California's Living Marine Resources: A Status Report
Leet, Dewees, Klingbeil and Larson (eds.) CA DFG 2001
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
California’s Living Marine Resources:
A Status Report
The Resources Agency
The California Department of Fish and Game
California Governor Gray Davis
Resources Secretary Mary D. Nichols
Department of Fish and Game Director Robert C. Hight
Marine Region Manager Patricia Wolf
Editors
William S. Leet
Christopher M. Dewees
Richard Klingbeil
Eric J. Larson
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 1
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The editors wish to acknowledge important contributions from many colleagues. In DFG,
Joann Eres and her staff compiled a huge amount of landings data for the tables and graphs,
while Nancy Wright and Chad King created the maps. Chamois Andersen and the Conservation
Education staff assisted with the editing. Carrie Wilson and Paul Gregory searched out and
supplied many of the photographs. Bernice Hammer and Susan Ashcraft aided in organizing
and producing tables and graphs. Kristen Sortais from the California Sea Grant Program
compiled the glossary and organized the photographs in the document. The ever-enthusiastic
Tom Jurach of the UC Davis Repro Graphics Department was the lead person for publication
design and layout.
This publication fullls the Marine Life Management Act of 1998 requirement for a status
of the sheries report. Primary funding for this project was provided by the State of
California to the Marine Region of the California Department of Fish and Game. Additional
support was supplied by the California Marine Life Management Project with funding from
the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the National Sea Grant College Program of
the Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, under grant
number NA06RG0142, project AE/1 through the California Sea Grant College Program.
This publication contains a compilation of information from numerous individuals and
highly regarded sources. All efforts have been made to publish the best available data
and information.
This report is not copyrighted. If sections are reproduced elsewhere, the authors and
the California Department of Fish and Game would appreciate receiving appropriate
acknowledgment.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2001098707
ISBN 1-879906-57-0
University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources
Publication SG01-11
For information about ordering copies of this publication, call (800) 994-8849 or visit
www.anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu.
To view or download via the Internet, visit www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
2
Dedication
Dedication
Dr. Mia J. Tegner
California’s Living Marine Resources: A Status Report is dedicated to the
memory of Dr. Mia J. Tegner, a loved and respected colleague, who died
in a scuba diving accident in January 2001. As a researcher at the
University of California’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Dr. Tegner
was an expert in kelp forest ecology and was recognized as one of the
leading scientists in the world regarding California’s abalone and sea
urchin resources. She cared deeply about the marine environment and
became an effective spokesperson for science-based marine conserva-
tion. She rmly believed that a system of marine protected areas is
critical to restoration of sheries and the protection of biodiversity and
worked with others to ensure the enactment of both the Marine Life
Management Act of 1998 and the Marine Life Protection Act of 1999, and
the appropriation of funds for their implementation.
Dr. Tegner’s presence as a scientist and concerned citizen will be
sadly missed.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 3
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
4
Purpose and Overview
Purpose and Overview
T he Marine Life Management Act (MLMA), which became law on
Jan. 1, 1999, opened a new era in the management and conserva-
tion of living marine resources in California. The MLMA’s overriding
goal is to ensure the conservation, sustainable use, and restoration
of California’s living marine resources, including the conservation of
healthy and diverse marine ecosystems and living marine resources.
To achieve this goal, the MLMA established an innovative program
for managing marine sheries. Good sheries managers periodically
take stock of the effectiveness of their programs. With this in
mind, the MLMA requires that the Department prepare an annual
report on the status of sport and commercial marine sheries
managed by the state. The MLMA requires that these reports do
three things: 1) identify any marine shery that does not meet the
MLMA’s sustainability policies; 2) review restricted access programs;
and 3) evaluate the management system and make recommendations
for modications. This rst report presents the best available informa-
tion for all marine and estuarine sheries managed by the state.
Under the MLMA, later annual reports will cover one-quarter of all
marine and estuarine sheries managed by the state.
The rst section of California’s Living Marine Resources: A Status
Report is meant to provide lay people and specialists alike with
the best available information on the oceanic, environmental, regula-
tory, and socioeconomic factors that affect the management affecting
California’s living marine resources. This discussion is divided into
ve chapters: California’s Variable Ocean Environment, The Status of
Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environ-
ment, The Human Ecosystem Dimension, The Status of Marine Fisher-
ies Law Enforcement and A Review of Restricted Access Programs.
The second section of the report includes chapters on the three major
ecosystems off California: nearshore, offshore, and bays and estuaries.
Each of these chapters includes a description of the ecosystem, the
major issues facing sheries managers, and the management frame-
work. These chapters also include evaluations of individual sheries
and species of marine wildlife, including a historical description of
each shery, the status of biological knowledge, and the status of
the population. Management considerations submitted by authors for
approximately half the individual sheries are found in Appendix A.
The report concludes with chapters on Aquaculture, Invasive Species,
and Marine Birds and Mammals.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 5
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
6
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 7
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
8
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2 Endangered Species Act.............................................. 39
Table of Contents
Marine Mammal Protection Act ................................. 40
Dedication 3 National Marine Sanctuaries Act ................................ 40
The Coastal Zone Management Act............................. 40
Purpose and Overview 5 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
Management Act ......................................................... 41
Table of Contents 9
Oil Pollution Act of 1990............................................. 41
State
Introduction and Historical Overview 19
California Environmental Quality Act......................... 41
Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act .................. 41
California’s Variable Ocean Environment 21
California Endangered Species Act............................. 42
Climatic Processes, El Niño Events and Regime Shifts.......... 22
McAteer-Petris Act ...................................................... 42
El Niño/La Niña Processes .................................................. 22
California Coastal Act ................................................. 42
Decadal/Regime Scale Processes ........................................ 23
Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1990........... 42
Implications for Nearshore Ecosystems................................ 24
Regional ..................................................................... 42
Implications for the Offshore Ecosystem .............................. 26
CALFED....................................................................... 42
El Niño - La Niña Fluctuations .............................................. 27
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Water Quality
Regime Scale Climatic Variations ......................................... 27
Protection Program.................................................... 43
Conclusions........................................................................... 28
Local
References ............................................................................ 28
Implementation of CEQA and NEPA ............................ 43
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in Coordinated Resource Management Planning ........... 43
California’s Coastal and Marine Environment 29 Marine Protected Areas.............................................. 43
Regulatory Gaps ......................................................... 44
Importance of Healthy Waters and Habitats to Marine Life 29
Human Ecosystem Dimension 47
Health of Coastal and Marine Water Quality and Habitats ... 29
Human Benefits of the Marine Ecosystem............................. 47
Monitoring and Assessment Information ................... 29
Factors Affecting Commercial and
Data Limitations/Gaps................................................ 30
Recreational Fishery Activity................................................. 47
Sources of Impairment of Water Quality and Habitats.......... 31
Commercial Fisheries Landings and Ex-vessel Value ............ 48
Point Source Discharges............................................. 31
Harvesting Sector.................................................................. 49
Nonpoint Source Discharges ...................................... 31
The Processing Sector........................................................... 51
Spills ..................................................................................... 32
The Trade Sector................................................................... 51
Oil Spills ..................................................................... 32
Sport and Subsistence Fisheries............................................ 52
Other Spills................................................................. 32
Effort and Harvest ................................................................. 53
Dredging and Disposal of Dredged Material ........................ 33
Recreational Fishery Expenditures ....................................... 53
Invasive Species .................................................................... 34
Additional Information on the Salmon and
Habitat Loss, Destruction and Alteration .............................. 34
CPFV Sport Fisheries ............................................................. 53
Water Flow............................................................................. 35
References............................................................................. 55
Freshwater Discharges ............................................... 35
Hydromodification...................................................... 36
Marine Law Enforcement 67
Recreational and Commercial Activities ............................... 36
Introduction.......................................................................... 67
Boating ....................................................................... 36
Resources.............................................................................. 67
Jet Skis (Motorized Personal Watercraft) .................. 36
Personnel.................................................................... 67
Fishing ........................................................................ 37
Patrol Boats ................................................................ 67
Ecosystem-wide Implications................................................ 37
Teams ......................................................................... 68
Regulatory Structure for Addressing
Partnerships ............................................................... 68
Water Quality and Habitat Issues ......................................... 38
Fisheries-Specific Enforcement Efforts ................................. 68
Federal
Groundfish.................................................................. 68
Clean Water Act........................................................... 38
Nearshore Fish............................................................ 68
Permit Program ....................................................... 38
Salmon........................................................................ 69
Nonpoint Pollution Program....................................... 38
Halibut........................................................................ 69
Regulation of Discharges into Impaired Waters......... 38
Striped Bass................................................................ 69
Discharges under Federal Licenses or Permits .......... 38
Pacific Herring ........................................................... 69
Dredge Disposal and Fill ............................................ 38
Antidegradation.......................................................... 39
Ocean Dumping Act.................................................... 39
The National Environmental Policy Act ...................... 39
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 9
Coastal Pelagic Species ......................................................... 70 Purple Sea Urchin ...................................................................... 105
Table of Contents
Sardine/Anchovy/Mackerel........................................ 70 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 105
Squid .......................................................................... 70 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 105
Abalone....................................................................... 70 Status of the Population ...................................................... 105
Sea Urchin .................................................................. 70 References........................................................................... 106
Shrimp/Prawns .......................................................... 70 Dungeness Crab ......................................................................... 107
Lobster........................................................................ 71 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 107
Crab ............................................................................ 71 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 109
Other Invertebrates .................................................... 71 Status of the Population ...................................................... 110
Marine Aquaria ..................................................................... 71 References............................................................................111
Aquaculture .......................................................................... 71 Rock Crabs................................................................................. 112
Commercial Fish Businesses................................................. 72 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 112
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 112
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries 73 Status of the Populations..................................................... 113
Background ........................................................................ 73 References............................................................................114
History ................................................................................ 73 Sheep Crab ..................................................................................115
California’s Restricted Access Programs .............................. 73 History of the Fishery ...........................................................115
California’s Commercial Fisheries Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 116
Restricted Access Policy........................................................ 74 Status of the Population .......................................................117
Federal Restricted Access Programs..................................... 76 References............................................................................117
Future Actions ....................................................................... 76 Ocean Shrimp ............................................................................ 118
References ........................................................................... 76 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 118
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................119
California’s Nearshore Ecosystem 79
Status of the Population .......................................................119
References........................................................................... 120
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate
Spot Prawn ................................................................................. 121
Resources: Overview 87
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 121
Abalone ........................................................................................ 89
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 122
History of the Fishery ............................................................ 89
Status of the Population ...................................................... 123
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................. 89
References........................................................................... 123
Red abalone................................................................ 90
Ridgeback Prawn ....................................................................... 124
Pink abalone............................................................... 92
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 124
Green abalone ............................................................ 92
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 124
Black abalone............................................................. 93
Status of the Population ...................................................... 125
White abalone............................................................. 94
References........................................................................... 125
Status of the Populations....................................................... 95
Red Rock Shrimp ....................................................................... 127
References............................................................................. 96
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 127
California Spiny Lobster............................................................... 98
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 127
History of the Fishery ............................................................ 98
Status of the Population ...................................................... 128
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................. 99
References........................................................................... 128
Status of the Population ...................................................... 100
Coonstripe Shrimp ..................................................................... 129
References........................................................................... 100
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 129
Red Sea Urchin........................................................................... 101
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 129
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 101
Status of the Population ...................................................... 130
Southern California Fishery ................................................ 101
References........................................................................... 130
Northern California Fishery ................................................ 101
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 102
Status of the Population ...................................................... 103
References........................................................................... 104
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
10
Sea Cucumbers........................................................................... 131 Blue Rockfish ............................................................................. 165
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 131 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 165
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 132 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 165
Status of the Population ...................................................... 133 Status of the Population .......................................................167
References........................................................................... 134 References............................................................................167
Pismo Clam ................................................................................ 135 Olive Rockfish ............................................................................ 168
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 135 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 168
Status of the Biological Knowledge ..................................... 135 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 168
Status of the Population ...................................................... 137 Status of the Population ...................................................... 168
References........................................................................... 137 References........................................................................... 169
Sand Crab................................................................................... 138 Brown Rockfish.......................................................................... 170
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 138 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 170
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 138 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 170
Status of the Population ...................................................... 139 Status of the Population ...................................................... 171
References........................................................................... 139 References........................................................................... 172
Wavy Turban Snail ..................................................................... 140 Copper Rockfish......................................................................... 173
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 140 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 173
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 140 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 173
Status of the Population ...................................................... 141 Status of the Population .......................................................174
References........................................................................... 141 References............................................................................174
Rock Scallop .............................................................................. 142 Canary Rockfish ..........................................................................175
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 142 History of the Fishery ...........................................................175
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 142 Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................175
Status of the Population ...................................................... 143 Status of the Population .......................................................176
References........................................................................... 143 Quillback Rockfish .................................................................... 177
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates ...................... 144 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 177
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 177
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview 149 Status of the Population ...................................................... 178
California Sheephead..................................................................155 References........................................................................... 178
History of the Fishery ...........................................................155 Calico Rockfish .......................................................................... 179
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................155 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 179
Status of the Population ...................................................... 156 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 179
References........................................................................... 156 Status of the Population ...................................................... 179
Cabezon...................................................................................... 157 References........................................................................... 180
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 157 Monkeyface Prickleback............................................................ 181
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 157 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 181
Status of the Population ...................................................... 158 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 181
References........................................................................... 158 Status of the Population ...................................................... 182
California Scorpionfish .............................................................. 160 References........................................................................... 182
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 160 Kelp Greenling ........................................................................... 183
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 160 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 183
Status of the Population ...................................................... 160 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 183
References............................................................................161 Status of the Population ...................................................... 184
Black Rockfish ........................................................................... 162 References........................................................................... 184
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 162 Other Nearshore Rockfishes ...................................................... 185
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 162 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 185
Status of the Population ...................................................... 163 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 186
References........................................................................... 164 Status of the Populations..................................................... 187
\ References........................................................................... 188
Vermilion Rockfish .................................................................... 189
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 189
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 189
Status of the Population ...................................................... 190
References........................................................................... 190
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 11
Kelp Bass.................................................................................... 222
Lingcod ...................................................................................... 191
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 222
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 191
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 222
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 192
Status of the Population ...................................................... 223
Status of the Population ...................................................... 193
References .......................................................................... 223
References........................................................................... 194
Barred Sand Bass....................................................................... 224
California Halibut ...................................................................... 195
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 224
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 195
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 224
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 196
Status of the Population ...................................................... 225
Status of the Population ..................................................... 196
References........................................................................... 225
References........................................................................... 198
Spotted Sand Bass ...................................................................... 226
Starry Flounder .......................................................................... 199
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 226
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 199
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 226
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 199
Status of the Population ...................................................... 227
Status of the Population ...................................................... 200
References........................................................................... 227
References........................................................................... 200
California Corbina ..................................................................... 228
Sanddabs.................................................................................... 201
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 228
History of the Fishery ......................................................... 201
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 228
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 201
Status of the Population ...................................................... 229
Status of the Population ..................................................... 202
References........................................................................... 229
References........................................................................... 202
Spotfin Croaker .......................................................................... 230
Other Flatfishes .......................................................................... 203
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 230
History of The Fishery ......................................................... 203
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 230
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 203
Status of the Population ...................................................... 230
Status of the Populations..................................................... 204
References........................................................................... 231
References........................................................................... 205
Yellowfin Croaker....................................................................... 232
White Seabass ............................................................................ 206
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 232
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 206
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 232
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 207
Status of the Population ...................................................... 232
Status of the Population ...................................................... 208
References........................................................................... 233
References........................................................................... 208
White Croaker ............................................................................ 234
Giant Sea Bass ............................................................................ 209
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 234
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 209
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 234
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 209
Status of the Population ...................................................... 235
Status of the Population ...................................................... 211
Surfperches................................................................................ 236
References........................................................................... 211
General ............................................................................... 236
Yellowtail .................................................................................. 212
Barred Surfperch................................................................ 236
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 212
History of the Fishery................................................ 236
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 212
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
Status of Population ............................................................ 213
Status of the Population............................................ 237
References........................................................................... 214
Calico Surfperch ................................................................. 237
Pacific Bonito..............................................................................215
History of the Fishery................................................ 237
History of the Fishery ...........................................................215
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................217
Status of the Population............................................ 237
Status of the Population .......................................................217
Pile Perch............................................................................ 237
References........................................................................... 218
History of the Fishery................................................ 237
California Barracuda ................................................................. 219
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 219
Status of the Population............................................ 238
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 220
Status of the Population ...................................................... 220
References........................................................................... 221
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
12
Redtail Surfperch................................................................ 238 Skates and Rays.......................................................................... 257
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery................................................ 238 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 257
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 238 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 257
Status of the Population............................................ 238 The Skates and Softnose Skates -
Rubberlip Surfperch ........................................................... 239 Families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae............................... 258
History of the Fishery................................................ 239 The Guitarfishes and Thornbacks -
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239 Families Rhinobatidae and Platyrhinidae........................... 259
Status of the Population............................................ 239 The Electric Rays - Family Torpedinidae ............................ 259
Striped Seaperch................................................................. 239 The Myliobatidiform Rays (Stingrays) - Families Urolophidae,
History of the Fishery................................................ 239 Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae, Gymnuridae, and Mobulidae .... 259
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239 Status of the Populations..................................................... 260
Status of Population.................................................. 239 References .......................................................................... 261
Walleye Surfperch............................................................... 239 Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish................................. 263
History of the Fishery................................................ 239 Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish...................................... 269
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview 273
Status of the Population............................................ 240
Giant Kelp................................................................................... 277
Surfperch: Discussion......................................................... 240
History of the Use and Harvest ........................................... 277
References........................................................................... 240
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 278
Opaleye and Halfmoon............................................................... 241
Status of the Beds................................................................ 279
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 241
Kelp Restoration.................................................................. 280
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 241
References........................................................................... 281
Status of the Population ...................................................... 241
Bull Kelp..................................................................................... 282
References........................................................................... 242
History of the Use and Harvest............................................ 282
Silversides .................................................................................. 243
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 282
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 243
Status of the Beds ............................................................... 283
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 243
References: ........................................................................ 284
Status of the Populations..................................................... 244
Sea Palm .................................................................................... 285
References........................................................................... 245
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 285
Grunion...................................................................................... 246
Status of the Beds................................................................ 285
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 246
References........................................................................... 285
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 246
Agarophytes and Carrageenophytes........................................... 286
Status of the Population ...................................................... 247
History of Use and Harvest.................................................. 286
References........................................................................... 247
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 287
Pacific Angel Shark .................................................................... 248
Status of the Beds................................................................ 287
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 248
References .......................................................................... 287
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 249
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Plants.................................. 288
Status of the Population ...................................................... 250
References........................................................................... 251
California’s Offshore Ecosystem 291
Leopard Shark............................................................................ 252
History of the Fishery ......................................................... 252 Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview 293
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 252
California Market Squid............................................................. 295
Status of the Population ..................................................... 253
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 295
References........................................................................... 254
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 297
Soupfin Shark............................................................................. 255
Status of the Population ...................................................... 297
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 255
References........................................................................... 298
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 255
Pacific Sardine ........................................................................... 299
Status of the Population ...................................................... 256
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 299
References........................................................................... 256
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 300
Status of the Population ...................................................... 301
References........................................................................... 302
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 13
Northern Anchovy ...................................................................... 303 Shortfin Mako Shark .................................................................. 336
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 303 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 336
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 304 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 336
Status of the Population ...................................................... 305 Status of the Population ...................................................... 337
References........................................................................... 305 References........................................................................... 338
Pacific Mackerel......................................................................... 306 Thresher Shark .......................................................................... 339
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 306 History of the Fishery ......................................................... 339
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 307 Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 339
Status of the Population ...................................................... 308 Status of the Population ..................................................... 341
References........................................................................... 308 References........................................................................... 341
Jack Mackerel ............................................................................ 309 Blue Shark.................................................................................. 342
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 309 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 342
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 310 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 342
Status of the Population ...................................................... 310 Status of the Population ...................................................... 343
References............................................................................311 References........................................................................... 344
Commercial Catch - Coastal Pelagics ......................................... 312 Other Mackerel Sharks .............................................................. 345
Recreational Catch - Coastal Pelagics .........................................314 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 345
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 345
Highly Migratory Species: Overview 315 Status of the Populations..................................................... 347
Albacore......................................................................................317 References........................................................................... 347
History of the Fishery ...........................................................317 Opah .......................................................................................... 348
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 318 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 348
Status of the Population ...................................................... 320 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 348
References........................................................................... 321 Status of the Population ...................................................... 349
Swordfish ................................................................................... 322 References........................................................................... 349
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 322 Louvar ........................................................................................ 350
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 323 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 350
Status of the Population ...................................................... 324 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 350
References ......................................................................... 324 Status of the Population ...................................................... 351
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna.................................................... 325 References........................................................................... 351
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 325 Dolphin ...................................................................................... 352
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 326 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 352
Status of the Population ...................................................... 326 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 352
References........................................................................... 327 Status of the Population ...................................................... 353
Skipjack Tuna ............................................................................ 328 References........................................................................... 353
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 328 Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks.... 354
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 329 Recreational Catch - Highly Migratory Finfish ........................... 357
Status of the Population ...................................................... 329
Groundfish: Overview 359
References........................................................................... 330
Yellowfin Tuna ........................................................................... 331 Bocaccio .................................................................................... 361
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 331 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 361
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 332 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 361
Status of the Population ...................................................... 333 Status of the Population ...................................................... 361
References........................................................................... 333 References........................................................................... 362
Striped Marlin............................................................................ 334 Cowcod....................................................................................... 363
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 334 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 363
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 334 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 364
Status of the Population ...................................................... 335 Status of the Population ...................................................... 364
References........................................................................... 335 References........................................................................... 365
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
14
Chilipepper ................................................................................ 366 Sablefish..................................................................................... 390
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 366 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 390
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 366 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 391
Status of the Population ...................................................... 366 Status of Population ............................................................ 391
References........................................................................... 367 References........................................................................... 392
Blackgill Rockfish...................................................................... 368 Pacific Hake ............................................................................... 393
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 368 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 393
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 368 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 394
Status of the Population ...................................................... 368 Status of the Population ...................................................... 396
References........................................................................... 369 References........................................................................... 397
Widow Rockfish ......................................................................... 370 Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish........................ 398
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 370
Salmonids: Overview 405
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 370
Pacific Salmon ........................................................................... 407
Status of the Population ...................................................... 371
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 407
References........................................................................... 371
Salmon Management History .............................................. 409
Yellowtail Rockfish .................................................................... 372
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 410
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 372
Chinook salmon ....................................................... 411
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 372
Coho salmon............................................................. 412
Status of the Population ...................................................... 373
Status of Spawning Populations .......................................... 413
References........................................................................... 373
Salmon: Discussion............................................................. 415
Thornyheads .............................................................................. 374
Challenges to Inland Salmon Management......................... 415
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 374
Challenges to Ocean Management ...................................... 416
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 375
References........................................................................... 417
Status of the Population ...................................................... 376
Steelhead Rainbow Trout ........................................................... 418
References........................................................................... 377
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 418
Bank Rockfish............................................................................ 378
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 418
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 378
Status of the Populations .................................................... 420
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 378
References........................................................................... 425
Status of the Population ...................................................... 378
Coastal Cutthroat Trout.............................................................. 426
References........................................................................... 379
History of Fishery ................................................................ 426
Shortbelly Rockfish .................................................................... 380
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 426
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 380
Status of Population ............................................................ 427
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 380
References........................................................................... 427
Status of the Population ...................................................... 381
Commercial Landings - Salmonids ............................................ 428
References........................................................................... 381
Recreational Catch - Salmonids ................................................. 429
Dover Sole .................................................................................. 382
History of the Fishery ........................................................ 382
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems 435
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 382
Status of the Population ...................................................... 383 Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview 437
References........................................................................... 383
Bay Shrimp................................................................................. 439
English Sole................................................................................ 384
History of Fishery ................................................................ 439
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 384
Status of Biological Knowledge ...........................................440
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 384
Status of the Populations..................................................... 441
Status of the Population ...................................................... 385
Pacific Razor Clam ..................................................................... 443
References........................................................................... 385
History of Fishery ................................................................ 443
Petrale Sole ................................................................................ 386
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 443
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 386
Status of the Population ......................................................444
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 386
References...........................................................................444
Status of Population ............................................................ 386
References........................................................................... 387
Rex Sole...................................................................................... 388
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 388
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 388
Status of the Population ..................................................... 389
References........................................................................... 389
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 15
Gaper Clams............................................................................... 445 True Smelts ................................................................................ 472
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 445 General ............................................................................... 472
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 445 Delta Smelt .......................................................................... 472
Status of the Population ......................................................446 History of the Fishery................................................ 472
References...........................................................................446 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 472
Washington Clams...................................................................... 447 Status of the Population............................................ 473
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 447 Surf Smelt............................................................................ 474
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 447 History of the Fishery................................................ 474
Status of the Population ......................................................448 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 474
References...........................................................................448 Status of the Population............................................ 474
Geoduck ..................................................................................... 449 Wakasagi............................................................................. 474
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 449 History of the Fishery................................................ 474
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 449 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 475
Status of the Population ...................................................... 449 Status of the Population............................................ 475
References........................................................................... 450 Night Smelt .......................................................................... 476
Littleneck Clams......................................................................... 451 History of the Fishery................................................ 476
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 451 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 476
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 451 Status of the Population............................................ 476
Status of Population ............................................................ 452 Longfin Smelt ...................................................................... 476
References........................................................................... 452 History of the Fishery................................................ 476
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuaries Invertebrates........... 453 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 477
Status of the Population............................................ 477
Bay and Estuarine Finfish Resources: Overview 455 Eulachon ............................................................................. 477
Pacific Herring........................................................................... 456 History of the Fishery................................................ 477
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 456 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 477
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 458 Status of Population.................................................. 478
Status of the Population ...................................................... 458 Whitebait Smelt ................................................................... 478
References........................................................................... 459 History of the Fishery................................................ 478
Striped Bass ............................................................................... 460 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 478
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 460 Status of Population.................................................. 478
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 461 Discussion........................................................................... 478
Status of the Population ...................................................... 461 References........................................................................... 479
Young Striped Bass Abundance. .............................. 461 Bay and Estuarine Finfish........................................................... 480
Adult Striped Bass Abundance. ................................ 462 Commercial Landings ......................................................... 480
Fishery Restoration. ................................................. 462 Recreational Catch .............................................................. 480
References........................................................................... 463
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview 481
Green Sturgeon .......................................................................... 465
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 465
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes 483
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 465
General Description............................................................ 483
Status of the Population ...................................................... 466
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 484
References........................................................................... 466
Status of the Habitat ............................................................484
White Sturgeon........................................................................... 467
References........................................................................... 486
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 467
Submerged Aquatic Plants.......................................................... 487
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 467
Eelgrass............................................................................... 487
Status of the Population ......................................................468
Introduction ............................................................. 487
References........................................................................... 469
Status of Biological Knowledge.................................488
Cow Sharks................................................................................. 470
Status of the Beds .....................................................488
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 470
Humboldt Bay ...........................................................488
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 470
Small North Coast Estuaries ..................................... 489
Status of the Population ...................................................... 471
Tomales Bay.............................................................. 489
References........................................................................... 471
San Francisco Bay..................................................... 489
Southern California .................................................. 489
References ................................................................ 490
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
16
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview 521
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis............................................ 491
Table of Contents
History of Harvest..................................................... 491 Pinnipeds ................................................................................... 523
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 491 History ................................................................................ 523
References ................................................................ 491 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 523
California Sea Lion ................................................... 523
Aquaculture: Overview 493
Steller Sea Lion ......................................................... 524
Culture of Abalone ..................................................................... 494
Pacific Harbor Seal................................................... 524
History ................................................................................ 494
Northern Fur Seal..................................................... 525
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 495
Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................. 525
References........................................................................... 495
Northern Elephant Seal ............................................ 525
Culture of Mussels...................................................................... 496
Status of the Populations..................................................... 526
History ............................................................................... 496
California Sea Lion ................................................... 526
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 497
Pacific Harbor Seal................................................... 526
References........................................................................... 499
Northern Fur Seal..................................................... 526
Culture of Oysters ...................................................................... 500
Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................. 526
History ................................................................................ 500
Northern Elephant Seal ............................................ 526
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 503
References .......................................................................... 527
Shellfish and the Environment ............................................ 505
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises ..................................................... 529
Future Trends...................................................................... 505
History ................................................................................ 529
References........................................................................... 506
Current Management .......................................................... 529
Culture of Salmon ...................................................................... 507
Status of Biological Knowledge and Populations................. 530
History ................................................................................ 507
Humpback Whale .................................................... 530
Status................................................................................... 508
Blue Whale .............................................................. 530
References........................................................................... 509
Fin Whale ................................................................. 531
Culture of Marine Finfish ........................................................... 510
Minke Whale ........................................................... 531
History of Finfish Culture.................................................... 510
Gray Whale .............................................................. 531
History of the Ocean Resources Enhancement and Hatchery
Sperm Whale ........................................................... 532
Program (OREHP).............................................................. 510
Killer Whale ............................................................. 532
Culture, Facilities and Systems............................................ 510
Shortfinned Pilot Whale ........................................... 533
Aquaculture Potential ..........................................................511
Common Dolphin ..................................................... 533
Conclusions .........................................................................511
Bottlenose Dolphin................................................... 533
References........................................................................... 512
Risso s Dolphin ........................................................ 533
Invasive Species ......................................................................... 513
Northern Right-Whale Dolphin................................. 534
History ................................................................................ 513
Pacific white-sided dolphin ...................................... 534
Examples of Significant Invasive Species ............................ 513
Harbor Porpoise....................................................... 534
The European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas)....... 513
Dall s Porpoise ......................................................... 534
The Chinese Mitten Crab (Eriocheir sinensis) .........514
References........................................................................... 535
An Asian Clam (Potamocorbula amurensis) ...........515
Sea Otter .................................................................................... 536
A South African Sabellid Worm
History ............................................................................... 536
(Terebrasabella heterouncinata).............................515
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 537
A Tropical Seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia) .................515
Status of the Population ...................................................... 538
Other Invasives ......................................................... 516
Current Management ........................................................ 539
Existing Regulatory Regime and Regulatory Gaps .............. 516
References........................................................................... 540
National Invasive Species Act of 1996....................... 516
Marine Bird Resources .............................................................. 541
Clean Water Act......................................................... 516
History and Utilization ....................................................... 543
National Environmental Policy Act ............................517
Seabird Ecology .................................................................. 545
Endangered Species Act.............................................517
Management and Conservation........................................... 546
Presidential Executive Order 13112 ..........................517
Seabird and Fisheries Interactions ..................................... 547
California Environmental Quality Act........................517
References........................................................................... 548
California Porter-Cologne
General Seabird References ..................................... 548
Water Quality Control Act ......................................... 518
Surveys and Status Reports ...................................... 548
California Fish and Game Code ................................ 518
Seabird Ecology ....................................................... 549
Public Resources Code ............................................. 518
Conservation and Management ............................... 549
Local Application of State and Federal Laws............. 518
Pollution and Other Perturbations .......................... 550
Conclusions..........................................................................519
Seabirds and Fisheries ............................................. 550
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 17
Appendix A: Management Considerations 553 Steelhead............................................................................. 564
Table of Contents
Striped Marlin..................................................................... 564
Abalone .............................................................................. 553
Swordfish ............................................................................ 564
Albacore.............................................................................. 553
Smelts.................................................................................. 565
Angel Shark......................................................................... 553
Delta Smelt................................................................ 565
Barred Sand Bass................................................................ 554
Eulachon................................................................... 565
Bay Shrimp.......................................................................... 554
Longfin Smelt............................................................ 565
Bocaccio ............................................................................. 554
Night Smelt................................................................ 565
Bull Kelp.............................................................................. 554
Surf Smelt ................................................................. 565
Cabezon............................................................................... 554
Wakasagi .................................................................. 565
Calico Rockfish ................................................................... 555
Whitebait Smelt......................................................... 565
California Barracuda .......................................................... 555
Washington Clam ................................................................ 565
California Corbina .............................................................. 555
Wavy Turban Snails............................................................. 565
California Halibut ............................................................... 555
White Croaker ..................................................................... 566
California Sheephead.......................................................... 555
Yellowfin Tuna .................................................................... 566
Coonstripe Shrimp .............................................................. 555
Yellowfin croaker................................................................ 566
Coastal Cutthroat Trout....................................................... 555
Yellowtail ............................................................................ 566
Dolphin ............................................................................... 555
Eel Grass ............................................................................. 556 Appendix B 567
Flatfish ................................................................................ 556
Glossary ..................................................................................... 567
Gaper Clam ......................................................................... 556
References........................................................................... 575
Geoduck Clam..................................................................... 556
Giant Kelp............................................................................ 556 Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear 577
Giant Sea Bass ..................................................................... 557
Appendix D: Reviewers 583
Gracilaria............................................................................ 557
Grunion............................................................................... 557
Index 585
Jack Mackerel ..................................................................... 557
Kelp Bass............................................................................. 557
Louvar ................................................................................. 558
Monkeyface Prickleback..................................................... 558
Mussels ............................................................................... 558
Opah ................................................................................... 558
Other Nearshore Rockfish................................................... 558
Pacific Bonito...................................................................... 558
Pacific Hake ........................................................................ 558
Pacific Herring.................................................................... 559
Pacific Razor Clam .............................................................. 559
Pismo Clam ......................................................................... 560
Purple Sea Urchin ............................................................... 560
Red Rock Shrimp ................................................................ 560
Red Sea Urchin.................................................................... 560
Ridgeback Prawn ................................................................ 561
Rock Crabs.......................................................................... 561
Rock Scallop ....................................................................... 561
Salmon ................................................................................ 561
Sand Crab............................................................................ 562
Scorpionfish........................................................................ 562
Sea Cucumber ..................................................................... 562
Sheep Crab .......................................................................... 562
Shortfin Mako ..................................................................... 563
Silversides ........................................................................... 563
Skates and Rays................................................................... 563
Skipjack Tuna ..................................................................... 563
Spiny Lobster....................................................................... 563
Spot Prawn .......................................................................... 564
Spotfin Croaker ................................................................... 564
Spotted Sand Bass ............................................................... 564
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
18
Introduction and south of San Francisco, and there are serious concerns
Historical Overview about the potential for extinction of the white abalone.
