife, as
well as to educate the general public as to the value
of seabirds in the California area. The Pacic Seabird
Group focuses on the Pacic Coast from Baja California to
Washington, plus Alaska, Hawaii, British Columbia, other
parts of Mexico, and Japan. In California, state and federal
governmental agencies, sport and commercial shermen,
seabird biologists, and marine bird conservationists are
                                             Juvenille Western Gull, Larus occidentalis
beginning to work together, guided in part by the Califor-
                                                  Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                            A Status Report                   545
        Some seabirds feed at the surface and others y or paddle       predators has left many seabirds with no defenses against
Marine Birds



        underwater to extend their reach lower into the water         predators, except to abandon their colonies. Undisturbed
        column. Some California species can dive to a depth of         roosting and loang sites are also critical to seabirds.
        330 feet. Water clarity inuences which type of feeding        Tourism and introductions of rats, cats, dogs, pigs, goats,
        method will be most successful. For example, clear, tropi-       and other feral animals has repeatedly led to exter-
        cal waters typically best support species that catch sh by      mination of seabirds from islands that were formerly
        plunge-diving (boobies and pelicans). In contrast, north-       predator-free.
        ern waters are usually too turbid for aerial plungers to see
        prey, but are better suited to underwater swimmers or
                                           Management and Conservation
        yers (like the murres, auklets, and cormorants).


                                           T
        While nesting, seabirds are largely bound to nest contents         raditionally (up until about 1990), responsible govern-
        that requires protection from predators. The breeding           ment agencies had expressed almost no interest in
        season is the period of time it takes from courtship, nest-      funding basic seabird conservation research. Ofcial list-
        building, and egg-laying to the point of edging, when         ing under various categories and laws (the most outstand-
        young leave the nest or become independent. During           ing being both state and federal “endangered” species
        breeding seabirds are strongly inuenced by local food         acts) forced agencies to expend some limited funds on
        supplies (i.e., prey available within the feeding range of       such species as brown pelicans, least terns, and marbled
        nesting birds), which are dependent upon oceanographic         murrelets. Impending offshore oil development prompted
        and meteorological conditions. Reproductive success is         some federal agencies to begin basic surveys of marine
        inuenced by the biomass, availability, and consistency of       birds and mammals at sea and on the California coastline.
        local food supplies. For instance, when El Niño weather        Recent damage assessments guided by the Oil Pollution
        patterns associated with reduced productivity occur,          Act of 1990 have stimulated new directions in seabird
        seabirds reproduce poorly or not at all because prey          conservation and management. It is ironic that mainly
        resources are less abundant and available. Decadal altera-       because of impending threats to seabirds by various
        tion of marine climate can also be important, for example,       forms of oceanic pollution (Outer Continental Shelf devel-
        the warm, nutrient-depleted period that existed during         opments and marine contaminants), only then have sea-
        the late 1800s and again in the last decades of the 1900s.       birds begun to receive adequate research and conserva-
        Since offshore islands with nearby, stable food supplies        tion attention. Relative to other categories of marine
        are in short supply for nesting seabirds in California, such      resources, however, marine wildlife research and conser-
        birds are almost always found concentrated into tightly-        vation still has to be considered as minimal. Interestingly,
        packed nesting colonies, with different species usually        the non-game program of the California Department of
        segregated onto different kinds of micro-habitat. As a         Fish and Game (under the leadership of Howard Leach)
        consequence, nesting colonies are vulnerable to destruc-        pioneered on a national basis, investigations of seabird
        tion by mammalian predators such as foxes, raccoons,          resources in California. Also in the early-1970s, a non-
        mink, and cats. Therefore, nesting islands must be free        prot research organization, the Point Reyes Bird Observa-
        from both terrestrial predators and human disturbance         tory, initiated important research on the Farallon Islands.
        to provide seabirds with successful nesting opportunities.       Many federal and state agencies are now involved in the
        Evolutionary development on islands lacking terrestrial        management and conservation of marine birds, and many
                                           statutory and regulatory provisions contribute to their
                                           protection. In addition, California has one of the nest
                                           systems of sanctuaries and refuges for seabirds in the
                                           world, although coordination among the many agencies
                                           and organizations involved has proven to be challenging.
                                           However, our coastal wetlands now comprise only a small
                                           percentage of their former extent, and these habitats are
                                           critical to many species of seabirds. Offshore waters are
                                           becoming increasingly occupied and utilized by people,
                                           yet many offshore islands and rocks are as close to their
                                           natural states as one might reasonably expect in our
                                           modern world.
                                           Nonetheless, some of California’s seabirds have been des-
                                           ignated as threatened or endangered (e.g., California least
                       Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis
                                           tern, California brown pelican, and marbled murrelet),
                          Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis


          California’s Living Marine Resources:                CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                           December, 2001
546
                                Seabird and Fisheries Interactions
and others may already warrant such designations (e.g.,




                                                                Marine Birds
Xantus’s murrelet and ashy storm-petrel). Brown pelicans

                                S  eabird-sheries interactions have been categorized as
may eventually be downlisted and delisted as an endan-
                                  follows: 1) direct competition, with negative popula-
gered species because its populations have shown strong
                                tion implications either for sh or seabird populations;
recovery and are now self-sustaining; among seabirds this
                                2) mutualism, where the interaction is benecial, or com-
is one of the few true success stories of marine bird
                                mensalism, where there is neither benet nor detriment
conservation in recent times.
                                to the interaction; and 3) physical injury, where birds are
Seabird populations have a number of characteristics in
                                killed or injured by shing activities, or bird activities
common, which make them susceptible to harm from
                                affect operations or damage gear. Categories 1 and 3
environmental changes:
                                describe conicts in resource use that should be mini-
1)  Resident seabirds concentrate their nesting efforts
                                mized. Extensive mortality of common murres and other
   over several months at small areas, and they tradi-
                                seabirds in the 1980s and 1990s in gillnets has led to
   tionally use the same nesting areas year after year.
                                extensive shing closures throughout most of California.
2)  Some seabirds (e.g., pelicans, cormorants, and gulls)   Multi-species or ecosystem management instead of man-
   concentrate in roosts or resting sites. Night roosts    agement that is single-species oriented may be the key to
   provide protection from predators and disturbances     minimizing many conicts. The management plan of the
   and may have benecial thermal characteristics. Day    Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC) for northern
   roosts are located closer to food supplies and may     anchovies was one of the rst in the nation to consider the
   also have good plumage-drying properties, such as     multiple uses of the anchovy resource, including prey for
   sunny, cold-wind protected surfaces.            both seabirds and marine mammals and bait for sport sh-
                                ermen. With recovering Pacic sardine populations (begin-
3)  Many seabirds depend on concentrated food supplies,
                                ning in the late 1980s), the PFMC is revising its anchovy
   often commercially valuable sheries resources.
                                plan to include multi-species management of small
   Marine sheries biologists are beginning to work with
                                pelagic shes. Fishery management plans are beginning
   marine wildlife biologists to balance recreational and
                                to include concepts such as forage reserves, multiple-
   commercial sheries with other wildlife needs.
                                needs, ecosystem balance, and thresholds of minimum
4)  Many seabirds tend to be long-lived with low
                                resource abundance.
   annual reproductive rates. Thus, seabirds cannot
                                In recent years, there has been conict between seabird
   usually recover very rapidly from large impacts on
                                needs for disturbance free nesting habitat and the market
   their populations.
                                squid shery in the Channel Islands. This shery depends
5)  Seabirds are often components of assemblages with
                                on the use of intense lighting during the night to attract
   interdependent elements, which means that they are
                                squid. Much of the squid harvest occurs relatively close to
   closely allied to other species in their system. Disrup-
                                the shorelines of islands where seabirds nest. As a result,
   tion of one or more interacting elements may affect
                                smaller crevice-nesting nocturnal birds (e.g., Xantus’s mur-
   the entire assemblage in some way.
                                relet and ashy storm-petrels) become highly vulnerable to
                                predators (such as gulls and owls) while attending nest
                                sites. These species are also attracted to light and can
                                become disoriented and crash into the boats, potentially
                                causing death or injury, or separating adults from their
                                young on the water. Additionally, there is concern over
                                the impacts of continuous light on the breeding success
                                of diurnal species such as brown pelicans and cormorants.
                                For these species, continuous light may affect hormonal
                                levels, which in turn may alter behavioral patterns impor-
                                tant in courtship, incubation, and chick care. Noise and
                                disturbance generated from shing activities may also
                                affect breeding success of vulnerable species. Measures
                                to resolve these conicts are currently (in 2001) being
                                considered and discussed by state and federal agencies
                                together with seabird biologists and shery managers, but
                                at this time (summer of 2001) there are no assurances of
                                a resolution.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December, 2001                             A Status Report               547
        Overall, the future of shery-seabird interactions free    Morgan, K. H., K. Vermeer, R. W. McKelvey. 1991. Atlas of
Marine Birds



        of major conicts is improving. For example, since gill-    pelagic birds of western Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service
        netting has been banned in many areas, some shermen      Occasional Paper 72:1-72.
        have switched to alternate shing methods that do not     National Geographic Society. 1999. Field guide to the
        harm seabirds. Situations are more difcult to control     birds of North America, 3rd edition. National Geographic
        when commercial shing occurs outside areas of state or    Society, Washington, DC. 480 pp.
        federal jurisdiction, such as foreign waters where many of
                                       Palmer, R. S. (ed.). 1962. Handbook of North American
        our migratory seabirds reside part of the year. Interactions
                                       birds, volume I. Yale University Press, New Haven CT. 567
        between the recreational sherman and marine wildlife
                                       pp.
        also occur. While each individual interaction may involve
                                       Spendelow, J. A., and S. R. Patton. 1988. National atlas of
        only one angler and one bird (involving hook injuries,
                                       coastal waterbird colonies in the contiguous United States:
        monolament entanglements, and other injuries from han-
                                       1976-82. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands
        dling and struggle), recreational shermen as a group
                                       Research Center, Washington, DC. 326 pp.
        can have a signicant impact on some seabird popula-
        tions. In most instances the best management approach is
                                       Surveys and Status Reports
        still education.
                                       Ainley, D. G., and T. J. Lewis. 1974. The history of
                                       Farallon Island marine bird populations, 1854-1972. Condor
        Daniel W. Anderson and Franklin Gress
                                       76:432-436.
        University of California, Davis and California Institute of
                                       Ainley, D. G., and G. L. Hunt, Jr. 1991. Status and conser-
        Environmental Studies
                                       vation of seabirds in California. International Council for
        Harry R. Carter
                                       Bird Protection Technical Publication 11:103-114.
        U. S. Geological Survey and Humboldt State University
                                       Carter, H. R., G. J. McChesney, D. L. Jaques, C. S. Strong,
        Paul R. Kelly
                                       M. W. Parker, J. E. Takekawa, D. L. Jory, and D. L. Whit-
        California Department of Fish and Game
                                       worth. 1992. Breeding seabird populations of California,
        Alec D. MacCall                        1989-1991. Unpubl. draft report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife
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                                       Carter, H. R., A. L. Sowls, M. S. Rodway, U. W. Wilson,
                                       R. W. Lowe, F. Gress, and D. W. Anderson. 1995. Pop-
        References                           ulation size, trends, and conservation problems of the
                                       double-crested cormorant on the west coast of North
        Because this report focuses on the status of marine sher-
                                       America. in: D. N. Nettleship, and D. C. Duffy (eds.).
        ies, as required my the MLMA, the editors have had to
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        limit the space devoted to birds. Since marine birds are an
                                       management. Colonial Waterbirds (Special Publication 1)
        integral part of all the ecosystem divisions of this book we
                                       18:189-207.
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        U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 11997. Recovery plan for   the anchovy shery off southern California. Pp. 128-135
        the threatened marbled murrelet in Washington, Oregon,     in: D. N. Nettleship, G. A. Sanger, and P. F. Springer
        and California. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland,   (eds.) Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
        OR.                              sheries relationships. Canadian Wildlife Service Special
                                       Publication CW66-65, Ottawa, ON.
        Pollution and Other Perturbations
                                       Furness, R. W., and R. T. Barrett. 1991. Seabirds and sh
        Anderson, D. W. 1988. Dose-response relationship between
                                       declines. National Geographic Research and Exploration
        human disturbance and brown pelican breeding success.
                                       7:82-95.
        Wildlife Society Bulletin 16:339-345.
                                       Nettleship, D. N., G. A. Sanger, and P. F. Springer (eds.).
        Anderson, D. W., and J. O. Keith. 1980. The human inu-
                                       1984. Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
        ence on seabird nesting success: conservation implica-
                                       sheries relationships. Canadian Wildlife Service Special
        tions. Biological Conservation 18:65-80.
                                       Publication CW66-65, Ottawa, ON. 220 pp.
        Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, and D. M. Fry. 1996. Survival
                                       Radovich, J. 1981. The collapse of the California sardine
        and dispersal of oiled brown pelicans after rehabilitation
                                       shery: what have we learned? Pp. 107-136 in: Glanz, M.
        and release. Marine Pollution 32:711-718.
                                       H., and J. D. Thompson (eds.), Resource management and
        Anderson, D. W., J. R. Jehl, Jr., R. W. Risebrough, L. A.   environmental uncertainty: lessons from coastal upwelling
        Woods, Jr., L. R. DeWeese, and W. G. Edgecomb. 1975.      sheries. Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. 491 pp.
        Brown pelicans: improved reproduction off the southern
                                       Wahl, T. R., and D. Heinemann. 1979. Seabirds and
        California coast. Science 190:806-808.
                                       shing vessels: co-occurrences and attraction. Condor
        Gress, F. 1995. Organochlorines, eggshell thinning, and    81:390-396.
        productivity relationships in brown pelicans breeding in




          California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
               A Status Report                       December, 2001
550
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report       551
   California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
         A Status Report              December 2001
552
Appendix A:
Management                              tection of the resource, in order to apply these costs




                                                                Appendix A: Management Considerations
                                   to the shery.

Considerations                         6.  A constituent involvement process that assists in eval-
                                   uating the best uses of the resource. Such a process
                                   would also enable information-exchange between the
                                   DFG and interested parties.
This appendix of Management Considerations is pro-       7.  An evaluation of the consequences of reoccupation of
vided for informational purposes only. These views,         the sea otter into southern California waters.
submitted by the authors, do not necessarily represent
the views of either the California Department of Fish
                                Albacore
and Game or the California Fish and Game Commission,
and no endorsement of any of these views by these
                                Currently, North Pacic albacore sheries are not subject
agencies is implied.
                                to formal management measures, such as limited entry or
                                total catch restrictions for the commercial sheries, or
                                size or bag limits for the recreational sheries. However,
Abalone                            more structured management of the albacore population
                                is being considered by an international convention (Multi-
DFG’s goals for abalone include the recovery of the aba-
                                lateral High-Level Conference (MHLC) on the Conservation
lone resource throughout its historic range to sustainable
                                and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the
levels, pursuant to the mandates of legislation (Abalone
                                western and central Pacic Ocean) that includes nations
Recovery and Management Plan and the Marine Life Man-
                                that historically have supported sheries for the highly
agement Act).
                                migratory stocks of the Pacic Ocean. It is likely that
For reasons discussed above, many historic abalone shery
                                initial management approaches will include some form
management practices were ineffective in protecting the
                                of limited entry intended to minimize the detrimental
resource south of San Francisco. The state recognizes the
                                effects to the stock that commonly arise due to intensive
value and importance of abalone resources, and has made
                                shing over extended periods of time. One of the most
abalone recovery and management a high priority. Future
                                difcult tasks that the MHLC must address will be to
abalone management might likely include the following:
                                develop a strategic plan (research and management goals)
1.  Marine protected areas that provide refuge and pro-    for the North Pacic albacore stock that is applicable to
   tection for breeding populations of abalones, and     the population’s entire range. Such a plan must be sup-
   other long lived, broadcast-spawning invertebrates.    ported by each nation’s albacore management institution
   Such areas need to have active and adequate enforce-   and industry if it is to be successful.
   ment. These areas are necessary early in the recov-
   ery phase to enhance reproductive viability.
                                Angel Shark
2.  Individual species management. The life history, hab-
   itat needs, and population levels of each species
                                Though the angel shark shery is currently very minor
   should be recognized and considered within the
                                in California (it is growing in Mexico), it can serve as a
   framework of ecosystem management. Knowledge of
                                valuable case study of an emerging shery that grew to
   the age class structure, frequency and rate of recruit-
                                be one of the most valuable elasmobranch sheries on the
   ment, natural mortality rate, and growth is needed to
                                Pacic coast in the past 25 years. A number of shermen,
   model the shery for each species and area.
                                both gill-netters and trawlers, who continue to harvest
3.  Rapid response to environmental and human induced     angel sharks, have expressed interest in working with DFG
   stresses is needed to adjust or stop harvests when    biologists to reassess the 1987 minimum size limit. They
   unforeseen problems such as disease or unusual cli-    cite the fact that the main angel shark habitat and popula-
   matic events arise.                    tion centers have been protected by the Proposition 132
                                area closures for over six years and that the Marine Life
4.  Fishery-independent data to determine the health
                                Management Act (MLMA) encourages “adaptive manage-
   and sustainable harvest rate of the resource.
                                ment” to review and amend regulations if stocks improve.
5.  An evaluation to identify the potential size of the
                                Participation of experienced shermen proved valuable
   shery using biological data and an economic analysis
                                in the cooperative life history and population studies con-
   to evaluate resource rent, i.e., the amount necessary
                                ducted on the research vessel Squatina in the 1980s and
   to cover the cost of research, management, and pro-
                                the MLMA identies collaborative research as a priority