Introduction and Historical Overview
Some major groundsh stocks, especially long-lived rock-
shes, continued to decline. Quota reductions, seasonal
and area closures, bag limit reductions and long-term
C alifornia’s Living Marine Resources: A Status Report is
stock rebuilding plans are causing major disruption in the
the fourth edition in a series of reports that address
commercial and recreational industries and communities
the status of California’s marine and anadromous sheries
dependent on groundsh.
and other marine life. Since the California Department
Since the last edition was published, ve California salmon
of Fish and Game published California Ocean Fisheries
populations have been listed under the federal Endan-
Resources to the Year 1960 (1961) and California’s Living
gered Species Act (ESA): Sacramento River winter chinook,
Marine Resources and Their Utilization (1971), and the
Central Valley spring chinook, California coastal chinook,
California Sea Grant Program updated and expanded Cali-
California coastal coho (south of the San Francisco Bay),
fornia’s Living Marine Resources and Their Utilization in
and steelhead (south of the Klamath-Trinity River system).
1992, the state’s marine resources and their management
The principal problem faced by these runs is the habitat
have continued to undergo constant change. For example,
degradation that has accrued from water uses that com-
by the early 1990s the sardine shery, which was the
pete with the requirements of salmon. Primary among
world’s largest during the rst half of the 20th century
these is diversion of water for irrigation and domestic use.
and practically has been non-existent since the 1960s,
In addition, alterations of rivers and watersheds to enable
reappeared under precautionary management. In 1998,
navigation, provide power, control ooding, and otherwise
the sardine resource was declared fully recovered. Tropi-
accommodate the needs of humans have taken their toll.
cal tunas were an extremely valuable segment of Califor-
While California’s population continued to grow and diver-
nia sh landings until the tuna canning industry moved
sify during the 1990s, participation in marine recreational
overseas during the mid-1980s. Changes in California’s
shing measured by license sales continued to be rela-
commercial sheries between 1970 and 1990 included the
tively stable. The number of active commercial passenger
development of specialized and valuable sheries for sea
shing vessels (partyboats) declined from 308 in 1989 to
urchins, hake, Pacic herring and widow rocksh.
300 in 1998. Other forms of marine recreation linked to
Change has continued in many sheries since the 1992 edi-
the health of marine living resources such as ecotourism
tion of this report. For example, increased international
have grown signicantly and have become an important
demand for squid resulted in a 500 percent increase in
segment of California’s coastal dependent economy.
landings to over 300 million pounds annually during non-El
The public’s interest and involvement in the management
Niño years. This expansion attracted many new partici-
and conservation of marine living resources have
pants from salmon purse seine sheries in the Pacic
increased substantially since the 1992 edition of Califor-
Northwest. A squid management plan including restricted
nia’s Marine Living Resources and Their Utilization. Major
access is currently being developed. In 1994, gillnets were
federal and state legislation is altering the way marine
prohibited in most of the nearshore areas of the coast
resources are managed. The 1996 reauthorization of the
and islands of southern and central California. This hap-
Magnuson-Stevens Act specied a precautionary approach
pened as a result of a voter approved California constitu-
in federally managed sheries. This resulted in establish-
tional amendment (Prop. 132). During the 1990s, a major
ing much lower catch limits and designing long term stock
shery developed for nearshore species including rock-
rebuilding plans for many Pacic Coast groundsh species,
shes, cabezon, and sheephead that were often marketed
especially the rockshes. The MLMA also required the
live for signicantly higher prices. Concerns about sustain-
identication and protection of essential sh habitat.
ability of this new intense shery provided much of the
impetus for the Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) of This report was written during a period of extraordinary
1998 and a moratorium on permits in the nearshore sh- change in our state. The MLMA of 1998 signicantly altered
ery. The southern California commercial lobster shery the way the state manages marine life. The MLMA pro-
continued to demonstrate higher catches during the 1990s vides the mechanisms whereby the management responsi-
resulting in record landings in 1997. California barracuda bility for commercial sheries can be moved from the
increased as a component of the recreational sheries to California State Legislature to the Fish and Game Com-
the levels of the 1950s, and the white seabass population mission. The MLMA mandates the development of shery
is showing signs of a recovery at the end of the century. management plans incorporating peer-reviewed science,
The California halibut commercial shery continued to increased constituent involvement in marine life manage-
sustain landings comparable to the 1980s, despite the ment, implementation of an ecosystem based research
gillnet closure. and management approach, and regular analyses of the
status of California’s sheries such as those found in
Severe declines in abalone abundance resulted in total
this publication. While the initial management plans man-
closure of recreational and commercial abalone shing
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 19
dated are for white seabass, nearshore sheries, and access in sheries. We have also taken advantage of new
Introduction and Historical Overview
emerging sheries, it is anticipated that similar manage- technologies to increase the use and effectiveness of
ment plans will be developed for many other California maps, graphs and tables. For ease of use, historical land-
marine sheries. ings statistics have been moved to the end of each appro-
priate chapter rather than being placed in large appendi-
Use of marine reserves and marine protected areas to
ces. A new glossary of technical terms and acronyms as
preserve marine wilderness and manage sheries is inten-
well as a shing gear appendix have been addded.
sifying at both the state and national level. California’s
Marine Life Protection Act of 1999 requires development Compiling a publication like this is a collaborative effort.
of a master plan for a network of marine reserves. On the The editors were fortunate to be able to recruit top
federal level, intense discussions by panels of scientists experts from the California Department of Fish and Game,
and constituents have occurred regarding plans for marine other state and federal agencies, universities, and private
reserves in large areas of the Santa Barbara Channel industry in the preparation of this report. Each section
Islands. Although no consensus was reached by mid-2001, has been peer reviewed for accuracy. The author’s name
debate regarding MPAs was continuing at both the state and afliation appear at the end of the section they
and federal levels. wrote. When signicant portions of the text from the
1992 edition were left intact, the original author is cred-
During the 1990s, overcapitalization was widely recog-
ited. We want to thank the more that 200 authors and
nized as a major problem in some sheries. The difcult
reviewers who volunteered their time and expertise. We
task of designing restricted access programs to improve
also greatly appreciate the contributions of many photog-
the balance between eet shing power and sustainable
raphers who allowed us to use their images to greatly
harvest levels has become a major component of shery
enhance this publication.
management plans seeking to sustain sheries economi-
cally as well as biologically. All editors participated in the development of the overall
design and layout of the report. Bill Leet served as
Earlier editions of this publication proved to be among
the lead editor as he did for the 1992 edition. Rick
the most valuable general reference works available on
Klingbeil served as project manager for the Department of
California’s economically important marine species. The
Fish and Game. Christopher Dewees led the University of
reports have been widely used by sheries researchers
California’s participation. Eric Larson coordinated the
and managers, policymakers, interested citizens, journal-
creation of the numerous statistical tables, graphics and
ists, the shing industry, enforcement ofcers, educators,
maps found in the report. Principal publication production
and others. Publication of this edition is mandated by
assistance was provided through a contract with the
the MLMA of 1998. A primary purpose of the book is to
University of California, Davis. Tom Jurach from Repro
provide a baseline of information for all concerned with
Graphics Services and Marianne Post from Creative
managing living marine resources in California.
Communications Services organized the layout, design,
The editors of this edition have retained much of the style
and publication of the document.
and format of earlier editions. Many of the conventions of
scientic writing are foregone because it was felt that this
style better serves the broad interests of readers. Each Christopher M. Dewees, Marine Fisheries Specialist, Sea
species article presented in this report contains a short Grant Extension Program, Wildlife, Fish and Conservation
list of general references for further reading. Detailed sh Department, University of California, Davis
and shellsh landings statistics, which begin in 1916, have Richard Klingbeil, Program Manager, California Depart-
been updated through 1999. ment of Fish and Game, Los Alamitos
Readers of earlier editions will notice some signicant Eric J. Larson, Senior Marine Biologist, California Depart-
changes and new features. The publication is organized ment of Fish and Game, Belmont
by marine ecosystems (bays and estuaries, nearshore, and
William S. Leet, Senior Editor, Davis
offshore) rather than species-by-species. For species that
occur in more than one ecosystem, the discussion appears
in the ecosystem section where they spend most of their
life and/or their principal harvest location. Descriptions of
the three marine ecosystems used for this report are also
included. Added or expanded chapters include a detailed
description of the human dimensions of marine life man-
agement, California’s ocean environment, marine law
enforcement, water quality and pollution, and restricted
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
20
California’s Variable
Ocean Environment temperatures) and indices of biological productivity (i.e.,
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
zooplankton densities). These longer term events have
T
been shown to greatly alter populations of the dominant
he habitat of California’s living marine resources is
pelagic shes of the California Current and it is probable
primarily the California Current system. This huge,
that they affect the populations of even long-lived benthic
open system is constantly changing in response to weather
shes and marine mammals.
systems, seasonal heating and cooling processes, inter-
annual episodes such as El Niño - La Niña events, and A species physiology determines its preferred temperature
longer term or regime scale climatic changes. range and its lethal temperature tolerances. The surface
and bottom temperatures on the continental shelf off
Small organisms, and the young of most large ones, are
California make the northern portion of the state good
impacted by the full temporal range of physical processes.
habitat for sub-arctic and cold-temperate species (salmon,
Shorter time scale and local physical processes including
market crab, and petrale sole) and the southern portion
intense wind storms, extended periods of calms, infusions
good habitat for warm temperate and sub-tropical species
of freshwater runoff, and shorter term variations in
(kelp bass, spiny lobster and California halibut). Many
currents heavily impact the growth, survival, and dis-
of the most abundant species of the California Current
tribution of most of these organisms. Short-term varia-
are transition-zone species that have the center of their
tions in primary production (e.g., diatom blooms) coincide
distribution in California (Pacic sardine, Pacic hake,
with upwelling, but the scale of phytoplankton production
and northern anchovy). Temperature, like other physical
relates to the history of water masses and weather
oceanic factors, is highly variable on seasonal, annual,
conditions. Seasonal scale uctuations are so important
and longer time scales and it is the most easily studied.
to many organisms that their life-cycle is often largely
In addition, temperature is highly dependent upon large-
adapted to the seasonal cycle and their abundance is
scale ocean currents and local upwelling; it is therefore
often heavily inuenced by variations from the seasonal
a rough index of the productivity of the lower trophic
norm. Longer term events, El Niños and regime shifts,
levels and an indicator of climatic processes that favor
appear to be primarily dependent upon physical processes
the colder or the warmer water faunas that occur in
that are centered elsewhere in the Pacic and their
California. Temperature is thus the most commonly cor-
effects include alterations in the physical, nutrient, and
related climatic variable used to determine associations
biological content of the waters entering the California
with biological processes. However, nearly any environ-
Current system. These events also result in alterations in
mental factor that is associated with variations in the
local physical processes such as currents and upwelling
major currents will also be correlated with biological pro-
that control local inputs of nutrients. El Niño events and
cesses and temperature, and we do not know if altera-
regime shifts have extensive effects on kelp forests and
tions in currents or the resultant changes in temperature
zooplankton populations.
have the largest effect on biological processes in the
The adults of larger shes and other marine vertebrates
California Current.
are somewhat buffered from the effects of weather
and other short-term physical uctuations, and extremely
long-lived organisms, such as many of the deep benthic
shes, may have populations that are nearly independent
of normal short-term environmental uctuations. Many
of California’s marine shes have life history adaptations
such as extended spawning seasons, multiple spawnings,
migrations, and extreme longevity that reduce the harm- Average Monthly Sea
ful effects of short-term adverse environmental uctua- Surface Temperatures
tions and even limit the effects of El Niño events at the Off San Francisco
Sea surface water
population level. In contrast, organisms with shorter life
temperature offshore of
spans, such as the market squid, that may be only slightly San Franciso indicates a
affected by environmental uctuations at the shorter distinct summer upwelling
pattern with cold sea
time scales appear to have extreme population declines
surface temperatures
during El Niño events. Decadal or regime scale climatic nearshore, as well as large
uctuations that alter the basic productivity of the Cal- inter-annual variations.
Within this strong upwelling
ifornia Current system are common, repetitive events
cell, sea surface tempera-
readily observed in paleo-sediment analyses that extend tures can be colder during
back several thousand years. They are also clearly evident the summer in cold years
than they are during the
in time series analyses of physical factors (i.e., ocean
winter in warm years.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 21
The living marine resources of California evolved in poleward ow is not uncommon in the nearshore region
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
a dynamic and changing ocean and most populations over much of the system. The advection of warm, high
undoubtedly uctuated in response to environmental salinity, low-nutrient and plankton-poor water from the
alterations long before man exploited them. Many of these sub-tropics is largely responsible for the warm water ora
resources are now heavily exploited and those in the near- and fauna and lower productivity characteristic of the
shore environment are also impacted by human induced nearshore region south of Point Conception.
environmental changes. Some species, such as bocaccio Like other eastern boundary currents, the California Cur-
and lingcod, have been heavily overshed, and their cur- rent has extensive coastal upwelling that is primarily
rent populations are at very low levels. A few very highly driven by spring and summer winds resulting from tem-
overshed stocks, such as Pacic mackerel and Pacic perature gradients between the relatively cool sea surface
sardine, have suffered nearly complete population col- and the warming continental land mass. Equatorward
lapses from which they have recovered after one or more winds, offshore Ekman transport, and coastal upwelling
decades of protection by harvest moratoriums. As dis- occur nearly all year off of Baja California and the offshore
cussed below, there is considerable evidence that regime region of southern California; however, within the South-
shifts exacerbated the effects of shing and delayed the ern California Bight wind velocities are lower and offshore
effects of the moratoriums. transport is much reduced. Wind velocities and upwelling
Fishery and marine resource management is presently in are variable but tend to be at a maximum in the spring
the middle of a change in philosophy. In the past, our to early summer in the region between Point Conception
management has been based on the view that the envi- (34.5°N) and the Oregon border (42°N). The duration and
ronment can be considered to be constant with only minor strength of upwelling-favorable winds diminishes north-
and temporary perturbations which introduce “random wards. Off the State of Washington (48°N) upwelling is
noise” into our population assessments and management relatively minor and is largely restricted to the late
policies. This has resulted in a management system spring to early fall; winter storms there result in intense
that has failed to protect exploited populations during downwelling events. Downwelling events diminish in both
extended periods of adverse environmental conditions. magnitude and seasonal duration to the south, below
The information in the following sections indicates that Point Conception they are uncommon and usually of
physical factors and biological productivity in the Califor- minor magnitude.
nia Current system are not stationary. It is clear that Climatic uctuations ranging from strong storms to sea-
variations in these processes must be monitored by our sonal cycles to El Niño/La Niña events to decadal changes
research programs and built into our management systems or regime shifts alter the physical, chemical, and biologi-
if we expect to maintain healthy and diverse nearshore cal environment of California’s marine waters. Average
and offshore ecosystems. monthly sea surface temperatures (SST) in California
waters range from a minimum of about 52°F in February
off northern California to a maximum of about 68°F
Climatic Processes, El Niño Events in August off southern California. The pattern of sea sur-
and Regime Shifts face temperatures in the California Current varies from
a clearly latitude dependent situation in the late winter,
T he California Current, one of the world’s major eastern with isotherms being nearly east-west in orientation, to
boundary currents, has its origin in the mid-latitude the distinct upwelling pattern of cold water near shore
west-wind-drift region of the North Pacic, and it could and warmer water offshore in the late summer. Most of
be considered an equatorward owing, surface extension the area has mild winter SSTs, and cool summer SSTs
of the North Pacic Current. The core of the California caused by the summer upwelling. This results in a very
Current normally lies about 90 to 130 miles offshore of small seasonal variation in SST, no more than 4 to 7° F
the shelf break or continental margin. The fauna and during the year. In contrast, the inter-annual variation in
productivity of the California Current system are heavily SSTs can be as large as the normal summer/winter differ-
dependent upon the input of cool, low-salinity, high ence; off San Francisco SST is colder during the summer in
nutrient and plankton-rich waters from the mid-latitude cold years than it is during the winter in warm years.
North Pacic.
The system also has a sub-surface, poleward current (the
El Niño/La Niña Processes
Davidson Current) that is often at a maximum just off-
shore of, and somewhat deeper than, the shelf break. In
E l Niño is a term that describes large-scale changes in
the fall, poleward ow often extends to the surface in
the atmospheric pressure system, trade winds, and sea
the southern portion of the California Current and surface
surface temperatures of the entire tropical Pacic that
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
22
occur at approximately three to four-year intervals. The marily inuenced by large-scale variations in ow of the
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
cold water portion of the cycle is now referred to as La California Current. Increases in southward transport are
Niña. This cyclic process has traditionally been measured associated with increases in zooplankton production, cold
by the southern oscillation index (SOI), which is the dif- temperatures, and low salinity (La Niña events), whereas
ference between the atmospheric pressure at Tahiti (an decreases in this transport result in unusually low zoo-
approximation of the South Pacic High) and the atmo- plankton biomass, warm temperature, and high salinity (El
spheric pressure at Darwin, Australia (near the Tropical Niño events).
Pacic Low). The SOI is therefore a measure of the vari- In addition to substantial declines in zooplankton abun-
ability of the atmospheric circulation in the South Pacic. dance during El Niño events, analysis of the samples taken
The effects of El Niño events in California include reduced during the years 1955 to 1959 showed a large rearrange-
input of cold, nutrient-rich waters from the north and ment of the dominance structure of functional groups
increased advection of warm, nutrient-poor water of sub- of macrozooplankton. The rank order of abundance for
tropical and tropical origin into the southern California 18 groups, containing an estimated 546 species, changed
area. There may or may not be a reduction in upwelling over this period. Plankton community structure was sim-
favorable winds; however, nutrient input to the surface ilar in 1955 to 1957 but underwent an abrupt and
waters from upwelling is decreased due to reduced nutri- dramatic change coincident with strong El Niño conditions
ents in the subsurface waters and a depressed ther- in 1958-1959. In addition to changes in zooplankton, other
mocline. Thus, during El Niños the California Current characteristics of strong El Niño events include deepening
becomes more sub-tropical, and warm-water organisms of thermocline and nitricline by some 165 feet, and redis-
enter the system in greater numbers. During La Niñas the tribution of phytoplankton biomass from the upper layers
environment is more sub-arctic and cold water organisms of the ocean to a deep chlorophyll maximum. Quarterly
are favored. patterns of environmental variables and zooplankton bio-
mass are now reported annually in the State of the Califor-
Although California occupies a large geographical area,
nia Current in CalCOFI Reports.
surface temperature anomalies on scales greater than a
few weeks are common over the entire region. Time
series of SST from northern, central and southern Califor-
Decadal/Regime Scale Processes
nia are characterized by strong El Niño events such as
D
those occurring in 1940, 1958, 1983, 1992, and 1997. In uring the last decade it has become increasing appar-
addition, there are decadal scale events where surface ent that longer term decadal to multi-decadal cli-
temperatures are above or below average for extended matic cycles are impacting populations of a wide variety
periods. Cold periods occurred prior to 1925, from about of marine organisms in the California region, and that
1946 to 1956, and from 1962 to 1976. Warm periods all trophic levels are affected. Analyses of sh scales in
occurred from 1938 to 1945, 1957 to 1961, and from anaerobic sediments have shown that these cycles have
1977 to 1998. Waters of the Central Pacic, however, been occurring for thousands of years (i.e., independent
tend to vary in the opposite direction from the California of shing), and that the most abundant sh stocks have
Current system.
Surface temperature is not necessarily a good indicator
of temperature below the upper mixed layer. In
1972, at the onset of a major El Niño, the surface tem-
perature at Point Conception was the lowest since 1951,
whereas the temperature at 330 feet was among the
warmest recorded.
The 50 year time series of the California Cooperative
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) is probably the
world’s best data set for determining the effects of inter-
annual physical variability on zooplankton populations,
the primary food for larger stages of larval and some
adult shes. As with temperature, strong interannual sig-
nals occur over a very large spatial scale. Anomalies of
zooplankton abundance, 10m temperature, 10m salinity, Winter and Summer Pacific Coast Sea Surface Temperatures
Average (1920-1992) February and August sea surface temperatures (˚F). A cold summer
and southward transport are highly correlated in time
upwelling core is apparent in northern California. Data extract from COADS as monthly means.
from southern Baja California to north of San Francisco.
On interannual time scales, zooplankton abundance is pri-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 23
uctuations which occur over an average period of about in reduced displacement of the thermocline and thus a
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
60 years. The implications from a number of these paleo- shoaling of the source of upwelled waters. The effect is
sediment studies are that large-scale physical processes to decrease the fraction of the year when wind stress is
are forcing the biological uctuations. Recent results from strong enough to lift nutrient-rich waters to the surface
ocean/atmosphere models suggest that decadal climatic near the coast. Because the increased stratication essen-
cycles are forced by air/sea interactions in the higher tially insulates nutrient-bearing waters from the surface,
latitude North Pacic. Observed decadal to multi-decadal a moderate degree of heating can greatly reduce the
uctuations in the mid-latitude atmospheric circulation in surface nutrient supply. These trends appear to be related
the Central Pacic have also been suggested to have phys- to the strengthening of the North Pacic wintertime atmo-
ical and biological effects that appear to affect a large spheric circulation associated with the regime shift that
proportion of the North Pacic basin. A major regime shift began in 1976-1977.
occurred in 1976-1977 and the surface waters of the entire Fish eggs and larvae are also sampled in CalCOFI zooplank-
eastern Pacic Ocean from Mexico to Alaska became ton collections. Although both total larval sh and zoo-
warmer. Since 1976, there has also been an increase in plankton abundance exhibit substantial interannual vari-
the frequency, duration and intensity of El Niño events in ability, there is no clear relation between the two time
California waters. series. There are weak time-lagged correlations when zoo-
The 1976 climatic shift is clearly seen in time series of plankton leads sh larvae by four to ve months in three
California sea surface temperatures. Decadal and regime of four regions of the California Current, which would
shift processes both are evident in a newly proposed be expected if poor nutrition of adult sh has affected
index for the North Pacic, the northern oscillation index their reproductive success. Although zooplankton is well
(NOI). This index is analogous to the southern oscillation correlated with temperature, salinity, and transport, total
index used to describe and predict El Niños. However, sh larvae are poorly related to these physical param-
it is a better measure of the atmospheric circulation in eters. Nor are larval sh clearly related to anomalies in
the North Pacic because it is based on the difference longshore winds, the basis of coastal upwelling. Analyses
between the average position of the North Pacic High of both larval sh and zooplankton data suffer from the
(35°N: 130°W) and the Tropical Low near Darwin. When obvious complications of lumping large numbers of taxa;
the three to four year scale El Niño processes are ltered studies of individual species may offer better oppor-
out, using a 36-month moving average, the NOI exhibits tunities of relating oceanographic variability to recruit-
the decadal cycles that researchers have predicted and ment success. For example, there are inverse trends for
the widely observed climatic shift that occurred in northern anchovy and Pacic sardine spawning biomass
1976-1977. and larval standing crop; the declines for anchovy and
increases for sardines took place during a period of declin-
Zooplankton populations also exhibit strong interdecadal
ing zooplankton abundance and warming temperatures
variability. CalCOFI data showed a 70 percent decrease in
associated with the regime shift. Clearly shes are long-
the biomass of macrozooplankton associated with warm-
lived organisms with complicated life histories; mortality
ing of surface layers between 1951 and 1993. Averages
in poorly assessed stages such as juveniles may account
of zooplankton biomass over the initial and nal seven-
for the poor relationships between physical parameters,
year periods of this interval were computed for southern
larval abundance, and adult stocks.
California grid lines . The differences between the two
periods appeared to be uniform in space and at least
twice the standard deviation of the seven-year mean at
Implications for Nearshore Ecosystems
each station. Over this time period, lines 80 and 90 sur-
T
face temperatures warmed by an average 2.2 and 2.8°F, he ora and fauna of California’s nearshore communi-
respectively, but thermal changes at depth were small. ties are strongly affected by interannual variability in
Therefore, the vertical stratication of the thermocline the physical environment including both El Niño-Southern
substantially increased, resulting in a reduction in the Oscillation events and the regime shift that began in
transfer of nutrients to the surface. 1976-1977. Furthermore, large wave events in this region
Long-term trends in temperature and salinity of the upper are highly correlated with strong El Niño events, so
100m, zooplankton biomass, and transport from north to these two forms of disturbance often co-occur. Thus,
south through the present day CalCOFI grid indicate that in the southern and central regions of the state there
interdecadal changes apparently have different physical has been considerable interdecadal-scale wave variability,
forcing mechanisms than those associated with El Niño with greatly increasing numbers of episodes with signi-
events. Because the surface layer has become warmer and cant wave heights greater than 12 feet in recent years.
fresher, the increase in stratication apparently results
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
24
The most dramatic benthic effects of El Niño events are appear to be important. Drift kelp is the primary food for
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
on kelp forests, ecosystems organized around the struc- sea urchins and abalones. With up to 60 percent of the
ture and productivity provided by giant kelp (Macrocystis) biomass of a healthy Macrocystis forest in its canopy, the
and bull kelp (Nereocystis). The two-fold effects include loss of the canopy and varying degrees of mortality of
extreme winter storm waves, which may decimate kelp adult plants have huge effects on drift availability. With
populations along the entire exposed coast, and anom- reduced food supplies, urchin gonad production is very
alously-warm, nutrient-depleted waters, whose effects low, often to the point of making processing uneconomi-
increase in severity with decreasing latitude. With their cal; because the product is the gonads. Many processors
high growth rate, southern California Macrocystis popula- closed during the 1982-1984 El Niño, for example. Abalone
tions depend on nutrients supplied by upwelling or inter- reproduction and recruitment are also affected, leading
nal waves. When these sources are rendered ineffective to large gaps in size-frequency distributions. The loss
by depression of the thermocline, growth ceases, tissue of drift food may trigger destructive grazing by sea
decay leads to the loss of the surface canopy, and consid- urchins, transforming kelp forests to barren grounds with
erable mortality may follow. Kelp forests from the warm- cascading implications for other organisms in this com-
est regions of the state, Orange County south along the munity. Anomalously warm waters are also associated with
mainland and the southeastern Channel Islands, suffer disease outbreaks, especially for sea urchins, sea stars,
massive losses. Further to the north, the addition of the and abalones.
El Niño temperature anomaly to normal summer-fall tem- Reductions in Macrocystis populations have critical impli-
peratures apparently maintains the environment within cations for shes dependent on giant kelp for foraging
the range of suitability (i.e., nutrients did not become habitat and refuge from predators. Recruitment of young-
limiting), although growth may be reduced. of-the-year kelp bass is dependent on Macrocystis density.
Sea surface temperature is the best predictor of kelp The presence of giant kelp has a positive effect on the
harvest and areal extent. The increase in mean SST since recruitment of other rocky inshore shes such as kelp
the 1976-1977 regime shift has been associated with large rocksh, giant kelpsh, kelp surfperch, pile surfperch, and
decreases in the size of Macrocystis plants as measured by black surfperch. On the other hand, the striped surfperch,
number of stipes per individual. Furthermore, this secular which feeds in foliose red algae, is adversely affected by
increase in SSTs means that each El Niño event is adding the presence of Macrocystis because of the strong nega-
to a higher temperature base; thus, successive events are tive relationship between giant kelp and foliose algae.
characterized by increasingly severe temperature anom- Thus, the structure of a kelp forest has signicant effects
alies. Poor conditions for Macrocystis growth are associ- on the species composition and local density of the sh
ated with enhanced understory algae and reduced drift assemblage, and that structure is strongly affected by
kelp production. ocean climate.
Aerial surveys illustrate huge variability in Macrocystis With greatly increased transport from the south, northern
surface canopies in the Southern California Bight. The range extensions of subtropical, migratory species and
effects of the 1983 and 1998 El Niño winter storms are larvae are very characteristic of El Niño events. Most
apparent in all areas, but the speed of kelp recovery
varies with location. Cooler areas such as San Miguel
Island recovered from the storms very quickly and had
minimal impacts from the warm, nutrient-depleted waters
that followed. In contrast, many of the Macrocystis popu-
lations on the coastline between Santa Barbara and Point
Conception, which were largely set in sand, were devas-
tated by the storms of the early 1980s and have not recov-
ered. The 1988-1989 La Niña provided excellent growth
conditions after a severe storm largely removed existing
giant kelp populations in many areas; this combination led
to peaks in kelp canopy biomass in the southeastern part
of the bight in 1990.
While effects of El Niño and regime shifts on the kelps
are relatively well known, the implications for higher tro- California Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies
Annual sea surface temperature anomalies (˚F) off northern, central, and southern California,
phic levels and community structure are only beginning
with means of three time periods (1920-1937, 1938-1976, and 1977-1997). Data extract from
to be understood. The effects of storms, warm, nutri- COADS as monthly means.
ent-depleted waters, and anomalous current patterns all
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 25
migratory species are pelagic, but pelagic red crabs are sensitive to El Niño conditions, because it was poor during
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
conspicuous nearshore visitors. Spiny lobsters and sheep- 1983 and 1992. Poleward advection, downwelling, delayed
head, two important predators of sea urchins in the South- and reduced phytoplankton blooms, and low zooplankton
ern California Bight, both have their centers of distribu- abundance appear to be important factors in reproductive
tion off Baja California and recruit heavily to southern failure during these periods. Modeling has demonstrated
California (and sheephead as far north as Monterey) during that shery management practices can exacerbate El Niño
strong El Niño events. Conversely, La Niña events with effects if harvest is not decreased in response to the
enhanced transport from the north result in increased environmentally induced decrease in biomass.
recruitment of cool water shes such as blue rocksh in In northern California, where the red sea urchin shery
southern California. is limited by poor recruitment, there has been strong
Observations of shallow water reef sh assemblages in interest in understanding the role of oceanographic vari-
the Southern California Bight from 1974 to 1993 indicate ability on the temporal and spatial patterns of settlement.
substantial changes in species composition and productiv- Recent studies have shown increased settlement in some
ity that appear to relate to the increased frequency of sites during both the 1992-1993 and 1997 El Niños, but
El Niño events and the regime shift. At two sites off Los the sampling periods were short and settlement was not
Angeles, species diversity fell 15 to 25 percent and the consistent among areas. Regional patterns of circulation
composition shifted from dominance by northern to south- in northern California and the delivery of larvae to the
ern species by 1990. By 1993, 95 percent of all species coast during upwelling relaxation are the best explanation
had declined in abundance by an average of 69 percent. for the observed pattern of recent recruitment for several
Similar declines of surfperch populations off Santa Cruz invertebrate species. Understanding the role of larger
Island were linked to declines of their crustacean prey scale processes will require longer time series.
and biomass of understory algae where the sh foraged.
Recruitment of young-of-the-year at the three sites fell
Implications for the Offshore Ecosystem
by over 90 percent, and the decline was highly correlated
with the decrease in macrozooplankton abundance in the
C alifornia’s marine fauna and ora are principally com-
CalCOFI data. These changes in population abundances
ponents of the subarctic, transition, and central (or
and trophic structure were apparently caused by lower
subtropical) zones. Subarctic species are more common
productivity associated with the regime shift of 1976-1977.
off northern California and subtropical species more abun-
Statistics from the commercial passenger shing vessel dant off southern California. With the exception of marine
rocksh shery of southern California for the period 1980 mammals, birds, and a very few shes (tunas), marine
to 1996 illustrate a substantial decline in catch-per-unit organisms are cold blooded. They are therefore highly
effort. Three species abundant in 1980 were absent by affected by temperature, making water temperature one
1996. Catch of others such as bocaccio declined as much of the most signicant physical factors that marine organ-
as 98 percent. On average, mean length declined due to isms have to cope with. In fact, the most obvious effect
the removal of larger size classes, and in the case of of climatic variation in the California offshore ecosystem
the vermilion rocksh, the take changed from primarily is the appearance of tropical species such as tunas and
adults to almost entirely juveniles. On some trips, the pelagic red crabs in association with El Niño events. As
catch now mostly consists of dwarf or small species of mentioned earlier, variations in the major current pat-
Sebastes. Such population declines probably result from terns greatly inuence uctuations in ocean temperatures.
poor long-term juvenile recruitment caused by adverse
Wind driven upwelling also alters temperature and trans-
oceanographic conditions combined with overshing of
port patterns. In the California current, the most obvious
adults and sub-adults. This combination results in recruit-
consequence is the nearshore core of cold upwelled water
ment overshing that reduces spawning stocks to levels
that is at a peak in the Cape Mendocino region in the
too low to ensure adequate production of young sh for
summer. Nearshore species that have pelagic eggs are
future shing.
highly susceptible to the offshore loss of their early life
Dramatic effects on sh assemblages are reported in cen- history stages by wind-driven surface transport. Many spe-
tral California as well, where El Niño events are asso- cies are therefore unable to reproduce successfully in
ciated with improved recruitment of southern species, the region between Point Conception and Cape Blanco,
recruitment failures of rockshes, and poor growth and Oregon (about 35-43°N), where upwelling and offshore
condition of adult rockshes. In addition to sheephead, transport are at a maximum. Many of the important spe-
blacksmith and bluebanded goby are southern species that cies that are permanent residents of this region have
were observed near Monterey. Reproductive success of reproductive adaptations that reduce the offshore disper-
many species of central California rocksh appears to be sion of reproductive products. These include bearing live
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
26
young (rockshes and surfperches), demersal spawning With the exception of the salmons, the colder water shes
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
(herring, lingcod and many littoral species), anadromous are much less likely to make seasonal migrations. Most of
spawning (salmonids and true smelts), and late winter the California groundsh and nearshore shes make very
spawning (Dover sole, sablesh and most rockshes) to limited geographical movements, other than the larval
avoid the intense upwelling season (late spring to early drift that occurs during their planktonic early life history
summer). The most abundant California Current shes stages. Once they settle in good habitat, individuals of
have pelagic eggs and larvae and these shes have exten- these species tend to remain in relatively small areas. La
sive spawning and feeding migrations (Pacic hake, Pacic Niña events therefore are not remarkable in the appear-
sardine, Pacic mackerel, and jack mackerel). The adults ance of large numbers of the adults of cold water species
of these stocks feed in the more northern portions of the moving down from Alaska and Canada. However, they may
region during the summer and fall, and then return to the result in increased recruitment at the southern edges of
area near, or to the south of Point Conception to spawn in the range of colder water species.
the late winter and early spring.
Regime Scale Climatic Variations
El Niño - La Niña Fluctuations
L onger-term climatic processes appear to be forced by
T he most obvious biological effect of El Niño Southern factors outside of the California Current region. Early
Oscillation events is that environmental factors, espe- studies showed that sea surface temperatures are out
cially temperature, affect the behavior and distribution of of phase off of California and Japan. The dominant
larger marine organisms. These effects are most marked pelagic shes of the California, Japan, and Peru/Chile
in the adults of pelagic, migratory, or nomadic species regions have been shown to have strikingly similar popula-
that are able to greatly expand or contract their ranges tion uctuations, and paleo-sediment studies in both the
by actively moving among regions with seasonal cycles or California Current and the Peru Current suggest that
other climatic uctuations such as El Niño events. South- regime scale climatic changes have been occurring for
ern species that have the center of their distribution south thousands of years. Salmon production in the Pacic
of California such as bonito, barracuda, white sea bass, Northwest (chinook and coho) has recently been related
and swordsh normally move into southern and central to interdecadal climatic patterns in the North Pacic and
California during the late summer and fall. Both these it is out of phase with production of pink and sockeye
shes and tropical shes such as yellowtail, skipjack, and salmon in Alaska.
yellown tuna move into southern California in larger In contrast with short term La Niña events, cold water
numbers during El Niños. Major El Niño events also cause organisms are able to extend their populations into the
extended migrations of Pacic sardine, jack mackerel, and southern portion of the state during extended cold peri-
Pacic mackerel to as far north as Alaska. This migratory ods. Many rockshes that have the center of their distribu-
response to warmer surface temperatures is primarily tion in the subarctic zone exhibit this pattern. The reverse
behavioral and it may or may not be associated with pattern occurs in subtropical shes. Some transition zone
increased population size of the individual species. pelagic species move as far north as southern Alaska
Sub-tropical species with limited swimming ability, such during very warm years but essentially abandon the area
as pelagic red crabs and smaller zooplankton species, north of California during extended cold periods.
often occur in dense concentrations off of California, sug- The California Current has recently been in its longest
gesting that advection also plays a signicant role in com- recorded period of warm water. During the last two
munity structure during El Niño events. El Niños are known decades, there have been marked population declines in
to alter the population levels of zooplankton and other a number of cold water species (salmon, lingcod, and
animals with short life spans. The market squid, which rockshes) and several stocks are now threatened or
normally lives for no more than one year, appears to be endangered. In contrast, several transition zone shes
heavily impacted by El Niños and the California shery for that spawn off southern California and migrate to feeding
this species has suffered near total collapse in major El grounds between northern California and Canada experi-
Niño years. Population effects on longer-lived animals are enced large population increases following the shift to
likely, but population time series are lacking for most spe- warm water conditions (Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel
cies. El Niños and other warm water events can result in and Pacic hake). It is clear that physical climatic factors
decreased growth rates and reproductive output in shes, may be as important as shing in regulating the productiv-
and decreased size at maturity in market squid. ity of some exploited species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 27
Conclusions References
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
T he organisms of the California Current are adapted to Baumgartner, T.R., A. Soutar and V. Ferreria-Bartrina.
an environment that varies on scales from local and 1992. Reconstruction of the history of Pacic sardine and
short term to very large scale and multidecadal. Growth, northern anchovy populations over the past two millennia
reproduction, and larval survival may be depressed for from sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California.
variable periods during short-term adverse environmental CalCOFI Rep. Vol. 33:24-40.
conditions, but most adults of larger species survive. The Chelton, D. B., P. A. Bernal, and J. A. McGowan. 1982.
addition of decades of intense shing pressure onto long Large-scale interannual physical and biological interaction
term climate disturbances such as those experienced since in the California Current. J. Mar. Res. 40: 1095-1125.
the 1976-1977 regime shift, however, makes population
Dayton, P. K. and M. J. Tegner. 1990. Bottoms beneath
decline almost inevitable for species adversely affected
troubled waters: benthic impacts of the 1982-84 El Niño
by the changed environment. The challenge facing shery
in the temperate zone. In: P. W. Glynn (ed.), Ecological
managers is how to respond on time scales that will
consequences of the 1982-83 El Niño to marine life.
protect spawning stocks during periods of poor reproduc-
Elsevier Oceanography Series No. 52, p. 433-472.
tion. One approach is to signicantly decrease shing
Holbrook, S. J., M. H. Carr, R. J. Schmitt, and J. A. Coyer.
effort on existing, heavily pressured stocks to create a
1990. Effect of giant kelp on local abundance of reef
buffer for hard times. El Niño events are being predicted
shes: the importance of ontogenetic resource require-
with increasing skill; if shing effort on sensitive species
ments. Bull. Mar. Sci. 47: 104-114.
could be sharply curtailed in favor of species that thrive
under warm conditions, the negative effects of these Holbrook, S. J., R. J. Schmitt, and J. S. Stephens. 1997.
climatic events could be reduced. Another approach is to Changes in an assemblage of temperate reef shes associ-
establish marine protected areas large enough to ensure ated with a climate shift. Ecol. Appl. 7(4): 1299-1310.
surviving populations in every region. If some rocksh
Love, M. S. , J. R. Caselle, and W. Van Buskirk. 1998. A
stocks had been protected in southern California during
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
the present regime shift, for example, recovery during
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the Southern California
cold water periods would be far faster than the present
Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Rep.39: 180-195.
situation that will largely depend on recruitment from
MacCall, A.D. 1996. Patterns of low frequency variability
depressed central California populations.
in sh populations of the California Current. CalCOFI Rep.
Too much of our sheries management has been based
Vol 37:100-110.
on the assumption that environmental variability is not
McGowan, J.A. 1972. The nature of oceanic ecosystems. In
important. With 20/20 hindsight and the increasing pros-
The Biology of the Oceanic Pacic. Ed C.B. Miller. Oregon
pects of human impacts on climate, we know that this
State Univ. Press. 9-28.
cannot continue. It is clear that over the next decade
a major research effort will have to be made to better McGowan, J. A., D. R. Cayan, and L. M. Dorman. 1998.
understand the climatic connection and that shery man- Climate-ocean variability and ecosystem response in the
agement will have to consider policies to reduce exploi- northeast Pacic. Science 281: 210-217.
tation rates when species are impacted by adverse
Roemmich, D. and J. A. McGowan. 1995a. Climatic warm-
climatic factors.
ing and the decline of zooplankton in the California Cur-
rent. Science 267: 1324-1326.
Richard R. Parrish
Tegner, M. J. and P. K. Dayton. 1987. El Niño effects on
National Marine Fisheries Service
Southern California kelp forest communities. Adv. Ecol.
Mia J. Tegner Res. 47: 243-279.
University of California Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Tegner, M. J. and P. K. Dayton. 1991. Sea urchins, El Niños,
and the long-term stability of Southern California kelp
forest communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 77: 49-63.
Tegner, M. J., P. K. Dayton, P. B. Edwards, and K. L. Riser.
1997. Large-scale, low-frequency effects on kelp forest
succession: a tale of two cohorts. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
146: 117-134.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
28
The Status of Habitats
and Water Quality in shing and tourism that depend on a healthy coast and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
ocean contribute more than 17 billion dollars to the
California’s Coastal state’s economy every year, and provide 370,000 jobs to
California’s citizens.
and Marine Health of Coastal and Marine Water
Quality and Habitats
Environment Monitoring and Assessment Information
G ood water quality and healthy aquatic habitats
Importance of Healthy Waters and depend upon the activities that occur nearby. Land
Habitats to Marine Life use practices, population densities, point and nonpoint
source discharges, agriculture, urbanization, industry, and
C lean water is essential to a healthy coastal and marine
recreation all inuence the water quality and habitat of
environment. Seventy-ve percent of all commercial
a specic locality or region. To determine the nature and
sh in the United States depend on estuaries and associ-
extent of impacts that these activities have on water
ated coastal wetlands for some portion of their life-cycle.
quality and habitat, monitoring and assessment programs
Unfortunately, these are probably the most threatened of
are conducted at the state, federal, and local levels.
all habitats in California today.
The state’s Bay Protection and Toxic Cleanup Program
Because pollution impairs the breeding grounds for many and Mussel Watch Program, the San Francisco Bay
species of sea life, it is a substantial contributing factor Regional Monitoring Program, the Southern California
to declines in these species. Impacts to coastal-depen- Bight Regional Study, and the National Oceanographic and
dent species include declines in the species’ populations, Atmospheric Administration’s Status, and Trends Program
reproductive problems, birth defects, behavioral changes, are but a few examples of the many programs underway in
and increased susceptibility to disease. For example, ill- California. Monitoring and assessment information is used
nesses and deaths of sea otters and other marine mam- to determine compliance with state and federal statutes
mals from viruses, many of which had had little effect such as the federal Clean Water Act and the state’s Porter-
on the animals only a few years ago, are on the rise Cologne Water Quality Control Act, as well as with permit
in California. Studies indicate that coastal pollution may regulations and water quality standards protecting marine
be a signicant factor in these increased illnesses and resources and their habitats.
deaths, possibly due to its negative impacts on immune
Though monitoring efforts in the state are limited and
systems responses.
can be much improved, some conclusions can be drawn
Pollution can come from direct discharges (“point about the health of certain state’s waters. For example,
sources”) and runoff from land-based activities (“non- existing data indicate that uses of 100 percent of the
point source pollution”). Plumes of contaminated runoff state’s surveyed tidal wetlands, 71 percent of surveyed
can oat on top of the heavier seawater and have been bays and harbors, 91 percent of surveyed estuaries, 78
shown to extend 25 or more miles offshore. Nutrient pol- percent of surveyed freshwater wetlands, 71 percent
lution, such as from farms, can create toxic algal blooms, of surveyed lakes and reservoirs, and 81 percent of sur-
or “red tides,” in marine waters. One 1998 toxic algal veyed rivers and streams are impaired or threatened in
bloom produced domoic acid, a harmful biotoxin that some way by water pollution. Examples of uses that are
affects the nervous system in animals and humans. This being impaired or threatened by pollution include drinking
algal bloom resulted in the death of more than 50 Cali- water, sh consumption, aquatic life support, swimming,
fornia sea lions along California’s central coast. Inland, and aquaculture. It should be noted that these gures are
nonpoint source pollution from logging and other activi- only for those waters that are monitored, which may over-
ties impair critical habitats for marine life, including north represent the more contaminated waters in the state. On
coast streams essential to threatened and endangered the other hand, a recent federal report indicates that the
species such as Pacic Coast coho salmon. number of impaired waters is likely much higher than that
currently recorded.
The health, safety, and welfare of California residents
who use marine resources similarly depends upon clean The state’s latest report on water quality generally
coastal and ocean waters. Eighty percent of Californians describes the major water pollution concerns along the
live within 30 miles of the coast. Industries such as California coast. In the north coast region, nonpoint
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 29
source pollution from logging and agriculture pose the source discharges and it becomes readily apparent that
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
most signicant problems. In the San Francisco Bay area, impacts to marine and estuarine resources are inevitable.
point source discharges from petroleum reneries and Some improvements, however, have been realized over
cities along the bay, and nonpoint source runoff from the years as a result of additional controls and require-
Marin County dairies and farms in the Central Valley and ments applied to point source discharges, and due to
Napa County, cause coastal pollution problems. Along the phase out of particularly toxic chemicals. For example, a
central coast, agriculture creates the most signicant pol- recent study reports that concentrations of DDT and PCBs
lution problems. Along the densely populated southern in livers of bottom sh collected throughout the southern
California coast, storm-water pollution is a major problem, California coastal shelf are at concentrations 95 percent
though agricultural runoff and sewage discharges also are lower than 20 years ago, though health advisories still
important pollution sources. exist for these constituents. The major challenge remain-
States are required to identify water bodies within the ing is the control of nonpoint source pollution.
state’s jurisdiction that do not meet water quality stan-
Data Limitations/Gaps
dards. To this end, the State Water Resources Control
E
Board, in conjunction with the state’s nine Regional xisting water quality and habitat data are not as com-
Water Quality Control Boards, has used monitoring data plete or comprehensive as needed to assess the overall
to develop a list of impaired water bodies for the State health of marine ecosystems. California does not yet have
of California. A water body can be listed as impaired for a system to comprehensively monitor water quality in the
any number of chemical constituents or conditions such inland watershed, enclosed waters, or nearshore ocean
as nutrients, heavy metals, petroleum products, sediment zones, and the vast majority of California’s waterways
toxicity, bacteria, pesticides, polynuclear aromatic hydro- and small estuarine systems are not monitored by the
carbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), etc. state on a regular basis. For example, over 90 percent
California has over 500 water bodies that are “impaired,” of California’s rivers and streams and about half of the
that is, they are not meeting water quality standards state’s coastal shoreline are simply never monitored by
under current regulations; many of these are coastal. the state. Sediment and water quality assessment pro-
grams such as the statewide Mussel Watch Program, Bay
Waters from the Oregon border to north of San Francisco
Protection and Toxics Cleanup Program and the San Fran-
Bay are listed as “impaired” primarily because of sedi-
cisco Bay Regional Monitoring Program, all need to be con-
ments. There are, however, some northern embayments,
tinued and expanded. These programs have, over recent
(e.g., Humboldt Bay and Tomales Bay) that have been
years, supplied critical data on the health of the coastal,
identied as impaired by other assorted constituents such
bay, and estuarine waters of the state. However, years of
as heavy metals and nutrients. southern California, with
funding cuts have left the health of much of California’s
a substantially higher number of impaired coastal waters,
waters unknown.
bays, and estuaries, faces problems from a much wider
variety of sources and contaminants, with urban runoff Programs that will collect data on contaminants and
playing a prominent role. A southern California example is marine life populations, as well as pollutant source identi-
Santa Monica Bay, which has been listed as impaired for cation, are necessary to ensure that adequate informa-
several heavy metals, marine debris, sediment toxicity, tion is available to make sound regulatory and man-
chlordane, DDT, PAHs, and PCBs. San Pablo Bay, located agement decisions regarding water quality issues. In addi-
in the northern San Francisco area, has been identied as tion, a statewide baseline inventory of various habitats
impaired for several heavy metals, exotic species, diazi- such as rocky intertidal, subtidal, kelp beds, rock reef,
non, PCBs, chlordane, DDT, dieldren, dioxin, and furan beach areas, mudats, and subtidal vegetation is critical
compounds. In central California, Morro Bay is impaired to make sound scientically-based resource management
because of heavy metals, sedimentation/siltation, and decisions. Additional information also needs to be gath-
pathogens. San Diego Bay has been listed for copper, sedi- ered on marine and estuarine habitat restoration and
ment toxicity, and benthic community effects; and Lower enhancement opportunities.
Newport Bay for a variety of pesticides, metals, nutrients
In 1999, the Legislature passed a law that required the
and pathogens. In many of these areas, degraded subtidal
State Board to prepare a comprehensive, statewide sur-
and intertidal habitat has also been identied.
face water quality monitoring program by November 2000.
The coastal waters of California have been utilized for This will serve as the blueprint for much-needed improve-
waste disposal for many years. Ocean outfalls for the ments in coastal water quality monitoring.
discharge of treated sewage, power plant cooling waters,
and various industrial discharges are common throughout
the state. Add to this the substantial volumes of nonpoint
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
30
Sources of Impairment of Water Quality City of San Francisco, which is one of the few major cities
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
left in the nation that has a combined storm water and
and Habitats sewage system. This aging system frequently overloads
during heavy storm events and discharges raw sewage to
the Pacic Ocean.
Point Source Discharges
P
Sewage treatment plants discharging into the marine envi-
oint source discharges are generally those that have a
ronment are another signicant pollution source. The dis-
discrete, identiable source, such as a pipe carrying
charges for those plants that provide secondary treatment
treated waste from a pulp mill or a sewage treatment
to the waste stream contain low levels of heavy metals,
plant. Point sources also include municipal, industrial,
pesticides, nutrients, and high volumes of fresh water.
and construction storm water discharges and offshore oil
Some heavy metals, though discharged at low levels, bio-
well platforms.
accumulate up the food chain. These have the potential
Point source discharges into the marine environment con-
to alter body burdens in sh and other marine life feeding
tain a variety of contaminants. They include suspended
in the vicinity of the discharge pipe. While levels at the
and dissolved solids, heated water, petroleum hydro-
end of the pipe in the water column may be considered
carbons, heavy metals, nutrients, pesticides, chlorine,
relatively insignicant, over the reproductive life of the
brines, fresh water, and oil and grease. All discharges into
affected marine organisms, effects may be signicant.
the marine or estuarine environment are required to be in
This is particularly true in areas where discharges receive
compliance with provisions of the State Water Resources
only primary treatment to remove solids. For example,
Control Board’s California Ocean Plan or the respective
San Diego uses only “advanced primary” treatment for the
Basin Plans developed by the Regional Water Quality Con-
city’s sewage, which it then deposits into the ocean.
trol Boards. Conditions on permitted discharges are sup-
Point source discharges lead to a variety of impacts. Beach
posed to be set so that discharge of pollutants will not be
closures, degraded bay and estuarine habitats, increased
deleterious to sh, wildlife and other resources.
levels of contaminants in marine sediments, bioaccumula-
Point source discharges to marine waters of the state
tion of pollutants in the tissues of marine organisms,
are substantial both in volume and pollutant load. Many
degraded benthic communities, loss of kelp beds, and
millions of gallons of treated efuent from sewage treat-
sediment toxicity are some of the more notable impacts
ment plants, cooling water discharges from power plants,
identied. Beaches are posted or closed for thousands
storm water, and other point sources ow into marine and
of beach days each year due to point source discharges
estuarine waters every day.
from combined sewer overows and storm water. Non-
Historically, there have been many discharges of pollut- point source pollution, which is not conned to a discrete
ants that, although discontinued, continue to have adverse and easily regulated source, plays an even greater role in
impacts upon the environment. For example, in the 1960s water pollution and habitat degradation in California.
and 1970s, regional industrial facilities discharged DDT
and PCBs into what is now the County of Los Angeles Joint Nonpoint Source Discharges
Water Pollution Control Plant, which discharged these
N onpoint source pollution occurs when water from rain-
toxins directly into the Pacic Ocean at the Palos Verdes
fall, snowmelt, oods, or irrigation runs over land
shelf. Today, the discharge area is identied as a U.S. EPA
or through the ground, picks up pollutants, and deposits
superfund site and is undergoing extensive evaluation and
them into rivers, lakes, bays, estuaries, nearshore coastal
remediation planning.
waters or groundwater. In California, nonpoint source
One of today’s foremost issues with respect to ongoing discharges have been categorized into eight large group-
coastal water quality and habitat impacts is storm-water ings: agricultural, urban, silviculture, marinas and boat-
discharge. Although storm water discharges are regulated ing, grazing, mine drainage, on-site sewage treatment
by National Pollution Discharge Elimination System systems, and hydromodication.
(NPDES) permits, the current contribution of pollutant
According to the U.S. EPA, agriculture is the leading con-
load by this source to waters of the state is staggering. In
tributor nationwide to water quality impairments, degrad-
the National Water Quality Inventory: 1998 Report to Con-
ing most of the impaired river miles and lake acreage
gress, U.S. EPA found that urban runoff and storm sewers
surveyed by states, territories, and tribes. By contrast,
are the leading source of pollution in coastal waters.
runoff from urban areas is the largest source of
Urban runoff and storm water discharges include pollut-
water quality impairments to surveyed estuaries. The
ants such as heavy metals, pesticides, salts, sediments,
most common nonpoint source pollutants are sediments
trash, debris, nutrients, bacteria, petroleum products,
and nutrients.
and sewage overows. This problem is heightened in the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 31
Some examples of impacts from nonpoint source pollution much higher, but current resource limitations make full
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
in central California include agricultural runoff releases detection impossible.
of DDT into the Salinas River Lagoon and Monterey Bay In nearly all cases, wildlife are injured or even killed by
National Marine Sanctuary at levels that have been dem- contact with oil. Aquatic birds, shorebirds, and marine
onstrated to be deleterious to aquatic life; and severe mammals, particularly sea otters, are the sea life most
oxygen depletion and eutrophication, as well as shellsh visibly affected. However, birds collected at an oil spill
contamination, in Tomales and Bodega bays and their site often may die with no external signs of oil contact
tributaries due to nutrients from dairy runoff. Data from because they have ingested oil while cleaning it off their
the National Shellsh Register document that in 1995 (the feathers. Once ingested, the oil is almost always fatal to
most recent year reported) shellsh harvesting was pro- the birds. Impacts to sh and other aquatic organisms are
hibited for 9,000 out of 24,000 acres of harvesting areas in not often observed because the affected organisms sink
California due to water quality concerns. Coastal nonpoint out of sight.
source pollution, including both urban and agricultural
The use of oil dispersants to prevent an oil slick from
runoff, also contributes to the thousands of days of beach
coming ashore generally serves to break up the spill’s
closures and postings in the state each year.
integrity. However, they allow the oil to remain emulsied
Alteration of water ow (hydromodication) and channel in the water column, and add dangerous chemicals that
erosion are two nonpoint source pollution categories may adversely affect water column communities below
that have been linked to the decline of anadromous sh- the surface. Oil spills that do come ashore impact coastal
eries (e.g., chinook salmon), especially in habitat areas and marine wildlife as well as valuable rocky intertidal,
where spawning success is determined. The increased sand beach, and coastal wetlands habitats.
sedimentation, siltation, and turbidity resulting from
In 1991, the California Department of Fish and Game cre-
these pollution sources lead to habitat loss and modica-
ated the Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR)
tion. These impacts may then adversely affect species
to implement legislation to address oil pollution issues in
population numbers.
the marine environment. In 1997 (last year for available
Harbors and marinas provide their share of nonpoint data), 767 marine oil spills were reported to OSPR. Again,
source pollutants including oily bilge water, detergents these are only reported spills; the actual amount of oil
from the washing of decks and hulls, runoff from shipyards discharged into coastal waters is likely far higher than
with paint akes containing heavy metals and organotins, reported. For example, these gures do not include the
and dish detergent and occasionally sewage material from 8.5 to 20 million gallons of diluent released over many
live-aboards. Marinas and harbors also can add a sig- years at the Unocal/Guadalupe oil eld near the City of
nicant sediment plume to local waters during dredging San Luis Obispo.
activities for channel and basin depth maintenance, as
well as associated pollutant and sediment loads from the Other Spills
dumping of these dredged materials into coastal waters.
S ewage spills are the most common of non-oil related
spills. Effects can range from minimal losses to thou-
sands of sh and other marine animals killed or impaired.
Spills A recent sewage spill into the Salinas River resulted in
a portion of the river becoming completely depleted of
Oil Spills oxygen and in the loss of hundreds of shes, including
O f all deleterious materials spilled into the marine steelhead trout (a federally listed species). Sewage spills
environment, crude oil and rened petroleum prod- also have the potential to release harmful chemicals into
ucts are the most common. Oil enters state waters from the environment, as the sewage has not reached the treat-
many sources, such as storm drains and runoff from road- ment plant where these chemicals normally are removed
ways, as well as medium-to-large oil spills. Oil spills come or reduced to non-toxic levels prior to discharge. Sewage
in many forms, from the discharge of oily bilge water by spills are a signicant source of beach closings and health
tens of thousands of boats plying the waters of California, advisories each year.
to breakage in oil pipelines due to earthquakes or age. Even some chemical compounds commonly thought to be
From 1991 to 1998, “signicant” oil spills released at least non-toxic can have an adverse effect on wildlife when
18,650 barrels of oil into California’s coastal waters. Data spilled into an aquatic environment. For example, the
complied by U.S. EPA of signicant California spills from release of 2,300 gallons of vegetable oil into Monterey Bay
1971 to February 2000 record 627,415 barrels of oil spilled in 1997 impacted a variety of birds species. Among other
that resulted in identied environmental damage. The things, birds were poisoned through ingestion of the oil,
actual number of spills and amount of damage is likely and oil on feathers made the birds less buoyant and more
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
32
susceptible to hypothermia. Several hundred birds died, homeporting project. Upland or aquatic disposal for ben-
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
while hundreds more were rehabilitated and released. ecial reuse is encouraged throughout the state to mini-
mize open-water unconned disposal at authorized in-bay
(e.g., San Francisco Bay), nearshore (e.g., Moss Landing) or
Dredging and Disposal of ocean (e.g., Los Angeles, San Diego, Eureka, etc.) disposal
sites. Dredged material that is physically suitable, but
Dredged Material is chemically unsuitable for aquatic disposal because of
D
elevated levels of certain contaminants, may be used
redging is the deepening or enlargement of a naviga-
as ll, or in certain wetland construction and habitat
tional channel, harbor/marina basin, or berthing area.
improvement projects, provided the contaminated materi-
Construction of new channels, basins, or berthing areas
als are conned (e.g., parking lots, container piers, etc.).
involves the removal of previously undisturbed sediment,
while “maintenance dredging” removes accumulated sedi- Beach nourishment is one of the more common reuses
ment from previously dredged areas. Maintenance dredg- of clean dredge material from routine dredging projects.
ing also occurs at the mouths of coastal lagoons, creeks, Compatible material, which matches the receiving beach
and rivers where accumulated sediment is removed to in grain size and quality, is usually pumped directly onto
keep the system open to the ocean. the beach and then spread by use of heavy equipment, or
directly placed in the nearshore environment where it will
At the ports of San Francisco, Oakland, Los Angeles, Long
be transported onshore through natural littoral processes.
Beach, and San Diego, increasing global economic pres-
Large-scale beach nourishment projects, using material
sures have resulted in the need for larger, deeper draft
from offshore borrow areas, are currently being planned
ships to transport cargo. This has led to a demand
for southern California, particularly in San Diego County.
for new construction dredging to widen and deepen
channels, turning basins, berths, and slips to accommo- Dredging activities can cause signicant negative impacts
date the larger vessels. Maintenance dredging has simi- to marine life, including a direct loss of benthic habitat,
larly increased. More often, dredging activities are permit- as well as potential loss or injury to slow moving or immo-
ted for annual or multiannual maintenance of previously bile benthic species such as polychaete worms, crabs,
dredged areas. Although infrequent, dredging activities seastars, clams, and bottom-dwelling shes. Studies have
are increasingly being used for wetland restoration and shown that benthic invertebrate species can re-colonize in
enhancement projects such as the dredging of Batiquitos the dredged area as early as six months after a dredging
Lagoon in San Diego County, the Port of Los Angeles’ project has been completed. However, this type of recov-
shallow water habitat, and the Port of Oakland’s middle ery can be delayed indenitely if there is repeated dredg-
harbor enhancement area. ing activity. Depending on the scale of dredging, there
also could be a loss of marine plants such as eelgrass.
The selection of a disposal site for dredged sediments is
In addition to the direct loss of habitat and associated
dependent upon the physical and chemical characteristics
infauna and epifauna, dredging operations displace mobile
of the material to be placed. Physically and chemically
sh and invertebrates, affect the foraging habits of marine
suitable material (i.e., appropriate grain size and minimal
birds, and displace other water birds such as ducks, geese,
contamination) may be disposed of at unconned, open-
terns, loons, grebes, and cormorants. Newly dredged sub-
water disposal sites authorized by the U.S. EPA and U.S.
strate also is more susceptible for colonization by opportu-
Army Corps of Engineers, such as the deep-ocean disposal
nistic and invasive non-endemic organisms.
site near the Farallon Islands off San Francisco.
Dredging may also result in the resuspension and redistri-
In some instances, clean material may be benecially
bution of sediments, potentially increasing marine and
reused for structural ll, wetland construction and resto-
estuarine life to exposure to chemical contaminants,
ration, habitat improvement and enhancement, capping
as well as a temporary decrease in dissolved oxygen.
material for sites with contaminated sediments, or for
Increases in turbidity and suspended solids decrease light
beach nourishment. Dredge material has been used in Los
penetration, resulting in reduced photosynthesis by phyto-
Angeles Harbor to regain acreage of shallow water habitat
plankton, kelp, eelgrass, and surfgrass. Prolonged turbid-
historically lost to past dredge and ll projects. In the Los
ity can clog the apparatuses of lter-feeding invertebrates
Angeles Harbor project, clean dredge material was used
and the gills of shes. Turbidity also reduces the ability
to cap contaminated sediments. A recent Port of Oakland
of sight-foraging birds, such as the federal- and state-
channel deepening project resulted in the creation of the
endangered California least tern and brown pelican, to
Sonoma Baylands, a more than 300-acre tidal wetland res-
successfully capture prey items.
toration project located in Sonoma County. In San Diego
Bay, the Navy has proposed a 30-acre shallow water hab- For small dredging projects, many impacts are assumed
itat site to be built with dredge material from their to be short term and temporary; however, the larger the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 33
dredging project, the longer the duration of the dredging Asian clam, the European green crab, the New Zealand sea
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
and the greater the impacts to marine organisms. The slug, the Chinese mitten crab, several species of sponges,
method of dredging also affects turbidity and resuspension jellysh, several species of sh, and numerous species of
of sediments. For example, a clamshell dredge results anemone, snails, mussels, clams, and barnacles.
in more turbidity at the dredging site than a hydraulic It is widely accepted that the discharge of ballast water is
dredge, but at the disposal site the opposite occurs. the primary mechanism by which coastal invasive species
There are a number of ways to minimize some of the are spread. For example, from 53 percent to up to 88
impacts associated with dredging. Mitigation measures percent of the aquatic non-indigenous species introduced
include the use of silt curtains to contain ne sediments, into San Francisco Bay in the last decade originated in bal-
water-tight clamshell buckets for minimizing the disper- last water discharges. Other sources include aquaculture
sion of contaminants, and seasonal restrictions (e.g., no imports and deliberate introductions (the possible source
dredging during the nesting seasons of least terns and of the invasive Chinese mitten crab in the San Francisco
snowy plovers, or during the migration of endangered Bay Estuary).
salmonid species). This topic is addressed in more detail in the chapter on
Open-water disposal buries most immobile epibenthic and invasive species.
infaunal organisms within the footprint of the disposal
site, and there are expectations that the site will be
Habitat Loss, Destruction and Alteration
degraded over time. Approved ocean disposal sites are
designed to minimize adverse impacts to living marine
N earshore coastal and estuarine habitats are signif-
resources outside of the site boundaries. Beach replenish-
cantly impacted by ll, residential and commercial
ment can also have negative impacts on marine resources
development, and ood control projects. Fill, or the
and their habitats. Sensitive and valuable habitats includ-
placement of sediments, pilings, bulkheads, retaining
ing kelp beds, rocky reefs, and surfgrass could be poten-
walls, piers, etc. in marine waters, has occurred in every
tially buried by nearshore disposal operations. Direct
major port and many other developed coastal areas.
placement of sand on the beach may also bury incubating
The man-made Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach
California grunion eggs, destroy nests of western snowy
were created by the dredging and lling of the former
plover and least tern, and preclude shorebird foraging.
3,450-acre Wilmington Lagoon. Large-scale ll projects
continue today as increasing economic pressures dictate a
Invasive Species need for additional container terminals. In fact, the Port
of Los Angeles just recently completed an over 580-acre
I nvasive species are the number two threat to endan- landll project for its Pier 400 project. In the San Fran-
gered and threatened species nationwide, second only cisco Bay area, the San Francisco International Airport
to habitat destruction. Specic environmental threats is proposing a runway reconguration project that would
include consumption of native species and their food potentially ll up to 1,500 acres of San Francisco Bay.
sources, dilution of native species through cross-breeding, The lling of marine waters with large volumes of sedi-
and poisoning of native species through bioaccumulation ment clearly has signicant adverse impacts on the near-
of toxics that are passed up the food chain. Commercial shore marine and estuarine environment, permanently
shermen nationwide are seeing signicant impacts to eradicates benthic habitat, and likely kills most epibenthic
sh and shellsh populations due to invasive marine life. and infaunal organisms within the footprint of the ll.