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  553
                    in obtaining cost-effective data for sheries management.   opportunities. The length of time needed to rebuild the
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                    A future cooperative research study of the angel shark     population depends on the frequency of rare large year
                    population could also shed light on the effectiveness of    classes, but may require 40 years under conditions similar
                    a large “no-take” marine reserve, at least on this single   to those seen in recent years.
                    resident species.
                    Further studies on the genetic variability of geographically
                                                    Bull Kelp
                    separated island and mainland stocks would provide
                    resource managers with valuable information in devel-     In order to ensure a productive future for California’s
                    oping a sheries management plan. A review of the       bull kelp resource and the species dependent on it, the
                    socio-economic impacts of the area closures on small      following considerations are offered:
                    scale sheries, coastal communities, and local economies
                                                    1.  Continue the present management system for the
                    could also provide managers with tools to assess the
                                                      300-series beds, including the harvest prohibition for
                    pros and cons of incorporating marine reserves in future
                                                      beds 303-307.
                    management strategies.
                                                    2.  Modify the present 15 percent harvest-limit on the
                    The shing industry, university researchers, and resource
                                                      leasable 300-series beds to require distribution of
                    managers might seek to initiate a cooperative program
                                                      the harvest throughout the bed to minimize local
                    with Mexico to assure a sustainable angel shark
                                                      impacts.
                    shery that can continue to supply both Mexican and
                                                    3.  Prohibit harvest of bull kelp in beds where the bull
                    U.S. markets.
                                                      kelp resource has been shown to be chronically dimin-
                                                      ished during the past several decades.
                    Barred Sand Bass                        4.  Encourage the use of alternative feeds, some of
                                                      which have already been developed for cultured spe-
                    This species seems to be a good candidate for the estab-
                                                      cies such as red abalone.
                    lishment of harvest refugia in some areas during peak
                                                    5.  Fund more regular assessments and more research to
                    spawning times.
                                                      examine the impacts of various harvest strategies.

                    Bay Shrimp
                                                    Cabezon
                    The current lack of catch limits, closed seasons or
                                                    In recent years, federal groundsh management policy has
                    restricted areas is based upon the assumption that limited
                                                    resulted in drastic reductions in allowable take of many
                    demand for bay shrimp maintains effort at levels far below
                                                    groundsh species due to the overshed status of some
                    the level that would threaten long-term sustainability of
                                                    species such as lingcod, bocaccio, and canary rocksh.
                    the shery. Data is not available to test this assumption.
                                                    These reductions in turn have shifted effort to more lucra-
                    Because of this, the following measures are suggested:
                                                    tive markets, such as the live-sh shery. For bocaccio
                    1.  Continue the compilation of bay shrimp logbook data
                                                    and canary rocksh, the efforts required to rebuild stocks
                       to get past and current catch per unit effort, as well
                                                    will restrict harvest levels for all associated species for
                       as maintaining logbook requirements for commercial
                                                    several years, so shing pressure on cabezon and other
                       shery participants.
                                                    nearshore groundsh species is not likely to decrease,
                    2.  Monitor species composition in bay shrimp landings.    and may increase further, without some intervention.
                       Currently, four species are known to be caught in the   DFG developed interim management measures to further
                       shery with indications that a newly introduced fth   address increasing demands on these nearshore sh popu-
                       species may also be of importance. Long-term shifts    lations. Measures for cabezon include:
                       in species landed by the shery may be indicative of
                                                    1.  An increase in the minimum size limit.
                       broader problems in the populations of each species.
                                                    2.  A closed commercial and recreational shery during
                                                      spawning and nest guarding seasons.
                    Bocaccio                            In addition, the department is mandated to develop a
                                                    Nearshore Fishery Management Plan, which will include
                    Bocaccio have been managed under the Groundsh Man-
                                                    cabezon and may be adopted by the Fish and Game Com-
                    agement Plan of the Pacic Fishery Management Council
                                                    mission in January 2002.
                    since 1982. The bocaccio population is now under a formal
                    rebuilding program, requiring severe restrictions on shing



                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
554
Calico Rockfish                        California Sheephead




                                                               Appendix A: Management Considerations
Calico rocksh are a minor component of commercial       Implementation of the minimal size (12 inches) for the
rocksh landings in California, but they may comprise a    sheephead may allow smaller females to reproduce prior
signicant portion of the undocumented bycatch of the     to their entry to the shery. However, larger, more fertile
nearshore commercial sheries that target other nsh     females are still at risk. Careful monitoring of catch and
or invertebrate species. The extent to which these near-    effort data, if possible, is needed to allow early detection
shore shing operations increase calico rocksh mortality   of a problem. A better understanding of reproduction
is not known and requires further study, including onboard   would help set a more realistic minimum size limit.
observation and sampling of the bycatch of nearshore
commercial hook and line, trap, and trawl shing vessels
                                Coonstripe Shrimp
in southern and central California.
There is currently some onboard sampling of CPFVs in      Information on biological parameters of coonstripe shrimp
California as part of the ongoing coastwide Marine Recre-   off California is limited. A precautionary approach to man-
ational Fisheries Statistical Survey, but additional onboard  agement should be employed until more is known about
sampling of CPFVs will be required to adequately assess    the impacts of commercial harvest on this resource. Given
the mortality that is caused by sport anglers to calico    this lack of knowledge, the following management mea-
rocksh stocks. Angler education and enforcement efforts    sures should be considered:
to reduce the sport angler practice of high-grading would
                                1.  Restrictions on access.
also help conserve the stocks of calico rocksh.
                                2.  Limit the number of traps used by each sherman.
                                3.  A season closure from November through April, during
California Barracuda                        the predominant egg-bearing period.
                                4.  A mandatory logbook.
1.  Establish equilateral regulations with Mexico based on
   collaborative research.                  5.  Development of a shery dependent and independent
                                  monitoring program to gather data on life history and
2.  Maintain current commercial and recreational
                                  population characteristics.
   regulations.
                                6.  Since sport harvest of this resource may increase in
                                  the future, the issue of equitable allocation should be
California Corbina                         seriously considered.
1.  Maintain the current sport sh regulations and the
   ban on commercial take of corbina.
                                Coastal Cutthroat Trout
2.  Ascertain size and age structure of populations.
                                Sportshing regulations in many waters have been
                                changed to catch-and-release, enabling sport shing to
California Halibut                       continue, at reduced harvest levels.
                                1.  Catch and release regulations should be continued.
1.  Maintain the current commercial and recreational
                                2.  Data on abundance and distribution of coastal cut-
   regulations.
                                  throat trout should be collected in the context of
2.  Protect nursery grounds in southern California’s
                                  habitat conditions so that the relationship between
   embayments and estuaries.
                                  the sh and ecological processes can be understood.
3.  Prohibit dredging operations in embayments and
                                3.  Programs should implement conservation measures
   estuaries during periods of peak abundance
                                  and restoration of habitat to permit dispersal among
   (March-May) of larval and newly settled halibut in
                                  populations and different strains of coastal cutthroat.
   southern California.


                                Dolphin
                                Continue to monitor the commercial and sport sheries
                                for catch and effort data. Work with the Pacic Fishery
                                Management Council to implement the Highly Migratory
                                Species Fishery Management Plan, which includes dolphin.


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  555
                    Eel Grass                           Gaper Clam
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                    1.  Carry out and maintain a comprehensive eelgrass      Present sport bag limits for locations with large sport clam
                       inventory for the state.                 sheries seem adequate to protect the gaper clam popula-
                                                    tions in those areas and also in areas where declines in
                    2.  Revise the Southern California Eelgrass Mitigation
                                                    populations have occurred. Population declines in other
                       Policy or develop and implement a new statewide
                                                    areas are most likely not caused by over-harvest since
                       eelgrass disturbance, avoidance, and mitigation policy
                                                    there remains a subtidal portion of the population that
                       that recognizes eelgrass as a vital living marine
                                                    acts as a spawning reserve. There are a number of reasons
                       resource whose presence is critical in nearshore
                                                    for reduced clammer success in formerly productive bay
                       food web.
                                                    and estuarine areas, including decreased tidal ushing
                    3.  Evaluate the potential impacts of anticipated sea
                                                    and increased sedimentation reducing gaper clam habitat;
                       level rise and coastal erosion on remnant and re-
                                                    increased foraging on gaper clams within the range of
                       established eelgrass bed communities. Because the
                                                    southern sea otters; and environmental effects, both long-
                       natural, often gently sloping shorelines around many
                                                    term and those associated with shorter-term El Niño
                       of California’s bays have been replaced by revet-
                                                    events. Poor clammer success and take of small-sized
                       ments, a study of the potential loss of eelgrass habi-
                                                    clams tend to limit effort in areas where this occurs and
                       tat due to the lack of intertidal refuge from increased
                                                    should preclude the necessity of having a large number of
                       water depth and reduced light penetration should be
                                                    differing bag limits for gaper clams throughout the state.
                       undertaken. The results of such a study would then
                       be added to the analyses of potential impacts and
                                                    Geoduck Clam
                       preparations for the anticipated rise in sea level.
                    4.  Include maintaining plant stock genetic diversity as
                                                    The present sport bag limit is adequate to protect the
                       an important parameter within mitigation-based eel-
                                                    resource from overharvest. In areas where foraging by sea
                       grass re-establishment requirements.
                                                    otters has reduced populations, the extremely low sport
                                                    take presents no threat to the populations, since reduced
                    Flatfish                            clam density usually leads to reduced clammer effort.

                    The author of the 1992 arrowtooth ounder assessment
                                                    Giant Kelp
                    recommended a conservative management approach,
                    especially until new data and models could estimate abso-
                                                    For the purpose of management, the kelp beds off Cali-
                    lute biomass and exploitation rates. Management of this
                                                    fornia represent more than just a single species of inter-
                    species falls under the jurisdiction of the Pacic Fishery
                                                    est. They represent an important nearshore ecosystem.
                    Management Council (PFMC). The Pacic halibut shery
                                                    Giant kelp forests provide essential habitat for a diverse
                    is regulated by the International Pacic Halibut Commis-
                                                    assemblage of marine shes and invertebrates and their
                    sion, made up of members from the United States and
                                                    loss would reduce the populations of many marine spe-
                    Canada. For the other minor atshes, the most recent
                                                    cies. Kelp forests are also important to sport and com-
                    recommendations of the Groundsh Management Team of
                                                    mercial shermen, kelp harvesters, recreational divers,
                    the PFMC suggest no change in the coastwide acceptable
                                                    photographers, and sightseers, and for their general aes-
                    biological catch.
                                                    thetic value. During the latter half of the 20th century,
                    Because of tighter restrictions on the primary federally-
                                                    throughout California and in southern California in par-
                    managed groundsh species (notably members of the
                                                    ticular, kelp forests have been subjected to increasing
                    Sebastes complex and lingcod), it is reasonable to assume
                                                    environmental stresses. Some are natural, such as the
                    that more shing effort may be placed on other species of
                                                    warm water El Niños. Other stresses are clearly the result
                    sh in the immediate future as shermen seek alternate
                                                    of human activity. These include sources of pollution and
                    sheries, including the minor atshes. If so, it is impera-
                                                    sedimentation resulting from coastal development and the
                    tive that this group of sh be included in shery manage-
                                                    increasing inuences of human population growth. While
                    ment plan development.
                                                    the causes of decline are complex and are masked by
                                                    seasonal uctuations, there is general agreement that
                                                    there is much less kelp along the southern California coast
                                                    than there was when we rst began conducting surveys,
                                                    shortly after the turn of the century.




                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
556
At least three areas of management offer some hope for     bays and estuaries, a proactive management recommen-




                                                               Appendix A: Management Considerations
reversing this trend of decline:                dation would continue to prohibit harvest of wild stocks of
                                Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis species at this time.
1.  Reduce harvest rates of urchin predators. These
   include California sheephead and spiny lobster. The
   Southern sea otter may eventually return to southern
                                Grunion
   California areas which would result in less dense pop-
   ulations of urchins.                    Proactive investigations to enhance knowledge of this spe-
2.  Coastwide kelp photographic ights should be        cies for future management should include estimates of
   increased. The causes for the apparent declines in     relative abundance of spawning sh and human take along
   kelp beds, particularly in southern California cannot   the sandy beaches of the Southern California Bight. This
   be thoroughly analyzed or understood without a       would reveal trends in abundance, distribution, beach
   better time series of data. Once gathered, the data    preference, and shing mortality. On-site observations at
   should be incorporated into a statewide Geographic     several locations, over several nights of each run, could
   Information System (GIS). A similar database should    add quantitative data on abundance and human take.
   be gathered on coastal development. Once estab-      This information would be valuable for resource damage
   lished the GIS should be frequently reviewed for evi-   assessment in the event of widespread petroleum spills
   dence of kelp bed damage tied to onshore activities.    during the spawning season.
3.  Provide additional substrate (constructed reefs) over   The only current aspect of grunion management that
   widespread areas for establishment of new kelp beds.    should be a candidate for revision is the lack of a bag
   These may also serve as spore sources for re-estab-    limit. The case for establishing a bag limit is not based
   lishment of former natural kelp communities.        on current harvest rates but on the potential impact of
                                a constantly growing human population in California. A
                                nominal bag limit of, perhaps, 50 sh would not restrict
Giant Sea Bass                         current legitimate recreational harvesting but could serve
                                to prevent over harvest if grunion gathering became more
Although there has been recent interest in re-opening the
                                popular. A bag limit also is valuable to insure that sh
recreational giant sea bass shery, this does not seem
                                caught under the authority of a sport shing license are
prudent at this time given the lack of data and new
                                not being harvested in large quantities for illegal sale.
evidence that suggest high body burdens of DDE and PCB
in California giant sea bass. Research projects underway
                                Jack Mackerel
at this time are collecting detailed information on the
movement, habitat use and behavior of this species. In a
few years, we may have enough data to make informed       The jack mackerel population can probably continue to
management decisions regarding giant sea bass. Current     support the current level of shing exploitation, but it is
management measures should remain in place.           difcult to predict the effects of increased exploitation,
                                due to the limited knowledge of the composition and
                                behavior of the older segment of the population and to
Gracilaria                           the limited knowledge of reproduction and recruitment in
                                jack mackerel. Under the CPS FMP, jack mackerel are a
Baseline data on the extent and density for Gracilaria and
                                monitored species unless landings exceed the ABC for two
Gracilariopsis in areas favorable for its growth are lacking.
                                years. Should jack mackerel become actively managed, it
Little is known about its ability to capture and recycle
                                will be important to know the contribution of older sh to
nutrients, its invertebrate associates, and its value as a
                                the population and shery.
food source for macrofauna, especially the various avian
species that over-winter in California’s bays and estuaries.
                                Kelp Bass
The California Fish and Game Code gives the commission
authority to make regulations to insure the proper har-
vesting of kelp or other aquatic plants. If the worldwide    It may be time to explore new conservation measures such
market for Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis increases, the     as increasing the size limit, imposing minimum and maxi-
pressure on the commission to open up more of Califor-     mum size limits (slot shing), and/or promoting catch-and-
nia’s nearshore waters to wild stock harvesting of these    release shing.
and other agar-bearing marine plants will likely increase.
However, until essential information is obtained on the
role these seaweeds play in the ecology of California’s


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                  557
                    Louvar                            opah, it is difcult to determine the impacts of various
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                                                   sheries worldwide.
                    Biological requirements and worldwide distribution limit
                    the ability of local sheries to severely impact the louvar
                                                   Other Nearshore Rockfish
                    population. If a breeding or subpopulation is determined
                    to exist off the California coast, a level of awareness
                                                   Concerns are increasing due to increasing demand on
                    through proactive management could be utilized to pre-
                                                   a limited resource; commercial size limits, commercial
                    vent over shing and maintain optimum yield.
                                                   permits, and gear limitations have been implemented
                                                   to address these concerns. Recent changes in federal
                    Monkeyface Prickleback                    management of nearshore species have resulted in very
                                                   low allowable take, increasing the demand and thus the
                    Due to the relative low utilization of monkeyface prick-   prices. DFG is currently mandated to develop a Nearshore
                    leback, specic management recommendations are not      Fishery Management Plan (NFMP), which uses the best
                    considered at this time. However, in view of the unique    available data, provides for signicant public involvement
                    and limited habitat which this species occupies, a reduc-   in the process, and is peer-reviewed. The NFMP may
                    tion in number (from the existing 10-sh recreational bag   be adopted by the Commission in January 2002. DFG
                    limit) and a minimum legal size (such as 14 inches) might   has developed interim management measures to further
                    be appropriate in the future. Most individuals are taken   protect this emerging shery. Interim measures included
                    in the intertidal zone or in very shallow water, and the   control date for limited entry, reduced bag limits, season
                    survival rate for those returned to the water would be    closures, gear limitations (rod and reel only), and adjust-
                    expected to be high. However, based on their mode of     ment of size limits. Increased sampling of landings, educa-
                    feeding, hooking mortality might be a limiting factor and   tion of buyers to use proper market categories, and more
                    would preclude a size limitation.               shery-independent sampling to assess stocks adequately
                                                   are needed to effectively protect these resources.