Moreover, unlike threats posed by most chemical or other Additionally, ll removes the surface-air interface, reduc-
types of pollution, biological pollution by non-indigenous ing foraging areas for surface feeding species, and
species has permanent impacts, as aquatic invasive spe- reduces water column habitat, adversely affecting plank-
cies are virtually impossible to eradicate once established. ton, shes, diving birds, and marine mammals.
Though many areas along California’s coast have been Structures, such as wharves, piers, seawalls, groins, and
impacted, San Francisco Bay has seen some of the most breakwaters, also impact and modify the marine and estu-
signicant damage from invasive species. Extensive stud- arine environment. There is often a permanent loss of
ies conrm that at least 234 alien plant and animal spe- habitat from the ll used to install the structure, such as
cies now live in San Francisco Bay, and that recently pilings for piers. Some overlying structures (e.g., pier plat-
introduced alien species are nding a viable niche in the forms) cover a portion of the water column, resulting in
bay and delta at the rate of one new species every 14 the loss of foraging habitat for sight-feeding marine birds
weeks. Those invasive species that have been positively such as terns and pelicans. Additionally, the structure may
identied as permanent residents of the bay include the shade marine plants such as eelgrass, as well as algae
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
34
and benthic invertebrates. Groins and breakwaters may valued for their capacity to recharge groundwater and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
deect wave or water current energy and inuence water cleanse runoff.
currents, ushing, sedimentation, and normal sediment However, these habitats are an increasingly scarce
transport. Materials used to construct structures exposed resource. For example, 90 percent of California’s coastal
to water may have negative impacts on water quality, wetlands have been diked, paved over, developed or oth-
such as creosote-treated wood products. The operation of erwise destroyed, and only ve percent of the state’s
the structure may also result in additional water quality coastal wetlands remain intact. Development continues
impacts, such as runoff from piers and platforms. to pose a signicant threat to the few remaining natural
In addition to the structures themselves, construction coastal wetlands. The vast majority of California’s popula-
activities associated with projects also impact the marine tion lives within a short drive from the coast, and the
environment, and, although the impacts are not perma- number of people settling in coastal counties continues
nent, they may have signicant effects on resources. This to grow.
is particularly true for large-scale or long-term projects Development not only can directly destroy coastal habi-
or where there are multiple small project phases in the tats, but also can contaminate them through the urban
same area. Surface turbidity caused by dredging is one runoff and other discharges generated by the develop-
of the major impacts from in-water construction activities ment activities. Increased controls on urban runoff will be
affecting marine plants, birds, and shes. Shock waves implemented shortly through a new round of regulations
from demolition and pile driving can further impact forag- on smaller municipalities, helping to control this problem
ing birds by making prey more difcult to capture. They somewhat, but it is unclear whether this effort will be
are also capable of breaking up concentrated schools of outweighed by the sheer rate of growth in these areas.
sh, forcing schools to seek deeper waters or avoid an
The California Coastal Act limits the lling of wetlands
area altogether. Noise associated with construction opera-
and estuaries to certain types of projects including
tions also displaces marine birds and mammals.
port, energy, and coastal-dependent industrial facilities,
Groins and breakwaters convert one habitat type to entrance channels for new or expanded boating facilities;
another resulting in a change in community structure. new boating facilities in a degraded wetland; and restora-
For example, placement of riprap over subtidal/intertidal tion, nature study, and aquaculture. Despite these protec-
habitat converts a soft bottom surface to a rocky habitat. tions, coastal wetlands are still being developed today.
Habitat conversion becomes an issue when a majority of Development projects are currently anticipated at Bolsa
the habitat in the area has already been altered. For Chica, Ballona, and Los Cerritos wetlands, some of the few
example, in San Diego Bay, only 26 percent of the bay’s remaining wetlands in southern California.
shoreline remains natural, whereas the remainder is cov-
ered with man-made structures.
Water Flow
Flood control projects can be another source of habitat
loss and alteration. The natural hydrology of bays
and estuaries has been greatly affected by human activi- Freshwater Discharges
ties in an attempt to control ooding. Flood control meth-
T he two principal sources of freshwater discharges into
ods such as channelization of rivers and streams have
marine and estuarine habitats are sewage treatment
impacted or destroyed riparian habitat and increased the
plants and power plant cooling water. Sewage treatment
rate of sedimentation into bays and estuaries. Breaching
plants discharge treated wastewater into coastal waters
of sand bars on coastal rivers and streams for the purpose
and bays. There, the freshwater dilutes the salinity of
of ood control has changed riverine habitat from fresh
the receiving environment, impacting and changing that
water to brackish or tidal. One of the many functions of
habitat. This problem is particularly acute in south San
wetland habitat is to provide ood control during high ow
Francisco Bay, which has a low ushing rate.
years, but development on coastal wetlands has, among
With respect to power plant discharges, California has
other things, removed this natural benet.
more power plants discharging into salt and brackish
Coastal habitats such as wetlands and estuaries are vital
water than any other state. Although these plants use
to the survival of numerous invertebrates, shes, birds,
once-through cooling systems, the water is heated to
mammals, and plants. Already an essential component of
several degrees above ambient during transit through the
commercial and sport shing industries worth hundreds
plant. Impacts from heated water can vary depending
of millions of dollars, these habitats help fuel the
upon where the discharge structure is located. Discharges
state’s economy and support California’s diverse marine
into environments that normally experience wide tem-
wildlife population. California’s coastal wetlands also are
perature ranges during tidal and annual cycles (e.g., estu-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 35
aries) are more resistant to changes from thermal effects smothering gravels with silt during high ow releases, and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
than those that do not normally experience such changes. by emptying summer rearing pools. Dams also contribute
Power plant discharges can result in decreased diversity to poor water quality by releasing warm surface water
and density of species at the community and ecosystem that has been mostly depleted of oxygen; or by releasing
levels. In addition to heat, power plant discharges can water, through spillways, that may contain oxygen levels
contain high levels of suspended solids, which decrease too high for sh survival (supersaturation). The lakes that
light penetration of the water column and affect adjacent are formed by large dams cover miles of former spawning
kelp bed production. rifes, and many dams have been built without passage
facilities, blocking the upstream migration of anadromous
Power plants also cause problems related to water ow.
sh trying to nd suitable spawning habitat.
Electricity generating power plants take in billions of gal-
lons of water on a daily basis. Diablo Canyon Nuclear Water conveyance structures (i.e., water canals) remove
Power Plant circulates 2.5 billion gallons of water per day, essential water from rivers and streams that historically
which pulls in creatures in the seawater en route to pass- produced the bulk of California’s salmon runs. These
ing the water through the plant in its once-through cooling structures not only remove water, they also alter existing
cycle. This water circulation causes temperature increases habitat. For example, canals that leak repeatedly create
in the area of discharge (thermal pollution), impingement riparian habitat entirely dependent on that leakage. When
(marine animals caught on water intake screens), and these canals are repaired, the ecosystem that has devel-
entrainment (destruction of marine animals pulled inside oped over the years is lost. Water canals also have the
the plant). Entrainment is generally limited to those potential to transport sh between watersheds and intro-
organisms not capable of swimming against the intake duce species into unfamiliar habitats. Many newly created
current (e.g., larval forms). Most energy company-spon- reservoirs behind dams contain non-native sh that also
sored studies of power plant entrainment limit analysis have the potential to escape from the lake into the outlet
to effects on larval sh, arguing that plankton losses stream, such as the in the case of the northern pike
are too difcult to enumerate and analyze for ecosystem introduced into Lake Davis.
effects. It has been estimated, however, that plankton
losses can signicantly increase the estimates of overall
Recreational and Commercial Activities
wildlife losses due to entrainment. Larval entrainment
losses are often estimated at 100 percent due to a multi-
plicity of factors, including physical changes in pressure, Boating
discharge velocity, turbulence, and temperature increase
C ruise ships, yachts, and other large recreational ves-
effects. If the power plant has a mechanism to return
sels discharge sewage, gray water, toxic chemicals, oil
impinged organisms to the water (most do not), those
and gas, and air pollutants into sensitive coastal waters.
losses are lower, but do contribute to the cumulative
Smaller vehicles also can do signicant harm.
effects of power plants on the ecosystem.
Jet Skis (Motorized Personal Watercraft)
Hydromodication
F or example, jet skis, more generically referred to as
D ams in California range from large, permanent struc-
“motorized personal watercraft” (MPWC) can do sig-
tures to small, temporary structures. Millions of gal-
nicant nearshore harm. For example, their noise, which
lons of water, often diverted from rivers that empty into
is rated at 85-105 decibels, can disrupt wildlife communi-
the ocean or estuaries, are stored for agricultural use,
ties through alteration of behavior and nest abandonment.
drinking water supplies, ood control, or groundwater
MPWCs also pollute more than other boats. From 25 to
recharge. Dams change the landscape both at the con-
33 percent of the oil and gasoline used by MPWCs is
struction site and the downstream conveyance to the
discharged unburned, impacting local water quality. A
ocean or estuary. Loss of upstream habitat due to water
two-hour ride on an MPWC can discharge up to three
diversion has the effect of reducing the production capa-
gallons of unburned gasoline and oil, or the same amount
bility of anadromous species that depend on continuous
of pollution as driving 139,000 miles in a 1998 passenger
summer ows for rearing and transport of juveniles that
car. The impact of accumulated oil pollution in the marine
travel downstream to the ocean for growth prior to
environment is particularly signicant in sensitive near-
returning to natal streams. Diversion of freshwater inow
shore environments such as estuaries and bays. This pol-
to estuarine systems also reduces the productivity of the
lution can have cumulative effects throughout the food
estuaries by reducing the nutrient input which diatom and
web as the hydrocarbons bioaccumulate, posing a threat
other bottom trophic level organisms require. Dams also
to larger marine life.
change stream morphology by altering sediment ow, by
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
36
For these reasons, MPWC regulations have been estab- Measures to minimize these impacts include prohibiting
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
lished in sensitive areas such as the waters of the Mon- the use of damaging gear in sensitive areas and modifying
terey Bay and Gulf of the Farallones National Marine gear so that damage to bottom habitats is minimized.
Sanctuaries. In justifying the regulation of MPWC, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration noted
Ecosystem-wide Implications
that, “the small size, maneuverability and high-speed of
these craft is what causes these craft to pose a threat
A n ecosystem can be dened as the balanced and
to resources. Resources such a sea otters and sea birds
sustained interaction of a biological community with
are either unable to avoid these craft or are frequently
its physical and chemical environment. The sh, inverte-
alarmed enough to signicantly modify their behavior
brate, marine mammal, aquatic bird, and aquatic plant
such as cessation of feeding or abandonment of young.”
populations in California’s coastal, bay, and estuarine
Indeed, the narrow draft and smaller size of MPWCs
waters are all components of a vast array of discrete and
allows them to access the most fragile nearshore habitats,
overlapping communities and ecosystems. Although most
causing signicant environmental impacts including: ight
members of a biological community are linked through
responses in shorebirds and alteration of nesting habits;
elaborate food webs based upon predation, competitive
destruction of critical bird and sh habitat, including eel-
and mutualistic relationships also play an important role.
grass beds; and harassment of or collisions with marine
Add to this complexity the myriad of effects on individual
mammals (several of which are federally protected spe-
organisms and populations from changes in the chemical
cies under the Endangered Species Act) and other wildlife.
and physical environment, and measuring and evaluating
While these impacts are most critical in the nearshore
ecosystem responses to these changes becomes a chal-
environment, the risk of collision with or harassment of
lenging task.
marine mammals and seabirds is signicant throughout
The current state of environmental science allows us to
areas frequented by MPWC.
use both individual evaluation measures and combinations
Fishing of measures depending upon the information at hand.
T
These may include population numbers and structure,
here is growing evidence that shing has a signicant
biological testing (e.g., bioassays, bioaccumulation, etc.),
impact on coastal habitats. For example, the complex-
concentration of contaminants in organisms or the sur-
ity of the marine habitat can be altered by the scraping,
rounding habitat, movement of contaminants into aquatic
shearing and crushing effects of shing gear. Physical
ecosystems, and size and/or availability of habitat. Based
effects of trawling include plowing and scraping of the
upon these and other measurements, it appears that bay
sea oor and resuspension of sediments. Resulting benthic
and estuarine ecosystems are much more threatened than
troughs can last as little as a few hours or days in mud
those of the nearshore coastal environment with regard
and sand sediments over which there are strong tides or
to habitat quality and quantity. This is particularly true
currents, to between a few months to over ve years in
with regard to contaminants in the water column and
sea beds with a mud or sandy-mud substrate at depths
benthic sediments, and impacts from dredging and lling,
greater than 100 meters with weak or no current ow.
point and nonpoint source discharges, oil spills, and non-
Longline gear has similarly been observed to shear marine
indigenous species introduction. On a localized or regional
plants and sessile organisms from the bottom. Pot gear
basis, however, areas of the nearshore coastal environ-
may damage demersal plants and animals as it settles,
ment may be in worse condition than our bays and estuar-
and longlined pots may drag through and damage bottom
ies with regard to specic contaminants or conditions.
fauna during gear retrieval. Boat anchors also can inict
Examples include DDT-laden sediments in the area of the
serious, though localized, damage in some areas.
Palos Verdes shelf and radioactive waste dumped near the
In addition to directly altering the bottom habitat, shing
Farallon Islands.
can result in lost gear that is left to “ghost sh,” thereby
Although California’s population continues to increase,
causing additional habitat alterations. Fishing activities
thereby putting added pressure on our limited resources
also affect the water column through discharge of offal
and habitats, there are a number of efforts and initiatives
from sh processed at sea. These discards in deeper
underway in the state to begin to curtail impacts and
water could redistribute prey food away from midwater
improve the quality and quantity of our marine and
and bottom-feeding organisms to surface-feeding organ-
estuarine habitats. These efforts include greater
isms; in low-current environments, these discharges can
regulation of point and nonpoint source discharges,
decompose and create anoxic bottom conditions. The
improved identication of toxic hot spots, increased
water column also can be impacted by fuel leaks from
emphasis on benecial reuse opportunities for dredged
shing boats.
materials, reduction of the frequency and extent of oil
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 37
spills, development and coordination of large-scale water receive federal 319 funds for projects to control polluted
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
quality and habitat monitoring and assessment programs, runoff. Signicant limitations of this program include low
restrictions on the import of non-indigenous species in levels of funding in comparison with the signicance of
ballast water, and increased marine habitat restoration the problem and the fact that the programs are voluntary.
and enhancement projects. As a result, over a decade after establishment of the “319
program,” polluted runoff continues to be the major - and
growing - source of pollution into the nation’s waters.
Regulatory Structure for Addressing
Regulation of Discharges into Impaired Waters
Water Quality and Habitat Issues
S ection 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires states
to identify specic water bodies where water quality
Federal standards are not expected to be met even after full
implementation of required permit controls and other con-
Clean Water Act ditions imposed on point source discharges. States must
T
then establish a priority ranking of those impaired waters
he Environmental Protection Agency is the foremost
and identify the pollutant stressors that are causing the
federal agency with responsibility for protecting the
water quality problems. In accordance with those rank-
health of the nation’s waters. The Federal Water Pollution
ings, the state must then establish limits on all pollution
Control Act (“Clean Water Act”) addresses the major cat-
discharges, both point and nonpoint, in order to ensure
egories of discharges into coastal and marine waters with
attainment of water quality standards within a “margin
varying degrees of stringency. California’s State Water
of safety.” These limits are referred to as the “total
Resources Control Board (SWRCB) and Regional Water
maximum daily loads” (TMDL) for the identied pollutants
Quality Control Boards (RWQCB) currently hold the author-
and waters. The state’s impaired water body list currently
ity, delegated by U.S. EPA, to implement the Clean Water
tops 500, with more likely to be listed. Because many of
Act in state waters.
these waters are vital to the health of the state’s coastal
ecosystems and wildlife, full and prompt implementation
Permit Program
of these TMDLs is essential to a thriving marine ecosystem.
S ection 301(a) of the Clean Water Act prohibits the
discharge of “any pollutant by any person” into waters
Discharges under Federal Licenses or Permits
of the United States, unless done in compliance with
S ection 401 of the Clean Water Act requires a certi-
specied sections of the Act, including the permit require-
cation from a state that federal agency actions and
ments in Section 402. Under the National Pollutant Dis-
permits comply with state water quality standards and
charge Elimination System (NPDES) set up under Section
other Clean Water Act requirements. Congress stated in
402, U.S. EPA requires permits for most point source
enacting this provision that the purpose of Section 401
discharges of waste. These permits contain discharge con-
is to “provide reasonable assurance that no license or
ditions, including technology-based controls and water-
permit will be issued by a federal agency for any activity
quality-based efuent requirements, to ensure that the
that through inadequate planning or otherwise could in
discharges meet all applicable standards set to protect
fact become a source of pollution.” When implemented
uses of the water body, such as use by aquatic life and
fully, this adds an important layer of protection over
for shing.
existing regulations protecting coastal water quality and
NPDES permits for discharges into the territorial sea
habitat health.
also must comply with “ocean discharge criteria” spe-
cically designed to prevent the degradation of those
Dredge Disposal and Fill
waters, pursuant to Clean Water Act Section 403. These
S ection 404 of the Clean Water Act grants the U.S. Army
permit requirements may increase in stringency in the
Corps of Engineers authority to regulate any project
near future due to a recent presidential Executive Order
involving ll, construction, or modication of the waters
on this topic.
of the United States. This would include, for example,
dredging and lling of coastal harbors. Corps actions
Nonpoint Pollution Program
are subject to Clean Water Act Section 401 certication
S ection 319 of the Clean Water Act sets up a voluntary
that the proposed activities will not violate state water
program to control polluted runoff. This program was
quality standards.
established through the 1987 Clean Water Act amend-
U.S. EPA sets the standards for suitability of dredge mate-
ments, and states soon thereafter submitted nonpoint
rial destined for federally approved sites in the ocean
source pollution management plans to EPA in order to
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
38
beyond three miles from shore. These standards are found disposition of material.” The statute contains only a
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
in the 1991 Ocean Disposal Testing Manual, or “Green few, very specic exemptions from this term. The Act is
Book,” which species the physical, chemical, and biologi- administered by U.S. EPA and is on top of any Clean Water
cal tests required to determine suitability. Disposal within Act requirements.
state waters (i.e., inside three miles) is authorized by state
The National Environmental Policy Act
and federal agencies which use standards from the “Inland
T
Testing Manual.” State agencies involved in authorizing he National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 is the
disposal within state waters through a permitting process basic national directive for the protection of the envi-
include the Regional Water Quality Control Boards, State ronment. NEPA requires that federal agencies prepare an
Lands Commission, California Coastal Commission, and the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for “major Federal
San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commis- actions signicantly affecting the quality of the human
sion. Federal agencies involved in the permitting process environment.” In doing so, the agencies must provide
for the disposal of dredged materials in state waters a “full and fair discussion of signicant environmental
include U.S. EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. impacts” of the proposed project.
Federal and state resource agencies such as the Depart-
An EIS is intended to help public ofcials make decisions
ment of Fish and Game, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
that are based on an understanding of the potential
and National Marine Fisheries Service act as consulting
environmental consequences and decide whether to take
agencies on dredging projects.
actions that avoid these consequences. The EIS also
must “inform decision makers and the public of the
Antidegradation
reasonable alternatives which would avoid or minimize
T he Clean Water Act and accompanying regulations adverse impacts” and must analyze such project alterna-
state that both point and nonpoint source pollution tives comprehensively. In addition, the EIS must discuss
control programs must specically address antidegrada- “appropriate mitigation measures not already included in
tion, or preventing further pollution of the nation’s the proposed action or alternatives.” Finally, the lead
waters. Water quality standards, which all waters must agency must state at the time of its decision “whether
meet, consist of three elements: (1) the designated ben- all practicable means to avoid or minimize environmental
ecial use or uses of a water body; (2) the water quality harm from the alternative selected have been adopted,
criteria necessary to protect the uses of that water body; and, if not, why not.”
and (3) an antidegradation policy. Both federal and state
antidegradation policies must ensure that water quality Endangered Species Act
improvements are conserved, maintained and protected.
T he federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) is the
Despite the fact that antidegradation in general, and pro- nation’s charter for protection of threatened and
tection of relatively clean waters in particular, is a spe- endangered species, including coastal and marine life.
cic component of the water quality standards, it is given The Endangered Species Act contains both consultation
relatively little attention in point source pollution control requirements and a substantive requirement prohibiting
and permitting programs, and essentially no attention in certain activities that threaten listed species. Under Sec-
nonpoint pollution control programs. A lack of attention to tion 7 of ESA “[e]ach Federal agency shall, in consultation
maintaining the health of cleaner waters threatens those with and with the assistance of the Secretary [of the
waters with impairment that will be far more expensive to Interior and/or Commerce, as appropriate], insure that
address than prevention. Water quality programs should any action authorized, funded, or carried out by such
contain specic descriptions of how new and continued agency . . . is not likely to jeopardize the continued
discharges into all waters, both impaired and clean, will existence of any endangered species or threatened spe-
be reduced. cies or result in the destruction or adverse modication
of habitat of such species . . . .” In addition, federal
Ocean Dumping Act agencies must consult with the Secretary of the Interior
T itle 1 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc- and/or Commerce, as appropriate “on any agency action
tuaries Act (Ocean Dumping Act), prohibits the unper- which is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
mitted dumping of “any material transported from a loca- any species proposed to be listed . . . or result in the
tion outside the United States” into the territorial sea destruction or adverse modication of critical habitat pro-
of the United States, or into the zone contiguous to the posed to be designated for such species.”
territorial sea, to the extent discharge into the contiguous Section 7 is an important tool that can be used to protect
zone would affect the territorial sea or the territory of and conserve the habitats of threatened and endangered
the United States. “Dumping” is dened broadly as “a coastal and marine wildlife. ESA Section 7 is used, for
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 39
example, to require the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers of, or injure any sanctuary resource managed under law
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
to consult with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the or regulations for that sanctuary,” with specied actions
National Marine Fisheries Service regarding how proposed allowed under sanctuary permits or authorizations. Under
Corps dredging projects will affect listed species. the NMSA, management plans must be prepared for each
sanctuary and reviewed every ve years. These plans
In addition, Section 9 of ESA prohibits the transport or
must take into account management of the diverse marine
take of listed species, and Section 4 sets up a program to
wildlife in California’s sanctuaries.
acquire lands and habitat associated with listed species to
enhance recovery efforts. Like the Ocean Dumping Act, the NMSA adds an extra layer
of protection for marine resources in certain areas. For
Marine Mammal Protection Act example, the San Francisco and Central Coast Regional
T
Water Quality Control Boards report to the Monterey Bay
he federal Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) pro-
NMS ofce on proposed new and revised permits for dis-
tects the marine mammals that make their home in
charges into sanctuary waters and allow for staff review
the waters off California’s shores. One of the more sig-
and comment. Sanctuary staff may in some instances
nicant provisions of the MMPA prohibits the “take” of
place conditions on these permits as needed to protect
marine mammals. “Take” is dened broadly to include
Sanctuary resources. Violations of these permits is an
actions that kill or “harass” marine mammals, where
infraction of both state water quality law and the NMSA,
“harassment” refers to “any act of pursuit, torment,
subjecting the violator to nes under both acts.
or annoyance which (i) has the potential to injure a
marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild;
The Coastal Zone Management Act
or (ii) has the potential to disturb a marine mammal or
T
marine mammal stock in the wild by causing disruption of he Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1972
behavioral patterns, including . . . feeding . . . .” As established a federal-state partnership to manage
dened, “take” is not limited to a direct physical taking development and use of the coastal zone. CZMA, which
of the animal, but also other actions that indirectly harm is administered nationwide by NOAA, provides federal
the animal. funding for the development and implementation of state
Coastal Zone Management Programs. The state agency
National Marine Sanctuaries Act charged with developing and implementing a state coastal
T
plan in accordance with CZMA is the California Coastal
itle 3 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc-
Commission. Signicantly, CZMA grants the commission
tuaries Act is the National Marine Sanctuaries Act
the authority to review federal activities in the coastal
(NMSA), which protects the nation’s most unique marine
zone and ensure they comply with California’s Coastal
habitats, waters and wildlife. California is fortunate to
Zone Management Program.
have four National Marine Sanctuaries: Channel Islands,
which lies nine to 46 miles offshore and encompasses
Coastal Zone Management Act Reauthorization
1,658 square miles of marine waters and habitats; Mon-
Amendments of 1990
terey Bay, which lies adjacent to the central coast and
T
is 5,328 square miles; Gulf of the Farallones, which lies he Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program, estab-
adjacent to shore along Marin County and extends 12 miles lished by the Coastal Zone Reauthorization Amend-
out to the Farallon Islands, encompassing 1,255 square ments of 1990 (CZARA), addresses the control of nonpoint
miles; and Cordell Bank, the smallest at 526 square source pollution, which is the number one cause of water
miles, which lies near the continental shelf seven to 23 contamination in the state. The impacts of nonpoint
miles offshore (adjoining the Gulf of the Farallones Sanc- source pollution in coastal areas include beach closings
tuary). The NMSA is designed to “maintain, restore, and advisories, loss of habitat, closed or harvest-limited
and enhance living resources by providing places for spe- shellsh beds, declining sheries, red tides and other
cies that depend on these marine resources to survive harmful plankton blooms, reduction in tourism revenues
and propagate.” NOAA’s Sanctuary ofces use the NMSA and threats to the drinking water of coastal communities.
to provide for “comprehensive and coordinated manage- The State Water Resources Control Board and the Califor-
ment” of these unique marine areas. nia Coastal Commission have submitted to U.S. EPA and
To meet these goals, the NMSA requires federal agencies NOAA a Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Plan that
to consult with sanctuary ofcials if federal actions are is intended to control nonpoint source pollution in accor-
likely to injure sanctuary resources. So, for example, U.S. dance with CZARA Section 6217 requirements. The plan
Army Corps of Engineers staff would need to consult with lays out a general outline of nonpoint source pollution
sanctuary staff on proposed dredging in sanctuary waters. management measures that will be implemented over the
The NMSA also makes it illegal to “destroy, cause the loss next 15 years.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
40
State
U.S. EPA and NOAA approved California’s plan in July
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
2000. Additional requirements on the contents of the Plan
imposed under state law (particularly with respect to California Environmental Quality Act
enforcement) should be completed by February 2001.
L ike NEPA, the California Environmental Quality Act
requires the state to take a hard look at the environ-
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
mental impacts of projects that require state or local gov-
Management Act
ernment approval. Unlike NEPA, CEQA also requires appro-
A s amended and reauthorized in 1996, the Magnuson-
priate mitigation of projects that contain signicant envi-
Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
ronmental impacts. Specically, CEQA states that agencies
includes substantial new provisions designed to protect
must adopt feasible mitigation measures in order to
habitats important to all federally managed species of
substantially lessen or avoid the otherwise signicant
anadromous and marine sh. The amended Act denes
environmental impacts of a proposed project. A “signi-
“essential sh habitat” (EFH) as “those waters and sub-
cant” impact is a “substantial, or potentially substantial,
strate necessary to sh for spawning, breeding, feeding,
adverse change in any of the physical conditions within
or growth to maturity.”
the area affected by the project including land, air, water,
The act requires the eight regional shery management minerals, ora, [and] fauna…”
councils around the country and the Secretary of Com-
CEQA also mandates that the responsible agencies con-
merce to amend each regional shery management
sider a reasonable range of project alternatives that offer
plan to:
substantial environmental advantages over the project
• Describe and identify EFH; proposal. CEQA adds that the agency responsible for the
project’s approval must deny approval if there would be
• Identify adverse impacts to EFH;
“signicant adverse effects” when feasible alternatives
• Minimize, to the extent practicable, adverse impacts
or feasible mitigation measures could substantially lessen
from shing to EFH; and
such effects.
• Develop suggested measures to conserve and enhance
EFH. Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act
U
Before a federal agency may proceed with an activity that nder California’s Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
may adversely affect a designated EFH, the agency must Act “any person discharging waste, or proposing to
consult with NOAA Fisheries with regard to measures that discharge waste, within any region that could affect the
avoid or minimize adverse impacts on the EFH. quality of the waters of the state” must le a report
of the discharge with the appropriate Regional Water
The Pacic Fishery Management Council has dened
Quality Control Board. Pursuant to the act, the regional
groundsh EFH as waters of the entire Pacic Coast, and
board may then prescribe “waste discharge requirements”
described the types of measures needed to protect the
(WDRs) that add conditions related to control of the dis-
habitat from shing and non-shing impacts. However,
charge. Porter-Cologne denes “waste” broadly, and the
the Council, like other councils nationwide, has required
term has been applied to a diverse array of materials,
almost no protection for EFH from shing itself, despite
including nonpoint source pollution.
growing evidence that shing often poses a signicant
threat to EFH. When regulating discharges that are included in the fed-
eral Clean Water Act, the state essentially treats WDRs
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and NPDES as a single permitting vehicle. Where Porter-
T
Cologne is more stringent than the Clean Water Act, such
he Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990 streamlined and
as for discharges of nonpoint source pollution, WDRs alone
strengthened EPA’s ability to prevent and respond to
must be applied to or waived for such discharges. This
catastrophic oil spills. A trust fund nanced by a tax
requirement, however, is not implemented as it should
on oil is available to clean up spills when the reponsible
be, and indeed is simply ignored in a number of cases,
party is incapable or unwilling to do so. The OPA requires
particularly with respect to nonpoint source pollution.
oil storage facilities and vessels to submit plans to the
A bill passed in 1999 now requires the state and
Federal government detailing how they will repond to
regional boards to review existing waivers of WDRs in
large discharges. EPA has published regulations for above
an effort to ensure that needed regulatory controls are
ground storage facilites; the Coast Guard has done so for
properly imposed.
oil tankers. The OPA also requires the development of
Area Contingency Plans to prepare and plan for oil spill
response on a regional scale.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 41
California Endangered Species Act maintain, and, where feasible, enhance and restore the
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
overall quality of the coastal environment and its natural
T he California Endangered Species Act (CESA) generally
and manmade resources.” The act also delegates planning
parallels the main provisions of the Federal Endan-
and permitting authority to local governments through the
gered Species Act and is administered by the California
Local Coastal Plan process.
Department of Fish and Game. Under CESA, the term
“endangered species” is dened as a species of plant, sh,
Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1990
or wildlife that is in serious danger of becoming extinct
T he state’s Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response
throughout all, or a signicant portion of its range and is
(OSPR) was created in the aftermath of the Exxon-
limited to species or subspecies native to California. CESA
Valdez oil spill and the American Trader oil spill at Hun-
states that it is the “policy of the state” that state agen-
tington Beach. The Lempert-Keene-Seastrand Oil Spill Pre-
cies should not approve projects as proposed which would
vention and Response Act of 1990 created OSPR within
“jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered
the Department of Fish and Game. The bill provided fund-
species or threatened species or result in the destruction
ing for OSPR’s work by levying a tax on oil brought into
or adverse modication of habitat essential to the con-
the state and another on oil transported across the state
tinued existence of those species,” if there are “reason-
by rail, truck, or pipeline. OSPR’s mandate is to work
able and prudent alternatives available consistent with
with other DFG units, interested public, other agencies,
conserving the species or its habitat which would prevent
clean-up companies, and oil companies to prevent oil
jeopardy.” However, CESA goes on to add that, in the
spills, to develop response plans, and to implement those
event “specic economic, social, or other conditions make
plans when spills occur.
infeasible” such alternatives, individual projects may be
approved if “appropriate” mitigation and enhancement The U.S. Coast Guard is OSPR’s federal counterpart
measures are provided. and response partner for these efforts. In addition,
OSPR has responsibility for determining injuries to living
McAteer-Petris Act natural resources and seeking compensation and restora-
U tion through civil litigation. More recently, OSPR’s role
nder the McAteer-Petris Act of 1965, the Bay Con-
has expanded from a focus on oil spills to a broader
servation and Development Commission (BCDC) has
focus on spills of any material deleterious to living natural
authority to plan and regulate activities and development
resources, and has expanded from marine waters to spills
in and around San Francisco Bay through policies devel-
that may happen anywhere in California.
oped in the San Francisco Bay Plan. This is essentially
the San Francisco Bay counterpart to the California In addition, the act makes the State Lands Commission
Coastal Act. responsible for ensuring that all marine terminals and
other oil and gas facilities within their jurisdiction use
California Coastal Act the best achievable methods to prevent accidents and
T he California Coastal Act of 1976 granted state resulting oil spills. The State Lands Commission has juris-
authority to the California Coastal Commission, in con- diction over all of California’s tidal and submerged lands.
junction with local governments, to manage the con- Management responsibilities extend to activities within
servation and orderly development of coastal resources submerged lands and those within three nautical miles
through a comprehensive planning and regulatory program of shore.
for the coast (excluding areas covered by the McAteer-
Petris Act). The state’s management program for the
Regional
1,100-mile Pacic Coast program was approved in 1977 by
N umerous regional and local initiatives have been
NOAA as consistent with the requirements for planning
launched to protect marine resources and wildlife.
in the federal Coastal Zone Management Act. NOAA’s
A few of the more signicant initiatives are highlighted
approval was made pursuant to an agreement between
below.
the Coastal Commission and the Bay Conservation and
Development Commission to develop mechanisms to
CALFED
integrate their two programs.
T he San Francisco Bay-Delta Estuary is a signicant
The Coastal Act contains specic policies relating to man-
habitat for numerous coastal and marine species and
agement of coastal development activities that affect the
directly impacts the viability of many of the state’s coastal
marine environment and coastal land resources. These
watersheds and resources. However, years of mismange-
policies are the standards used in the commission’s plan-
ment of this invaluable resouce has left its health seriously
ning and regulatory programs to ensure that the commis-
threatened. State-federal cooperation to restore the estu-
sion meets the act’s mandate that the state “[p]rotect,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
42
ary was formalized in June 1994 with the signing of a agencies in 1992, committing the agencies to working
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
framework agreement by the state and federal agencies together to develop a Water Quality Protection Plan for
with management and regulatory responsibility in the Bay- the sanctuary. Led by sanctuary staff, over two dozen
Delta Estuary. These “CALFED” agencies include the state federal, state, local agencies and public and private
Resources Agency, the California Environmental Protection groups have developed much of the planned comprehen-
Agency, the Department of the Interior, the Environmental sive Water Quality Protection Program, addressing urban
Protection Agency, the Department of Commerce, the U.S. runoff, marina and boating pollution, monitoring, and
Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of Agricul- runoff from agricultural activities and rural lands, in order
ture. The framework agreement pledged that the state to enhance and protect the sanctuary’s physical, chemical
and federal agencies would work together on implementa- and biological conditions. Implementation has begun on
tion of water quality standards, coordination of State many of the action items in the plans.
Water Project and Central Valley Project operations with
Local
regulatory requirements, and development of long-term
solutions to problems in the Bay-Delta Estuary.
Implementation of CEQA and NEPA
The long-term goal of CALFED is to develop a comprehen-
O
sive and balanced plan that addresses all of the resource ne of the more common ways that coastal and marine
problems in the estuary. A group of more than 30 citizen- resources are protected on a local level is through
advisors selected from California’s agriculture, environ- implementation of environmental review requirements
mental, urban, business, shing, and other interests with under CEQA and NEPA. Projects requiring local, state
a stake in nding long-term solutions for the problems or federal approval are generally subject to the review
of the Bay-Delta Estuary has been chartered to advise requirements in these statutes. Local and state projects
the CALFED program on its mission and objectives, the also are subject to required mitigation under CEQA.
problems to be addressed and proposed actions.
Coordinated Resource Management Planning
The program is following a three-phase process to achieve
C
broad agreement on long-term solutions. First, a clear oordinated Resource Management and Planning
denition of the problems to be addressed and a range (CRMP) is a community-based program established by
of solution alternatives were developed. Second, environ- the federal Natural Resource Conservation Service. It uses
mental impact reports are being prepared to identify a watershed-based approach to manage upstream lands in
impacts associated with the various alternatives. The pro- order to improve downstream water quality. CRMP empha-
gram’s nal EIS was released in June 2000, proposing sizes direct participation by everyone concerned with nat-
more reliable water deliveries to the Estuary to protect ural resource management in a given planning area. The
habitats, water quality and wildlife. Environmental impact concept underlying CRMP is that coordinating resource
reports will be prepared for each element of the selected management strategies will result in improved resource
solution. Implementation of the nal CALFED Bay-Delta management and minimized conicts among land users,
Estuary solution is expected to take 30 years. landowners, governmental agencies, and interest groups.
The goals of CRMP are to protect, improve and maintain
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Water natural resources by addressing resource problems based
Quality Protection Program on resource boundaries and through those who live, work
T he proximity of the Monterey Bay National Marine and recreate on a given piece of land, and by avoiding
Sanctuary to the coast and its sheer size make the articial constraints by individual, agency or political
sanctuary vulnerable to numerous pollution problems in boundaries.
the eleven watersheds that drain into it. The quality CRMPs work with University of California Cooperative
of the water in the sanctuary is directly linked to the Extension program and the Resource Conservation Dis-
quality of the rainwater runoff and irrigation water from tricts, who are signatories to the CRMP Memorandum
mountains, valleys, rivers, streams, and wetlands on the of Understanding and who support this process through
adjacent coastline. Key problems identied in the sanctu- technical and other assistance to the local CRMP groups.
ary and its watersheds include sedimentation, toxic pollut-
ants in sediments, sh and shellsh, high fecal coliform Marine Protected Areas
levels, sh population declines, low ows in rivers and
M arine Protected Areas (MPAs) are special ocean areas
streams, wetlands alteration, and habitat degradation.
that are protected in some way above other
Recognizing that water quality is a key to ensuring protec- marine areas in order to minimize disturbance.
tion for all sanctuary resources, a memorandum of agree- Depending on the level of use of such areas, benets
ment (MOA) was signed by eight federal, state, and local include biodiversity conservation, ecosystem protection,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 43
improved sheries, enhanced recreation, improved water programs, which are designed to prevent cleaner waters
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
quality and expanded knowledge and understanding of from sliding down towards contamination.
marine systems. With respect to the storm-water permit program, the
As a tool for enhancing ocean resources and wildlife, MPAs state has allocated far fewer staff and other resources
are becoming increasingly popular. In 1999, the legislature than needed to ensure full compliance with federal
passed the Marine Life Protection Act, which sets up a requirements. For example, at the current rate of facility
system for evaluating and coordinating MPAs in the state. inspections, the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Con-
In May 2000, President Clinton issued an executive order trol Board will not be able to make even one full
supporting MPAs and further dening their purpose. round of inspections of regulated industries in its jurisdic-
tion in 100 years. Moreover, the regional board has not
Regulatory Gaps moved forward with more than a handful of enforcement
C
actions against non-ling facilities, even though there are
alifornia has lagged in implementing federal and state
between 12,000 and 17,000 facilities in the Los Angeles
laws designed to protect the health of the state’s
region that have not led permit applications as required
waters. Years of budget cuts and bond act failures have
by law. For this reason, several environmental groups
left California’s water quality protection programs under-
recently petitioned U.S. EPA to take away the state’s
funded and poorly implemented. Until the recent passage
authority to conduct the storm-water permit program in
of Propositions 12 and 13, of the $2.9 billion in water
that region.
bonds approved by California voters since 1970, only $10
million had been earmarked for nonpoint source pollution, The state has identied over 500 water bodies as impaired
the number one source of water pollution in the state. In under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act. The
addition, acquisition funding for protection of the state’s limited monitoring information available indicates that the
lands, which helps prevent increasing pollution from urban number of impaired waters is likely to be much higher.
and other runoff sources declined 80-90 percent over the However, the state has completed only a scattering of
last 10 years. plans for reducing pollution into these impaired waters,
with the pace of production of new plans extremely slow
As a result, use of the vast majority of the state’s sur-
and implementation uncertain.
veyed tidal wetlands, bays, harbors, and estuaries is
impaired or threatened in some way by water pollution. With respect to antidegradation, the state has paid virtu-
Examples of uses that are being impaired or threatened by ally no attention to protecting its cleaner waters, choosing
pollution include drinking, sh consumption, aquatic life instead to spend much of its limited time and funds on
support, swimming, and aquaculture. The primary source already impaired waters. Protecting the state’s waters
of pollution in these waters is nonpoint source pollution. from increased pollution is not only benecial to the
The state’s lack of a detailed, comprehensive approach for health of those waters and the people who depend on
addressing nonpoint source pollution is a major stumbling them, it is also more cost-effective than cleaning up con-
block in our efforts to stem the continuing degradation of taminated waters. Regulations implementing the federal
these water bodies. Clean Water Act as well as State Water Board Resolution
68-16, call on the state and regional water boards to
These water-use impairment gures are even more alarm-
consider and address the impacts of their decisions on the
ing in light of the fact that many of the state’s waterways
overall health of the waters affected. However, this man-
are monitored only infrequently or not at all. California
date has not been implemented fully, particularly with
does not yet have a system to comprehensively monitor
respect to nonpoint source discharges, leaving cleaner
water quality in the inland watershed, enclosed waters,
waters and associated habitats vulnerable to pollution.
or nearshore ocean zones, and the vast majority of Califor-
nia’s waterways and small estuarine systems are not moni- Other state programs that are not being implemented
tored by the state on a regular basis. Because of these fully include the state water board’s Bay Protection and
deciencies, it is difcult to comprehensively determine Toxic Cleanup Program (BPTCP) and its program of issuing
the health of these water bodies. In other words, the waste discharge requirements for nonpoint source pollu-
number of impaired water bodies that we know about tion under the Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act,
is the minimum number of polluted water bodies in as well as the Department of Fish and Game’s program for
the state. addressing pollution under Fish and Game Code Section
5650.
Federal water quality control programs that are not being
implemented fully include the Clean Water Act’s storm- The Bay Protection and Toxic Cleanup Program required
water permitting program; the Clean Water Act’s Section monitoring for toxic pollution, identication of cleanup
303(d) program; and the state and federal antidegradation priorities, and development of standards for toxics in sedi-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
44
ment, plans for cleaning up the toxics, and a funding
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
mechanism to ensure that the dischargers that created the
problem will pay for the cleanup. Much of the BPTCP’s
goal of identifying “hot spots” of toxic coastal contami-
nation has been completed, leading to signicant new
knowledge about threats to marine wildlife. However,
the original goal of actually cleaning up these hot spots
remains unmet, and is unlikely to be met in the foresee-
able future.
With respect to Porter-Cologne, the state has the author-
ity to issue waste discharge requirements for both point
and nonpoint source discharges. However, the full extent
of this authority has never been used, particularly
with respect to nonpoint source discharges, where such
requirements are routinely waived. Increased permitting
would increase the number of conditions on discharges,
which would reduce this signicant source of pollution in
coastal and marine habitats.
Finally, implementation of Fish and Game Code Section
5650 has been weakened through recent statutory amend-
ments and a lack of allocated funding. This section stated
broadly that “it is unlawful to deposit in, permit to
pass into, or place where it can pass into the waters
of this state…[a]ny substance or material deleterious to
sh, plant life, or bird life.” This language gave the
department wide latitude to protect marine habitats from
problem discharges. However, the program was amended
recently to exempt dischargers who hold state or regional
water board discharge permits, on the assumption that
those discharges are already being controlled. But, as
noted above, the regional water boards are behind on
fullling state and federal permit mandates. As a result,
there is no assurance that permitted discharges will not be
“deleterious” to sh, plants and birds.
Linda Sheehan
The Ocean Conservancy
Robert Tasto
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 45
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
46
Human Ecosystem
Dimension
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Human Benefits of the Marine Ecosystem
M arine ecosystems provide opportunities for consump-
tive and non-consumptive uses of marine resources.
Some activities, such as commercial, recreational and
subsistence shing, kelp harvesting and harvesting of
marine specimens for aquarium use, are consumptive in
the sense that they result in permanent removal of eco-
system resources. Other activities (tidepooling, marine
mammal and bird watching, kayaking and observational
diving) are more commonly characterized as non-con-
sumptive. However, the distinction between consumptive
that may result from interactions with shing operations.
and non-consumptive use is not always clear cut, as activi-
Regulations may be imposed for economic reasons. For
ties that are not necessarily intended to be consumptive
instance, seasons may be set to coincide with periods
may sometimes result in inadvertent injury to marine
when a sh stock is in prime marketable condition
animals or disruption of their habitat.
or when market demand is high. Regulations may be
Marine ecosystems also benet people who may never use
imposed for social reasons, such as providing equitable
or even see marine resources but nevertheless value their
harvest opportunities or reducing the potential for conict
existence. Non-use value may be motivated by the desire
among different sectors of a shery.
to have ecosystem resources available for future use or
Regulations can take a variety of forms, including license
by the satisfaction of knowing that such resources exist,
and permit programs, harvest quotas, season closures,
regardless of whether they are ever put to human use.
area closures, trip limits, bag limits (for recreational
The remainder of this report focuses on the two major
anglers), size limits and restrictions on quantity and type
consumptive uses of marine resources— commercial and
of gear. Reporting requirements such as landings receipts,
recreational shing. The intent is not to diminish the
logbooks or on-board observers may be imposed to ensure
importance of other sources of use and non-use value
that shery monitoring, management, enforcement and
but rather to address informational and reporting require-
research needs are met. A particular type of regulation
ments of the Marine Life Management Act.
may serve different objectives, depending on the context
in which the regulation is imposed. For instance, trip
limits may be used to discourage targeting on a particular
Factors Affecting Commercial and species while allowing a limited amount of incidental
Recreational Fishery Activity take of that species. Trip limits may be used to
slow the harvest rate to enhance real-time monitoring
C ommercial and recreational shery landings are
capability in sheries where quotas would otherwise
affected by many factors. Landings tend to increase
be quickly exhausted. Trip limits may also serve eco-
with stock abundance, as sh are easier and less costly
nomic objectives, such as lengthening the duration of the
to locate and harvest when they are at higher levels of
abundance. The availability of some species on local sh-
ing grounds may vary across seasons or years, depending
on ocean temperature and other environmental factors.
Weather conditions and economic circumstances (market
demand and prices) may discourage or encourage shing
activity. Fishing behavior is also affected by regulatory
restrictions, which are imposed for a variety of reasons
and take a variety of forms.
Regulations may be imposed for biological reasons. For
instance, harvest restrictions may be imposed to protect a
particular sh stock or to reduce incidental take of other
stocks that are caught simultaneously with that stock.
Regulations may be imposed to protect habitat or to
reduce injury or mortality to marine mammals or seabirds
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 47
shing season or ensuring that landings do not exceed
Human Ecosystem Dimension
processing capacity.
For shing vessels and sh dealers, net economic benet
is properly measured as the difference between their
gross revenues and economic costs. However, net eco-
nomic benets cannot be estimated for either of these
shery sectors, due to lack of complete economic data.
Instead, landings by shing vessels and landings receipts
by sh dealers are described in terms of their ex-vessel
value. Ex-vessel value overstates the economic value of
the shery to shing vessels, as it does not include any
consideration of harvesting costs. For dealers, ex-vessel
value represents the cost of obtaining sh. Information on
revenues earned from processing/marketing these land-
Commercial landings in California decreased from 791.4
ings is not generally available. In addition, some dealers
million pounds in 1981 to 472.1 million pounds in 1999.
may also process/market sh imported from other states
Ex-vessel revenues also fell during this period from $475.7
or countries; the revenues and costs associated with these
million to $144.4 million in 1999. All dollar values pre-
imported products are also not known.
sented here and throughout the remaining of this report
have been corrected for ination to 1999 dollars. The
Commercial Fisheries Landings and precipitous decline experienced during the early-1980s
was largely the result of a shift in tuna landings from Cali-
Ex-vessel Value fornia ports to less costly cannery operations in American
T
Samoa and Puerto Rico. The decline in tuna landings and
his section describes trends in the volume and ex-
revenues has been compounded by declines in landings of
vessel value of California commercial landings. The
species such as groundsh, urchin, shark and swordsh,
harvest information presented here is based on landings
salmon, abalone. Other species (e.g., market squid, lob-
receipts and therefore excludes discards and live bait
ster, prawn, coastal pelagics) have been the target of
catch. Fish may be discarded in commercial shery opera-
expanding sheries, while still others (e.g., crab, Pacic
tions for a variety of reasons. Discards may include sh
herring, shrimp) exhibit no obvious pattern or trend in
that are of sublegal size, exceed a vessel’s hold capacity
landings and revenues.
or trip limit, or are not of marketable size or species.
Information on the level of discards and discard mortality From 1995 through 1999, the species groups accounting
is generally not known. Live bait used by recreational for most of the ex-vessel value of California landings
shermen is also not reported on landings receipts, since were (in descending order of value) groundsh, market
transactions between buyers and sellers of live bait typi- squid, crab, albacore/other tunas, sea urchin, herring,
cally take place at sea. Logbook data indicate that bait shark/swordsh, salmon, coastal pelagics, lobster, prawn,
haulers harvest a maximum of 12 million pounds of live shrimp and abalone. The species composition of landings
bait each year. and revenues varies signicantly by area. Over 90 percent
of the ex-vessel value of landings in northern California
consists of groundsh, crab, shrimp and sea urchin. In
central California, 90 percent of total ex-vessel value is
contributed by groundsh, herring, salmon, crab, prawn,
shark/swordsh and coastal pelagics. In southern Califor-
nia, 90 percent of total value is contributed by squid,
albacore/other tuna, sea urchin, coastal pelagics, shark/
swordsh, lobster and groundsh. Landings and revenues
have historically been higher in southern California than
in central or northern California. The major reason for
this difference is the large contribution made by the high-
volume squid and coastal pelagic sheries to southern
California landings and revenues.
The State of California requires that all commercial shing
vessels, crew members, and sh businesses be licensed
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
48
Categorizing vessels according to their “principal area”
Human Ecosystem Dimension
(i.e., the area in which they made the plurality of their
revenues from California landings), the statewide pattern
of declining eet size is evident in all areas. From 1981
to 1999, the number of boats declined from 2,256 to 532
(76 percent) in northern California, from 2,848 to 1,191 (58
percent) in central California, and from 1,793 to 967 (46
percent) in southern California. The number of boats has
been consistently higher in central California than in the
other two areas.
Just as some vessels engage in interstate shing activity,
a small but signicant minority of vessels lands sh both
inside and outside of their principal shing area within
California. From 1981 through 1999, 82 percent of vessels
to operate in the state, and further requires that all whose principal area was northern California made land-
businesses and shermen who accept seafood for com- ings in northern California only, while the remaining 18
mercial purposes maintain landings receipts. The state percent also made landings in other areas (mostly central
also imposes additional license and permit requirements California). Of vessels whose principal area was central
that are specic to certain types of shing activities. In California, 87 percent made landings in central California
addition, federal permits are required for vessels that only, and 13 percent also made landings in northern
qualify to participate in the groundsh and coastal pelag- and/or southern California. Of vessels whose principal
ics limited-entry sheries. Permits and licenses represent area was southern California, 88 percent made landings
upper-bound estimates of shery participation, as not all in southern California only, and the remaining 12 percent
permit/license holders actively engage in shery activity also made landings in other areas (mostly central California).
each year. The next two sections of this report describe The percent of boats earning less than $5,000 per year
the extent of actual participation in the harvesting and declined from 53 percent during the period from 1981
processing sectors. through 1985 to 34 percent during the 1995 through 1999
period, while the percent of boats accounting for 90 per-
cent of the ex-vessel value of statewide landings increased
Harvesting Sector from 20 percent (1981-1985) to 35 percent (1995-1999).
T
The highly skewed revenue distribution characteristic of
he number of commercial shing vessels that land sh
the early 1980s reects the sizeable contribution of tuna
in California declined from 6,897 in 1981 to 2,690 in
shery participants to total statewide revenues during
1999. While the majority of these boats land sh solely at
those years. The tendency toward a less skewed distribu-
California ports, a signicant minority also makes landings
tion of revenue after the mid-1980s was apparent in north-
in Oregon or Washington. California boats may sh in
ern, central and southern California as well as statewide.
other states as well (e.g., Alaska); however, the extent of
Nevertheless, the commercial shery remains character-
such activity is not known.
ized by a large number of low-revenue vessels and a
small number of high-revenue vessels, with hook-and-line
Street fish market, Fisherman’s Wharf, San Francisco, CA
Credit: UC Davis Sea Grant
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 49
salmon and groundsh vessels disproportionately repre-
Human Ecosystem Dimension
sented in the low-revenue segment.
From 1981 through 1999, ex-vessel revenue from California
landings averaged $46,500 per boat and did not exhibit
any consistent trend or pattern. However, the statewide
average masks signicant regional differences in this
regard. From the 1981-1985 period to the 1994-1999
period, average revenue per boat increased signicantly
in northern California from $24,500 to $60,800, increased
less dramatically in central California from $20,800 to
$30,100, and declined in southern California from $126,000
to $74,900. The shing opportunities that developed in
southern California after the mid-1980s were not sufcient
to compensate for the decline in revenues from the highly
enue per vessel among sheries is suggestive of vessels’
lucrative tuna shery. Nevertheless, average revenue per
economic dependence on their principal shery relative to
boat is still higher in southern California than elsewhere
other California sheries and to Oregon and Washington
in the state.
sheries. For instance, some vessels (e.g., shrimp trawl in
For the years 1995 through 1999, commercial landings
northern California) earn more revenue from their out-of-
and revenues were categorized into 23 different com-
state landings than their California landings. For these
binations of species and gear that depict major types
vessels in particular, adverse conditions in their out-of-
of shery activity in the state. Table II-7 describes aver-
state sheries can result in a signicant diversion of effort
age annual landings and revenues in each major shery
to the California sheries in which they also participate,
in northern, central and southern California during the
and vice versa. At the other end of the spectrum are ves-
1995-1999 period, presented in declining order of revenue.
sels that derive most if not all of their revenue from their
For each shery, the table also includes the number
principal shery (e.g., urchin diving in central California).
of participating vessels (dened as vessels who earned
Because of this lack of diversication, such vessels are
at least ve percent of their California revenue from
particularly vulnerable to changing conditions in the
that shery) and the number of participating vessels for
shery in which they do participate. It should be cau-
whom the shery is their “principal shery” (that is,
tioned that ex-vessel revenue comparisons are merely sug-
the shery from which they derive the plurality of their
gestive of differences in economic value, as such compari-
California revenue).
sons do not account for differences in operating costs
Table II-8 characterizes the vessels in each principal sh-
across sheries.
ery category in terms of average landings and revenues
According to Tables II-7 and II-8, the highest-revenue sh-
per year from the vessel’s principal California shery, from
eries do not necessarily support the largest numbers of
other California sheries, and from Oregon and Washing-
boats or generate large ex-vessel revenues per boat. For
ton sheries. Average revenue per boat varies widely
instance, the salmon hook-and-line shery is the third
among sheries, and tends to be lowest in the groundsh
largest contributor to ex-vessel revenue in central Cali-
and salmon hook-and-line sheries and highest in the
fornia ($6.5 million) and serves as the principal shery
trawl and seine sheries. The distribution of average rev-
for 579 vessels, yet generates only $9,000 in ex-vessel
revenue per boat per year. The tuna seine shery is the
third largest contributor to ex-vessel revenue in southern
California ($9.6 million) and yields higher revenue per
boat than any other shery statewide ($914,600 per boat
per year); yet tuna seine is the principal shery for only
10 boats.
The Tables in II-3 describe the most common combinations
of sheries in which vessels participated from 1995
through 1999. The number in each rectangle represents
the average annual number of vessels that participated
solely in that shery during the 1995-1999 period, and the
number on each line connecting the rectangles represents
the average annual number of vessels that participated
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
50
The increase in numbers of dealers has followed a distinc-
Human Ecosystem Dimension
tive pattern: a relatively stable number of dealers during
the 1981-1986 period, followed by a stepwise increase in
1987 and relatively stable (albeit higher) numbers there-
after. The ex-vessel value of average annual landings
receipts per dealer shows a parallel though opposite step-
wise pattern. From the 1981-1986 period to the 1987-1999
period, the average annual number of dealers increased
from 547 to 825, while the value of landings receipts
per dealer decreased from $531,500 to $209,500 over the
same period. The decline in average value per dealer
is largely due to the post-1986 increase in the number
of dealers for whom the value of landings was less than
$5,000. Many of these small dealers are commercial sh-
ing vessel operators who sell their landings directly to
in that particular two-shery combination. The asterisks
restaurants and markets rather than to a processor. The
denote the most common three-shery combinations. Only
decline in annual value per dealer has been particularly
sheries or shery combinations that represent an annual
severe in southern California (falling from $805,500 in
average of at least three vessels appear in the gure.
1981-1985 to $233,900 in 1986-1999), where the effect of
Since the abalone dive shery has been closed to com-
the post-1986 increase in the number of small dealers was
mercial shing since 1998, the 1995-1999 statistics on that
compounded by the drastic reduction in high-priced tuna
shery included in Tables II-7, II-8 and II-3 include the
landings experienced in that area through the early 1980s.
recent years of zero shing activity (1998-1999).
Since the decline of the tuna shery, northern California
Patterns of behavior vary signicantly by area. In north-
has generally replaced southern California as the area
ern California, crab pot is the predominant shery in
with the highest average value of landings per dealer.
terms of the number of vessels that participate solely
The distribution of landings receipts among dealers is
in that shery (153) and the frequency with which crab
highly skewed, with 16 percent of the dealers responsible
pot vessels also engage in other sheries. In central
for 90 percent of the value of landings from 1987 through
California, the largest numbers of vessels engage in the
1999. This pattern is repeated throughout the state, with
salmon hook-and-line (419), groundsh hook-and-line (332)
20 percent of dealers in northern California and 16 percent
and herring (121) sheries. The most common combina-
of dealers in central and southern California accounting
tions involve salmon and groundsh hook-and-line (92),
for 90 percent of ex-vessel value in their respective areas
and salmon hook-and-line and crab pot (88). In southern
of the state.
California, the largest numbers of vessels engage in the
sea urchin (156), groundsh hook-and-line (119) and lob-
ster pot (102) sheries. Groundsh hook-and-line vessels
The Trade Sector
are also notable in terms of the number of other sheries
G
in which they participate. While interactions exist among enerally speaking, imports into the U.S. are catego-
the prawn, groundsh and cucumber trawl sheries, trawl rized by their initial port of entry, which is not neces-
sheries in southern California are seldom pursued in sarily their nal destination. Thus, some imports that
combination with other gear types.
The Processing Sector
B etween 1981 and 1999, the number of sh dealers
increased statewide from 519 to 888. Categorizing
dealers according to their “principal area” (e.g., the area
of California accounting for the plurality of the ex-vessel
value of their landings receipts), the number of dealers
increased from 86 to 143 (+66 percent) in northern Califor-
nia, from 213 to 366 (+42 percent) in central California,
and from 220 to 379 (+72 percent) in southern California.
The number of dealers has been consistently lower in
northern California than in other areas of the state.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 51
enter the U.S. at Nogales, Arizona and Honolulu, Hawaii
Human Ecosystem Dimension
likely end up in California markets. For this reason, sea-
food imports into California should be considered sug-
gestive rather than denitive estimates of California con-
sumer demand for imported seafood.
Like imports, exports from the U.S. are categorized in
terms of the port from which they left the U.S. Thus,
not all exports from a state necessarily originate from
sheries in that state. California exports may include
sh landed in Mexico and subject to additional handling
or processing in California before being sold to a third
country. Exports also include sh that were imported
and not sold, then re-exported in substantially the same
condition as when imported.
during the 1997-1999 period (in order of declining annual
The dollar value attached to imports represents the Cus-
import value) were Thailand ($999.6 million), Indonesia
toms value, that is, the price actually paid for merchan-
($179.1 million), China ($162.5 million), Ecuador ($157.9
dise when sold to the U.S., excluding U.S. import duties,
million), India ($148.6 million) and Taiwan ($99.4 million).
freight, insurance and other charges incurred in bringing
Imports from all of these countries except China have
the goods to the U.S. The dollar values attached to
been on a generally increasing trend over the past decade.
exports and re-exports is the “free alongside ship” value,
From 1989 through 1999, the value of seafood products
that is, the value at the port of export, dened as
exported from California and from the U.S. as a whole
the transaction price including charges and transportation
averaged $246.2 million and $3,215.3 million respectively.
costs incurred in bringing the merchandise to the port
About eight percent of total U.S. seafood exports origi-
of exportation.
nated from customs districts in California. In recent years
Between 1989 and 1999, the value of seafood products
(1997-1999), squid has replaced sea urchin as California’s
imported into California increased from $1.6 trillion to
major export. The major species groups comprising Cali-
$2.4 trillion, while imports into the U.S. as a whole
fornia exports during the 1997-1999 period (in order of
increased from $6.9 trillion to $9.0 trillion. About 30
declining average annual value) were squid ($37.9 million),
percent of the value of U.S. imports enters the country
sea urchin ($28.5 million), shrimp ($18.3 million), lobster
at California ports. Shrimp imports, which have increased
($17.4 million), salmon ($16.6 million) and groundsh
dramatically over the past decade, have consistently com-
($14.7 million). Although exports to Japan have declined
prised about 60 percent of the value of California seafood
signicantly over the past decade, Japan remains the
imports. The average annual value of shrimp imports
major recipient of California exports. California’s major
was $1.6 trillion during the 1997-1999 period. Signicant
seafood export trading partners from 1997 through 1999
though much smaller amounts of tuna ($187.6 million),
(in order of declining annual export value) were Japan
unspecied marine sh ($104.1 million), scallop ($65.1
($61.7 million), Taiwan ($30.6 million), China ($22.2 mil-
million), lobster ($62.2 million) and squid ($47.0 million)
lion), Australia ($15.7 million), Mexico ($11.9 million) and
were also imported during that period. The countries
Hong Kong ($10.8 million).
from which California received most of its seafood imports
Sport and Subsistence Fisheries
S ome shermen do not earn revenue from their catch
but rather sh for pleasure and/or to provide food
for personal consumption. The economic value of the
sport/subsistence (hereafter loosely referred to as “recre-
ational”) shery depends on which segment of the shery
is being considered. For instance, the value of shing
to anglers would be measured by consumer surplus, that
is, the maximum amount that anglers would be willing
to pay for the shing experience over and above what
they actually pay. The value of shing to businesses that
provide services to anglers, such as commercial passenger
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
52
varies widely, ranging from a high of 85-90 percent for
Human Ecosystem Dimension
smelt, rocksh, jacks and herring to a low of 11 percent for
cartilaginous sh.
Harvests vary across shing modes and areas as well as
species. During 1998-1999, annual harvests (excluding sh
released alive) ranged from highs of 1,995,000 sh for
CPFV anglers and 2,171,000 sh for private boat anglers in
southern California, to lows of 344,000 sh for southern
California beach anglers and 600,000 sh for central/
northern California anglers shing from man-made struc-
tures. Sea basses, tuna/mackerel, Pacic barracuda, Cali-
fornia scorpionsh and jacks are much more commonly
caught in southern California, while striped bass and
salmon are more commonly caught in central/northern
shing vessels (CPFVs), would be measured by the differ- California. Rockshes are an important component of
ence between their gross revenues and economic costs. boat-based harvests in southern California and the domi-
The economic impact of shing on local economies would nant component in northern California.
be measured by the multiplier effects on income and
employment that occur as money spent by anglers moves
Recreational Fishery Expenditures
through the economy. Collection and analysis of data
needed to estimate these various types of economic
B ased on the average annual number of marine rec-
effects are underway. Until such studies are completed,
reational shing trips made in U.S. waters during
all that is available at this time are approximate estimates
1998-1999, aggregate annual trip-related expenditures
of angler expenditures.
were estimated to be approximately $202.0 million for
southern California and $107.9 million for central/northern
Effort and Harvest California. These estimates, combined with license, sh-
ing gear and boat-related expenses of $128.4 million in
A pproximately 4.7 million marine recreational angler southern California and $68.6 million in central/northern
trips were made annually in California during California, bring total annual statewide angler expendi-
1998-1999 — 2.9 million trips (61 percent) in southern tures to $506.9 million.
California (Santa Barbara County and southward) and 1.9
million trips (39 percent) in central/northern California
Additional Information on the Salmon
(San Luis Obispo County and northward). The proportion
of total effort in each area associated with man-made
and CPFV Sport Fisheries
structures (e.g., piers), beaches, CPFVs and private boats
D
was 22 percent, 10 percent, 22 percent and 46 percent FG sponsors a number of data collection programs
respectively in southern California, and 24 percent, 18 that provide detailed information regarding certain
percent, nine percent and 49 percent in central/northern segments of the marine sport shery. One such program is
California. Approximately 17.8 million sh were harvested the Ocean Salmon Project (OSP), which provides informa-
annually during 1998-1999, of which 9.6 million were
landed in whole condition, 7.1 million were discarded
alive, and 1.2 million were used as bait, lleted, given
away or discarded dead.
Harvest levels vary signicantly across species groups.
During 1998-1999, the major components of harvest
included rocksh (3.4 million sh), sea basses and tuna/
mackerel (2.5 million sh each), and smelt, surfperch,
croakers and Pacic barracuda (1.1 million sh each).