                    Mussels
                                                   Pacific Bonito
                    Improving and maintaining the water quality of California’s
                    coastal and estuarine waters is the most critical manage-   An assessed decline in bonito abundance coupled with a
                    ment issue affecting the continued survival of the mussel   drastic reduction in the size of the sh harvested com-
                    industry. Both sport and commercial utilization of all of   mercially, brought about a reduced bag limit and minimum
                    the state’s shellsh sheries is impacted by increasing    size regulation in 1982. The status of the population
                    quantities of ocean-bound efuents produced by point and   has not been re-assessed since then. Also, this species
                    non-point sources in many areas of the state. Community-   is not covered under any current or proposed federal
                    based education programs beginning in elementary school    shery management plan. Declines in both recreational
                    and emphasizing the linkages between our coastal water-    and commercial landings in the 1990s indicate that this
                    sheds, urban and ocean environments, and human health     species should be re-assessed and appropriate manage-
                    are a positive step in developing an informed public. DFG,  ment actions be taken. Such actions might include the
                    the California Sea Grant Extension Program, California    initiation of discussions between the U.S. and Mexican
                    Water Quality Control Board, National Marine Sanctuary    governments on coordinating management of this trans-
                    Programs and several other public and private groups     boundary stock.
                    have made progress in this effort, but persistence and
                    determination are needed to slow and reverse the loss of
                                                   Pacific Hake
                    our clean coastal waters.

                                                   Since implementation of the Fisheries Conservation and
                    Opah                             Management Act in the U.S. and the declaration of a
                                                   200-mile shery conservation zone in Canada in the late
                    Although commercial landings of opah are recorded by     1970s, annual quotas have been the primary management
                    the department, opah is not presently a target species    tool used to limit the catch of Pacic hake in both zones
                    and their take is not managed. The impact of California    by foreign and domestic sheries. The scientists from
                    landings on the species as a whole may be minimal, as     both countries have collaborated through the Technical
                    the population is worldwide in temperate and tropical     Subcomittee of the U.S.-Canada Groundsh Committee,
                    seas. However, since very little is known about the      and there has been informal agreement on the adoption



                      California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
558
of an annual shing policy. However, overall management       the legislature, the commission was given manage-




                                                               Appendix A: Management Considerations
performance has been hampered by a long-standing dis-        ment authority for the herring shery during the roe
agreement between the U.S. and Canada on the division        shery’s second year. This allows the regulations to
of the acceptable biological catch (ABC) between U.S. and      be changed on an annual basis and new issues to be
Canadian sheries. In 1991-1992, U.S. and Canadian man-       addressed as they arise.
agers set quotas that summed to 128 percent of the ABC,    5.  Director’s Herring Advisory Committee. This commit-
while in 1993-1998, the combined quotas were 112 percent      tee was established to seek valuable industry input
of the ABC on average. Under the current management         on shery-related matters.
impasse there is a potential for overshing of Pacic hake.
                                The department is striving to incorporate an ecosystem
The current management of hake and the composition of     approach to management of its marine resources. The
the shery may be affected by growth of tribal sheries.    harvest level used for Pacic herring to some extent takes
At present, only the Makah Tribe of western Washington     into consideration this species’ role in the marine food
has initiated a shery. However, two other Washington     web and its connection to environmental factors, but
tribes have stated an interest in entering the hake shery   these relationships are not well understood. Most aspects
and NMFS has established preliminary quotas for these     of herring biology and ecology are in need of further
tribes. Other coastal tribes may also qualify for entry into  scientic research to improve existing herring manage-
the hake shery. Non-Indian shers are challenging alloca-   ment and further incorporate an ecosystem approach.
tion of hake to treaty tribes, but denitive court rulings   The Humboldt Bay and Crescent City spawning populations
on this matter have not yet been reached.           need re-assessment and more frequent assessments in the
Hake remains the largest shery on the West Coast. With    future to improve harvest levels. Herring spawning habitat
the recent declines in salmon and the low abundance      requirements need to be better understood so that they
of rocksh, shermen engaged in these sheries are con-    can be adequately protected.
cerned about the bycatch of these species in the hake     One of the weakest aspects of current management is the
shery. The hake shery is one of the lowest bycatch      inability to predict the number of two-year-old herring
sheries in the U.S., but even the relatively low bycatch   that will recruit to the spawning population each year
of salmon and rocksh is a large portion of the current    because this age group has the largest impact on spawning
low quotas for depleted salmon and rocksh. The hake      population size. Research is needed to understand how
shery is currently faced with the challenge of developing   environmental factors affect herring survival, particularly
shing practices to minimize bycatch to the lowest level    during early life history stages, so that we may better
possible.                           predict year-class strength.
                                Stock assessments and quota management will also
Pacific Herring                        improve with better understanding of the distribution and
                                abundance of herring in the open ocean, and whether
In general, the current management strategy used for      or not spawning populations are genetically distinct from
California’s herring sheries has proven to be effective    each other.
because it allows the department and commission to inte-
grate new and comprehensive information. This strategy
                                Pacific Razor Clam
has several key components that have contributed to its
effectiveness over the years:
                                Current estimates for total catch and effort are needed
1.  Conservative harvest levels. Since the inception of    for the Crescent City beaches and especially Clam and
   the roe shery, harvest quotas have been conserva-    Moonstone beaches in the Eureka area. Little is known
   tive and adjusted annually based on spawning popula-   about the extent and importance of subtidal populations
   tion assessments for Tomales and San Francisco bays.   acting as brood stock for intertidal populations; depen-
2.  Annual population assessments. Each year, DFG       dance on these alone to repopulate the Eureka area
   assesses the status of the state’s two largest spawn-   beaches may be unwarranted. Closure of Clam and Moon-
   ing populations (San Francisco Bay and Tomales Bay)    stone beaches to intertidal take or reduction of the pres-
   by collecting information on spawning biomass, age    ent bag limit may increase the rate of recovery for these
   structure, and other biological data.           sheries. In other parts of the state, the present sport bag
                                limit appears to be adequate to protect the resource since
3.  Limited entry. The expansion of the shery was care-
                                minimal digger effort is seen for razor clams.
   fully controlled and has not increased since 1983.
4.  Commission management authority. Unlike other
   commercial sheries, which have been regulated by


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  559
                    Pismo Clam                           Red Rock Shrimp
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                    Since 1948, DFG has managed the recreational Pismo clam    Information on the size and condition of the red rock
                    shery by the use of bag limits, size limits, closed seasons  shrimp population in California is mostly anecdotal. For
                    and closed areas. In 1976, an invertebrate reserve (closed   this reason, the resource should be managed cautiously
                    to the commercial and recreational take of any inverte-    until its status is better understood. Fortunately, shing
                    brates) was established in the Pismo Beach area to study    pressure has historically been light, with only a few sher-
                    the separate effects of recreational clamming and sea     men involved, mostly along rock jetties and breakwaters.
                    otter foraging on the Pismo clam population. In 1979,     In addition, these shrimp may have a low susceptibility to
                    sea otters were rst observed foraging on Pismo clams.     trapping. Large numbers of shrimp have been observed
                    By 1982, beach surveys found few clams either inside or    outside of traps while few, if any, were inside. In 1975,
                    outside of the invertebrate reserve.              a small number of experimental traps were set in deeper
                                                    water (20 to 70 feet) at locations including reefs and rocky
                    1.  There is no further need for the closed seasons or
                                                    shorelines. Red rock shrimp were known to be present
                       the ve-inch size limit in San Mateo, Santa Cruz
                                                    at these locations, based on diver observation, but for
                       or Monterey counties since there is no recreational
                                                    unknown reasons, no shrimp entered the traps. Traps have
                       clamming.
                                                    also been observed with many shrimp climbing on the
                    2.  It is suggested that a 4.5-inch statewide size limit be
                                                    outside, but none entering the trap. These characteristics
                       adopted to simplify regulations.
                                                    make it unlikely that the shrimp could be widely, or
                    3.  There is no further need for the invertebrate reserve   excessively, harvested with current gear. Regardless, it
                       established in California Code of Regulations or the   would be advisable to take the following precautions in
                       various Pismo clam closed areas (known as clam pre-    managing this shery:
                       serves) because long term management of a rec-
                                                    1.  Apply a closure during the egg-rearing period, most
                       reational shery in these areas is not likely to be
                                                      likely from May through July.
                       needed.
                                                    2.  Regulate the size of openings in traps to allow small
                                                      shrimp (< one inch) to escape.
                    Purple Sea Urchin                       3.  Collect data from shermen including bycatch and
                                                      occurrence of females carrying eggs.
                    There are several gaps in basic knowledge concerning
                    purple sea urchins. Although there are scattered studies of
                                                    Red Sea Urchin
                    growth and survival in the literature, data have not been
                    gathered together and synthesized in a manner suitable
                    for setting harvest size limits. Studies of early growth    The red sea urchin shery is fully exploited in California,
                    and survival up to an age of one year are few and       and evidence from a variety of sources points to an over-
                    are needed to link settlement information with recruit-    shed condition in northern and portions of southern
                    ment to the reproductive population. Linking sources of    California. Management measures developed and imple-
                    larvae with sites of settlement has not been done and     mented collaboratively with the industry (minimum size
                    is crucial to developing management plans that involve     limits, restricted access, temporal closures) have not been
                    marine reserves. Because of ocean current patterns, not    effective in reversing long-term declines in harvestable
                    every region of coastline can be considered to be a suit-   stocks. The following management-related actions may be
                    able source of larvae for all marine species. Both shery-   needed to reverse this condition:
                    dependent and -independent monitoring should continue     1.  Expand existing shery-dependent and -independent
                    in order to assess changes in stock condition. Fishery       monitoring programs. Logbook data needs to be col-
                    dependent monitoring of commercial landing levels and        lected at a higher spatial resolution using GPS tech-
                    patterns should detect any trend toward large-scale har-      nology. Fishery-independent needs to be expanded
                    vests that might require more specic management mea-        to allow managers to assess density and size distri-
                    sures. At present, the most comprehensive shery inde-       butions. Fishery-dependent monitoring will detect
                    pendent data consists of the long-term monitoring of set-      trends in harvest, but is confounded by harvest
                    tlement patterns in northern and southern California. Con-     levels, which are strongly affected by quality of
                    tinuing this monitoring should provide a measure of settle-     urchin gonads and market conditions. Fishery-inde-
                    ment supply, and an early warning of possible adverse        pendent monitoring will allow managers to assess
                    effects of harvesting on recruitment.                abundance of size classes and poor quality urchins not
                                                      sampled within the shery. Continuation and expan-



                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
560
   sion of long-term monitoring of settlement patterns is  seek opportunities to diversify their shing activities.




                                                               Appendix A: Management Considerations
   crucial to providing a relative measure of settlement  The multi-species nature of the rock crab shery also
   supply and should be continued and expanded. Re-     presents a number of challenges to implementing biologi-
   establishment of an industry-based revenue system    cally meaningful management measures. Future manage-
   would assist in funding these programs.         ment activities, which should be considered to help insure
                               the future health of this resource and shery include:
2.  Develop a science-based red sea urchin shery man-
   agement plan for the Fish and Game Commission.      1.  Establish a system for obtaining periodic shery-inde-
                                  pendent data on rock crab abundance, species and
3.  Conduct a capacity goal analysis. Consider reducing
                                  size composition, recruitment patterns, and bycatch
   the permit goal to below the present level of 300
                                  characteristics.
   divers and explore methods for accelerating the attri-
   tion rate.                        2.  Begin to monitor the commercial shery for species
                                  and size composition, geographic and temporal pat-
4.  Continue to examine and consider the use of
                                  terns in catch and effort, and bycatch characteristics.
   spatial management techniques (i.e., marine pro-
   tected areas, rotating harvest zones) in urchin man-   3.  Investigate the need to establish a restricted access
   agement.                           program for this shery.
5.  Expand collaborative monitoring and research with    4.  Explore gear modications to reduce bycatch.
   industry participation.
The following management measures could be imple-
                               Rock Scallop
mented on an interim basis before a shery management
plan is in place:                       The rock scallop is a valuable marine resource to the sport
1.  Establish and monitor a maximum size limit to accel-   diver as well as a highly promising candidate for extensive
   erate recovery of shed areas. A maximum size limit   cultivation in the sea by new methods of aquaculture.
   would be expected to protect animals with the great-   There will be an increasing demand for hatcheries to
   est spawning potential and enhance the survival of    provide seed stock for population enhancement and for
   juvenile urchins under the spine canopy.         the developing aquaculture industry.
2.  Establish regional management zones for northern
   and southern California.
                               Salmon
3.  Establish annual harvest quotas based on the ve-
   year average annual catch. This measure could      The major threat to California’s salmon resource is further
   ensure that a sudden increase in demand, as occurred   degradation and elimination of its freshwater and estua-
   in the mid-1980s, does not drive stock levels below   rine habitats. Restoration of inland spawning and rearing
   their ability to recover.                habitats and renegotiation of inland water management
                               policies, particularly in the Central Valley, must be pur-
                               sued if salmon production levels from naturally spawning
Ridgeback Prawn                        areas are ever to return to their former levels. Prudent
                               regulation of the sheries will be required to equitably
Recommendations for the management of ridgeback
                               distribute the available sh between the various ocean
prawns closely follow that of spot prawns. Current regula-
                               and in-river users and to meet spawning escapement
tions need to be evaluated for effectiveness. As men-
                               needs. To these ends, the California Department of Fish
tioned above, no population estimates are available for
                               and Game should:
ridgeback prawns in California; periodic assessments are
                               1.  Continue its efforts to improve, restore, and enhance
necessary to determine whether the resource is robust
                                  freshwater and estuarine habitats for salmon,
and able to support a continuing shery.
                                  focusing on:
                                  a.  Screening of water diversions
Rock Crabs                             b.  Abatement of pollution sources, chemical and
                                    thermal
The rock crab shery is currently one of the few remaining
signicant nearshore sheries not subject to some form       c.  Reductions in siltation and gravel compaction
of restricted access limitation. Present open access and        levels
relatively low capital requirements for entry could result     d.  Elimination of gravel removal operations in
in large increases in effort for rock crabs as shermen         important spawning and rearing areas