Flatsh, silversides, jacks, sharks, rays, scorpionsh,
striped bass, herring greenlings, sculpins and sea chubs
made smaller though signicant contributions to total
harvest. The percentage of total catch retained by
anglers or discarded dead (e.g., not released alive)
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 53
tion on harvest and effort in California’s ocean salmon Mexican waters, and ve shed exclusively in Mexican
Human Ecosystem Dimension
sheries (both recreational and commercial). It also spon- waters.
sors a CPFV logbook program. Not all CPFVs participate The number of CPFV angler trips in northern California
in the program and the participation rate varies somewhat averaged 6,782 (1980-1984), increased to 13,271
from year to year. Nevertheless, logbook-based estimates (1985-1991), then declined to 6,087 (1992-1998). In central
of effort and catch are generally considered to be useful California, shing effort declined from an annual average
indicators of trends in the CPFV shery. of 206,121 angler trips (1980-1991) to 159,634 angler trips
According to data collected in the OSP, recreational (1992-1998). For CPFVs based in southern California, sh-
salmon landings and effort in both central and northern ing effort in U.S. waters experienced peaks in 1980-1982,
California were lower and less variable in the years prior 1990 and 1997-1998, while effort in Mexican waters peaked
to 1985 than they have been in subsequent years 1985 in 1984-1985 and 1997-1998. Fishing effort in southern
through 2000. Record low levels of landings and effort California (in both U.S. and Mexican waters) displays no
were experienced by both CPFV and private boat anglers obvious trend over time.
in 1992 and record highs in 1995. While CPFV and private Paralleling the changes in shing effort, CPFV landings
boat landings have been markedly similar over time, sh- in northern California also increased through the 1980s,
ing effort has been consistently higher for private boats peaked in the late 1980s and early 1990s, then declined
than CPFVs. From 1985 through 2000, annual salmon land- throughout the 1990s. This same trend was followed by
ings averaged 91,600 sh for CPFVs and 93,600 for private both major components of northern California landings
boats, while annual effort averaged 86,200 CPFV trips and – rocksh/lingcod and salmon. Landings of “other”
128,300 private boat trips. Neither landings nor effort species, which have historically been very modest, were
exhibit any consistent long term trend. augmented by crab harvests from 1995 through 1998,
According to data collected in CPFV logbooks, the number when CPFVs began employing crab pots on shing trips
of CPFVs that participate annually in the marine recre- to help supplement declining harvests of nshes. Cen-
ational shery averaged 297 boats from 1980 through tral California landings, which ranged from 1.5 to 1.8 mil-
1998. Categorizing CPFVs according to their “principal lion sh during the early 1980s, have declined to well
area” (e.g., the area in which they made the plurality under one million sh in recent years. This decline has
of their shing trips), the number of northern California been largely driven by the precipitous decline in rocksh/
CPFVs increased from an annual average of 18 boats lingcod landings. Salmon landings and landings of “other”
during the 1980-1987 period to 30 boats during the species (including species such as crab, striped bass, stur-
1988-1991 period, then decreased to an average of 13 geon, atshes, mackerel, tuna, shark) followed no obvi-
boats during the 1992-1998 period. The number of central ous trend. Landings associated with southern California
California CPFVs declined from an annual average of 137 trips in U.S. waters declined from well over four million
boats during the 1980-1991 period to 105 boats during the sh during the early 1980s to around two million sh
1992-1998 period. The CPFV eet in southern California, during the late 1990s. Increases in sea bass and barracuda
many of which sh in Mexican as well as U.S. waters, landings during 1980-1998 were overshadowed by much
increased in size from an average of 145 boats (1980-1994) larger declines in rocksh, mackerel and bonito landings.
to 183 boats (1995-1998). Of these 183 boats, 119 shed Tuna/jack landings do not follow any obvious long term
exclusively in U.S. waters, 58 shed in both U.S. and trend, although they have been unusually high in recent
years. “Other” landings include a diversity of species,
including California scorpionsh, ocean whitesh, sea
chubs, wrasses, croakers and atshes among others.
Since 1995, the CPFV logbook database has included infor-
mation that allows shing trips to be distinguished from
diving trips and also allows trips to be distinguished by
target species. From 1995 through 1998, diving trips
comprise a very modest proportion of total CPFV activity
in both northern and central California. CPFV shing trips
in northern California were targeted largely at salmon (39
percent), rocksh/lingcod (48 percent) and salmon and
rocksh/lingcod combined (10 percent). CPFV shing trips
in central California were targeted at salmon (45 percent),
rocksh/lingcod (35 percent), salmon and rocksh/lingcod
(three percent), and striped bass/sturgeon, shark, tuna
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
54
and other/unspecied species (17 percent). From 1995 From 1995 through 1998, 91 percent of southern California
Human Ecosystem Dimension
through 1998, the contribution of salmon to total CPFV CPFV shing trips in U.S. waters were not targeted at any
landings in northern and central California (seven percent particular species, reecting the prevalence of freelance
and 10 percent respectively) was much lower than the trips on which anglers are provided with the opportunity
proportion of trips targeted at salmon. Conversely, the to catch a diversity of species. Of the remaining nine per-
rocksh/lingcod contribution to total northern and central cent of trips, two percent were specically targetine tuna
California landings (88 percent and 84 percent respec- and seven percent rocksh/lingcod. About 55 percent
tively) was much higher than the proportion of trips tar- of total rocksh/lingcod landings in southern California
geted at rocksh/lingcod. Such marked disproportion- were made on trips specically targeting rocksh/lingcod
alities between landings and effort highlight the large and the remaining 45 percent landed on freelance trips.
differences in catch-per-unit-effort that can exist among This highlights one of the complexities associated with
species groups. The singular reliance of northern management of the southern California CPFV shery,
and central California CPFVs on salmon, rocksh and ling- that is, how to meet harvest goals for managed species
cod harvests and the unprecedented regulatory restric- (like rocksh and lingcod) that are taken jointly with
tions on harvests of these species in recent years are other species without unduly restricting harvests of these
signicant contributing factors to the decline in effort and other species.
landings experienced in northern and central California in
recent years.
Cynthia J. Thomson
Southern California CPFVs participate in a range of shing National Marine Fisheries Service
and diving activities. From 1995 through 1998, about
79 percent of angler trips made by southern California
References
boats involved shing in U.S. waters, 14 percent involved
shing in Mexican waters, seven percent involved diving
Thomson, Cynthia J. and Daniel D. Huppert. 1987. Results
in U.S. waters, and less than one percent involved dive
of the Bay Area Sportsh Economic Study (BASES), NOAA
trips in Mexican waters. Of the 183 CPFVs that operated in
Technical Memorandum NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-78, 70 pp.
southern California during 1995-1998, 63 shed in Mexican
waters. Mexican as well as California shing regulations Thomson, Cynthia J. and Stephen J. Crooke. 1991. Results
are an important consideration for this signicant minority of the southern California Sportsh Economic Survey.
of southern California CPFVs. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-164,
264 pp.
Table II-1. Commercial landings (millions of pounds), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1
Year Groundfish Squid Crab Alb/Other Tuna Urchin Herring Shark/Sword Salmon
1981 94.4 51.8 11.8 337.1 26.5 13.1 4.8 6.0
1982 116.7 36.9 8.2 251.6 19.5 23.4 5.7 8.0
1983 90.0 4.0 6.7 248.7 17.8 17.7 5.8 2.4
1984 90.1 1.2 7.0 182.4 15.1 8.5 7.6 2.9
1985 95.0 22.7 7.9 68.2 20.1 17.6 8.9 4.3
1986 92.5 46.9 9.8 69.0 34.1 16.9 6.7 7.3
1987 91.8 44.1 8.6 80.6 46.1 18.6 5.3 8.8
1988 88.5 82.1 12.7 75.7 52.0 19.1 4.3 14.2
1989 94.4 90.2 7.2 55.5 51.4 20.6 4.5 5.6
1990 86.7 62.7 12.3 37.4 45.3 16.5 3.5 4.3
1991 79.7 83.2 6.0 19.0 42.3 16.3 3.1 3.7
1992 77.3 28.9 9.9 20.6 33.2 14.2 3.3 1.6
1993 62.4 94.4 13.5 24.9 27.0 9.6 3.5 2.5
1994 54.8 122.0 14.6 26.0 23.9 6.7 3.4 3.1
1995 63.5 154.9 10.4 26.1 22.3 10.4 2.4 6.6
1996 62.4 177.6 13.6 42.4 20.1 12.2 2.5 4.1
1997 65.5 155.1 11.3 37.2 18.1 20.8 3.1 5.3
1998 50.6 6.6 12.1 38.1 10.4 4.5 2.8 1.8
1999 33.1 201.8 9.6 24.6 14.2 5.2 3.8 3.8
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 55
Table II-1. Commercial landings (millions of pounds), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1 (continued)
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Year CPS Lobster Prawn Shrimp Nearshore Abalone All Else Total
1981 232.6 0.5 0.6 5.3 2.6 1.1 3.2 791.4
1982 215.7 0.5 0.4 5.4 2.3 1.2 3.2 697.8
1983 122.9 0.5 0.3 2.1 1.5 0.8 1.7 522.8
1984 123.7 0.4 0.6 3.0 2.3 0.8 1.5 447.3
1985 102.0 0.4 1.0 4.6 3.0 0.8 1.3 357.6
1986 120.8 0.5 0.8 7.0 2.1 0.6 1.1 416.1
1987 124.7 0.4 0.3 8.2 2.1 0.8 1.5 442.1
1988 129.2 0.6 0.3 11.5 2.3 0.6 1.7 494.8
1989 136.1 0.7 0.4 14.6 2.1 0.7 3.6 487.5
1990 106.2 0.7 0.4 10.3 2.0 0.5 6.0 394.9
1991 99.9 0.6 0.4 11.8 2.9 0.4 1.7 371.2
1992 85.7 0.6 0.3 19.6 1.8 0.5 1.3 298.9
1993 67.9 0.6 0.4 8.6 2.1 0.5 1.8 319.8
1994 57.6 0.5 0.6 12.1 3.1 0.3 1.7 330.4
1995 115.7 0.6 0.8 6.8 3.2 0.3 1.4 425.4
1996 107.5 0.7 1.1 10.6 3.4 0.2 3.3 461.6
1997 151.2 0.9 1.1 15.7 2.7 0.1 4.2 492.3
1998 147.2 0.7 1.3 3.0 1.4 0.0 3.3 283.9
1999 163.4 0.5 2.0 5.8 1.4 0.0 2.9 472.1
“Nearshore” includes non-rockfish species caught in nearshore areas (e.g., California sheephead, white croaker, white seabass).
1
Table II-2. Ex-vessel value ($millions, base year=1999), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1
Year Groundfish Squid Crab Alb/Other Tuna Urchin Herring Shark/Sword Salmon
1981 38.3 8.5 17.2 317.6 8.4 7.9 9.6 25.3
1982 46.5 5.6 13.6 198.7 5.6 15.8 12.5 31.5
1983 36.5 1.1 14.0 163.1 5.8 18.9 13.7 7.0
1984 35.8 0.4 14.3 118.2 5.3 2.8 20.7 11.4
1985 39.9 5.3 14.7 36.6 6.8 8.7 23.1 15.3
1986 42.8 6.2 17.9 38.3 13.4 7.6 20.8 20.2
1987 44.5 5.3 15.2 48.3 17.9 7.9 18.2 32.6
1988 40.1 10.2 21.0 55.1 25.2 7.4 15.2 52.5
1989 40.7 8.7 11.3 32.8 28.4 5.9 16.6 16.5
1990 37.2 5.7 21.8 18.4 29.7 10.5 10.7 14.1
1991 34.4 7.2 10.0 9.4 39.5 11.1 9.3 10.5
1992 34.9 2.8 14.1 11.5 33.9 10.5 9.6 5.1
1993 28.0 11.3 16.4 15.2 29.4 2.8 10.9 6.3
1994 28.2 15.6 21.4 16.5 27.7 3.5 11.5 7.0
1995 38.7 23.7 16.9 11.4 24.1 10.3 7.8 12.4
1996 37.8 22.8 19.5 23.5 19.6 15.8 7.1 6.3
1997 35.8 21.2 20.8 20.1 15.7 15.6 7.3 7.5
1998 25.0 1.7 21.8 19.0 8.0 0.6 6.7 3.1
1999 22.4 33.3 18.2 16.3 13.4 2.2 9.1 7.4
Year CPS Lobster Prawn Shrimp Nearshore Abalone All Else Total
1981 23.7 2.7 1.6 5.3 2.8 3.5 4.0 475.7
1982 21.1 3.0 1.7 5.4 1.2 3.6 4.0 369.6
1983 15.5 3.0 0.8 2.1 0.9 2.6 1.2 286.3
1984 14.7 2.6 0.8 3.0 1.1 3.2 1.2 238.4
1985 11.5 2.7 1.3 4.6 1.8 3.4 1.0 174.4
1986 12.7 3.1 1.5 7.0 1.3 2.6 0.9 194.7
1987 11.0 2.9 1.0 8.2 1.3 3.3 1.2 218.7
1988 12.7 4.2 1.3 11.5 1.4 2.6 1.3 256.7
1989 12.3 5.0 1.3 14.6 1.2 3.9 2.0 193.4
1990 7.9 4.8 1.9 10.3 1.2 3.0 3.6 176.5
1991 8.3 4.4 2.1 11.8 1.5 2.1 1.5 158.8
1992 7.1 4.4 1.7 19.6 1.0 3.2 1.4 149.3
1993 4.2 4.0 2.6 8.6 0.6 3.5 2.6 141.2
1994 4.1 3.8 3.2 12.1 2.0 2.9 2.0 157.0
1995 5.6 5.1 3.3 6.8 2.1 2.7 1.0 170.5
1996 5.6 5.3 4.4 10.6 2.0 2.3 1.4 180.5
1997 8.4 7.0 5.8 15.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 176.5
1998 6.8 4.8 6.4 3.0 1.6 0.0 1.3 109.0
1999 7.4 3.7 5.8 5.8 1.3 0.0 1.1 144.4
“Nearshore” includes non-rockfish species caught in nearshore areas (e.g., California sheephead, white croaker, white seabass).
1
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
56
Table II-3. Average annual landings and ex-vessel value during 1995-1999, by area and major species group.
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Northern California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Groundfish 30,233.7 57% 13,564.4 38%
Crab 8,067.0 15% 13,257.6 37%
Shrimp 6,425.7 12% 3,531.2 10%
Urchin 3,321.6 6% 2,724.9 8%
Albacore/Other Tuna 1,105.3 2% 951.8 3%
All Else 3,402.0 7% 1,467.9 4%
Total 52,555.3 100% 35,497.8 100%
Central California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Groundfish 22,771.8 27% 14,985.8 32%
Herring 10,431.2 12% 8,800.1 19%
Salmon 4,131.5 5% 6,939.9 15%
Crab 2,428.0 3% 5,135.0 11%
Prawn 335.6 0% 2,279.0 5%
Shark/Swordfish 758.9 1% 2,093.4 5%
Coastal Pelagics 32,000.3 38% 1,499.2 3%
Albacore/Other Tuna 1,618.6 2% 1,448.6 3%
Shrimp 1,912.5 2% 1,314.0 3%
Market Squid 7,709.4 9% 1,197.8 2%
All Else 1,192.4 1% 1,181.2 2%
Total 85,290.2 100% 46,874.0 100%
Southern California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Market Squid 131,468.9 45% 19,344.8 26%
Albacore/Other Tuna 30,924.4 11% 15,662.8 21%
Urchin 13,057.8 5% 12,906.9 18%
Coastal Pelagics 104,979.2 36% 5,261.4 7%
Shark/Swordfish 2,059.3 1% 5,229.5 7%
Lobster 683.1 0% 5,174.6 7%
Groundfish 2,007.4 1% 3,382.5 5%
Prawn 915.9 0% 2,813.2 4%
Crab 891.2 0% 1,067.1 1%
All Else 2,237.8 1% 2,974.6 4%
Total 289,225.0 100% 73,817.4 100%
Total California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Groundfish 55,012.9 13% 31,932.7 20%
Market Squid 139,187.8 33% 20,546.4 13%
Crab 11,386.1 3% 19,459.6 13%
Albacore/Other Tuna 33,648.2 8% 18,063.1 12%
Urchin 17,040.0 4% 16,151.1 10%
Herring 10,628.9 2% 8,910.9 6%
Shark/Swordfish 2,915.3 1% 7,609.2 5%
Salmon 4,348.7 1% 7,347.7 5%
Coastal Pelagics 137,003.8 32% 6,764.9 4%
Lobster 683.2 0% 5,175.5 3%
Prawn 1,261.4 0% 5,157.7 3%
Shrimp 8,373.9 2% 4,876.8 3%
Abalone 121.7 0% 1,205.1 1%
All Else 5,458.6 1% 2,988.4 2%
Total 427,070.5 100% 156,189.2 100%
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 57
Table II-4. Number of vessels that make commercial landings in California, categorized according to whether or not
Human Ecosystem Dimension
they also make landings in Oregon or Washington, 1981-1999.
Year CA Only CA & OR CA & WA CA, OR & WA Total
1981 5,832 787 135 143 6,897
1982 5,762 555 106 130 6,553
1983 5,257 396 83 94 5,830
1984 4,779 261 103 31 5,174
1985 4,451 235 87 37 4,810
1986 4,305 365 106 69 4,845
1987 4,162 352 104 76 4,694
1988 4,204 354 135 92 4,785
1989 4,376 309 125 64 4,874
1990 4,155 273 122 48 4,598
1991 4,032 214 102 40 4,388
1992 3,536 170 118 46 3,870
1993 3,271 196 93 58 3,618
1994 3,102 161 107 52 3,422
1995 3,074 184 83 35 3,376
1996 2,994 205 74 30 3,303
1997 2,857 190 96 20 3,163
1998 2,505 119 51 24 2,699
1999 2,495 128 45 22 2,690
Table II-5. Number of vessels by principal area, categorized according to whether or not they also make landings
outside their principal area, 1981-1999.
Principal Area=Northern CA Principal Area=Central CA Principal Area=Southern CA
No.CA No.& Other Cen.CA No.& So.& Other So.CA So.& Other
Year Only Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Comb. Total
1981 1920 311 25 2256 2488 259 82 19 2848 1635 135 23 1793
1982 1842 289 36 2167 2274 232 110 29 2645 1566 155 19 1740
1983 1472 141 10 1623 2269 190 139 21 2619 1325 159 35 1519
1984 1066 160 16 1242 2008 177 102 15 2302 1313 230 20 1563
1985 891 198 23 1112 2033 147 105 13 2298 1160 152 24 1336
1986 1127 198 20 1345 1935 164 108 16 2223 1112 121 26 1259
1987 951 241 57 1249 1843 244 99 21 2207 1025 132 23 1180
1988 940 211 49 1200 2035 250 101 16 2402 979 90 53 1122
1989 858 240 60 1158 2069 296 69 20 2454 1056 89 64 1209
1990 842 130 48 1020 2011 184 84 14 2293 1111 76 40 1227
1991 767 127 40 934 1944 189 82 18 2233 1080 101 27 1208
1992 597 71 83 751 1778 90 83 18 1969 998 90 47 1135
1993 605 94 65 764 1562 132 63 20 1777 954 73 42 1069
1994 521 101 33 655 1370 155 101 23 1649 958 107 42 1107
1995 470 76 33 579 1539 97 116 14 1766 903 96 21 1020
1996 507 112 24 643 1428 92 70 7 1597 929 95 25 1049
1995 512 68 24 604 1406 88 84 9 1587 858 86 18 962
1998 445 76 17 538 1105 64 76 11 1256 806 64 17 887
1999 459 59 14 532 1057 56 74 4 1191 846 98 11 955
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
58
Table II-6. Average annual number of boats that make California landings, ex-vessel revenue per boat from
Human Ecosystem Dimension
California landings, number and percent of boats earning less than $5,000 per year from California landings, and
number and percent of boats accounting for 90 percent of ex-vessel value of aggregate landings, by principal
area and time period.
1981-1985 1986-1994 1995-1999
Principal Area=Northern CA:
Number of Boats 1,680 1,008 579
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $24,500 $48,300 $60,800
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 983(59%) 386(37%) 162(28%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Northern California Landings 419(25%) 341(35%) 236(41%)
Principal Area=Central CA:
Number of Boats 2,542 2,134 1,479
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $20,800 $25,100 $30,100
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 1,420(56%) 967(46%) 627(43%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Central California Landings 727(29%) 737(34%) 512(35%)
Principal Area=Southern CA:
Number of Boats 1,630 1,201 988
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $126,000 $67,400 $74,900
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 682(42%) 402(33%) 256(26%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of southern California Landings 290(18%) 401(34%) 382(39%)
Total California:
Number of Boats 5,853 4,344 3,046
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $50,600 $41,800 $50,700
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 3,085(53%) 1,755(40%) 1,045(34%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Total California Landings 1,119(20%) 1,375(32%) 1,072(35%)
Table II-7. Average annual 1995-1999 landings, ex-vessel value of landings, and vessel participation in major
commercial sheries, by area.
# Vessels
Major Northern CA Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999) Vessels Principal Fishery
Crab trap 7,886.0 13,095.5 309 247
Groundfish trawl 28,683.7 11,322.9 71 56
Shrimp trawl 6,084.1 3,179.5 58 25
Urchin dive 3,318.9 2,742.1 64 61
Groundfish H&L 1,562.8 1,925.4 158 103
Tuna H&L 966.4 837.6 43 17
Salmon H&L 406.1 654.5 86 44
Groundfish/misc. trap 363.9 459.4 35 16
Shark/swordfish gillnet 102.0 308.9 9 4
Herring 121.1 104.4 5 4
# Vessels
Major Central CA Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999) Vessels Principal Fishery
Groundfish trawl 17,406.2 9,097.8 73 61
Herring 10,014.2 8,585.5 149 136
Salmon H&L 3,847.1 6,512.4 704 579
Crab trap 2,564.3 5,209.2 207 127
Groundfish H&L 4,056.2 4,710.2 520 415
Prawn trawl 317.9 2,039.2 18 13
Shark/swordfish gillnet 581.9 1,683.5 30 21
Squid seine/other net 8,817.7 1,282.9 13 5
Tuna H&L 1,470.1 1,248.1 123 44
CPS seine 20,333.9 961.6 13 7
Shrimp trawl 985.7 956.9 19 10
Urchin dive 686.7 546.9 17 10
Groundfish/misc. trap 153.1 382.5 34 13
Abalone dive 31.8 313.1 9 8
Prawn trap 34.4 249.2 8 3
Shark/swordfish H&L 101.2 240.9 9 3
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 59
Table II-7 (continued).
Human Ecosystem Dimension
# Vessels
Major Southern CA Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999) Vessels Principal Fishery
Squid seine/other net 129,556.2 19,150.2 87 70
Urchin dive 13,007.9 12,835.5 223 207
Tuna seine 23,001.5 9,644.1 21 10
Tuna H&L 7,473.2 5,736.9 115 65
CPS seine 115,869.4 5,671.8 46 23
Lobster trap 680.7 5,157.5 202 168
Shark/swordfish gillnet 1,053.9 2,548.2 80 50
Groundfish H&L 1,588.5 2,193.8 205 157
Shark/swordfish H&L 795.6 1,875.9 42 27
Prawn trawl 745.3 1,679.9 27 19
Groundfish/misc. net 810.8 1,232.3 58 31
Crab trap 900.4 1,097.2 76 35
Prawn trap 135.1 1,011.9 28 18
Abalone dive 87.6 877.0 33 13
Groundfish/misc. trap 219.1 663.2 66 19
Shark/swordfish dive 119.3 632.0 24 20
Groundfish trawl 255.0 525.3 32 20
Cucumber dive 398.6 244.3 22 21
Salmon H&L 89.8 171.1 18 7
Cucumber trawl 236.4 167.1 12 5
Shrimp other net 63.5 22.2 3 3
Table II-8. Average annual 1995-1999 landings and ex-vessel revenue per boat from the principal shery, from other
California sheries and from Oregon and Washington sheries, by vessels’ principal area and principal shery.
Landings/Boat/Year (1000 Pounds) Ex-Vessel Revenue/Boat/Year ($1000s)
Northern California Principal Other Principal Other
Principal Fisheries Fishery CA OR/WA Total Fishery CA OR/WA Total
Crab trap 26.0 17.1 9.8 52.9 43.8 12.7 8.8 65.2
Groundfish trawl 473.1 61.1 385.7 919.8 185.1 37.2 44.8 267.2
Shrimp trawl 110.2 38.9 249.4 398.5 58.6 30.1 134.5 223.2
Urchin dive 54.2 0.7 2.7 57.6 43.9 1.5 2.5 47.9
Groundfish H&L 10.6 3.1 1.6 15.3 12.7 4.3 2.3 19.4
Tuna H&L 27.1 2.7 30.6 60.5 24.0 3.6 28.3 55.9
Salmon H&L 1.8 0.8 0.2 2.8 3.2 1.1 0.3 4.6
Groundfish/misc. trap 10.8 3.7 3.5 18.0 14.8 5.1 6.3 26.2
Shark/swordfish gillnet 13.2 10.3 107.6 131.0 42.3 11.3 102.9 156.5
Herring 25.9 1.2 0.0 27.1 19.4 1.2 0.0 20.5
Groundfish trawl 275.3 18.8 333.9 628.0 145.4 11.1 52.9 209.4
Herring 64.2 18.5 1.8 84.5 53.4 2.9 1.3 57.7
Salmon H&L 5.3 1.4 1.9 8.6 9.0 1.8 2.3 13.1
Crab trap 16.1 9.1 1.9 27.0 32.7 8.4 1.9 43.1
Groundfish H&L 8.6 0.8 0.2 9.6 10.2 1.1 0.2 11.5
Prawn trawl 23.3 44.7 87.4 155.4 153.8 34.0 46.3 234.1
Squid seine/other net 573.8 479.3 0.0 1053.1 85.7 46.0 0.0 131.6
Tuna H&L 17.1 2.7 17.9 37.6 14.4 4.0 16.7 35.2
CPS seine 2030.9 334.9 0.0 2365.9 99.2 53.2 0.0 152.4
Shrimp trawl 26.1 4.2 78.7 109.0 52.7 4.9 52.4 110.0
Urchin dive 60.3 1.1 0.0 61.4 47.6 2.2 0.0 49.7
Groundfish/misc. trap 8.1 2.2 0.0 10.3 20.8 4.3 0.0 25.1
Abalone dive 2.3 2.0 0.1 4.4 22.5 2.1 0.1 24.7
Prawn trap 8.1 16.2 0.9 25.2 59.8 12.6 0.5 72.8
Shark/swordfish H&L 11.2 2.7 0.7 14.6 27.0 7.5 1.9 36.4
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
60
Table II-8 (cont.)
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Landings/Boat/Year (1000 Pounds) Ex-Vessel Revenue/Boat/Year ($1000s)
Southern California Principal Other Principal Other
Principal Fisheries Fishery CA OR/WA Total Fishery CA OR/WA Total
Squid seine/other net 1516.9 674.7 5.2 2196.7 226.0 44.9 4.5 275.4
Urchin dive 60.2 3.0 5.1 68.2 58.8 4.2 0.9 63.8
Tuna seine 1882.1 1288.6 4.9 3175.6 806.4 104.0 4.1 914.6
Tuna H&L 105.0 15.1 36.2 156.3 70.5 9.4 31.3 111.3
CPS seine 2475.8 482.5 0.4 2958.8 132.0 89.5 0.1 221.6
Lobster trap 3.7 3.8 0.1 7.6 28.2 6.4 0.1 34.7
Shark/swordfish gillnet 16.4 23.5 8.3 48.2 42.9 19.7 7.1 69.7
Groundfish H&L 8.9 1.7 0.3 11.0 12.2 1.4 0.3 13.9
Shark/swordfish H&L 26.8 6.7 3.0 36.5 62.8 15.3 2.4 80.4
Prawn trawl 32.5 9.2 56.5 98.2 79.4 11.6 12.2 103.2
Groundfish/misc. other net 17.5 12.1 0.6 30.3 28.1 10.6 0.5 39.2
Crab trap 15.1 1.4 0.0 16.6 18.3 4.7 0.0 23.0
Prawn trap 6.1 2.6 0.5 9.1 47.4 9.1 0.4 56.9
Abalone dive 2.1 9.1 0.4 11.7 21.4 9.7 0.3 31.5
Groundfish/misc. trap 4.6 2.9 0.0 7.5 14.0 7.2 0.0 21.3
Shark/swordfish dive 5.2 1.2 0.0 6.3 27.3 1.8 0.0 29.1
Groundfish trawl 9.0 8.0 7.9 24.9 20.9 6.0 2.7 29.6
Cucumber dive 2.6 4.0 0.5 32.9 15.1 9.8 0.0 24.8
Table II-9. Number of sh dealers by principal area, categorized according to whether or not they also receive landings
outside their principal area, 1981-1999.
Principal Area=Northern CA Principal Area=Central CA Principal Area=Southern CA
No.CA No.& Other Cen.CA No.& So.& Other So.CA So.& Other CA
Year Only Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Comb. Total Dealers
1981 81 3 7 86 182 15 12 4 213 201 17 2 220 519
1982 77 8 1 86 209 9 11 4 233 227 18 2 247 566
1983 67 6 0 73 221 14 12 4 251 217 27 4 248 572
1984 53 11 0 64 211 8 9 4 232 207 28 2 237 533
1985 59 9 0 68 200 9 19 2 230 187 35 1 223 521
1986 65 7 2 74 213 4 18 3 238 188 24 6 218 530
1987 103 12 4 119 420 22 17 4 463 275 29 5 309 891
1988 102 6 2 110 361 21 15 2 399 272 29 10 311 820
1989 108 10 5 123 329 15 12 5 361 294 37 11 342 826
1990 85 11 5 101 322 14 21 2 359 285 34 12 331 791
1991 85 12 3 100 312 21 19 6 358 290 26 9 325 783
1992 85 10 6 101 307 21 24 11 363 257 26 15 298 762
1993 104 14 4 122 318 21 21 5 365 237 31 17 285 772
1994 98 14 12 124 333 24 27 9 393 331 59 15 405 922
1995 54 14 12 80 284 9 27 6 326 292 37 8 337 743
1996 88 13 6 107 274 19 18 6 317 267 30 12 309 733
1997 89 24 4 117 301 17 18 8 344 297 30 7 334 795
1998 78 19 6 103 360 16 19 5 400 312 29 10 351 854
1999 120 16 7 143 339 11 13 3 366 328 43 8 379 888
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 61
Table II-10. Average annual number of sh dealers, ex-vessel value of California landings receipts per dealer,
Human Ecosystem Dimension
number and percent of dealers accounting for less than $5,000 per year in California landings receipts, and number
and percent of dealers accounting for 90 percent of ex-vessel value of aggregate landings receipts, 1981-1986 and
1987-1999, by dealers’ principal area.
1981-1986 1987-1999
Principal Area – Northern CA:
Number of Dealers 75 112
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $542,700 $380,300
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 18(23%) 52(46%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Northern California Landings 25(33%) 22(20%)
Principal Area – Central CA:
Number of Dealers 233 370
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $246,700 $138,800
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 76(33%) 186(50%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Central California Landings 50(21%) 58(16%)
Principal Area – Southern CA:
Number of Dealers 239 344
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $805,500 $233,900
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 69(29%) 131(38%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of southern California Landings 28(12%) 55(16%)
All California:
Number of Dealers 547 825
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $531,500 $209,500
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 163(30%) 369(45%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Total California Landings 103(19%) 134(16%)
Table II-11. Volume and value of imports and exports of edible sh products at California customs districts and at
all United States customs districts, by year, 1989-1999.
Imports Exports
$Millions $Millions
Millions of Pounds (Base Year=1999) Millions of Pounds(Base Year=1999)
Year Calif. U.S. Calif. U.S. Calif. U.S. Calif. U.S.
1989 569.8 3,243.0 1,636.7 6,863.7 106.6 1,406.0 255.2 2,940.8
1990 627.4 2,884.6 1,808.6 6,289.9 99.2 1,947.3 231.7 3,463.1
1991 687.0 3,014.8 1,895.1 6,595.2 131.6 2,058.6 260.1 3,669.5
1992 710.3 2,894.0 2,015.5 6,491.3 105.2 2,087.6 223.6 3,942.7
1993 708.9 2,917.2 1,948.3 6,477.0 86.7 1,986.0 216.6 3,407.3
1994 777.1 3,034.8 2,325.8 7,207.3 135.9 1,978.5 284.8 3,390.6
1995 729.8 3,066.5 2,230.8 7,217.5 183.8 2,047.2 293.8 3,466.8
1996 759.6 3,169.8 2,222.9 7,017.3 218.7 2,112.1 281.8 3,161.9
1997 832.0 3,338.8 2,533.5 7,961.2 248.3 2,018.9 269.7 2,785.5
1998 911.1 3,647.0 2,513.8 8,289.2 142.6 1,663.9 158.9 2,291.8
1999 979.0 3,887.9 2,471.5 9,013.9 285.4 1,961.1 232.3 2,848.5
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
62
Table III-1. Average annual marine recreational shing effort and harvest during 1998-1999 in southern and
central/northern California, by shing mode (1000s of sh).
1000s of Landed Released Other
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Area/Fishing Mode Angler Trips Whole Alive Disposition Total
Southern California
Man-made 624 837 644 233 1,714
Beach 281 327 247 17 590
CPFV 641 1,733 973 262 2,968
Private 1,324 1,960 4,075 211 6,246
Total 2,869 4,857 5,939 723 11,518
Central/Northern California
Man-made 440 533 192 67 792
Beach 344 1,582 206 17 1,805
CPFV 168 1,131 122 171 1,423
Private 921 1,459 648 205 2,311
Total 1,872 4,705 1,168 460 6,331
Total California
Man-made 1,064 1,370 836 300 2,506
Beach 625 1,909 453 34 2,395
CPFV 808 2,864 1,095 433 4,391
Private 2,245 3,419 4,723 416 8,557
Total 4,741 9,562 7,107 1,183 17,849
Source: Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey.
Includes harvests in U.S. waters only. “Other Disposition” refers to fish used as bait, filleted, given away or discarded dead. All landings are in 1000s of fish.
Table III-2. Average annual marine recreational harvest (excluding sh released alive) during 1998-1999 in southern
and central/northern California, by shing mode and species category.
Southern California Central/Northern California
Species Category 1000s of Fish (%) Species Category 1000s of Fish (%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Man-Made –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Tuna/mackerel 413 (39%) Silversides 185 (31%)
Croaker 204 (19%) Surfperch 164 (27%)
Silversides 150 (14%) Croaker 78 (13%)
Herring 145 (14%) Herring 61 (10%)
Surfperch 71 (7%) Anchovy 47 (8%)
Other 87 (8%) Other 65 (11%)
Total 1,070 (100%) Total 600 (100%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Beach ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Surfperch 218 (63%) Smelt 1,145 (72%)
Croaker 59 (17%) Surfperch 343 (21%)
Silversides 24 ( 7%) Silversides 41 (3%)
Sea chub 16 (5%) Other 70 (4%)
Other 27 (8%) Total 1,599 (100%)
Total 344 (100%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– CPFV ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Rockfish 668 (33%) Rockfish 1,204 (92%)
Sea basses 313 (16%) Salmon 50 (4%)
Tuna/mackerel 281 (14%) Greenling 21 (2%)
Pacific barracuda 269 (13%) Other 27 (2%)
Calif scorpionfish 151 (8%) Total 1,302 (100%)
Other 313 (16%)
Total 1,995 (100%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Private Boat –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Sea basses 502 (23%) Rockfish 1,034 (60%)
Tuna/mackerel 379 (17%) Tuna/mackerel 89 (5%)
Rockfish 328 (15%) Croaker 85 (5%)
Pacific barracuda 192 (9%) Flatfish 80 (5%)
Jacks 168 (8%) Striped bass 70 (4%)
Croaker 156 (7%) Greenling 68 (4%)
Flatfish 125 (6%) Salmon 55 (3%)
Calif scorpionfish 86 (4%) Other 237 (14%)
Other 235 (11%) Total 1,718 (100%)
Total 2,171 (100%)
Source: Salmon harvest estimates obtained from DFG’s Ocean Salmon Project. All other harvest estimates obtained from Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 63
Table III-3. Estimated average annual expenditures by marine anglers during 1998-1999 in southern and central/
Human Ecosystem Dimension
northern California ($millions, base year=1999), by expenditure category.
Expenditure Category Southern CA Northern CA Total CA
Trip-Related Expenses
Man-Made $ 18.1 $ 13.2 $ 31.3
Beach 9.8 15.1 24.9
CPFV 81.4 17.0 98.4
Private 92.7 62.6 155.3
Total $202.0 $107.9 $309.9
Licenses/Fishing Gear 54.3 29.0 83.3
Boat-Related Expenses 74.1 39.6 113.7
Grand Total $330.4 $176.5 $506.9
Source: Trip-related expenses based on average annual 1998-1999 effort estimates (Table III-1) and estimates of average expenditures per trip by fishing mode derived from Thomson
and Crooke (1991) for southern California and from Thomson and Huppert (1987) for central/northern California and corrected for inflation to 1999 dollars. License/gear and
boat-related expenses based on the observation from Thomson and Crooke (1991) that license/gear and boat-related expenses are 27 percent and 37 percent respectively of total trip
expenditures in southern California, and extrapolating that result to central/northern California.
Table III-4. Number of CPFVs participating in the marine recreational shery during 1980-1998,
by vessels’ principal shing area.
Year NoCA CenCA U.S.Only SoCA:U.S. &Mex MexOnly Total All Boats
1980 14 142 83 57 6 147 303
1981 15 125 85 52 14 151 291
1982 20 136 92 50 9 151 307
1983 21 145 96 52 6 154 320
1984 19 140 80 65 17 162 321
1985 17 142 78 58 19 155 314
1986 18 140 82 53 7 142 300
1987 22 134 76 45 10 131 287
1988 27 132 102 47 8 157 316
1989 41 146 83 55 14 152 339
1990 32 135 87 45 11 143 310
1991 21 125 87 23 15 125 271
1992 16 120 91 39 3 133 269
1993 16 107 90 32 6 128 251
1994 13 107 98 34 7 139 259
1995 13 99 117 47 6 170 282
1996 10 105 121 47 6 174 289
1997 11 105 125 66 4 195 311
1998 13 95 114 73 5 192 300
Source: CPFV logbooks. Southern California CPFVs distinguished according to whether they fish in U.S. and/or Mexican waters.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
64
Table III-5. Number of CPFV angler trips, by year and area.
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Year NoCA CenCA SoCA Total U.S. Waters Mexican Waters Grand Total
1980 5,665 204,146 492,290 702,101 59,739 761,840
1981 6,948 205,380 556,721 769,049 61,460 830,509
1982 6,694 213,206 503,280 723,180 52,756 775,936
1983 8,024 180,898 433,514 622,436 69,210 691,646
1984 6,577 188,275 415,036 609,888 91,666 701,554
1985 11,591 210,894 413,102 635,587 81,601 717,188
1986 11,064 189,780 407,614 608,458 51,755 660,213
1987 13,251 208,989 396,309 618,549 59,862 678,411
1988 12,496 217,284 427,610 657,390 53,967 711,357
1989 15,595 226,333 420,976 662,904 74,681 737,585
1990 14,724 222,149 474,761 711,634 57,433 769,067
1991 14,179 175,329 434,945 624,453 37,100 661,553
1992 7,586 164,792 407,831 580,209 55,258 635,467
1993 5,617 169,566 377,125 552,308 40,626 592,934
1994 4,949 161,637 364,774 531,360 51,765 583,125
1995 6,806 169,402 408,547 584,755 58,074 642,829
1996 6,021 137,312 435,940 579,273 74,846 654,119
1997 5,456 165,899 554,117 725,472 99,304 824,776
1998 6,175 133,133 483,420 622,728 106,504 729,232
Source: CPFV logbooks. “Mexican waters” pertains to trips departing from southern California ports to fish in Mexican waters.
Table III-6. Landings on CPFV shing trips (1000s of sh), by year and area.
Year NoCA CenCA SoCA Total U.S. Waters Mexican Waters Grand Total
1980 24.2 1,545.4 4,517.1 6,086.6 321.2 6,407.8
1981 51.9 1,747.0 4,267.0 6,065.9 248.6 6,314.5
1982 42.4 1,781.8 3,363.5 5,187.7 182.9 5,370.6
1983 60.9 1,654.9 2,547.0 4,262.7 362.2 4,624.9
1984 33.5 1,485.3 2,249.5 3,768.3 404.0 4,172.3
1985 53.5 1,364.3 2,471.2 3,889.0 290.1 4,179.1
1986 41.6 1,198.9 2,617.9 3,858.4 217.1 4,075.5
1987 50.4 1,314.3 2,485.0 3,849.7 256.2 4,105.9
1988 56.9 1,390.1 2,651.2 4,098.2 254.2 4,352.4
1989 82.4 1,574.1 2,618.9 4,275.4 321.6 4,597.0
1990 111.1 1,606.5 2,824.5 4,542.1 243.5 4,785.6
1991 73.0 1,345.9 2,694.5 4,113.4 175.9 4,289.2
1992 69.7 1,526.7 2,275.7 3,872.1 219.6 4,091.7
1993 31.4 1,312.3 2,112.2 3,455.9 166.7 3,622.6
1994 30.8 1,049.1 1,945.7 3,025.6 189.4 3,215.1
1995 43.9 923.2 1,980.0 2,947.1 222.8 3,169.8
1996 32.1 743.7 2,350.6 3,126.5 249.0 3,375.5
1997 43.4 957.3 2,356.1 3,536.8 384.2 3,921.0
1998 53.7 882.8 2,008.1 2,944.6 377.9 3,322.5
Source: CPFV logbooks. “Mexican waters” pertains to harvests on trips that depart from southern California ports to fish in Mexican waters.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 65
Table III-7. Annual number of CPFV boat and angler trips in 1995-1998, by area and trip type.
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Area/Trip Type 1995 1996 1997 1998 Avg.
Northern California
Total Fishing Trips: 6,806 6,021 5,456 6,175 6,115
Salmon 2,948 3,264 1,808 1,554 2,394
Rockfish/lingcod 3,222 2,161 2,839 3,410 2,908
Salmon/rockfish/lingcod 321 519 553 1,034 607
Other/unspecified 314 77 256 177 207
Total Dive Trips 26 15 0 10 13
NoCA Total 6,832 6,036 5,456 6,185 6,128
Central California
Total Fishing Trips: 169,402 137,312 165,899 133,133 151,437
Salmon 86,899 56,567 78,202 48,645 67,578
Rockfish/lingcod 58,008 52,865 52,233 51,795 53,725
Salmon/rockfish/lingcod 5,098 3,408 5,135 3,777 4,354
Strbass/sturgeon 2,522 3,720 5,572 5,349 4,291
Shark 1,012 526 628 428 648
Tuna 140 1,127 6,500 4,014 2,945
Other/unspecified 15,723 19,099 17,629 19,125 17,894
Total Dive Trips 1,126 1,249 716 38 782
CenCA Total 170,528 138,561 166,615 133,171 152,219
Southern California
Total Fishing Trips-CA: 408,547 435,940 554,117 483,420 470,506
Rockfish/lingcod 31,684 34,923 30,525 26,595 30,932
Tuna 12,006 2,992 13,586 18,124 11,677
Other/unspecified 364,857 398,025 510,006 438,701 427,897
Total Fishing Trips-Mex: 58,074 74,846 99,304 106,504 84,682
Tuna 35,691 34,692 56,029 62,164 47,144
Other/unspecified 22,383 40,154 43,275 44,340 37,538
Total Dive Trips-CA 37,089 43,128 44,938 33,014 39,542
Total Dive Trips-Mex 446 790 394 659 572
SoCA Total 504,156 554,704 698,753 623,597 595,303
Source: CPFV logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
66
Marine Law
Enforcement Resources
Marine Law Enforcement
Introduction Personnel
The Department of Fish and Game’s (DFG) Marine Region
T he Fish and Game Code states that “(t)he protection
was established in December of 1997. This resulted in
and conservation of the sh and wildlife resources of
the consolidation of marine resource enforcement efforts
this state are hereby declared to be of utmost public
which had been split between the three inland regions
interest. Fish and wildlife are the property of the people
bordering the coastline. Initial stafng included 21 posi-
and provide a major contribution to the economy of the
tions transferred from the department’s Ofce of Oil Spill
state, as well as providing a signicant part of the peo-
Prevention and Response (OSPER) (responsible for marine
ple’s food supply and therefore their conservation is a
oil pollution regulation enforcement only).
proper responsibility of the state.”
In March 1998, 38 positions were transferred from DFG’s
In keeping with this responsibility, the Marine Region
inland regions. The law enforcement function was staffed
enforcement staff is charged with enforcing the regula-
with these 59 positions until October 1998 when the
tory aspects of marine resource management. This formi-
Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) was enacted by the
dable challenge encompasses approximately 1100 miles of
State Legislature. This law provided 15 additional enforce-
California coastline out to sea for 200 miles — 220,000
ment positions bringing the count to 74. In April 2000, in
square miles. Marine Region law enforcement focuses its
keeping with statutory obligations, the positions funded
efforts on commercial sheries (including shing vessels,
by the OSPR were removed from the Marine Region to
shore facilities and all sheries-related infrastructures
ensure a dedicated spill prevention and response unit.
throughout the state), illegal commercialization of the
Law enforcement personnel stafng in the Marine Region
public shery resources, sport sheries, market inspec-
decreased to 53 positions. In July 2000, the state Legisla-
tions and landing taxes. Enforcement efforts include
ture provided 10 additional positions. Entering 2001, the
the inspection of licenses, permits, catch, gear types,
Marine Region’s law enforcement staff consisted of 63
vessels, shing activity records, sh businesses, account-
positions, still well below the stafng levels of the early
ing records, and importation. The enforcement staff also
1980s when DFG had a Marine Resources Region with its
ensures that sport and commercial shermen comply with
own enforcement function.
regulations concerning seasons, size limits, bag limits,
trip limits, shing gear restrictions and design, quotas, Patrol Boats
closures, sales of sh, and prohibited species. Land-based
In 1998, the Marine Region had two 65-foot patrol boats,
and at-sea patrols are required to enforce all of the vari-
the Albacore (an aluminum mono-hull) and the Bluen (a
ous regulations.
berglass mono-hull), two 40-foot patrol boats (the Yel-
In addition to enforcing laws, the enforcement staff is lowtail and the Tuna), and 18 smaller patrol skiffs ranging
very active in public outreach and education. The staff in size from 13 to 28 feet.
takes a proactive approach in recognizing emerging sher-
Funds were provided later that year to increase the
ies that may need management measures to ensure a
region’s at-sea patrol capabilities. A 54-foot vessel was
viable commercial and recreational environment.
designed, contracted, built, and delivered in 1999. Named
In consideration of the natural history of individual the Thresher this patrol boat is a state-of-the-art
,
species, management and enforcement policies are aluminum foil-supported catamaran powered by twin 660
tailored to ensure the sustainability of sport and turbo diesels. The funds also enabled the purchase of
commercial sheries. Each species has unique regulatory three 24-foot, rigid-hull inatable (RHI) patrol boats.
needs, challenges, and issues, but the effective man- These three boats joined two other similar boats to form
agement of all is dependent on accurate recording and the north coast rapid deployment force. The boats can
reporting of landed weights by sh businesses. Patrol be put on trailers and deployed quickly along the rugged
efforts to insure accurate documentation of landings for north coast.
all species is crucial. Enforcement is faced with identify-
In July 1998, the MLMA provided for the purchase of the
ing these needs and structuring enforcement activities to
patrol boat Marlin, a sister vessel to the Thresher This
.
address such complex issues. Current enforcement effort
boat was delivered in July 2001. All six large patrol boats
is hampered by a lack of enforcement personnel and
are equipped with an 18-foot RHI boarding vessel. In July
disinterest in prosecution by some court systems.
1999, additional funding provided for three more patrol
boats, the Swordsh, Coho and Steelhead, identical to the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 67
previous two. Delivery is expected in January and April Management Council (PFMC) in its formulation of federal
Marine Law Enforcement
of 2002. shery management regulations.
In addition, the enforcement staff coordinates with 1)
Teams
the NMFS in regard to Lacey Act violations for sh trans-
The Marine Region Law Enforcement function is organized ported across state boundaries; 2) the US Coast Guard
along a traditional chain-of-command structure; however, on enforcement; 3) the PFMC on sheries management
in addition, self-directed work teams were instituted at plans and shing gear deployment; 4) the State Depart-
the inception of the Marine Region. These teams include: ment of Weights and Measures in assuring the proper
procedures for the weighing of sh and the completion
1. A Policy and Procedure Team responsible for inter-
of landing receipts; and 5) the State Department of Parks
preting commercial and sport shing laws, rules and
and Recreation, National Park Service, Harbor Patrol, local
regulations in a consistent statewide basis and estab-
police and local sheriffs departments in matters of mutual
lishing standard operating procedures for marine law
enforcement efforts.
enforcement activities.
2. An Enforcement Legislative Team responsible for
developing language for law, rule and regulation
Fisheries-Specific Enforcement Efforts
changes for legislative and commission consideration.
3. A Boat Team responsible for the deployment of
Groundsh
the patrol boats and the at-sea operations of the
Because of concerns about continuing declines of many
patrol eet.
groundsh populations, recent additional restrictions have
4. A Law Enforcement Training Team which develops
been proposed and adopted to protect these resources.
instructional designs for training modules to address
Enforcement of groundsh regulations is difcult due to
the training requirements of enforcing complex
the large number of species involved, their vast distribu-
commercial and sport shing regulations.
tions, the frequently changing and sometimes complex
These teams were developed to encourage fair and consis- regulations, and the various shing methods utilized in
tent enforcement of the laws and regulations throughout the commercial shing industry. Some species, such as
the region, clarify and make the regulations more enforce- lingcod, have been proposed as candidates for listing as
able, deploy and operate the patrol boats where they will threatened or endangered. The effectiveness of enforce-
be the most benecial, and maintain a well trained and ment effort is dependent upon the accurate recording of
professional warden force to protect California’s diverse landed weights.
marine resources for all of the people in the state.
Nearshore Fish
Partnerships
There are many species that can be considered as near-
The law enforcement function works closely with other shore sh, but the species that this section addresses
government organizations concerned with the manage- are those that are of primary concern to managers and
ment of marine resources. The department has a Memo- were among the rst to be addressed in the Nearshore
randum of Understanding with the Monterey Bay National Fisheries Management Plan. Included are black rocksh,
Marine Sanctuary which allows wardens to be deputized to black and yellow rocksh, blue rocksh, brown rocksh,
conduct federal law enforcement patrols in the sanctuary. calico rocksh, China rocksh, copper rocksh, gopher
This partnership provides $125,000 in operating expenses, rocksh, grass rocksh, kelp rocksh, olive rocksh, quill-
over a three-year period, for the wardens working in the back rocksh, treesh, California sheephead, greenlings,
sanctuary. A similar partnership exists with the National cabezon, California scorpionsh, and monkeyfaced “eels.”
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) which provides $300,000
These species are targeted by sport and commercial sh-
to pay wardens overtime for groundsh enforcement. We
ermen. The primary commercial shery is for the live-sh
can expect these partnerships to continue.
market. The live-sh market commands a much higher
Enforcement personnel are actively working on memoran- price per pound than traditional markets. The high price
dums of understandings with the Channel Islands National and low volume of sh being handled has resulted in
Marine Sanctuary and various units of the National Park the proliferation of small sh businesses. Many such busi-
Service in the Channel Islands and San Francisco Bay nesses operate out of vehicles. The resulting highly-mobile
areas. These partnerships will provide the department shery makes enforcement difcult.
with operating funds in exchange for law enforcement
patrols in federal waters. The function also provides a
law enforcement consultant to assist the Pacic Fisheries
Managing California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
68
Salmon Striped Bass
Marine Law Enforcement
Enforcement problems in the sport salmon shery include Enforcement includes patrols directed toward such prob-
the use of barbed hooks and other illegal hooks, multiple lems as night shing from boats and multiple rod viola-
poles, overlimits, group shing, retention of Coho salmon, tions in San Francisco Bay, overlimits, gillnets, and market
sorting and discarding of less desirable sh, (i.e., “high checks for illegal sh. There is also public concern over
grading”) violations of the salmon punch card in the Klam- snagging of striped bass in ocean waters.
ath Management Zone, and sale of sport caught sh. There There is an active black market involving sport-taken
has been a trend among some sport salmon anglers toward striped bass entering the commercial market. Fish are
the use of commercial type gear in an illegal manner. caught with rod and reel and illegal gillnets. Black market
Problems in the commercial shery include the failure striped bass then become mixed with legally imported sh
to record sh landings, violations of quota-landing limits, from sources outside of California, primarily aquaculture sh.
shing closed areas, retention of Coho salmon, use of ille- Additional patrol time has been made available through
gal gear such as barbed hooks or more than six troll lines, the Striped Bass Stamp Fund. In addition, funding is avail-
and shing without a commercial salmon permit. Some of able through state and federal water projects to mitigate
the tribal allotments of salmon are being sold outside the impacts of those projects on this and other sheries.
reservation, both in California and other states. This has Recipients of the additional funding are the Marine Region
created an enforcement problem, as there are currently and the Delta Bay Enhanced Enforcement Project.
conicts between tribal law and California regulations.
Pacic Herring
Mid-season regulation changes, for both the sport and
commercial sheries, result in confusion and adverse Enforcement is focused on compliance with gillnet mesh
public relations. While these changes are based upon the sizes, length of nets, number of nets used, limited entry
best biological information available, enforcement person- permit requirements, quotas, and season dates. There
nel often receive complaints about the complexity of the are special requirements for herring buyers to ensure
salmon regulations. Standardization and earlier publica- accurate recordings of the landings for the purpose of
tion of regulations, to the extent possible, would be well quota management. The roe-on-kelp shery is subject to
received by all shermen. A greater effort towards public permit requirements, licensing of individuals working on
education regarding management of salmon and the basis kelp rafts, special reporting requirements, quotas, and
for the regulations would also assist in this area. raft size limits. The ocean harvest fresh sh permit may
not be used during the time the roe sheries are operat-
Besides the federal shery agencies, other entities
ing, and the herring taken in this shery may not be sold
involved in the management of salmon include the Hoopa
for roe recovery. During the relatively short season, there
and Yurok tribes. These tribes in the Klamath Management
is a strong enforcement effort, which requires the shifting
Zone are allocated fty percent of the available annual
of wardens from many other areas of the state.
harvest and have a tribal representative on the PFMC. The
department works closely with these groups to manage Because of the numerous boats involved in the San Fran-
the sport and commercial salmon shery in ocean and cisco Bay shery, the Coast Guard is heavily involved
inland waters of the state.
Halibut
There are minimum size limits for commercial and sport
caught Pacic and California halibut. Commercial enforce-
ment efforts center on the trawl and gillnet shery.
Efforts focus on net measurement, sh size restrictions,
and documented landings. There are several closures for
trawl and gillnets along the California coasts. Closures
are very specic to depths and distance from shore. Spe-
cic electronic equipment capable of accurately measur-
ing distances and depths is needed to monitor these sh-
eries for compliance. Personnel trained in the use of this
equipment are essential to ensure successful prosecution
through the legal system. Limited entry permits are also
required for the use of gillnets to take halibut.
The department’s marine patrol officers enforce the law by issuing a citation for
taking horn sharks in a marine protected area.
Credit: Chamois Andersen, California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 69
in monitoring the setting of nets to avoid navigational the extremely high value for abalone, a signicant black
Marine Law Enforcement
hazards. The National Park Service is involved in some market exists. Traditionally, this violation revolved around
areas of the Golden Gate National Recreation area. The small groups taking large numbers of abalone for sale.
San Francisco Police Department becomes involved with While this still may occur, more recent trends involve
nets or boats that are tied to prohibited structures. large numbers of individuals taking their daily limits and
selling them. These individuals often make daily trips to
the coast.
Coastal Pelagic Species Every year signicant cases are made involving the sale
of sport-caught abalone. Patrol techniques used include
Sardine/Anchovy/Mackerel directed enforcement details, undercover operations, and
checkpoints. There is also DFG’s Special Operations Unit
Enforcement involves monitoring and sampling loads for
(SOU) which is a specially funded group of wardens
compliance with quotas and allowable levels of incidental
who spend much of their time and effort detecting sale
catches. Incidental catches are allowed because these
of sport-taken abalone. Enhanced enforcement levels,
species often school together and are caught in the same
depend on continued stable funding from abalone stamp
net. Round haul nets are the primary gear used for taking
revenue or other sources.
these species.
Sampling techniques and monitoring of the unloading pro-
Sea Urchin
cess are labor intensive. Monitoring the landings ensures
Regulations relating to the allowable size limits, log books
accurate reporting of species and prevents under-report-
and permits for sea urchins are the primary focus for
ing and/or landing of prohibited species. When quotas are
enforcement. Measuring the urchins is time-consuming
close to being reached or are reached, a high incidence of
and challenging because of the volume of urchins taken
unreported landings typically occurs making enforcement
and the physical make-up of the urchin. Commercial ves-
activity even more important.
sels are often small, and it is sometimes difcult to nd
workspace for at-sea monitoring. The urchin industry also
Squid
has specic time and area closures. Observing the divers
Enforcement for market squid includes education about
while they are in the water is necessary to identify the
and enforcement of new regulations such as the restricted
divers that do not have a restricted access permit. Aba-
use of lights, documentation of shing activity in log-
lone share the same habitat as urchins and this creates
books, weekend closures, light-boat shielding, and watt-
additional enforcement efforts related to the illegal take
age restrictions. Consistent statewide enforcement of new
of abalone by commercial urchin divers.
regulations is a priority. Accurate and consistent dissemi-
nation of information of regulation and policy changes to
Shrimp/Prawns
the shermen and sh businesses is critical to gaining
Shrimp and prawn sheries are generally divided into
compliance throughout the shery.
two gear categories. The rst category includes golden,
spot, coonstripe, and ridgeback prawns, which are taken
Abalone
by trawling or traps. The second category includes pink
The abalone shery is currently the number one statewide
shrimp, which are taken only by trawl nets.
enforcement priority and is expected to remain. Because
Enforcement focuses on trawl mesh sizes, trap construc-
of declining populations, all areas south of San Francisco
tion including destruct devices, limited entry permits,
have been closed to the sport and commercial take of
incidental catch, and log books. With the shutdown of
abalone. The coastline north of San Francisco is open
other sheries, there were concerns that new shermen
to sport shing only. The sport season is April through
would enter this shery, so limited entry was established.
November with the month of July closed. Restrictions
Apprehension over incidental take of prohibited species
added during the 2000 season were requirements for an
has resulted in consideration of on-board observers and
abalone stamp and abalone report card. Of major concern
sh excluder devices. Changes in the design of traps are
is the sale of sport-caught abalone. Mariculture and impor-
also under consideration.
tation are the only legal sources of abalone for the com-
mercial markets. Enforcement problems arise when the
source of abalone cannot be determined.
Besides the usual over limit/under-size problems, enforce-
ment is directed at the illegal sale and export of abalone.
This is a major problem in California, and because of
Managing California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
70
Lobster Because commercial take is permitted, unless restricted
Marine Law Enforcement
by law, new sheries continue to develop for invertebrate
Current enforcement efforts include inspection of catch,
species, which have not previously been taken for com-
compliance with season and area closures, gear restric-
mercial purposes.
tions, including trap construction and destruct devices,
Enforcement of the take of invertebrates in the tidal
permits, size limits, out-of-season take, illegal importa-
zone occurs primarily from the shore. Enforcement of
tion, and log books.
incidental take is commonly checked while monitoring
Patrol techniques vary on the enforcement of lobster
another shery. There are specic permits related to the
regulations. Techniques include routine uniformed patrols
scientic collection of invertebrates. These permits are
and undercover patrols, such as underwater surveillance,
very restrictive in specifying what can be taken, how
and use of marked lobster. DFG divers are also used to
many can be taken and who can do the collecting.
locate illegally-set lobster traps. Traps set in areas closed
to commercial lobster shing present a major problem for
enforcement.
Marine Aquaria
The majority of sport taken lobster are taken at night,
T he marine aquaria shery involves the take of organ-
requiring constant monitoring by enforcement personnel.
isms for the live pet, hobby or display trade. Finsh
The majority of violations committed by sport shermen
include garibaldi, gobies and juvenile sharks. Inverte-
include out-of-season-take and taking undersize lobster.
brates include coral, shrimp and octopus. The demand
Crab for the marine aquaria trade has led to species being
harvested for the rst time. The take of marine aquaria
Enforcement focuses primarily on commercial and sport
species occurs statewide primarily in nearshore waters
sheries for Dungeness or rock crab, with minor sheries
with no seasonal closures. Illegal importation of marine
for tanner and stone crab. The sport sheries are subject
aquaria species from Mexico has become prevalent.
to minimum size limits, season and gear restrictions for
all species of crabs. Marine aquarium organisms cannot be taken in any marine
life refuges, marine reserves, ecological reserves and
Commercial Dungeness crab regulations include a mini-
state reserves. One identied enforcement problem is the
mum size limit, male crab only requirement, and limited
killing of live-bearing adult sharks in order to remove
entry permits. Commercial shermen are allowed to bait
unborn young for the aquarium trade. Another is the
and pre-set their gear a certain number of hours prior
illegal shing by release of harmful chemicals into ocean
to the opening of the commercial Dungeness crab season.
waters. The chemicals force the otherwise inaccessible
Detection of violation of the pre-soak regulation requires
species from their hiding places resulting in the death of
the use of directed enforcement. Rock crab have mini-
many non-targeted as well as targeted species.
mum size limits as the primary restriction. All traps are
required to have escape rings and destruct devices built
into the design to prevent lost traps from continued sh-
Aquaculture
ing. In most years, eighty percent of Dungeness crab land-
ings are taken during the rst three weeks of the season.
E nforcement focuses on working closely with biologists
This requires concentrated enforcement efforts during this
to monitor aquaculture facilities.
peak period of landings.
Monitoring the collection of brood stock by the mari-
culture industry is necessary to ensure compliance with
Other Invertebrates
permits and regulations. Inspection of sh businesses
The “other invertebrates” category generally includes the
purchasing mariculture products, is required to ensure
large number of species for which specic permits are not
that wild stocks are not used to illegally replace mari-
required. However, a tidal invertebrate permit is required
culture species in the commercial trade. Current regula-
to take the following species for commercial purposes
tions are not sufcient to properly monitor and enforce
between the high tide line and 1,000 feet seaward of the
mariculture activities.
low tide line: ghost shrimp, barnacles, chiones, clams,
cockles, limpets, mussels, octopus, oysters, sand dollars,
sea hares, starsh, and worms. These species, as well as
scallops, turban snails and moon snails, may also be taken
under a sport shing license, in certain areas, with daily
bag limit restrictions. There are few commercial restric-
tions on season, size, or bag limits for these species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 71
Commercial Fish Businesses
Marine Law Enforcement
C alifornia’s marine resources are a public trust. The
conservation and protection of these resources have
been entrusted to DFG. One means to monitor the lawful
use of these resources is the inspection of businesses that
commercialize the wild sh populations. Persons dealing
in the sale of seafood are required to be licensed, to
maintain adequate accounting records, and to comply with
species restrictions. Wardens routinely conduct inspec-
tions of businesses to ensure compliance with all state
and federal laws. Business inspections are also routinely
conducted to ensure compliance with landing require-
ments and proper documentation.
Frank Spear and Carmel Babich
California Department of Fish and Game
Managing California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
72
A Review of Restricted
Access Fisheries Stevens Act). This act began phasing out foreign shing
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
and encouraged “Americanization” of sheries, primarily
for groundsh, within our 200-mile exclusive economic
Background zone. Federal loan and tax programs proved to be
R
powerful incentives for private investment in shing
estricted access programs in sheries limit the quan-
eet expansion.
tity of persons, vessels or shing gear that may be
engaged in the take of any given species of sh or shell- By the late 1970s, it was clear to many in the shing
sh. Restricted access may also limit the catch allocated industry, California Department of Fish and Game (DFG)
to each shery participant through harvest rights such as and the Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC) that
individual or community quotas. there was a need to limit entry to sheries. In California,
the rst limited entry program was established in 1977
Without some form of restricted access, sheries
for the abalone shery. This was followed in 1979 with
resources are available to anyone who wants to pursue
legislation requiring salmon limited entry permits in 1980.
them. Each individual sherman or company is motivated
By 1983, this became a salmon vessel permit system.
to catch the sh before their competitors, which leads
While these and other limited entry programs capped the
to overcapitalization of the eet with too many vessels
number of shermen or vessels and created more orderly
and too much gear. Overcapitalizaton usually results in
sheries, they generally had little effect on overall shing
reduced income to shermen. Open access to sheries
capacity. Participants in these restricted sheries often
often leads to problems with both biological sustainability
increased their shing power with larger vessels, more
and economic viability. Over the past 50 years, increased
gear and increased time shing, or shifted to other fully
demand for sheries products, big advances in shing
developed open access sheries.
technology, and development of global sh markets have
combined to intensify the “race for sh.” Since the early 1980s, DFG has implemented restricted
access programs at an accelerating rate. High value sher-
Restricting access has been used as a shery management
ies such as herring, sea urchin and Dungeness crab are
tool for thousands of years to improve resource sustain-
now under restricted access. When demand from industry
ability, allocate catches among participants, and improve
for restricted access programs intensied in the mid-
economic and social returns from sheries. Restricting
1990s, DFG decided it was time to address restricted
access to sheries can 1) promote sustainable sheries;
access in a comprehensive manner. In late 1996, DFG
2) provide for a more orderly shery; 3) promote conser-
formed a limited entry review committee to develop a
vation among participants; and 4) maintain the long-term
standard restricted access policy for the Fish and Game
economic viability of sheries.
Commission. A draft policy was completed in 1998 and
Great care must be taken in designing and implementing
underwent major revision in 1999 with assistance from
restricted access programs. First, broadly recognized
outside experts and consultation with constituents. After
goals for the shery must be dened by managers, sher-
three public hearings and considerable public input,
men, and other constituents. Once these goals are identi-
the commission approved the restricted access policy in
ed, key restricted access elements can be identied
June 1999.
to attain them. A primary purpose of restricted access
programs is to balance the level of effort in a shery
with the health of the shery resource. In most situations,
California’s Restricted Access Programs
except for harvest rights programs, this involves setting
T
an appropriate shery capacity goal (a combination of he legislature, commission, and DFG have differing,
factors that represent the shing power of the eet). but related roles in implementation of restricted
access programs. Historically, most of California’s pro-
grams were created through legislation. Examples include
History abalone (1977), salmon (1979), and pink shrimp (1994).
Others such as herring (1986), sea urchin (1989), and
U ntil recent decades, California did not restrict shing
the new pink shrimp program (2001) have been the
effort. After World War II, eet expansion, improved
responsibility of the commission. Since the passage of the
electronics and gear technology, new net materials, larger
Marine Life Management Act of 1998 and the commission’s
and faster vessels, plus increased shing skills signicantly
adoption of a comprehensive restricted access policy in
increased shing power. This trend of increased shing
1999, more restricted access program responsibility has
capacity and adoption of new technology accelerated
switched to the commission and department. The depart-
during the mid-1970s after passage of the Federal Fishery
ment works closely with constituent advisory committees
Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (Magnuson-
and task forces to carefully design and evaluate restricted
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 73
California’s Commercial Fisheries
access plans for submission to the commission. The com-
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
mission then conducts hearings for further public input.
Restricted Access Policy
The restricted access plan is then returned for any nec-
essary revision by the department and advisory groups
T he commission adopted its policy in order to guide
before going before the commission for a nal decision.
future restricted access programs. The commission
The legislature is kept informed and involved for sheries
believes that restricted access programs can offer at least
that require legislation to implement restricted access.
four benets:
Restricted access programs active through 2000 are sum-
• Fostering sustainable sheries by offering a means to
marized in the table below. Some of these programs are
match the level of shing with the capacity of a sh
revised versions of earlier programs. Restricted access
population and by giving shermen a greater stake in
was discontinued in 1998 in the abalone shery after
maintaining sustainability;
that shery was closed. Herring round haul permits were
• Providing a way to fund total costs for administration
phased out by 1998.
and enforcement of restricted access programs;
California Restricted Access Programs Through 2000
Permit Type Ldgs. Req. to Year Begun No. Permits No. Permits No. Permits Current Mgmt.