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  561
                                                    Sea Cucumber
                       e.  Reduction of vegetation encroachment into
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                         major spawning areas
                                                    The dive and trawl sheries target different species. In
                       f.  Maintenance of suitable stream ows and tem-
                                                    order to manage these sheries, it is important to know
                         peratures
                                                    the quantities of each species taken. Presently, both the
                       g.  Control of diseases, particularly bacterial kidney
                                                    dive and trawl landings of sea cucumber are lumped on
                         disease in hatcheries.
                                                    commercial landing receipts under a single code for “sea
                    2.  Support studies to differentiate races of salmon, par-  cucumbers, unspecied.” It is recommended that:
                       ticularly in the Central Valley, where winter chinook
                                                    1.  Individual species codes be assigned to both the Cali-
                       and spring chinook are severely depressed.
                                                      fornia and warty sea cucumber. The logbook data
                    3.  Develop and implement plans addressing habitat         also should be coded to species. This is especially
                       and shery management to reverse the status of         important for dive logbooks, because it is possible for
                       depleted salmon stocks, winter-run and spring-run       divers to target either species depending on where in
                       in particular.                         the state they are shing.
                    4.  Investigate the feasibility of constructing a salmon   2.  Limited entry regulations for the two sheries be
                       (and steelhead) hatchery within the San Joaquin        maintained.
                       basin to produce study sh needed to evaluate delta
                                                    3.  Effort is needed to collect the eld data necessary
                       water management strategies.
                                                      to perform stock assessments and generate biomass
                    5.  Continue to work with the Klamath Fishery Manage-       estimates for both the warty and California sea
                       ment Council in negotiating harvest sharing agree-       cucumber. The biological, catch, effort and catch per
                       ments between ocean and river user groups, devel-       unit effort parameters derived from logbook data
                       oping methods of adjusting sheries on an a real        would be used to model the impact of different levels
                       time basis, and rening stock projection and shery      of shing intensity.
                       models.
                                                    4.  Fishery-independent, as well as the shery-depen-
                    6.  Support studies to compare hooking mortality rates       dent, information is needed to properly manage this
                       following release for sublegal and out-of-season        shery. Video surveys of shed areas, to compare
                       salmon caught by trolling and mooching.            with unshed areas, should be conducted.
                    7.  Operate hatcheries and rearing facilities and conduct   5.  Closed areas may need to be established to serve as
                       sh stocking practices responsibly to minimize effects     controls in order to evaluate the impact of harvests
                       on natural production.                     on abundance in open areas.
                                                    6.  Finally, if the limited entry restrictions do not ade-
                                                      quately limit the take of sea cucumbers to sustain-
                    Sand Crab                              able levels, additional management options, such as
                                                      individual or area quotas, may need to be considered.
                    Not all beaches are suitable for sand crab survival through
                    the winter and must be colonized annually. For this
                    reason, regulation of the shery should focus on smaller
                                                    Sheep Crab
                    management areas such as the Santa Monica Bay in south-
                    ern California, where most of the historic catch has been
                                                    The sheep crab shery is presently unregulated. Addi-
                    taken.
                                                    tional biological information, including a better under-
                                                    standing of physiological and behavioral reproduction, is
                                                    needed for the development of sound management poli-
                    Scorpionfish                          cies. Nevertheless, limited recommendations can be made
                                                    based on certain biological characteristics of the sheep
                    Because there has been no assessment of California scor-
                                                    crab.
                    pionsh numbers, it may be prudent to set conservative
                    quotas on both the recreational and commercial catches,    1.  The sheep crab undergoes a terminal molt upon
                    in order to forestall the collapses seen in many other       reaching adulthood. Thus, the adult claws will not
                    California sheries.                        regenerate once removed indicating the claw shery
                                                      utilizes a non-renewable resource.
                                                    2.  The terminal molt, as well as other characteristics,
                                                      also has implications for management of the live,
                                                      whole body shery. For example, size limits would



                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
562
                                Skates and Rays
   likely need to include both an upper and lower limit,




                                                               Appendix A: Management Considerations
   leaving the largest and smallest crabs to mate so as to
                                The continued removal of large numbers of skates and
   maintain recruitment and intermediate sizes, as well
                                rays without additional management would be ill advised.
   as to protect large juvenile males which overlap in
                                More data are needed to produce an effective man-
   size with the adults.
                                agement plan for the species involved. The information
3.  Protection of seasonal spawning aggregations may
                                needed includes:
   need to be incorporated into a management plan for
                                1.  Landing data on size, sex, and species composition of
   this species.
                                  the sport and commercial catch.
4.  Use of abrasion stages may also provide a good
                                2.  Survival rates for released catch.
   tool for management. However, duration of the
   various abrasion stages and their association with    3.  Life history parameters for many of the species
   gonadal development and reproductive success needs       involved.
   to be determined before considering this manage-
                                4.  Population dynamics including species movements.
   ment strategy.
                                  All of this information will help determine if
                                  increased landings of previously discarded catch are

Shortfin Mako                            altering the impact to the species involved.
                                5.  With skate landings increasing in California, Oregon,
The shortn mako’s uncertain status calls for increased       and Washington, it would be advisable to coordinate
investment in shery-dependent and -independent           management among the three states.
research. Population assessments are needed, which
require more research on shing mortality, demographics,
                                Skipjack Tuna
stock structure, and abundance. The state might consider
reinstatement of its volunteer pelagic shark-tagging pro-
                                Since skipjack tuna in the Pacic are considered under
gram. This program has provided information on the
                                shed, management is not being considered. However,
migration paths, biology, and ecology of mako sharks.
                                because skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic are caught
Satellite pop-up tags may also prove useful in determining
                                with yellown tuna, many of the recommended manage-
the distribution and biology of adult mako sharks.
                                ment measures applied to yellown tuna may impact skip-
                                jack tuna. Some of these include reduction of effort
Silversides                          levels and reducing shing on schools associated with
                                drifting objects to minimize bycatch and the catches of
The only current aspect of topsmelt and jacksmelt man-     small tunas.
agement that might be a candidate for revision is the lack
of a bag limit. The case for establishing a bag limit is
                                Spiny Lobster
not based on current harvest rates, but on the potential
impact of a constantly growing human population in Cali-
                                The limited entry program has had some benecial
fornia. A nominal bag limit of, perhaps, 30 topsmelt (which
                                results. An active shermen’s organization, the California
are commonly used for game sh bait), including jacksmelt
                                Lobster and Trap Fishermen’s Association, worked with
in a general provision such as “20 sh, no more than 10
                                the department to develop the current management
of any one species,” would not restrict current legitimate
                                program. In addition to formalizing a trap retrieval pro-
recreational harvesting but would serve to prevent over-
                                gram for traps washed into the surf or onto the beach,
harvest if shing for these species became more popular.
                                the trappers regularly participate in the commission
A bag limit also is valuable to insure that sh caught
                                process to resolve industry problems or improve the
under the authority of a sport shing license are not being
                                current regulations.
harvested in large quantities for illegal sale.
                                The current logbook system needs to maintained, and
                                a program needs to be initiated to determine the recre-
                                ational take of spiny lobster. A formal review of the
                                current limited access program should be scheduled to
                                address issues such as permit transferability until a shery
                                management plan is produced.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  563
                    Spot Prawn                           tion of access to historical habitats that are still suitable
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                                                    but blocked by dams.
                    The spot prawn shery has undergone signicant growth     In 1999, the department implemented the north coast
                    in the last 10 years in terms of the total pounds landed,   steelhead research and monitoring project to obtain infor-
                    numbers of participants and vessels. This pressure is not   mation on status and life history of north coast steelhead
                    likely to ease given the worldwide demand for shrimp and    stocks. A similar effort is needed for the Central Valley
                    prawn as well as the displacement of shermen from other    and south coast. More steelhead focused research and
                    sheries such as the groundsh shery along the Pacic     monitoring is needed to provide the necessary information
                    Coast and from the spot prawn shery in Washington.      to facilitate the recovery these stocks.
                    Given these issues, the following management measures
                    should be considered:
                                                    Striped Marlin
                    1.  Limited entry for both the trap and trawl eet.
                    2.  Development of a coastwide spot prawn geographic     All Pacic billsh resources will soon be covered under
                       information system (GIS) database, which would iden-   new international conventions and a federal management
                       tify historic and current shing areas as well as pre-  plan for highly migratory species is currently being drafted
                       ferred habitats.                     for the Pacic Fishery Management Council. These man-
                    3.  Coastwide sheries-independent population survey of    agement groups provide a great opportunity for effective
                       the spot prawn resource.                 long-term management and conservation of striped marlin
                                                    and other highly migratory species. However, stock assess-
                    4.  Evaluation of the effectiveness of the current man-
                                                    ments for striped marlin are badly out of date and in
                       agement scheme.
                                                    need of re-examination. New assessments should include
                    5.  Evaluation and establishment of a minimum and/or
                                                    current shery statistics, a clear denition of geographical
                       maximum roller gear size-limit.
                                                    limits, better understanding of age, growth and repro-
                                                    ductive status, better indices of abundance and evalua-
                                                    tion of the effectiveness of catch and release in the
                    Spotfin Croaker                        recreational sheries.
                    1.  Maintain the current sport sh regulations and the
                       ban on commercial take of spotn croaker.
                                                    Swordfish
                    2.  Protect and enhance available bay and nearshore
                       habitats.                         Current assessments are based on old, incomplete
                                                    and sometimes inaccurate data. New assessments using
                    3.  Collect more complete data on age, growth and
                                                    updated and standardized shery statistics are necessary
                       maturity.
                                                    to determine stock condition and to validate existing
                    4.  Ascertain size and age structure of populations.
                                                    levels for MSY. International and domestic conventions
                                                    are currently being developed to improve reporting of
                                                    shery statistics from all shing nations. These interna-
                    Spotted Sand Bass                       tional management authorities need to establish com-
                                                    prehensive assessments to ensure precautionary exploi-
                    Since they are not specically targeted as a food sh and
                                                    tation, allocation, and conservation of the Pacic
                    are mostly caught by recreational anglers adopting a catch
                                                    swordsh resource.
                    and release policy might prove benecial to this species.



                    Steelhead
                    Steelhead are rarely caught in the ocean and state laws
                    and regulations require they be released. The manage-
                    ment challenges for this species are almost exclusively
                    in inland waters. In 1996, the Steelhead Restoration
                    and Management Plan for California was published which
                    identied the goals and objectives for management and
                    research needs. The primary management focus for the
                    department recovery of imperiled populations is through
                    the restoration of freshwater habitat, particularly restora-


                       California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
564
Smelts                            Wakasagi




                                                              Appendix A: Management Considerations
                               Additional research is recommended in order to monitor
                               the potential expansion of wakasagi distribution. The
Delta Smelt
                               impacts of wakasagi expanding its range into southern
Since the delta smelt was listed as a threatened species,
                               California are unknown.
modications to provide better habitat conditions as well
as restrictions on the timing and amounts of diversions
                               Whitebait Smelt
from the estuary have been instituted. Large-scale habitat
                               Since very little is known about the life history of this
restoration projects to improve spawning and rearing habi-
                               species, any research or information would add greatly
tat have also been planned. Monitoring of the population
                               to our understanding. Smelt catches should be constantly
as well as research designed to determine mechanisms
                               examined for the presence of this species.
affecting abundance are needed to evaluate the success
or failure of these modications.

                               Washington Clam
Eulachon
The eulachon populations in California need investigation   The greatest take of Washington clams occurs in Humboldt
in order to evaluate the status of these populations. It   Bay and with the present level of effort unlikely to
is unknown whether a shery for this fascinating sh can   increase greatly. The current combination of Washington
be restored.                         and gaper clam bag limits appears to be adequate. The
                               present sport bag limits for the rest of the state also
Longn Smelt                         appear to be adequate at this time to protect Washington
                               and butter clams from over-harvest.
Abundance trends of longn smelt should be closely moni-
tored since freshwater outows out of San Francisco Bay
estuary are highly regulated and other coastal estuaries
                               Wavy Turban Snails
are highly modied.

                               Further development of the shery should follow proce-
Night Smelt
                               dures for emerging sheries under the Marine Life Man-
The shery for night smelt appears to be stable or increas-  agement Act. Thus, the department should identify and
ing; however the shery is in fact poorly regulated and    monitor new emerging sheries and notify the commission
monitored. Fisheries independent sampling, as suggested    of such sheries. The commission can then adopt regula-
earlier, can verify whether apparent increases in shing   tions that limit taking in the shery until a shery man-
effort are over-exploiting the resource. An evaluation    agement plan is adopted and/or direct the department
of the recreational impacts on spawning beaches should    to prepare a shery management plan for the shery and
be done.                           regulations necessary to implement the plan.
                               Recommended interim regulations, based on current best
Surf Smelt
                               scientic knowledge and slow growth rates, include:
The apparent shift from surf smelt to night smelt as the
                               1.  A minimum legal size of four inches in shell diameter.
most common smelt in the commercial shery may reect
                               2.  A fall and winter shing season.
changes in effort or methods; however, the shery should
be monitored much more closely. Fisheries-independent     3.  A temporary cap on the number of shery partici-
sampling would also verify changes in abundance irrespec-     pants.
tive of changes in shing effort. Any additional informa-
                               4.  Closed areas for study where snails can not be shed.
tion, especially on life stages where little or no informa-
                               These interim regulations could be implemented while
tion is known, would greatly add to our understanding of
                               the department is developing and evaluating a shery
surf smelt biology.
                               management plan and conducting population monitoring.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                  565
                    White Croaker                         Yellowfin croaker
Appendix A: Management Considerations



                    There are currently no limitations on catches of white    1.  Retain current status as a recreational resource only
                    croaker off California, with the exception of a small no-     and existing bag limit of 10 sh.
                    take zone off Palos Verdes. Future management consider-    2.  Collect basic life history information such as age and
                    ations should include continual monitoring of the popula-     growth, size at rst maturity, and fecundity.
                    tion size and the status of contaminant levels in areas of
                    concern.
                                                   Yellowtail
                    Yellowfin Tuna                        Given the current status of the yellowtail population,
                                                   and recent enactment of a minimum size limit for sport
                    The current IATTC management objective for yellown      caught sh, no further management measures are needed
                    tuna in the eastern Pacic is to maintain the stock at    to protect the stock.
                    levels capable of producing the average MSY. To attain this
                    objective, the IATTC continues to recommend an annual
                    catch quota. Future management issues for yellown tuna
                    in the eastern Pacic will also include capacity reductions
                    to maintain or reduce effort levels and reduced shing on
                    drifting objects to minimize the catches of small tunas
                    and bycatch.




                      California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                            A Status Report                       December 2001
566
Appendix B:
Glossary                            Beam trawl - A conical-shaped net held open by an hori-




                                                                 Appendix B: Glossary
                                 zontal beam. At each end of the beam are iron frame-
                                 works that hold the net open in a vertical direction.
                                Benthic - Of, relating to, or occurring at the bottom of a
ABC - See Acceptable Biological Catch.
                                 body of water (including the ocean).
Abyss - The deepest part of the ocean.
                                Berried - Bearing eggs.
Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC)- A term used by a
                                Bight - A name for the water body found abutting a large
  management agency which refers to the range of allow-
                                 indentation in the coast. A bight is less enclosed than
  able catch for a species or species group. It is set each
                                 a bay.
  year by a scientific group created by the management
  agency. The agency then takes the ABC estimate and     Billfishes - The family of fish that includes marlins, sailfish
  sets the annual total allowable catch (TAC).         and spearfish.
Advection - Horizontal or vertical movement of water.     Bioaccumulation - The build-up over time of substances
                                 (like metals) that cannot be excreted by an organism.
Allele - One of several variants of a gene that can occupy
  a locus on a chromosome.                  Biomass - The total weight or volume of a species in a
                                 given area.
Allozyme - A variant of an enzyme coded by a different
  allele.                           Biosystematics - The study of relationships with refer-
                                 ence to the laws of classification of organisms; tax-
Amphipod - Laterally compressed, planktonic or benthic
                                 onomy.
 crustaceans.
                                Biota - Refers to any and all living organisms and the
Anadromous - Fish that migrate from saltwater to fresh
                                 ecosystems in which they exist.
  water to spawn.
                                Biotoxin - Substances produced by organisms that can
Anaerobic - Living in the absence of oxygen.
                                 seriously impair living processes and in some cases
Angler - A person catching fish or shellfish with no intent
                                 cause death.
  to sell. This includes people releasing the catch.
                                Bioturbation - Disturbance of soft sediments by the move-
Annuli - Annual variations in the pattern of growth rings
                                 ments and feeding activities of infauna (animals that live
  on fish scales.
                                 just beneath the surface of the sea bed).
Aquaculture - The raising of fish or shellfish under some
                                Bivalve - A mollusk with the shell divided into two halves;
  controls. Feed and ponds, pens, tanks, or other con-
                                 e.g. clams, mussels.
  tainers may be used. A hatchery is also aquaculture,
                                Brachiopod - A bivalve mollusk distinguished by having,
  but the fish are released before harvest size is reached.
                                 on each side of the mouth, a long spiral arm, used to
Artisanal fishery - Commercial fishing using traditional or
                                 obtain food.
  small scale manually-operated gear and boats.
                                Brackish water - Water of reduced salinity resulting from a
Ascidiacea - See Tunicate.
                                 mixture of freshwater and seawater.
Bag limit - The number and/or size of a species that a
                                Brail net - A small dip net used to scoop out portions
  person can legally take in a day or trip. This may or may
                                 of the catch from the main net and haul these portions
  not be the same as a possession limit.
                                 aboard. Brail nets are used to transfer tuna, salmon,
Baitboat - Refers to a vessel that fishes with live bait.    and sometimes menhaden from the purse seine to the
  Examples of target catch for baitboats include albacore    boat’s hold.
  and other tunas.
                                Broken and burnt otolith method - Otoliths are broken
Baleen - A specialized plate of horny material used by     and burned, revealing more accurate information about
  some species of whales (Mysticetes) to filter-feed.      the age of a fish.
Barbel - A slender flesh “chin whisker” found in many     Bryozoa - A group of sessile colonial animals that are
  kinds of fishes. Barbels function primarily as sensory    colonial invertebrates and live on hard surfaces.
  organs for locating food.
                                Bycatch - The harvest of fish or shellfish other than the
Bathymetry - The science of measuring depths in the       species for which the fishing gear was set. Bycatch is
  ocean.                            also often called incidental catch. Some bycatch is kept
Batoid - A skate or ray.                    for sale.
                                CEQA - California Environmental Quality Act.



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report                  567
            CPFV - Commercial passenger fishing vessel.         Cilia - Hair-like structures used for locomotion, and in
Appendix B: Glossary



                                           some species, for feeding.
            CPS - Coastal pelagic species.
                                          Cladogenesis - The branching of an ancestral lineage to
            CPUE - See Catch Per Unit of Effort.
                                           form equal sister taxa (species, genera, families, etc.).
            Calanoid copepod - A crustacean zooplankton that has a
                                          Cladocera - Planktonic crustacea with a bivalved outer
             barrel-shaped body, is found in all oceans of the world,
                                           skeleton.
             and is an important food source for many fishes.
                                          Clupeid - A member of the Clupeidae family of fishes.
            Calcareous - Made of calcium carbonate.
                                           Clupeids include herrings, shads, sardines, and menha-
            Capelin - A small silvery fish, most common in the North
                                           den. They can be readily recognized by their keeled
             Atlantic.
                                           (sawtooth) bellies and silvery, deciduous scales.
            Caridean - An infraorder of the decapod crustaceans.
                                          Codend - The end of a trawl net. Fish are eventually
             Examples include many shrimps and prawns.
                                           pushed into the codend as the net is dragged along.
            Catadromous - Refers to fish that migrate from fresh
                                          Cohort - A group of fish spawned during a given period,
             water to saltwater to spawn.
                                           usually within a year.
            Catch - The total number or poundage of fish captured
                                          Coliform - A bacteria commonly associated with food poi-
             from an area over some period of time. This includes
                                           soning.
             fish that are caught but released or discarded instead
                                          Community - An ecological unit composed of the various
             of being landed. The catch may take place in an area
                                           populations of micro-organisms, plants, and animals that
             different from where the fish are landed. Note that
                                           inhabit a particular area.
             catch, harvest, and landings are different terms with
             different definitions.                   Congener - A member of the same genus.
            Catch Per Unit of Effort (CPUE) - The number of fish     Convergence - The contact at the sea surface between
             caught by an amount of effort. Typically, effort is a    two water masses converging, one plunging below
             combination of gear type, gear size, and the length of    the other.
             time gear is used. Catch per unit of effort is often    Copepod - A group of small planktonic, benthic or parasitic
             used as a measurement of relative abundance for a      crustaceans. Copepods that spend their entire life in
             particular fish.                       the water column are usually the numerically dominant
            Caudal fin - Tail fin.                     group of zooplankton captured by nets in most marine
                                           areas.
            Caudal peduncle - The tapered, posterior fleshy part of a
             fish just in front of the tail fin.            Coriolis effect - The deflection of air or water bodies,
                                           relative to the solid earth beneath, as a result of the
            Cephalopod - Organisms belonging to the phylum Mol-
                                           earth’s eastward rotation.
             lusca that are nearly always carnivorous and are charac-
             terized by complex behavior, a well-organized nervous   Creel - A container used by anglers to hold fish.
             system, a circle of grasping arms, and a powerful beak.  Crustacean - A group of freshwater and saltwater animals
             Examples include squid and octopus.             having no backbone, with jointed legs and a hard shell
            Cetacean - A member of the order of marine mammals       made of chitin. Includes shrimp, crabs, lobsters, and
             that includes whales, porpoises, and dolphins.        crayfish.
            Chimaera - A member of a group of bottom-dwelling,      Ctenophore - Gelatinous zooplankton having eight longi-
             invertebrate-feeding fishes. Distinctive characteristics   tudinal rows of fused cilia (‘ctenes’) used in swimming.
             include an operculum that covers four gill openings, an  Cultch - Material (as oyster shells) laid down on oyster
             upper jaw fused to the skull, teeth consisting only of a   grounds that furnish points of attachment for the
             few large, flat plates, and no scales.            young oyster.
            Chitin - A horny substance forming the hard part of the   Cycloid - A round, flat, and thin fish scale found on fish
             outer skeleton of crustacea.                 such as trout, minnow, and herring.
            Chiton - Mollusks found commonly on hard substrates that   Davit - A fixed or movable crane that projects over the side
             are ovalshaped and flattened, have eight dorsal plates    of a boat or over a hatchway. It is used for hauling nets,
             which cover the dorsal mantle, and are herbivores.      anchors, boats or cargo.
            Chum - To attract fish to a hook by throwing whole or    Demersal - Describes fish and animals that live near
             chopped fish or shellfish into the water.          water bottoms. Examples of demersal fish are flounder
                                           and croaker.


              California’s Living Marine Resources:          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                      December 2001
568
Density - dependent factors - Factors, such as resource    Epipelagic zone - The upper region of the sea from the




                                                                Appendix B: Glossary
 availablilty, that vary with population density.        surface to about 200-300 meters depth.
Depuration - Cleansing of bivalve shellfish by moving     Epiphyte - A plant that grows on another plant.
 them from polluted waters to clean waters.          Epipodium - A ridge or fold in the lateral edges of each
Detritivore - An organism that feeds on detritus.        side of the foot of certain gastropod mollusks.
Detritus - Any loose material produced directly from rock   Escapement - The percentage of fish in a particular fish-
 disintegration.                        ery that escape from an inshore habitat and move off-
                                 shore, where they eventually spawn.
Diatom - One-celled phytoplankton with an external skel-
 eton of silica.                       Estuary - A partially enclosed body of water having a free
                                 connection with the open sea; within it salt water and
Dinoflagellate - Unicellular plankton having two flagella
                                 fresh water mix.
 and, in some species, a cellulose test.
                                Etiology - All the causes of a disease or abnormality.
Doliolaria - The second stage of the echinoderm (which
 include starfish and sea urchins) larvae.          Euphausiid - Shrimplike crustaceans that spend their
                                 entire lives in the sea; “krill”.
Dorsal fin - An unpaired fin on the dorsal or upper side of
 the body, between the head and the tail.           Extirpation - Situation when something is no longer
                                 present.
Dory - A flat-bottomed boat with high flaring sides, a sharp
 bow, and a deep V-shaped transom.              Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) - The region from 3-200
                                 nautical miles searward of the 48 contiguous states,
Downwelling - The sinking of water.
                                 Alaska, Hawaii, and U.S.-affiliated islands. The U.S.
Drum seine - Similar to a purse seine but the seine is
                                 National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regulates
 stored on a large drum mounted at the stern. The drum
                                 fisheries within this area.
 is particularly successful in handling shallow nets.
                                Ex-vessel - Refers to activities that occur when a commer-
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency.
                                 cial fishing boat lands or unloads a catch. For example,
ESA - Endangered Species Act.                  the price received by a captain for the catch is an ex-
                                 vessel price.
Ecosystem - A group of organisms that interact among
 themselves and with their nonliving environment       FL - See Fork Length.
Effort - The amount of time and fishing power used to     Falcate - Shaped like a sickle.
 harvest fish. Fishing power includes gear size, boat
                                Fathom - A unit of measurement. One fathom equals six
 size, and horsepower.
                                 feet or 1.83 meters.
Ekman circulation - Movement of surface water at an
                                Filter feed - See Suspension Feed.
 angle from the wind, as a result of the Coriolis effect.
                                Finfish - A common term to define fish as separate from
El Niño - Condition in which warm surface water
                                 shellfish.
 moves into the eastern Pacific, collapsing upwelling and
                                Fingerling - A term commonly used for any juvenile fish,
 increasing surface-water temperatures and precipitation
                                 most commonly used for a life stage in trout and salmon.
 along the west coast of North and South America.
                                 A fingerling is the stage after fry and before smolt.
Elasmobranch - Describes a group of fish without a hard
                                Finlet - Small fins located posterior to the anal and dorsal
 bony skeleton, including sharks, skates, and rays.
                                 fins. Examples are found in the mackerels (family
Electrophoresis - A method of determining the genetic
                                 Scombridae).
 differences or similarities between individual fish or
                                Fishery - All the activities involved in catching a species of
 groups of fish by using tissue samples.
                                 fish or group of species.
Embayment - Formation of a bay. Also, the portion of
                                Fishery-dependent - Describes data about fish resources
water or coast that forms a bay.
                                 collected by sampling commercial and recreational
Endangered species - A classification under the Endan-
                                 catches.
 gered Species Act. A species is considered endangered
                                Fishery-independent - Describes data about fish
 if it is in danger of extinction throughout a significant
                                 resources collected by methods other than sampling
 portion of its range.
                                 commercial and recreational catches. An example of
Entrainment - Mixing of salt water into fresh water, as in
                                 such a method is sampling in marine reserves.
 an estuary.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                 569
            Food chain - A linear sequence of organisms in which      Green mud - Greenish sand deposits in which glauconite
Appendix B: Glossary



             each is food for the next member in the sequence.       is abundant.
            Food web - A network describing the feeding interactions    Groundfish - A species or group of fish that lives most of
             of the species in an area.                   its life on or near the sea bottom.
            Fork length - The length of a fish as measured from the tip  Gurdy - Spool used in trolling upon which the fishing line is
             of its snout to the fork in the tail.             wound. The gurdies are usually powered, but on some
                                            of the smaller boats, like salmon dories, they are often
            Front - A major discontinuity separating ocean currents
                                            hand-operated.
             and water masses in any combination.
                                           Haplosporidian - A member of the phylum Haplosporidia,
            Fully utilized - Situation when the amount of fishing effort
                                            which contains spore-forming parasitic protists. One
             used is about equal to the amount needed to achieve
                                            member of this group, Haplosporidium nelsoni, also
             the LTPY.
                                            called MSX disease, has recently caused widespread
            Gaff - A pole with a large hook at its end.
                                            disease in Crassostrea virginica, the eastern oyster, on
            Galactans - Plant polysaccharides. Examples are agar-      the U.S. east coast.
            agar and carrageenan.
                                           Haplotype - A set of genes that determines different anti-
            Gamete - An egg or a sperm.                   gens but are closely enough linked to be inherited as
                                            a unit.
            Gammarid - A member of the suborder Gammaridea and
            the order Amphipoda. Distinctive gammarid characteris-    Haptera - Basal outgrowths that form part of a holdfast.
            tics include that the first segment of the thorax is fused
                                           Harvest - The total number or poundage of fish caught
            to the head and that they live in salt water, fresh water,
                                            and kept from an area over a period of time. Note that
            and tropical forests. An example is the beach hopper.
                                            landings, catch and harvest are different.
            Gastropod - A member of the class Gastropoda. Gastro-
                                           Heterosis - Segmentation in which the parts are different.
            pods have a flattened foot, usually a cap-shaped or
                                            Also, the tendency of cross-breeding to produce an
            coiled shell, a mouth apparatus known as a radula,
                                            animal or plant with a greater hardiness and capacity for
            and are characterized by a twisting of the body,
                                            growth than either of the parents; hybrid vigor.
            known as torsion. Examples include limpets, whelks,
                                           Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female
            and periwinkles.
                                            organs.
            Gastrula - A stage in the development of a fertilized egg.
                                           Histology - A branch of anatomy that deals with the
            Gel chromatography - A method for comparing DNA or
                                            minute structure of animal and plant tissues as discern-
            genes of different organisms.
                                            ible with a microscope.
            Genetic introgression - The transfer of a small amount
                                           Holdfast - The rootlike structure at the base of an alga that
            of genetic material from one (usually plant) species to
                                            attaches to rocky substrate.
            another as a result of hybridization between them and
                                           Hydroacoustics - Sound waves travelling through water.
            repeated back-crossing.
                                           Hydrography - The arrangement and movement of bodies
            Ghost fishing - Situation when abandoned fishing gear
                                            of water, such as currents and water masses.
            continues to catch organisms.
                                           Hydroid - Benthic colonial cnidarians (a phylum that
            Gillnet - A curtainlike net suspended in the water with
                                            includes jellyfish, sea anemones and corals), some of
             mesh openings large enough to permit only the heads of
                                            which produce free-swimming jellyfish.
             the fish to pass through, ensnaring them around the gills
             when they attempt to escape.                 INPFC - International North Pacific Fisheries Commission.
            Gill rakers - Bony, tooth-like structures on the anterior   IWC - International Whaling Commission.
             edges of gill arches. Used for protection or for straining  Immunodiffusion - Any of several techniques for obtain-
             out food.                           ing a precipitate between an antibody and its specific
            Gonad - Animal organs which produce gametes (eggs        antigen. One technique is to suspend one in a gel and
            or spermatazoa). Female gonads are ovaries; male        letting the other migrate through it from a well; another is
            gonads are testes.                       to let both antibody and antigen migrate through the gel
                                            from separate wells to form an area of precipitation.
            Gonosomatic index - The ratio of the weight of a fish’s
            eggs or sperm to its body weight. The index is used to    Intertidal - Between the high and low tide marks and
            dermine the spawning time of a species of fish.         periodically exposed to air.
            Gravid - Heavy with eggs or young.


              California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
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570
Isopods - An order of crustaceans characterized by a       Long-term potential yield - The maximum long-term




                                                               Appendix B: Glossary
 small flattened bodies, sessile eyes, and both benthic      average yield that can be achieved through conscien-
 and planktonic species.                     tious stewardship, by controlling the proportion of the
                                  population removed by harvesting by regulating fishing
Isotherm - An imaginary line passing through points on
                                  effort or total catch levels.
 the earth’s surface having the same mean temperature.
                                 Lunate - Refers to the caudal fin shape that is indented
Jetty - A rocky structure constructed from land into the sea
                                  and looks like a crescent.
 to protect shore-based property.
                                 MLMA - Marine Life Management Act.
Jig - An artificial lure made to simulate live bait. It is
 usually made with a lead head cast on a single hook and    MLPA - Marine Life Protection Act.
 is heavier than most other lures.               MMPA - Marine Mammal Protection Act.
Juvenile - A young fish or animal that has not reached      MRFSS - Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey.
 sexual maturity.
                                 MSY - See Maximum Sustainable Yield.
Keystone species - A species that maintains community
                                 Macrophyte - A plant that is large enough to be seen with
 structure through its feeding activities, and without which
                                 the naked eye.
 large changes would occur in the community.
                                 Mariculture - The raising of marine finfish or shellfish
Knot - A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour
                                 under some controls. Feed and ponds, pens, tanks
 (approximately 51 centimeters per second).
                                 or other containers may be used. A hatchery is also
LTPY - Long-term potential yield.                 mariculture but the fish are released before harvest size
La Niña - An episode of strong trade winds and unusually     is reached.
 low sea surface temperature in the central and eastern     Maturity - The age at which reproduction is possible.
 tropical Pacific. The antithesis of El Nino.
                                 Maximum sustainable yield - The largest average catch
Lampara net - An encircling net (similar to purse seine yet    that can be taken continuously (sustained) from a stock
 that does not close completely) used in shallow water.     under average environmental conditions. This is often
Landing - The number or poundage of fish unloaded at       used as a management goal.
 a dock by commercial fishermen or brought to shore by     Mean - The sum of the data divided by the number of
 recreational fishermen for personal use. Landings are      pieces of data; the average.
 reported at the points at which fish are brought to shore.
                                 Median - Within a data set, the median is the the number
 Note that landings, catch, and harvest define different
                                 that divides the bottom 50% of the data from the top
 things.
                                 50%.
Lateen - A sailing rig used by early salmon fishing vessels
                                 Megalopa - A larval stage of crabs that follow the zoea
 off California.
                                 stages.
Leader - A length of monofilament or wire that connects
                                 Meristem - The point or region from which active growth
 the main fishing line to the hook used for capturing fish.
                                 takes place.
Limited entry - A program that changes a common prop-
                                 Mesohaline - A zone of water from 1.8% salinity to .5%
 erty resource like fish into private property for individual
                                 salinity.
 fishermen. License limitation and the individual transfer-
                                 Mesopelagic - A somewhat arbitrary depth zone in off-
 able quota (ITQ) are two forms of limited entry.
                                 shore or oceanic waters, usually below 600 feet and
Limiting factor - A factor primarily responsible for deter-
                                 above 3,000 (200-1000 meters).
 mining the growth and/or reproduction of an organism
                                 Metric ton - 2200 pounds.
 or a population. The limiting factor may be a physical
 factor (such as temperature or light), a chemical factor    Midden - A refuse heap left by prehistoric Native Ameri-
 (such as a particular nutrient), or a biological factor     cans, usually marking campsites.
 (such as a competing species). The limiting factor may
                                 Milt - A term for the sperm of fish such as salmon, trout,
 differ at different times and places.
                                  and herring.
Limnology - The study of freshwater ecosystems, espe-
                                 Mollusk - A group of freashwater and saltwater animals
 cially lakes.
                                 with no skeleton and usually one or two hard shells
Littoral zone - The intertidal zone.               made of calcium carbonate. Includes the oyster, clam,
                                 mussel, snail, conch, scallop, squid, and octopus.
Longline - See Setline.




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report               571
            Mooching - A method of salmon fishing from a drifting     Optimum yield - The harvest level for a species that
Appendix B: Glossary



            or propelled boat. The bait is sunk deep with a heavy     acheives the greatest overall benefits, including eco-
            sinker then brought upward at an angle as the boat is     nomic, social, and biological considerations. Optimum
            maneuvered forward a few yards or the line retrieved.     yield is different from maximum sustainable yield in that
            The bait is then allowed to sink once again to the bottom   MSY considers only the biology of the species. The
            and the procedure repeated.                  term includes both commercial and sport yields.
            Morphology - The physical characteristics of an individual.  Organic - Deriving from living organisms.
            Myctophid - A member of the Myctophidae family of       Otolith - Calcareous concretions in the inner ear of a fish,
            fishes. Commonly called lanternfishes, they are abun-      functioning as organs of hearing and balance. There are
            dant in all oceans of the world, usually at 200-1000      three pairs of otoliths in the skull of each fish, and these
            meters depth.                          are termed sagittae, lapilli, and asterisci. Otoliths are
                                            used by fishery biologists for numerous studies.
            Mysid - A member of an order of shrimplike crustaceans,
            mostly epibenthic.                      Otter trawl - A cone-shaped net that is dragged along the
                                            sea bottom. Its mouth is kept open by floats, weights
            NEPA - National Environmental Policy Act.
                                            and by two otter boards which shear outward as the net
            NFMP - Nearshore Fishery Management Plan.
                                            is towed.
            NISA - National Invasive Species Act.
                                           Overfishing - Harvesting at a rate greater than that which
            NMFS - National Marine Fisheries Service.            will meet the management goal.
            NPDES - National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System.    Overutilized - When more fishing effort is employed than
                                            is necessary to achieve LTPY.
            Nacre - A smooth, shining, iridescent substance forming
             the inner layer in many shells; mother-of-pearl.       Oviparous - Producing eggs that hatch outside the
                                            female’s body.
            Nekton - Organisms with swimming abilities that permit
             them to move actively throught the water column and to    Oviphagous - Refers to an organism that consumes eggs.
             move against currents. Examples include adult squid,
                                           Oviposit - To lay or deposit eggs, especially by means
             fish and marine mammals.
                                            of a specialized organ, as found on certain insects and
            Neuston - Organisms that inhabit the uppermost few mil-     fishes.
             limeters of the surface water.
                                           Ovoviviparous - Pertaining to an animal that incubates
            Non-point source - Sources of pollution such as general     eggs inside the mother until they hatch.
             runoff of sediments, fertilizer, pesticides, and other
                                           PFMC - Pacific Fishery Management Council.
             materials from farms and urban areas as compared to
                                           PSMFC - Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission.
             specific points of discharge such as factories.
                                           PacFIN - Pacific Fishery Information Network. A database
            Nudibranch - Sea slug. A member of the mollusk class
                                            containing West Coast fishing landings that is main-
             Gastropoda that has no protective covering as an adult.
                                            tained by the Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commis-
             Respiration is carried on by gills or other projections on
                                            sion.
             the dorsal surface.
                                           Palp - Any of various sensory and usually fleshy append-
            Nursery - Habitat suitable for protection and growth during
                                            ages near the oral aperture of certain invertebrates.
             an organism’s early life stages.
                                           Papilla - A nipplelike protuberance of the skin.
            Nutricline - The depth zone where nutrient concentrations
             increase rapidly with depth.                 Paranzella net - A bag-shaped net towed by two vessels
                                            that run at various distances apart to keep the mouth
            Oocyte - An egg before the completion of maturation.
                                            open and at various speeds according to the depth
            Oophagy - The first young to “hatch” in each of the two
                                            desired. The paranzella net initiated the West Coast
            oviducts proceed to eat the other embryos in the oviduct
                                            trawl fishery in 1876 but by World War II it had been
            with them.
                                            replaced by the less expensive otter trawl.
            Open access - A fishery in which no restrictions on entry
                                           Parturition - Birth.
            or gear occur. Licenses may be required in an open
                                           Patchy distribution - A condition in which organisms
            access fishery, but if no quotas on fishermen exist the
                                            occur in aggregations.
            fishery is still considered to be open access.
                                           Pectoral fins - Paired fins on the front lower sides of the
            Operculum - The covering of the gills of a fish. Found in
                                            chest.
            higher order fishes.



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Pedicle - In jointed brachiopods, a short stalk, composed   Potential yield - The yield estimated to be available for




                                                               Appendix B: Glossary
 mostly of tough connective tissue, that emerges through    exploitation.
 a hole or notch in the posterior part of the larger valve.  Procaryote - A member of a group of unicellular organ-
 Muscles that are inserted into the pedicle make it pos-    isms comprising the bacteria and the cyanophyceae,
 sible for an jointed brachiopod to change its orientation.   whose cell structures differs from all other organisms.
Pelagic - Refers to fish and animals that live in the open   Productivity - The rate at which a given quantity of
 sea, away from the sea bottom.                 organic material is produced by organisms.
Pelecypod - A bivalve.                     Protandry - An organism functions first as a male, then
Penaid - Member of a family of shrimp, used in shrimp      as a female.
 culture.                           Protogynous - Female in the first phase of one’s life.
Periostracum - A protective layer of chitin covering the    Pteropod - A holoplanktonic (permanent resident of the
 outer portion of the shell in many mollusks, especially    plankton community) snail having two swimming wings.
 freshwater forms.
                                Purse seine - A net that is cast in a circle around a school
Pharyngeal - Of, pertaining to, or connected with the      of fish. When the fish are surrounded, the bottom of the
 pharynx.                            net is closed up, preventing escape.
Pharyngeal teeth - Teeth developed on the pharyngeal      RecFIN - Recreational Fisheries Information Network.
 bone in many fishes.                      A database of the National Marine Fisheries Service
Phycocolloid - A colloidal substance obtained from        (NMFS).
 seaweeds.                          Recruit - An individual fish that has moved into a certain
Phytoplankton - Microscopic planktonic plants. Exam-       class, such as the spawning class or fishing-size class.
 ples include diatoms and dinoflagellates.          Recruitment - A measure of the number of fish that enter
Pinniped - A member of the order of marine mammals that     a class during some time period, such as the spawning
 includes the seals, sea lions, and walruses, all having    class or fishing-size class.
 four swimming flippers.                   Red tide - A red coloration of seawater caused by high
Piscivorous - An organism that feeds on fish.          concentrations of certain species of micro-organisms,
                                 usually dinoflagellates, some of which release toxins.
Planktivorous - An organism that feeds on planktonic
 organisms.                          Reduction fishery - Harvested fish are processed into fish
                                 meal, oils, or fertilizer.
Plankton - Plants or animals that live in the water column
 and are incapable of swimming against a current.       Regime shift - A long-term change in marine ecosystems
                                 and/or in biological production resulting from a change
Pleopod - One of the swimming limbs attached to the
                                 in the physical environment.
 abdomen in crustaceans.
                                Riffle - A shallow extending across the bed of a stream
Plug - A nonspecific term for any artificial lure having a
                                 over which the water flows swiftly so that the surface of
 distinct “body” made of wood or plastic and having one
                                 the water is broken in waves.
 or more sets of single, double, or triple hooks hattached.
 Most plugs are designed to wobble or create a commo-     Riprap - Piles of rock used to support river banks.
 tion in the water when retrieved.              River-run - Describes upstream migration of anadromous
Pneumatocyst - A gas-filled bladder at the base of each     fish.
 kelp blade that helps buoy the frond in the water column.  Roller trawl - A trawl net equipped with rollers that enable
Point source - Specific points of origin of pollutants,     the net to go over rocky areas without snagging.
 such as factory drains or outlets from sewage-treatment   Round haul net - A net, such as a purse seine, that
 plants.                            encircles schools of fish.
Polychaete - Marine segmented worms belonging to the      Running-ripe - A high state of reproductive readiness.
 phylum Annelida; some are planktonic, but most are
                                Sac-roe - Fish eggs that are encased in a clear mem-
 benthic.
                                 brane. Sac-roe are found in herring, among other spe-
Population - Fish of the same species inhabiting a speci-    cies.
 fied geographic area.
                                Salinity - The total amount of dissolved material (salts) in
Potamodromous - Refers to fish that migrate entirely       seawater.
 within fresh water.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report                573
            Salmonid - A member of the Salmonidae family of         large lakes), the smolts gradually become mature and
Appendix B: Glossary



             fishes. Salmonids are the dominant fishes in the cold-    return to their home streams for spawning.
             water streams and lakes of North America, Europe,      Somatic cell - All cells other than those in sexual gametes
             and Asia, where they support large recreational and      (egg and sperm).
             commercial fisheries.
                                           Spat - A flat young oyster.
            Satellite pop-up tag - A specialized tag usually used to
                                           Spatfall - Attachment of shellfish larvae to substrate where
             mark pelagic fish to study their migrations. Data from
                                            they develop into their adult forms.
             the tag is transmitted to researchers via a satellite.
                                           Spawn - The term for reproduction in fishes.
            Scaphopod - A member of the phylum Mollusca and class
                                           Spermatophore - An aggregation of sperm held together
             Scaphopoda which have an elongate conical shell and
                                            by gelatinous material, or a gelatinous packet of sperm
             live buried within the sediment, feeding on foraminifer-
                                            which is inserted into or attached to the female as part
             ans and other small animals.
                                            of reproductive behavior.
            Scute - A type of sharp scale found on fish such as
                                           Spinning gear - A type of recreational fishing reel with an
             sturgeon and jackmackerel.
                                            open spool on the front end.
            Sea wall - Any solid structure onshore used to protect the
                                           Spoon - An artificial lure with a curved or dished out body
             land from wave damage and erosion.
                                            that wobbles but does not revolve. A spoon attracts fish
            Seed - Juvenile shellfish, such as clams, oysters,
                                            by its movements as well as color.
             and mussels.
                                           Sporophyte - A plant that produces spores.
            Serological - An adjective referring to the branch of sci-
                                           Stipe - The stem-like part that connects the holdfast and
             ence dealing with the properties and reactions of blood
                                            blade of a frondose alga.
             sera.
                                           Stock - A grouping of fish usually based on genetic rela-
            Sessile - Referring to animals that are permanently
                                            tionship, geographic distribution, and movement pat-
             attached to a substrate.
                                            terns. Also a managed unit of fish.
            Set gillnet - A gillnet that is anchored on both ends.
                                           Stratified random sampling - A sampling method in
            Setline - Fishing gear made up of a long main line
                                            which one (1) divides the population into subpopulations
             attached to which are a large number of short branch
                                            (called strata), (2) obtains from each stratum a simple
             lines. At the end of each branch line is a baited hook.
                                            random sample of size proportional to the size of the
             When catching groundfish, setlines are laid on the sea-
                                            stratum, and (3) uses all of the members obtained in
             floor. When catching swordfish, shark or tuna they are
                                            step 2 as the sample.
             buoyed near the surface. Setlines can be twenty or
                                           Substrate - A solid surface on which an organism lives
             more miles long. They are also called longlines.
                                            or to which it is attached (also called substratum); or, a
            Sexual dimorphism - A phenomenon in which males and
                                            chemical that forms the basis of a biochemical reaction
             females differ markedly in shape, size, color, or other
                                            or acts as a nutrient for microorganisms.
             ways.
                                           Subtidal zone - The benthic zone extending from the low
            Short ton - 2000 pounds.
                                            tide mark to the outer edge of the continental shelf.
            Single rig gear - Refers to a boat using a single trawl net
                                           Suspension feeder - An organism that feeds by capturing
             (instead of two trawl nets) when fishing for shrimp.
                                            particles suspended in the water column.
            Simple random sampling - A sampling procedure for
                                           Sympatry - The common occurrence of two taxa (closely
             which each possible sample is equally likely to be the
                                            related forms) in the same geographic area.
             one selected. A sample obtained by simple random
                                           TAC - See Total Allowable Catch.
             sampling is called a simple random sample.
                                           TL - Total length.
            Skiff - Any of various small boats, especially a flat-bot-
             tomed rowboat.                       Telemetry - The process of tracking movements of organ-
                                            isms using transmitting tags.
            Slough - A place of deep mud or mire. Also, a small
             backwater.                         Territorial sea - A zone extending seaward from the shore
                                            or internal waters of a nation for a distance of twelve
            Smolt - A term for a specific life stage in salmonids.
                                            miles (19.3 km) as defined by the United Nations Confer-
            In anadromous populations parr (small active fish with
                                            ence on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The coastal
            series of bars on their sides) transform into silvery
            smolts and migrate to the sea. Once in the ocean (or



              California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                       December 2001
574
 state has full authority over this zone but must allow    Ventral fins - Paired fins on the lower part of the body;




                                                                Appendix B: Glossary
 rights of innocent passage.                   they may be near the anus, below the pectoral fins, or
                                 near the throat. They are also called pelvic fins.
Test - The shell of a sea urchin.
                                Virtual population analysis (VPA) - A type of analysis
Thermocline - The water layer in which temperature
                                 that uses the number of fish caught at various ages or
 changes most rapidly with increasing depth.
                                 lengths and an estimate of natural mortality to estimate
Threatened species - A classification under the Endan-
                                 fishing mortality in a cohort. It also provides an estimate
 gered Species Act. A species is considered threatened
                                 of the number of fish in a cohort at various ages.
 if it is likely to become an endangered species in
                                Viviparous - Bringing forth living young, rather than being
 the foreseeable future through a significant portion of
                                 an egg-layer.
 its range.
                                Water column - The water from the surface to the bottom
Tidal prism - The volume of water between the high tide
                                 at a given point.
 level and low tide level.
                                Weir - A low dam or barrier made across a water channel
Total allowable catch (TAC) - The annual recommended
                                 to raise the level of water for different purposes. Also,
 catch for a species or species group. The regional fish-
                                 a barricade.
 ery management council sets the TAC from the range of
 the allowable biological catch.                Wrack zone - A bank of accumulated litter at the strand-
                                 line.
Trammel net - An entangling net that hangs down in
 several curtains.                       YOY - Young-of-the-year.
Trawl - A sturdy bag or net that can be dragged along the    Year-class - The fish spawned and hatched in a given
 ocean bottom, or at various depths above the bottom,      year, a “generation” of fish.
 to catch fish.                        Zoea - A planktonic larval stage of crabs with characteristic
Trematode - Any of a class (Trematoda) of parasitic flat-     spines on the exoskeleton.
 worms including the flukes.                  Zooplankton - Animal members of the plankton.
Trocophore - A free-swimming larval stage of polychaete     Zoospore - A motile spore with one or more flagella or cilia
 worms and some mollusks, characterized by having        by the vibration of which it swims.
 bands of cilia (hair-like structures) around the body.
Troll - To trail artificial or natural baits behind a moving
                                Kristen Sortais
 boat. The bait can be made to skip along the surface or
                                University of California, Davis
 trailed below at any depth to just above the bottom. A
 bait or lure trailed behind an angler walking along a pier,
 bridge, or breakwater is also called trolling.
                                References
Trophic level - The nutritional position occupied by an
                                Dawson, E.Y. 1966. Seashore plants of northern Califor-
 organism in a food chain or food web; e.g. primary pro-
                                nia. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 103pp.
 ducers (plants); primary consumers (herbivores); sec-
 ondary consumers (carnivores), etc.              Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1968. Deep-water shes
                                of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA,
Tunicate - Sessile benthic animals belonging to the
                                155pp.
 phylum Chordata.
                                Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1975. Tidepool and
Turbidity - Reduced visibility in water due to the presence
                                nearshore shes of California. University of California
 of suspended particles.
                                Press, Berkeley, CA, 156pp.
Underutilized - When more fishing effort is required to
                                Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
 achieve the LTPY.
                                Fisheries Division. 1960. Trilingual dictionary of sheries
Upwelling - A rising of nutrient-rich water toward the sea
                                technological terms – curing. FAO, Rome, Italy, 85pp.
 surface.
                                Kramer, D.E., W.H. Barss, B.C. Paust, and B.E. Bracken.
VPA - See Virtual Population Analysis.
                                1995. Guide to northeast Pacic atshes : families
Vector - A physical quantity that has magnitude and direc-   Bothidae, Cynoglossidae, and Pleuronectidae. Alaska Sea
 tion. Examples are force, acceleration, and velocity.     Grant College Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Veliger - A free-swimming larval stage of mollusks.       AK, 104pp.
Velum - A ciliated, sail-like appendage of a veliger larva.



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                             A Status Report                 575
            Lalli, C.M. and T.R. Parsons. 1993. Biological oceanogra-  & facilities. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic
Appendix B: Glossary



            phy: an introduction. 1st ed. Pergamon Press, New York,   and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries
            NY, 301pp.                         Service, Seattle, WA, 139pp.
            Levinton, J.S. 1995. Marine biology: function, biodiver-  U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmo-
            sity, ecology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY,    spheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service.
            420pp.,                           1999. Our living oceans: Report on the status of
                                          U.S. living marine resources, 1999. U.S. Dept. of
            Meltzer, M. 1980. The world of the small commercial
                                          Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
            shermen: their lives and their boats. Dover Publica-
                                          tion, National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C.,
            tions, Inc., New York, NY, 86pp.
                                          301pp.
            Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary. 10th ed. 1998.
                                          Wallace, R.K. and K.M. Fletcher. 2000. Understanding
            Merriam-Webster, Springeld, MA, 1559pp.
                                          sheries management: a manual for understanding the
            Moyle, P.B. and J.J. Cech, Jr. 2000. Fishes: an introduc-
                                          federal sheries management process, including analysis
            tion to ichthyology. 4th ed. Prentice- Hall, Uppersaddle
                                          of the 1996 Sustainable Fisheries Act. Mississippi-Alabama
            River, NJ, 612pp.
                                          Sea Grant Consortium, Mobile, AL and University, MS,
            Nebel, B.J. 1987. Environmental science: the way the    53pp.
            world works. 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
                                          Weiss, N.A.; biographies by C. Weiss. 1995. Introductory
            NJ, 671pp.
                                          statistics. 4th ed. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 939pp.
            Newell, G.E. and R.C. Newell. 1963. Marine plankton, a
            practical guide. Hutchinson Educational, London, 206pp.
            Parker, S.P. (editor). 1984. McGraw-Hill dictionary of
            biology. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 384pp.
            Simpson, J.A. and E.S.C. Weiner (editors). 1998. The
            Oxford English dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford University
            Press, New York, NY.
            Squire, J.L. and S.M. Smith. 1977. Anglers’ guide to the
            United States Pacic coast: marine sh, shing grounds




              California’s Living Marine Resources:          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                   A Status Report                      December 2001
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Appendix C:
California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




                                          Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001             A Status Report             577
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




                          California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report              December 2001
578
                                         Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report             579
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




                          California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report              December 2001
580
                                         Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME  California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001             A Status Report             581
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear




                          California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                               A Status Report              December 2001
582
Appendix D:
Reviewers




                                                     Appendix D: Reviewers
                            California State University, Long Beach
The editors wish to thank the reviewers for their     Chris Lowe
invaluable assistance in compiling this book.     California State University, San Diego
                               Tom Ebert
Alaska Sea Grant Extension Program           California State Unversity, San Francisco
   Brian Paust                      Ralph Larson
California Aquaculture Association           Commercial Fisherman
   Justin Malan                      Peter Halmay
California Dept of Fish and Game              Richard Young
                              Pietro Parravano
   Alan Baracco (retired)
   Kristine Barsky                  Ducks Unlimited
   Dennis Bedford                     Ryan Broddrick
   L.B. Boydston                   Fishermen’s Marketing Association
   Pat Collier
                              Pete Leipzig
   Steve Crooke
                            Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute
   Paul Gregory
                              Mark Drawbridge
   Doyle Hanan (retired)
                            Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
   Bob Hardy
                              Bob Olson
   Emma Hateld (Squid Fishery Scientic Committee)
   Frank Henry (retired)               Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
   Bob Hulbrock                      Judith Connor
   DeWayne Johnston                  Moss Landing Marine Laboratory (CSU)
   Rick Klingbeil                     Greg Cailliet
   Mary Larson                      Mike Foster
   Bob Lea                        John Oliver
   Mike Malone (Nearshore Advisory Committee)
                            National Marine Fisheries Service
   Ken Oda
                              John Butler
   Dave Ono
                              Gonzalo Castillo
   Dave Parker
                              Jim Hastie
   Christine Pattison
                              Bob Hoffman
   Connie Ryan
                              Dave Holts
   Jerry Spratt (now deceased)
                              Larry Jacobson
   Dale Sweetnam
                              Sus Kato (retired)
   Ian Taniguchi
                              Mike Laurs
   Bob Tasto
                              Bill Lenarz (retired)
   Carl Wilcox
                              Nancy Lo
   Deb Wilson-Vandenberg
                              Geoff Moser
California Fish and Game Commission
                              Lisa Natanson
   John Duffy                       Richard Parrish
   Mike Weber (Advisor)                  Gary Sakagawa
California Marine Life Management Project         Mike Sigler
   Burr Heneman                      Sue Smith
                              Cindy Thomson
California Sea Grant Extension Program
                              Chris Toole
   Susan McBride
                              Jack Turnock
   Paul Olin
                              Russ Vetter
   Jim Waldvogel
                            Occidental College
California State University, Humboldt
                              John Stephens (retired)
   Ron Fritzche
                            Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
   Dave Hankin
   Tim Mulligan                      Dave Fox




 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                        A Status Report          583
            The Ocean Conservancy                  University of California, Davis
Appendix D: Reviewers



              Tim Eichenberg                     Joe Cech
                                          Gary Cherr
            Oregon State University
                                          Fred Conte
              Dave Sampson
                                          Frank Gress
              Gil Sylvia
                                          Pete Klimley
            Pacic Coast Federation of Fishermens
                                          Peter Moyle
              Associations, Inc.
                                        University of California, San Diego
              Zeke Grader
                                          Mike Mullin (now deceased)
            Pepperdine University
                                          Richard Rosenblatt
              Karen Martin
                                        University of California, Santa Barbara
            Point Reyes Bird Observatory
                                          Carrie Culver
              David Ainley
                                          Milton Love
            Point Reyes-Farallon Island National Marine Sanctuary
                                          John Richards
              Dan Howard                       Steve Schroeter
              Jan Roletto
                                        University of South Carolina
            Processor
                                          Joe Hightower
              Dave Rudie
                                        University of Southern California
            San Francisco Estuary Institute
                                          Kathy Ann Miller
              Andy Cohen
                                        Washington Department of Fisheries
            Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History
                                          Dick Burge
              Eric Hochberg
                                          Wayne Palsson
            Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
              James Allen
            Stillwater Associates
              Sharon Kramer
            University of California, Berkeley
              Dick Moe
              Julie Reynolds




              California’s Living Marine Resources:        CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
                    A Status Report                    December 2001
584
Index
Abalone, 19, 25, 48, 51, 56-57, 59-61, 70, 73-74, 79, 87-97,  Birds, 26, 32-35, 37, 45, 138, 158, 163, 176-177, 179, 182,




                                                               Index
   101-103, 113, 131, 142, 144-145, 147-148, 155, 158,       202, 211, 247, 293, 297, 301, 305, 310, 366, 370,
   256, 273, 280, 282, 347, 471, 493-495, 499, 515, 522,      380-381, 435, 455, 458, 472, 476, 484, 486-487, 505,
   538, 553-554,                          511, 514-516, 521-522, 538, 541-550
Abalone culture, 493, 495, 515                 Black abalone, 90, 92-94, 96, 188
Acipenser medirostris, 465                   Black perch, 236
Acipenser transmontanus, 467, 469               Black rocksh, 68, 79, 162-164, 167-168
Agarophytes, 286-287                      Black-and-yellow rocksh, 173, 185-187
Ahnfeltia, 286                         Blackgill rocksh, 368-369, 378
Albacore, 48, 57, 67, 215-216, 291, 315, 317-321, 325-326,   Blue rocksh, 26, 68, 162-168, 187, 194, 372
   332, 348, 352, 354-355, 357, 567              Blue shark, 342-344
Alopias vulpinus, 339                     Blue whale, 530-532
Amphistichus argenteus, 229, 236                Bluen tuna, 215-217, 235, 299, 308, 315, 325-327
Amphistichus koelzi, 236-237                  Bocaccio, 22, 26, 166, 359, 361-363, 366-367, 372, 380,
Amphistichus rhodoterus, 236, 238                 398-400, 402, 404, 554
Angel shark, 149-150, 248-251, 553-554             Bonito, 27, 54, 79, 149, 215-218, 263-264, 269, 301, 363,
                                  558
Anoplopoma mbria, 390, 392
                                Bottlenose dolphin, 533
Appendices, 20, 417, 123, 551
                                Brachyistius frenatus, 236
Aquaculture: overview, 493
                                Brown rock crab, 112, 114
Arctocephalus townsendi, 523, 525
                                Brown rocksh, 68, 170-174, 188, 441, 455
Arrowtooth ounder, 119, 203-204, 264, 266, 268, 556
                                Bull kelp, 25, 79, 91, 102, 273, 282-284, 554
Atheresthes stomias, 203
                                Butter clam, 447-448
Atherinops afnis, 243
                                Butter sole, 203
Atherinopsis californiensis, 243, 245
                                Buttery ray, 260
Atractoscion nobilis, 206, 208, 510, 512
                                Cabezon, 19, 68, 79, 91, 95, 99, 109, 113, 116, 150-151,
Balaenoptera acutorostrata, 531
                                  157-159, 177, 179, 181-182, 263-264, 269, 449, 554
Balaenoptera musculus, 530-531
                                Calico rocksh, 68, 149, 179-180, 555
Balaenoptera physalus, 531
                                Calico surfperch, 236-237
Bank rocksh, 378-379
                                California Barracuda, 19, 79, 149-150, 219-221, 555
Barracuda, 19, 27, 53-54, 63, 79, 127, 149-150, 219-221,
                                California corbina, 136, 149, 228-229, 231, 555
   263-264, 269, 301, 323, 326, 363, 555
                                California halibut, 19, 21, 69, 149-151, 165, 195-200, 203,
Barred sand bass, 113, 149, 151, 198, 222-227, 269-272,
                                   236, 248, 363, 435, 455, 510-511, 555
   554
                                California market squid, 295-298
Barred surfperch, 138, 229, 236-237, 239
                                California scorpionsh, 53-54, 68, 149-150, 160-161, 562
Basking shark, 345-347
                                California sea lion, 310, 523-524, 526-527
Bat ray, 257-258, 260
                                California sheephead, 56, 68, 149-150, 155-156, 555-556
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview, 481-482
                                California skate, 258, 261
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems, 431, 435-436, 481, 491
                                California tonguesh, 203
Bay and Estuary Finsh Resources, 455
                                California s Variable Ocean Environment, 21-28
Bay and Estuary Invertebrate Resources, 437-438
                                Callorhinus ursinus, 523, 525
Bay shrimp, 439-442, 453, 467, 476, 514, 554
                                Canary rocksh, 175-176, 359, 372, 554
Big skate, 257-258, 441
                                Cancer antennarius, 114
Bigmouth sole, 203



 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                 California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                            A Status Report              585
    Cancer anthonyi, 112, 114                 Delphinus capensis, 533
Index



    Cancer magister 107
            ,                      Delphinus delphis, 533
    Cancer productus, 112                   Delta smelt, 463, 472-473, 475-479, 564
    Carcharodon carcharias, 345, 347              Diamond stingray, 260
    Carrageenophytes, 286-287                 Diamond turbot, 203
    Cebidichthys violaceus, 181-182              Dolphin, 331-332, 352-353, 356-357, 533-534, 555
    Cetorhinus maximus, 345, 347                Dolphinsh, 315, 471
    Chilipepper, 170, 359, 362-363, 366-367, 398-399,     Dolphins, 179, 291, 331-332, 470-471, 521, 529-535, 568
    China rocksh, 68, 185-187                 Dorado, 323, 352-353
    Chinook salmon, 32, 109, 176, 193, 370, 407, 409-414,   Dover sole, 27, 359-360, 374, 382-384, 389-390,
      417-418, 424, 460, 463, 466, 508-509,         Dungeness crab, 71, 73-74, 87-88, 107-112, 129, 435, 437,
    Chione, 451-452                        455, 514
    Chione californiensis, 451                 Dwarf perch, 236
    Chione uctifraga, 451                   Eelgrass, 33-34, 37, 177, 193, 207, 226, 243-244, 384, 435,
                                    459, 481, 484, 487-490, 502, 505, 516, 555-556
    Chione undatella, 451
                                  Embiotoca jacksoni, 236
    Chondrus crispus, 286-287
                                  Embiotoca lateralis, 236, 239
    Chum salmon, 405, 407
                                  Emergent Marshes, 483-486
    Citharichthys fragilis, 201-202
                                  Emerita analoga, 138-139
    Citharichthys sordidus, 201-202
                                  English sole, 200 384-385, 441
    Citharichthys stigmaeus, 201-202
                                  Engraulis mordax, 293, 303, 305
    Citharichthys xanthostigma, 201
                                  Enhydra lutris, 101, 536, 540
    Clupea pallasi, 456, 459
                                  Eopsetta exilis, 203
    C-O turbot, 202
                                  Eopsetta jordani, 386-387, 389
    Coastal Pelagic Species: overview, 293-294
                                  Errex zachirus, 388
    Coastal Wetlands, 29, 32, 35, 483-486, 546,
                                  Eschrichtius robustus, 531, 535
    Coho salmon, 29, 69, 405, 410, 412-413, 415-417, 507-508
                                  Eucheuma, 286
    Commercial Fishing Gear, 206, 215, 577-582
                                  Eulachon, 472, 477-478, 564
    Common dolphin, 533
                                  Eumetopias jubatus, 523-524
    Coonstripe shrimp, 129-130, 555
                                  Exotic Species, 30, 437, 473, 477, 493, 518
    Copper rocksh, 68, 173-174, 177
                                  Fantail sole, 203
    Coryphaena hippurus, 352-353
                                  Fat gaper, 445
    Cow shark, 470
                                  Fin whale, 531
    Cowcod, 359, 363-365, 401-402
                                  Finsh culture, 510
    Crangon franciscorum, 439-440, 442
                                  Fishing Gear, 20, 37, 53, 64, 67-68, 73, 140, 150, 206, 215,
    Crangon nigricauda, 440, 442
                                    220, 232, 243, 328, 332, 336, 345, 467, 521, 523, 544,
    Crangon nigromaculata, 440
                                    567, 570, 574, 577-582
    Crassostrea gigas, 500
                                  Galeorhinus galeus, 255
    Crassostrea sikamea, 501
                                  Gaper clams, 445-447, 449, 556
    Crassostrea virginica, 500, 506, 570
                                  Genyonemus lineatus, 234-235
    Curln turbot, 203
                                  Geoduck, 437, 449-450, 556
    Dall’s porpoise, 534-535
                                  Giant kelp, 25, 28, 79, 91, 101-102, 140, 164, 194, 207,
    Dasyatis brevis, 260                      273, 277-284, 288, 457, 495, 556


      California’s Living Marine Resources:          CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
            A Status Report                      December 2001
586
Giant sea bass, 99, 149-150, 209-211, 220, 235, 258, 308,  Hyperprosopon argenteum, 236




                                                              Index
  363, 510-511, 557                    Hyperprosopon ellipticum, 236
Girella nigricans, 241-242                 Hypomesus pretiosus, 474
Globicephala macrorhynchus, 532-533             Hypomesus nipponensis, 474, 479
Glossary, 20, 567-576                    Hypomesus transpacicus, 472, 479
Gopher rocksh, 68, 173, 185-188              Hypsopsetta guttulata, 203
Grampus griseus, 533-534                  Hypsurus caryi, 236
Grass rocksh, 68, 172, 182, 185-188, 271          Invasive Species, 34, 435, 486, 488, 498, 513-520, 572
Gray whale, 522, 529, 531-532, 535             Iridaea, 286
Green abalone, 92-93, 96                  Isurus oxyrinchus, 336, 338
Green sturgeon, 465-466                   Jack mackerel, 27, 212, 216, 220, 293-294, 299, 304, 306,
Groundsh: Overview, 359-360                  308-311, 341, 361, 557
Grunion, 34, 149, 151, 220, 232, 243, 246-247, 341, 472,  Jacksmelt, 243-246, 253, 472, 563
  557                           Japanese littleneck, 451
Guadalupe fur seal, 522-523, 525-526            Katsuwonus pelamis, 328, 330
Gulf sanddab, 201                      Kelp, 21, 25, 28, 30-31, 33-34, 36, 47, 68-69, 79, 90-92,
Gull, 542-5454                         95, 99, 101-103, 105-106, 116, 128, 132, 140-141, 143,
                                149-151, 155-158, 163-166, 168, 170, 174, 181, 183-187,
Gymnogongrus, 286
                                190-191, 193-194, 206-207, 209-210, 212, 220, 222-227,
Gymnura marmorata, 260
                                232, 236, 239, 241, 243-244, 252, 259-260, 269-273,
Halfmoon, 79, 112, 149, 241-242, 279              277-285, 288, 307, 361, 363, 366, 435, 457, 470, 495,
                                516, 532, 537, 554, 556-557, 573
Halibut, 19, 21, 69, 125, 149-151, 165, 195-200, 203-204,
   209, 232, 235-236, 248, 259, 263-264, 270,348, 363,  Kelp bass, 21, 25, 79, 99, 149, 151, 222-227, 259, 269-272,
   396, 435, 455, 478, 510-511, 536, 555-556         557
Haliotis corrugata, 89                   Kelp greenling, 149, 183-184, 191, 193
Haliotis cracherodii, 89                  Kelp perch, 236
Haliotis fulgens, 89                    Kelp rocksh, 25, 68, 165, 185-187
Haliotis rufescens, 91, 96-97, 494-495,           Killer whale, 470, 532
Haliotis sorensensi, 89                   Kumamoto oyster, 501-502, 504-506
Harbor porpoise, 527, 534                  Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, 534
Herring, 19, 27, 48, 51, 53, 55-57, 59-60, 63, 69, 73-74,  Lamna ditropis, 345, 347
  129, 183, 193, 207, 244, 253, 259, 300, 341, 386,
                              Lampris guttatus, 348
  409, 427, 435, 455-459, 468, 480, 487, 489, 491, 521,
                              Law Enforcement, 20, 67-72
  523-524, 531, 545, 559, 568, 571, 573
                              Leopard shark, 252-254, 435, 441, 455,
Hexagrammos decagrammus, 183-184
                              Leuresthes tenuis, 246-247
Hexanchus griseus, 470-471
                              Lingcod, 22, 27, 54-55, 66, 68, 109, 124, 129, 149-151, 158,
Highly Migratory Species: overview, 315-316
                                163-166, 177, 179, 183, 188, 190-194, 263-264, 270,
Hinnites multirugosus, 142
                                359, 366, 381, 388, 396, 554, 565
Hippoglossina stomata, 203
                              Lissodelphis borealis, 534
Hippoglossus stenolepsis, 203
                              Littleneck clam, 451
Hornyhead turbot, 203
                              Loligo opalescens, 293, 295, 297-298
Human Ecosystem, 47-66
                              Longn sanddab, 201
Humpback whale, 530
                              Longn smelt, 472-473, 476-479, 564
Hyperprosopon anale, 236
                              Longnose skate, 258



CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME               California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                           A Status Report               587
    Longspine thornyhead, 374-375                 Northern fur seal, 523, 525-526
Index



    Louvar, 341, 350-351, 356, 557                Northern right-whale dolphin, 534
    Loxorhynchus grandis, 115, 117                Notorynchus cepedianus, 470-471
    Luvarus imperialis, 350-351                  Ocean shrimp, 87-88, 118-120, 129
    Lysmata californica, 127                   Offshore ecosystem, 26, 289, 291-292
    Mackerel sharks, 345-347                   Olive rocksh, 68, 79, 168-169
    Macrocystis pyrifera, 164, 194, 273, 277, 283         Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, 405
    Mahi mahi, 352                        Oncorhynchus keta, 405
    Mako shark, 336-339, 354-355                 Oncorhynchus kisutch, 405, 417, 507
    Management Considerations, 553-566              Oncorhynchus mykiss, 405, 411, 418, 507
    Manila clam, 451-452                     Oncorhynchus nerka, 405
    Marine Birds, 33-35, 163, 177, 310, 366, 455, 458, 521-522,  Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 405, 407, 417
      541-550                          Opah, 348-349, 356, 558
    Marine Birds and Mammals: overview, 521-522          Opaleye, 127, 138, 149, 241-242, 265-266, 279
    Medialuna californiensis, 241-242               Ophiodon elongatus, 191, 194
    Megaptera novaeangliae, 530                  Orcinus orca, 532
    Megastrea undosa, 140                     Ostreola conchaphila, 500
    Merluccius productus, 393, 397, 120              Ostreola lurida, 500
    Micrometrus aurora, 236                    Other atshes, 386, 150, 198, 201, 203-205
    Micrometrus minimus, 236                   Other nearshore rockshes, 185-188
    Microstomus pacicus, 382-383, 389              Oyster culture, 496, 500-502, 504, 506
    Minke whale, 531                       Pacic angel shark, 149, 248-251
    Mirounga angurstirostris, 525                 Pacic bonito, 79, 149, 215-218, 558
    Mobula, 260                          Pacic gaper, 445-446
    Mobula japonica, 260                     Pacic hake, 21, 27, 119-120, 341, 366, 393-397, 399, 402,
    Monkeyface prickleback, 149, 181-182, 557             404, 558
    Morone saxatilis, 460, 463-464                Pacic halibut, 348, 396, 203-204, 556
    Mussel culture, 496                      Pacic harbor seal, 523-524, 526-527
    Myliobatis californica, 257, 260               Pacic herring, 48, 69, 207, 435, 455-459, 487, 489, 491,
                                     559
    Mytilus californianus, 496
                                   Pacic mackerel, 22, 27, 207, 212, 216, 220, 223, 293-294,
    Mytilus galloprovincialis, 496, 499
                                     304, 306-310, 314,
    Mytilus trossulus, 496
                                   Pacic northern bluen tuna, 325-327
    Nearshore Marine Plant Resources, 17, 273
                                   Pacic oyster, 500-501, 504
    Nearshore rockshes, 164-165, 169, 174, 178-179, 185-188,
                                   Pacic razor clam, 443-444, 559
      190
                                   Pacic salmon, 341, 407-419, 426-427
    Nereocystis luetkeana, 282, 284
                                   Pacic sanddab, 341, 201-202
    Night smelt, 472, 474, 476, 478, 480, 564
                                   Pacic sardine, 21-22, 24, 27-28, 196, 220, 293, 299-302,
    Nonindigenous Species, 34, 37-38, 435
                                     304, 306, 308-310, 341, 545, 547
    Northern anchovy, 21, 24, 28, 216, 220, 293, 302-307,
                                   Pacic white-sided dolphin, 534
      309-310, 545
                                   Palaemon macrodactylus, 440
    Northern bluen tuna, 325-327
                                   Pandalus danae, 129
    Northern elephant seal, 523, 525-527
                                   Pandalus jordani, 118, 120


      California’s Living Marine Resources:           CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
            A Status Report                       December 2001
588
Pandalus platyceros, 121, 123, 126           Quillback rocksh, 68, 170, 177-178




                                                           Index
Panope generosa, 449-450                Rainbow perch, 236
Panulirus interruptus, 98, 100             Raja binoculata, 257
Paralabrax clathratus, 222-223             Raja inornata, 258
Paralabrax maculatofasciatus, 226-227         Raja rhina, 258
Paralabrax nebulifer 198, 224
          ,                 Rays, 53, 91, 93, 95, 116, 125, 136, 149, 151, 210, 236-237,
                              253, 256-262, 346, 348, 388, 396, 452, 455, 467,
Paralichthys californicus, 195, 198, 510
                              470-471, 501, 503, 526, 563, 569
Parastichopus californicus, 131, 134
                            Razor clam, 443-444, 559
Parastichopus parvimensis, 134
                            Red abalone, 89-93, 95-97, 102, 145, 147-148, 494-495,
Pelagic stingray, 260
                              554
Pelican, 33, 3001, 305, 541-542, 546, 550
                            Red rock crab, 112, 114
Petrale sole, 384, 386-387, 389, 21, 119, 199
                            Red rock shrimp, 187, 127-128, 560
Phanerodon atripes, 236
                            Red sea urchin, 26, 87, 91, 101-106, 560
Phanerodon furcatus, 236
                            Redtail surfperch, 150, 236-238
Phocoena phocoena, 534
                            Reef perch, 236
Phocoenoides dalli, 534-535
                            Restricted Access, 19-20, 70, 73-76, 98, 105, 165, 216,
Physeter catodon, 532                   560-561
Pile perch, 127, 236-238, 240             Reviewers, 20, 583-584
Pilot whale, 532-533                  Rex sole, 388-389, 400
Pink abalone, 89, 92, 95                Rhacochilus toxotes, 236, 239
Pink salmon, 405, 407                 Rhacochilus vacca, 236, 238
Pink seaperch, 236                   Rhinobatos productus, 257, 259
Pinnipeds, 177, 521-525, 527-529            Ridgeback prawn, 88, 121, 123-126, 561
Pismo clam, 87, 135-137, 437, 559           Risso s dolphin, 533-534
Platichthys stellatus, 199-200             Rock crabs, 87, 112-113, 115, 136, 501, 561
Platyrhinoidis triseriata, 257, 259          Rock scallop, 142-143, 561
Pleuronectes bilineatus, 203              Rock sole, 203
Pleuronectes isolepis, 203               Roncador stearnsii, 230
Pleuronectes vetulus, 384               Round stingray, 259-260
Pleuronichthys coenosus, 203              Rubberlip seaperch, 236, 239-240
Pleuronichthys decurrens, 203             Sablesh, 27, 76, 119, 291, 359-361, 366, 374, 382,
                              390-392, 401-402,
Pleuronichthys ritteri, 203
                            Salmo gairdneri, 418
Pleuronichthys verticalis, 203
                            Salmon, 19, 21, 27, 29, 32, 36, 48, 50-57, 59-61, 63, 66,
Porpoises, 220, 301, 308, 395, 521-522, 529-535, 568
                              69, 73-74, 107, 109-110, 122, 162, 176-177, 179, 193,
Postelsia palmaeformis, 285
                              195, 259, 291, 295, 309, 341, 345-348, 361, 366, 370,
Prionace glauca, 342, 344                 380-381, 394, 405-420, 424-429, 457, 460, 463, 466,
                              472, 478, 484, 507-509, 521, 523-524, 558-559, 561,
Protothaca laciniata, 451
                              567, 569-572, 584
Protothaca staminea, 451
                            Salmon culture, 507-508
Protothaca tenerrima, 451
                            Salmon shark, 345-347
Psettichthys melanostictus, 203
                            Salmonids: overview, 405
Pteroplatytrygon violacea, 260
                            Sand basses, 224-227
Purple sea urchin, 101, 105-106, 560


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME             California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                        A Status Report               589
    Sand crab, 138-139, 562                    Sebastolobus altivelis, 374, 377
Index



    Sand sole, 203                         Semicossyphus pulcher 155-156
                                              ,
    Sanddabs, 149, 201-203                     Seriola lalandi, 212
    Sarda chiliensis, 215, 218                   Sevengill shark, 253, 255, 470-471
    Sardine, 21-22, 24, 27-28, 70, 129, 151, 196, 220, 234, 291,  Sharpnose seaperch, 236
      293-294, 299-304, 306, 308-310, 312-313, 319, 335, 337,  Sheep crab, 88, 115-117, 145, 147-148, 562
      341, 348, 544-545, 547, 550,
                                    Shiner perch, 460, 498, 193, 236
    Sardinops sagax, 293, 299-300, 302
                                    Shortbelly rocksh, 176, 341, 380-381
    Saxidomus giganteus, 447
                                    Shortn mako shark, 336-339
    Saxidomus nuttalli, 447
                                    Shortnned pilot whale, 532-533
    Scomber japonicus, 293, 306, 308
                                    Shortspine thornyhead, 374, 376
    Scorpaena guttata, 160
                                    Shovelnose guitarsh, 257, 259-260
    Scorpaenichthys marmoratus, 157-158
                                    Sicyonia ingentis, 123-126
    Scorpionsh, 53-54, 63, 68, 149-150, 160-161, 265-266,
                                    Siliqua patula, 443-444
      272, 562
                                    Silver surfperch, 236, 239
    Sea cumbers, 131
                                    Silversides, 53, 63, 206, 243-246, 265-266, 477, 563
    Sea otter, 87, 89, 91-92, 96, 101-102, 113, 136-137, 279,
                                    Sixgill shark, 470-471
      282, 437, 450, 498, 522, 536-540, 553, 556, 559
                                    Skates and rays, 149, 151, 257-262, 563, 569
    Sea palm, 273, 285
                                    Skipjack tuna, 216, 315, 328-330, 333, 563
    Seabirds, 37, 47, 150, 193, 199, 291, 308, 521, 541-550
                                    Slender sole, 203
    Sebastes auriculatus, 170
                                    Sockeye salmon, 27, 405, 407
    Sebastes carnatus, 185
                                    Soupn shark, 150, 255-256
    Sebastes caurinus, 173
                                    Spartina, 483
    Sebastes chrysomelas, 185
                                    Speckled sanddab, 201-202
    Sebastes dalli, 179
                                    Sperm whale, 522, 532
    Sebastes entomelas, 370-371
                                    Sphyraena argentea, 219, 221
    Sebastes avidus, 372
                                    Spiny lobster, 21, 79, 87-88, 98-100, 280, 556, 563
    Sebastes goodei, 366
                                    Spirinchus starksi, 476
    Sebastes jordani, 380-381
                                    Spirinchus thaleichthys, 476, 479
    Sebastes levis, 363
                                    Spot prawn, 75, 121-126, 563
    Sebastes maliger 177-178
            ,
                                    Spotn croaker, 138, 229-231, 563
    Sebastes melanops, 162
                                    Spotn surfperch, 236, 239
    Sebastes melanostomus, 368-369
                                    Spotted sand bass, 149, 222, 226-227, 564
    Sebastes miniatus, 189
                                    Squatina californica, 248, 251
    Sebastes mystinus, 165
                                    Squid, 19, 21, 27, 48, 52, 55-57, 59-61, 70, 74-75, 87,
    Sebastes nebulosus, 185
                                      151, 158, 174, 190, 196, 202, 206-207, 210, 212, 215,
    Sebastes paucispinis, 361
                                      217, 220, 224, 235, 243, 250, 291, 293-298, 306-307,
    Sebastes pinniger 175
             ,                         309-310, 319, 323, 326, 333, 335, 337, 341-343, 361,
    Sebastes rastrelliger 172, 185, 188
               ,                       366, 521, 523-524, 526, 531-533, 538, 547, 568,
                                      571-572, 583
    Sebastes rufus, 378-379
                                    Starry ounder, 149, 199-200, 203, 385, 435, 441, 449
    Sebastes serranoides, 168-169
                                    Steelhead, 32, 67, 405-406, 411, 415, 417-427, 507-509,
    Sebastes serriceps, 185, 188
                                      523, 561, 564
    Sebastolobus alascanus, 377


      California’s Living Marine Resources:            CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
            A Status Report                        December 2001
590
Steelhead rainbow trout, 418-425               Whales, 291, 301, 335, 346, 395, 471, 521-522, 529-535,




                                                              Index
                                 537, 567-568
Steller sea lion, 524
                               White abalone, 19, 89, 93-95, 97, 494
Stereolepis gigas, 510
                               White croaker, 56, 150, 196, 234-235, 264, 266, 268-272,
Striped bass, 53-54, 63, 69, 437, 439, 441, 455, 460-464,
                                 341, 441, 565
   467, 469, 477, 480
                               White seabass, 56, 79, 119-120, 127, 149-151, 206-209, 212,
Striped marlin, 308, 334-335, 564
                                 308, 493, 510-512
Striped seaperch, 193, 236, 239-240
                               White shark, 151, 253, 255, 345-347, 470, 532
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, 101, 104-106
                               White sturgeon, 441, 455, 465-469
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, 105-106
                               Widow rocksh, 19, 171, 359, 363, 370-372,
Submerged Aquatic Plants, 487-492
                               Xiphias gladius, 322, 324
Surf smelt, 79, 151, 472-474, 476, 478, 564
                               Yellow rock crab, 112
Surfperches, 27, 149, 151, 236-240, 253, 435, 455
                               Yellown croaker, 138, 232-233, 565
Swordsh, 27, 48, 57, 59-61, 67, 315, 322-324, 328,
                               Yellown tuna, 27, 215-216, 315, 328, 331-333, 563, 565
  331-332, 334, 336, 339, 341-343, 350, 352, 356, 363,
  396, 471, 564, 574                    Yellowtail, 127, 67, 79, 149-150, 163, 166, 168, 212-214,
                                  264, 266-268, 272, 301, 308, 326, 359, 363, 372-373,
Symphurus atricauda, 203
                                  398-399, 565
Tapes philippinarum, 451
                               Yellowtail rocksh, 163, 168, 359, 372-373
Thaleichthys pacicus, 477
                               Zalembius rosaceus, 236
Thornback, 257, 259-260
                               Zalophus californianus, 523-524
Thornyheads, 359-360, 374-377, 382, 390
                               Zostera marina, 481, 487, 490
Thresher shark, 248, 315, 336-337, 339-341
Thunnus alalunga, 317, 321
Thunnus albacares, 331, 333
Thunnus orientalis, 325
Tivela stultorum, 135, 137
Topsmelt, 472, 220, 243-244, 246, 253, 563
Trachurus symmetricus, 293, 309, 311
Treesh, 68, 149, 185-188, 272
Tresus capax, 445-446
Tresus nuttalli, 445
Triakis semifasciata, 252, 254
True smelts, 27, 243, 246, 455, 472-480
Turban snail, 140-141, 145, 147-148
Umbrina roncador 232
        ,
Urolophus halleri, 259
Vermilion rocksh, 26, 189-190, 363
Wakasagi, 472-476, 479, 565
Walleye surfperch, 236, 239-240
Washington clam, 447-448, 565
Water Quality, 20, 29-45, 87, 227, 416, 419, 437, 452, 481,
  483, 486, 493, 497, 500-502, 505, 507, 510, 517-518,
  558
Wavy turban snail, 140-141, 145, 147-148


CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                California’s Living Marine Resources:
       December 2001                            A Status Report              591
Index




    California’s Living Marine Resources:  CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
          A Status Report              December 2001
592
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 CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME                             California’s Living Marine Resources:
        December 2001                                        A Status Report                   593
594
by Carrie Kappel last modified 12-02-2007 19:16
 

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