Renew First Year in 1992 in 2000 Authority
General Gill/Trammel Net Person no 1985 1052 376 223 Commission
Drift Gillnet Person every other year 1984 226 149 126 Legislature
Dungeness Crab (Resident) Vessel no 1995 614 N.A. 589 Legislature
Dungeness Crab (Non resident) Vessel no 1995 67 N.A. 69 Legislature
Finfish Trap Person yes 1996 316 N.A. 142 Legislature
Herring Gillnet (Resident) Person no 1986 339 323 335 Commission
Herring Gillnet (Non resident) Person no 1986 72 97 121 Commission
Lobster Operator Person no 1996 298 351 251 Commission
Market Squid Vessel Vessel no 1998 242 N.A. 198 Legislature
Market Squid Light Boat Vessel no 1998 53 N.A. 49 Legislature
Salmon Vessel Vessel no 1983 5964 2974 1704 Legislature
Sea Cucumber Diver Person no 1997 111 N.A. 101 Legislature
Sea Cucumber Trawl Person no 1997 36 N.A. 30 Legislature
Sea Urchin Diver Person every other year 1989 915 537 407 Commission
Nearshore Fishery Person no 1999 1130 N.A. 1026 Commission
Pink Shrimp (discontinued) Person no 1994 307 N.A. 90 Commission
Pink Shrimp
(new program in 2001) Vessel ---- 1994 8 N.A. 101 Commission
Source: California Department of Fish and Game License Branch Statistics
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
74
• Providing long term social and economic benets to Harvest Rights: In establishing restricted access pro-
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
the state and shermen, and; grams based on the allocation of harvest rights to individ-
ual shermen or vessels, the state should insure the fair
• Broadening opportunities for the commercial shing
and equitable initial allocation of shares, resources assess-
industry to contribute to management of the state’s
ments, cost recovery, limits on aggregation of shares, and
commercial sheries.
consider recreational shing issues.
The key elements of the policy are summarized below.
Costs and Fees: Administrative costs are to be minimized.
A complete copy of the policy is contained in Guide to
Review or advisory boards may be established. Funds
California’s Marine Life Managememt Act by M. L. Weber
from restricted access programs may be deposited in
and B. Heneman. It is also available at the commission’s
a separate account of the Fish and Game Preservation
Web site at www.dfg.ca.gov/fg_comm/index.html
Fund. Restricted access programs should deter violations,
General: Restricted access is one of a number of tools
while minimising enforcement costs through the use of
for conserving and managing sheries as a public trust
new technologies or other means. Administrative and
resource, and may be adopted to achieve several pur-
enforcement costs are to be borne by each restricted
poses, including sustainable and orderly sheries, conser-
access program.
vation, and long-term economic viability.
The rst restricted access program adopted under the
Development: Fishermen and other citizens must be
commission’s new policy is for northern pink shrimp sh-
involved in the development of restricted access pro-
ery. This program, which replaced the pink shrimp pro-
grams. The specic needs of a shery must be balanced
gram initiated by the legislature in 1994, took effect in
with the goal of increasing uniformity among such programs.
2001. It includes transferable and non-transferable vessel
Review: Restricted access programs in individual sheries and individual permits.
and the Commission’s policies on restricted access should
Currently, there are restricted access plans under devel-
be regularly reviewed.
opment and review for the nearshore nsh shery,
Capacity Goal: Any restricted access program that does market squid, the spot prawn trap sheries. These plans
not assign harvest rights to individual shermen must are created collaboratively by teams of constituents and
identify a “capacity goal” for the shery to try to match DFG staff convened by the director.
shing power to the resource. This goal, which should be
developed collaboratively, may be expressed in such terms
as size or power of vessels or number of permits. Where a
eet is above its capacity goal, the program must include
a means of reducing the capacity in the shery. A new
restricted access program is not to allow shing effort to
increase beyond recent levels.
Participation: Eligibility for participating in a restricted
access shery may be based on the level of historical par-
ticipation or on other relevant factors. In issuing permits,
certain priorities should be followed. For instance, rst
priority should be given to licensed commercial shermen
or vessels with past participation in that shery. In addi-
tion, shermen licensed in California for at least 20 years
may be included in new restricted access programs with
qualifying criteria determined for each program by the
commission. New permits should be issued only if a shery
is below its capacity goal.
Permit Transferability: Where appropriate, permits may
be transferable between shermen or vessels, as long as
there is a capacity goal and a program for achieving that
goal in the shery. Under certain conditions, permits may
be transferred from retired to new vessels. Fees to offset
the costs of management may be imposed on the transfer
of permits.
Commercial fishing vessels in Bodega Bay.
Credit: Chris Dewees
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 75
Federal Restricted Access Programs California needs to understand the interaction of
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
restricted access programs with other primary types of
T he federally managed groundsh shery (includes 83 shery management systems such as marine reserves,
species) off Washington, Oregon and California is spatial management and local co-management schemes.
managed, in part, under a limited entry program Finally it is important to take into account how restricted
developed by the Pacic Fishery Management Council access programs in one shery affect participation and
(PFMC) and implemented by the National Marine Fisheries shing effort in other sheries.
Service (NMFS) in 1993. The federal program has issued
gear-specic permits to vessels using trawl, xed longline
Christopher M. Dewees
and shpot and allocates a proportion of the catch to
University of California, Davis
each gear type. Those sh not allocated to the limited
Michael L. Weber
entry eet continue to be allocated to open access
Advisor to California Fish and Game Commission
vessels (primarily hook-and-line and shpots) and those
who take groundsh incidentally in other sheries. NMFS
was authorized by Congress in December 2000 to develop
References
regulations for the limited entry xed gear sablesh
shery which allow for stacking of up to three permits
California Fish and Game Commission. 1999. Restricted
with cumulative landing limits. These management
Access Policy. Accessible at www.dfg.ca.gov/fg_comm/
regulations would have effects similar to those of harvest
index.html.
rights systems.
Gimbel, K. L. 1994. Limiting Access to Marine Fisheries:
Keeping the Focus on Conservation. Center for Marine
Future Actions Conservation and World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC,
316 pp.
T he Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) requires eval-
Iudicello, S., M. L. Weber and R. Wieland. 1999. Fish,
uation every ve years of existing restricted access
Markets, and Fishermen: The Economics of Overshing.
programs and this will be an ongoing activity of the
Island Press, Washington, DC and Covelo, CA, 192 pp.
department and the commission. These evaluations and
National Research Council. 1999. Sharing the Fish: Toward
the increasing demand for restricted access programs
a National Policy on Individual Fishing Quotas. National
means that the department will need expanded capa-
Academy Press, Washington, DC, 422 pp.
bilities to collect and analyze economic and social data
related to sheries. These data, combined with biological Weber, M. L. and B. Heneman. 2000. Guide to California’s
data about shery resources, will be critical in developing Marine Life Management Act. Common Knowledge Press,
and evaluating restricted access policy options on a Bolinas, CA, 133 pp.
shery-by-shery basis. Restricted access will likely be
an important component of shery management plans
required under the MLMA.
Experience with restricted access is growing statewide,
nationally and internationally. As our knowledge base
grows, new techniques for managing access to sheries
will become available. There is a growing trend toward
implementing harvest rights systems in the form of
individual and community-based quotas as currently used
in Alaska, Canada and overseas. Transferable gear certi-
cate programs are in place in trap sheries in Florida and
Georgia and this tool may have potential in California.
It will be important that DFG and the PFMC work closely to
ensure consistency of state and federal restricted access
programs affecting sheries managed jointly off the Cali-
fornia coast.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
76
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 77
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
78
California’s Nearshore
Ecosystem and the commission delegated the authority to set recre-
California’s Nearshore Ecosystem
ational angling regulations. Notable exceptions are the
C
white seabass and nearshore nsh sheries, which are
alifornia’s nearshore ecosystem, dened as the area
subjects of shery management plans under development
from the coastal high tide line offshore to a depth of
by the department for adoption by the commission late
120 feet, is one of the most productive ocean areas in
in 2001. These two sheries are being managed under
the world. This area, comprising only about 2,550 square
the provisions of the Marine Life Management Act of
miles, generates from the harvest of its resources, almost
1998. This act establishes the framework for the eventual
$40 million in ex-vessel revenue, a little less than one-
management of all the state’s marine sheries through
third of the value of all California’s sheries. The area
the creation of shery management plans and commission
is home to a wide variety of shes, giant kelp, marine
regulatory action. A key provision of this act is an over-
invertebrates (spiny lobster, abalone, sea urchin, crabs),
arching goal of sustainable use.
and marine mammals, as well as a large number of sea
and shore bird species. The next decade will be a critical one for the manage-
ment of the resources of the nearshore, as we attempt to
The nearshore area is composed of a variety of habitats
successfully address the major issues listed above.
ranging from high-relief rocky reef to broad expanses
of sand and mud. There are distinct differences in the
prevalent oceanographic conditions from north to south.
Robson A. Collins
Much of the state’s shoreline is heavily inuenced by the
California Department of Fish and Game
cold California Current, which sweeps south from the Gulf
of Alaska. As a consequence, the extreme northern por-
tion of the coast is inhabited by plant and animal species
also found off Oregon and Washington. The nearshore
area here is dominated by species commonly found off
Oregon such as black rocksh and cabezon, redtail perch,
and night and surf smelt. Along the central coast, south
of Cape Mendocino, where rocky-reef habitat dominates,
prevailing onshore northwest winds cause the upwelling
of nutrient-rich waters from the ocean bottom and high
biological productivity. Kelp beds, consisting of giant kelp
to the south and bull kelp to the north, are home to
a variety of nearshore rocksh, abalone and sea urchin.
Sea bird nesting areas and marine mammals such as sea
otters and sea lions are also important members of this
community. South of Point Conception, warm waters from
the south join with the cold California Current to provide
habitat for a wide variety of seasonal sub-tropical visitors
like yellowtail, white seabass, Pacic bonito, and Califor-
nia barracuda, all found in close association with the
abundant stands of giant kelp found around the offshore
islands and along the mainland. Major resident species
such as kelp bass, sheephead, halfmoon and olive rocksh
sustain a year-round nearshore shery.
Major issues are the impact of environmental events like
El Niño on animal and plant species, over-harvest of spe-
cies such as abalone and nearshore rocksh, interactions
between sheries and marine mammals, pollution from
human activities, and competition among user groups,
both consumptive and non-consumptive.
Management authority for most species found in the
nearshore continues to be split between the legislature
and the Fish and Game Commission, with the legislature
retaining the authority to manage commercial sheries
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 79
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
80
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 81
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
82
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 83
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
84
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 85
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
86
The Nearshore
Ecosystem ness crab catch and that the sport lobster catch, while
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate Resources: Overview
signicant, is substantially less than the commercial catch.
Invertebrate While the size of the recreational lobster harvest is not
known, a NMFS-sponsored survey estimated over 115,000
Resources: Overview
individual trips targeting spiny lobster in 1989. Divers
catch most lobsters with their hands, although baited ring
nets are also used, usually from skiffs, piers or jetties. A
C
commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) industry cater-
alifornia’s marine invertebrate sheries range among
ing to divers schedules special trips during lobster season.
the crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms and to a lim-
CPFVs in the SF Bay area have in recent years been offer-
ited extent, the polychaetes. This section deals with
ing combo-trips for rocksh and Dungeness crabs, where
most of them, with the notable exception of squid, classi-
crab pots are set at the beginning of the shing trip
ed as a coastal pelagic in this publication. Invertebrate
and pulled on the way back to port. These trips could
resources usually associated with bays and estuaries are
signicantly increase the sport crab catch in this region.
considered in another section. Commercial and recre-
In addition to these major sheries, sand crabs and red
ational shermen spend thousands of hours annually in
rock shrimp are the target of small but high value-per-unit
pursuit of these species, which are among the most highly
bait sheries.
prized of our marine resources. Harvest methods include
trawls pulled by large ocean-going vessels (shrimp), California’s nearshore echinoderm sheries developed in
traps shed from smaller boats (lobsters, crabs, and the 1970s as a response to the growing demand for shery
prawns), ring nets, and bare hands (recreational lobsters export products but were little utilized domestically. They
and crabs). In 1999, commercial invertebrates (excluding have been dominated by the red sea urchin shery which
squid) accounted for only about six percent of the state’s saw almost 15 million pounds landed in 1999, the second
total commercial catch by weight, but over 30 percent of lowest total during the 1990s, down from a high of 45 mil-
its ex-vessel value at over $44 million. Commercial catch lion pounds in 1990. Sea cucumber landings have averaged
records for invertebrate species, like most of California’s about 500,000 pounds during the 1990s, with cucumbers
sheries, are more complete than for their recreational taken by both commercial divers and trawlers, mostly in
counterparts. Spiny lobster is the only invertebrate shery southern California. There has been very little interest in
with both a substantial sport and commercial component. the sport take of echinoderms, other than small amounts
However the magnitude of the sport component of that of sea urchins. Purple sea urchins, whose unregulated take
shery is poorly known. The Marine Life Management Act can cause localized depletions, have been the target of
recognizes the importance of allocating marine resources scientic collectors for years.
fairly between commercial and recreational users and Other species not considered in this section, such as
so an improved understanding of the amount of sport limpets, jackknife clams, mussels and rock scallops, are
take and effort will be a necessity in the future. Many frequently harvested by sport shers and have been seri-
other species of invertebrates that are not the target ously impacted by California’s expanding human popu-
of sheries inhabit California’s marine waters where they lation. Water quality problems, both natural and man-
nevertheless form important functional components of caused, may prevent commercial and sport harvest of
marine ecosystems. bivalve mollusks, primarily clams and mussels. Since most
In 1999, over half of the marine crustacean catch of 16.4 bivalves are lter feeders, they ingest microscopic plant
million pounds consisted of Dungeness crab. Dungeness and animal matter from the water column. At certain
crab and Pacic ocean shrimp have comprised the major- times during the year, particularly during the spring and
ity of the crustacean catch each year since the 1950s. summer upwelling season, heavy plankton blooms occur
In recent years there have been over 330 boats taking in nearshore waters, and lter feeders may ingest and
Dungeness crabs in the center of the catch range from concentrate toxins, which are harmful to humans if con-
Crescent City to Fort Bragg. Boats average 200 crab pots sumed. The levels of toxic plankton are monitored by the
each, but some carry as many as one thousand pots. California Department of Public Health and warnings are
In contrast, the spiny lobster catch was almost 500,000 issued when appropriate.
pounds in 1999, and ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 Natural predation may signicantly reduce a population
pounds through most of the 1990s. Recreational harvests if a prey species increases its density or range. A well-
of crustaceans also center around crabs and spiny lobster. documented example is the return of the sea otter popu-
Dungeness and rock crabs are targets of scattered recre- lation to its historic range and its impact on central
ational effort throughout California. It is estimated that California’s Pismo clam and abalone resources. Disease
sport shermen take less than one percent of the Dunge- has not often been implicated in reducing populations of
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 87
California’s mollusks. However, the “withering syndrome” can undergo rapid increases or declines in population size
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate Resources: Overview
in the black abalone population, coupled with shing pres- (ocean shrimp and ridgeback prawn). Separate subpopula-
sure, has resulted in a drastic decline in the southern tions of Dungeness crabs and ridgeback prawns may exist
California stock. Periodic oceanographic disturbances such within California. The spiny lobster population is shared
as the warm-water event known as El Niño can have with Mexico, and ocean shrimp and Dungeness crab popu-
severe impacts on nearshore invertebrates, especially lations span the Oregon border. Management and shing
southern populations. practices in those political entities may affect California’s
portion of such shared resources.
California’s commercial abalone shery was the leading
molluscan shery for the decades up until its collapse and Future management and research on California’s inverte-
closure in 1997. Indeed, the MLMA was drafted in part brate resources should focus on more frequent and ef-
as a response to this tragedy. A robust recreational-only cient resource assessment methods and a better under-
abalone shery remains in northern California where an standing of the various factors, both natural and human-
estimated 1.2 million pounds was taken by 33,000 divers induced, which determine population levels and patterns
annually during the past decade. A punch card reporting of change. With such information at hand, resource man-
system was established in 1999, which should make track- agers will be better able to match the growing demands
ing catch and effort in this shery much easier in on California’s nearshore invertebrates with their pro-
the future. ductive capacity. Future management will undoubtedly
address the issue of marine protected areas as a
California’s nearshore ecosystem has been the target of
tool for ecosystem protection and enhancement of
an onslaught of exploitation, both extractive and non-
degraded areas.
consumptive, since the end of World War II. California’s
population has exploded during that time period and con-
centrated along the coastal zones of central and southern Peter Kalvass
California. Intertidal areas here, particularly rocky tidal California Department of Fish and Game
pools, have been trampled and stripped of their ora and
fauna despite the efforts of regulatory agencies to protect
them. Offshore mineral extraction, pipelines and tanker
trafc increase the likelihood of major fouling incidents
along our coastline. Fisheries management agencies have
been largely concerned with controlling the type and
amount of marine organisms available for harvest. How-
ever, the demands of ecosystem management will require
a greater vigilance over all the elements of nearshore
ecology, including the habitats of the organisms.
The collection of timely and accurate biological and sh-
ery information can be a costly and challenging endeavor.
As a consequence, management of nearshore invertebrate
resources in California has proceeded largely on an ad hoc
basis. Measures such as minimum sizes, closed seasons,
gear or equipment restrictions, bag limits and closed areas
have been used in an effort to protect stocks, sustain
harvests and allocate the resource. For some of our sher-
ies, management systems based on annual or seasonal
quotas and a xed harvest rate may be more desirable.
Following a worldwide trend, during the last decade most
of our commercial sheries for invertebrates have come
under limited access or entry regulations, and conse-
quently opportunities for entry into these sheries have
been reduced.
A variety of life-history patterns, which need to be con-
sidered when making management decisions, are found
among California’s invertebrate resources. Some resources
are long-lived and slow growing (spiny lobster, sheep crab,
abalone, sea urchins); others have short life spans and
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
88
Abalone
History of the Fishery to 1970. Green abalones peaked in 1971 at 1,090,000
Abalone
pounds, declined rapidly to six percent of their 1968 to
A rchaeological evidence indicates that California Indi- 1972 average catch of 488,000 pounds. White abalone was
ans shed abalones extensively from coastal areas and the shortest lived of the abalone shery, beginning about
the Channel Islands prior to European and Asian settle- 1968 peaking in 1972 with landings of 144,000 pounds,
ment of California. During the 1850s, Chinese Americans and quickly declining thereafter. Black abalones peaked in
started a shery in California that targeted intertidal 1973 at 1,913,000 pounds, declining in 1990 to 13 percent
green (Haliotis fulgens) and black (H. cracherodii) abalo- of their 1972 to 1984 average catch of 687,000 pounds.
nes, with peak landings of 4.1 million pounds of meat and Because the shery was managed as a single entity, the
shell in 1879. The Chinese worked shallow waters with total landings stabilized with the inclusion of the pink,
skiffs, gafng abalones dislodged by a long pole with a green, white, and black landings, but each of these spe-
wedge on the end. This shery was eliminated in 1900 by cies quickly collapsed. Red abalone again became the
closure of shallow waters to commercial harvest. Japanese dominant species with most of the landings originating
divers followed the Chinese by exploiting virgin stocks from the southern part of central California, and the
of subtidal abalones, rst as free divers from surface Channel Islands.
oats and later, more successfully, as hard-hat divers. Complicating the issues was the effect of sea otter pre-
California Department of Fish and Game statistics showed empting the central California shing areas. Red abalone,
an increase in landings from 1916 to a peak in 1935 of stocks were fully utilized around the historic center of
3,900,000 pounds followed by a decline to 164,000 pounds the range, Monterey, and the shery expanded southward.
in 1942 as shermen of Japanese heritage were moved to The expansion of the sea otter, also moving south, eventu-
relocation camps during World War II. ally removed much of the central California coast as a
The red abalone (H. rufescens) was the only species source of legal abalones.
reported in the commercial landing gures from 1916 to Increased efciency and effectiveness of the shery, i.e.,
1943. They were recorded as unidentied abalone. By faster boats and better diving technology, were factors
1960, the center of the shery had moved from Monterey which caused a continual expansion of the shing grounds.
to the Morro Bay area, where the regions from Cape San None of these factors was adequately addressed, and
Martin to Cayucos in the north and Point Buchon to Pecho necessary reductions in the shing power in the shery to
Rock in the south were shed. Declining stocks of red protect the abalone resource never occurred.
abalones, caused largely by the combined effects of sh-
ing and a growing population of sea otters, forced a shift
Status of Biological Knowledge
southward in the late 1960s. Landings increased in the San
Francisco area, supplying 34 percent of the 1988 red aba-
I n addition to the ve species which have been commer-
lone landings. Evidence, including successfully prosecuted
cially shed, at (H. walallensis), threaded (H. assimilis)
court cases, indicates that many of these abalones were
and pinto (H. kamtschatkana) abalones are also found
poached from noncommercial areas in northern California.
in California; all have limited distributions and none is
By 1990, landings of red abalones declined to 17 percent
common. The threaded (H. assimilis) was once thought to
of the 1931 to 1967 average of 2,135,000 pounds.
be a separate species, but it has been included under the
Commercial harvest of abalones was prohibited in south-
pinto as a southern sub-species. Depth and geographical
ern California from 1913 through 1943, then reopened
distributions of all California haliotids are best described
to increase wartime food production. The shery has
by seawater temperature. Black abalones are found from
undergone successive development and decline as less
Oregon to southern Baja California and are largely inter-
desirable species were exploited. The abalone shery
tidal, extending to a depth of about 20 feet in southern
underwent spatial and interspecic serial depletion fol-
California. Red abalones, which also extend from Oregon
lowing World War II. The shery was managed as a single
into Baja California, are intertidal and shallow subtidal in
entity, and it was difcult to address the collapse of
northern and central California but are exclusively subtidal
individual species in the face of stable landings. The sh-
in southern California, where they are restricted to cooler
ery alternated from red to pink (H. corrugata) to green,
upwelling locations along the mainland and the north-
white (H. sorensensi), and nally to black abalones, but
western Channel Islands. Pink, green, white and threaded
the new target species could not provide the continuous
abalones are characteristic of the warmer waters south of
demand. The combined-species landings reached a record
Point Conception extending into Baja California and the
5,420,000 pounds in 1957. Pink abalone landings reached
southeastern Channel Islands. These species further sort
a maximum 3,388,000 pounds in 1952 and in 1990 were
out by temperature in their depth distributions: greens
one percent of the 2,178,000 pounds averaged from 1950
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 89
Abalone
6
millions of pounds landed
5
4
All Abalone
3
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, All Abalone
2
Prior to 1949, commercial
abalone landings consisted
1
primarily of red abalone. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
are centered at shallower depths than pinks, which the benthic existence appears to be hit or miss. To com-
are shallower than white abalones. Flat and pinto abalo- pensate, abalones produce millions of eggs. Additionally,
nes are generally found in the cooler waters north of broadcast spawners must be sufciently close together to
Point Conception. improve the chances of fertilization, which decrease with
distance between spawners because of dilution. Distances
California abalones feed primarily on algae, mostly the
greater that three or four feet may not support sufcient
large brown kelps that form stands along the coast and
fertilization. While abalones can move and aggregate for
islands. They feed on bacterial and diatom lms when
spawning, often low numbers and physical barriers can
small, later switching to grazing on living plants and cap-
prevent aggregation.
turing algal drift, fragments of macrophytes moved by
currents and surge. Most abalones feed preferentially on Recent research has shown that abalones may not success-
kelps but minor variations in preference appear to reect fully reproduce and recruit annually, likely because of
the habitat where each is found. Specialization on drift all the reasons above. As abalones are removed during
algae puts abalones in competition with three species of shing, their numbers often will decrease to the point
urchins. Sea urchin grazing has been reported to limit kelp that few adults are sufciently close for successful fertil-
and abalone distributions in many regions of the state. ization. In one Australian abalone, it has been shown
that when stocks of abalone are reduced to about 40
Seawater temperature also strongly inuences abalone
percent of the virgin biomass, reproduction failure occurs.
growth, and reproduction. Elevated seawater tempera-
Most of the California abalones are well below that 40
tures are low in nutrients and kelps, the food of abalone,
percent mark.
do not tolerate these periods well. El Niño events bring
warm seawater temperatures northward along the coast. Abalones, especially juveniles, are preyed upon by a wide
This can have severe short and long-term effects on aba- variety of animals including crabs, lobsters, gastropods,
lone populations through reduced food availability and octopuses, sea stars and shes; larger abalones achieve a
the direct affects of warm water on the abalone. In red partial refuge in size from most of these. However, two
abalone, El Niño conditions have been observed to slow predators, sea otters and humans, including the effects
growth, and decrease settlement and recruitment. If suf- of human activity in and near the sea, are the keystone
cient stocks survive through the warm water period, species that control the condition of the abalone resource.
reproduction will resume with the return of normal con-
ditions, but several year classes may be absent. This
Red abalone
will eventually be reected in the future availability of
shable stocks.
R ed abalone is the largest abalone in the world with a
Abalones are synchronous broadcast spawners, the males record maximum shell length of 12.3 inches. The shell
and females releasing their sperm and eggs directly to color is brick red when red algae are part of the diet.
the sea. The duration and period of spawning varies A prominent muscle scar is visible on the inside of the
with species. The fertilized egg sinks to the bottom, shell. Typically three to four respiratory pores are open;
hatches and spends several days to a week in the plank- these are slightly raised, tubular, and oval. The epipodium
ton, depending upon temperature and species. Various is smooth and black.
oceanographic mechanisms are thought to keep the larvae
in the vicinity of the adults. Nevertheless, settlement to
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
90
This abalone is associated with rocky kelp habitat ranging north have increased following the shing down of their
Abalone
from Oregon into Baja California. In northern and central main competitor the red sea urchin.
California they are found from the intertidal to the shallow Abalone are preyed upon by a broad range of predators
subtidal depths. In southern California they are exclusively including sea stars, octopus, crabs and lobster, and shes,
subtidal, restricted to upwelling locations along the main- particularly sheephead, cabezon, and bat rays, all of
land and the northwestern Channel Islands. Two canopy- which may be found in red abalone habitat. Sea otters
forming kelps, bull kelp and giant kelp are primary compo- are the major predator of red abalone in the current sea
nents of the red abalone habitat and diet. Several other otter range from Año Nuevo (Santa Cruz) to south of Point
brown algae are reported as important food sources. Conception. Inside this range a few adult abalone survive
There is a clear distinction between juvenile and adult red in deep crevices.
abalone habitat, an indication that migration occurs as the In central and southern California, where species were
abalone grow. There are two separate movement phases. serially depleted, red abalone had declined the least of
The rst phase corresponds with settlement as postlarvae all ve species by the time the shery was closed in 1997.
on coralline algae and is ascribed to light avoidance (nega- Combined landings of red abalone declined during the
tive photoaxis) and/or downward attraction (positive geo- period from 1969 to1982 stabilizing at 1/10 their historic
taxis) into small spaces between rocks and under boul- average during the 14 year period before the 1997 clo-
ders. The second phase starts at 2.0 inches when they sure. Detailed examination of catch by area and shery
switch to feeding on drift kelp, moving from under boul- independent assessments reveal that the stability in land-
ders into crevices. Abalone in exposed crevices, under ings masked serial depletion by area, as successive areas
ledges, or on top of reefs are described as “emergent” declined by over two orders of magnitude. From 1952-1968
with most red abalone emergent by six inches. Red aba- most red abalone were caught in central California, fol-
lone have been reported to move in response to environ- lowed by southern mainland, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and
mental hazards such as sanding-in of reefs. They have San Miguel Islands. Catches declined rst along the central
been shown to move considerable distances of up to coast under the combined effects of expanding sea otters
0.4 miles. In northern California random movement in and shing pressure. Outside the sea otter range catches
deeper, less intensely shed populations supports some declined more slowly along the southern mainland than
of the replacement of the intertidal and shallow sub- at Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and San Nicolas Islands. From
tidal shed stocks. 1983-1996, catch decreased off these three islands to
Red abalone generally reach sexual maturity at a shell three percent, for Santa Rosa, and less than one percent,
length of ve inches, but may become mature as small as for Santa Cruz and San Nicolas, of their respective peak
1.6 inches for females and 3.3 inches for males in the wild. catches by the 1997 closure. San Miguel Island and the
Fecundity ranges from a few thousand eggs at rst spawn- north coast were the exceptions to this pattern. Catches
ing to up to six million eggs in large adults. Spawning from San Miguel Island, the farthest and most northern
is seasonal in northern and year round in southern Cali- of the Channel Islands, and the north coast comprised 71
fornia reecting northern seasonal availability of kelp. A of the 87 tons landed in 1996 prior to the shery closure
single spawning season from April to July with a peak in 1997.
in May was reported for northern California, based on A successful red abalone sport only shery continues to
histological evidence. the north of San Francisco county, where SCUBA has
The optimal temperature for successful survival to settle- always been prohibited and commercial take was only
ment for red abalone larvae is 55˚ to 68˚ F. At these allowed for a three year period during WWII. Breath-hold
temperatures the average duration of the swimming larval
phase is four days. Post settlement larval survival varies
from year to year. Studies off southern and northern
California showed occasional strong year classes followed
by long periods of unsuccessful recruitment.
Growth is highly variable and depends on availability of
food. Mark and recapture studies demonstrated higher
yearly growth rates in southern California compared to
northern California where food is seasonally available. An
exception occurred during the 1982-1984 El Niño in south-
ern California when kelp abundance declined dramatically.
Recent evidence suggests abalone growth rates in the Red Abalone, Haliotis rufescens
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 91
diving effort has increased in relation to shore picking Department research cruises to San Clemente, Santa Cata-
Abalone
beginning in the 1960s. In 1960, an estimated 11,000 diver- lina, and Santa Barbara Islands in 1996 and 1997, were
days were expended to take 118,000 pounds of red and used to investigate pink, and other, abalones. The number
black abalone, compared with 29,000 diver-days to take of abalones sighted per unit of time was used to quantify
192,000 pounds in 1972. By 1985 to 1989, average diver- stocks, and a factor was applied to estimate the number
days and shore picker-days per year were focused on of commercially legal pink abalone that could be collected
red abalone in central and northern California. Estimated per hour. Estimates ranged from about one to 1.5 abalone
landings of red abalone in central and northern California per hour. Similar cruises conducted in 1999, estimated
for combined divers and shore pickers reached a high of only 0.28 commercial legal pink abalone per hour. At
3,472,000 pounds in 1986 and had decreased to 1,161,000 Catalina Island, no commercial sized pink abalone were
pounds by 1989. In 1998 an abalone stamp was rst found. These estimates indicate how low the remaining
sold to generate revenues for assessments. In 1998 and numbers of abalone there are at the islands. The situation
1999 an average 33,000 stamps were sold showing effort is no better on the front side of Santa Catalina Island,
levels are comparable to those estimated for the 1985 to where it was closed to commercial take, but open to
1989 period. recreational shing.
Fishery independent surveys conducted at the Channel
Islands reveal a close association between the presence
Pink abalone of small individuals and legal size sport and commercial
P
sizes. The best locations were where refuges were pres-
ink abalones occur from Point Conception to the cen-
ent, e.g., Anacapa Island. These areas supported higher
tral Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Its depth range
numbers of legal sized abalone and had continued pres-
extends from the lower intertidal zone to almost 200 feet,
ence of smaller sizes. There needs to be large adults
but most are found from about 20 to 80 feet. It has the
present to provide spawn for future generations, and the
broadest distribution of the southern California abalones.
presence of the smaller sizes forms the potential shable
It may be identied by its nearly circular shell, black and
resource. This situation may point out that to have sus-
white epipodium and black tentacles, and highly arched
tainable abalone resources the full size range must occur.
shell with protruding respiratory pores, two to four of
which may be open. Natural climatic events may affect pink abalone both posi-
tively and negatively. Pink abalone is at the northern end
In the early 1950s, pink abalone comprised the largest
of its range in southern California, so it would not be
segment of the abalone shery, about 75 percent, and
unusual for this species to be enhanced by the inux of
had a signicant effect on the total abalone landings
warm water during an El Niño period, as was observed
(Figure 1). Commercial landings originated at the eastern
in 1982 to 1984. On the other hand, intrusion of nutrient-
northern Channel Islands (Anacapa, Santa Cruz), and the
poor warm, El Niño-driven seawater severely depresses
southern Channel Islands (San Nicolas, Santa Catalina,
kelp, growth and survival, which limits the food of aba-
Santa Barbara, San Clemente). Because pink abalone are
lone. This may depress abalone growth and reproduction.
more fragile than others and grow more slowly, the level
Since pink abalone spawn throughout much of the year,
of take could not continue. The persistence of pink land-
they are able to overcome the detrimental effects of
ings was due to expansion into unshed areas, but that
warm water and spawn successfully. Withering syndrome
occurred so quickly that depleted areas did not have
(WS), a lethal disease of abalones, is exacerbated by El
time, or the ability, to recover. By the early 1980s the
Niño related sea water warming, and may cause severe
commercial pink abalone shery had expanded throughout
local decline in numbers.
the available range and the landings dwindled to
virtually nothing.
Green abalone
Pink abalone was important in the recreational shery,
being the second most taken species, after green abalone.
G
This is not surprising as both species are easily targeted reen abalone is found on open coast shallow rocky
by sport divers. Since pink abalone inhabits areas south habitat from Point Conception, California to Bahia
of Point Conception, until recently south of the range Magdalena, Baja California, including parts of the Channel
of the sea otter, its population condition has not been Islands that are inuenced by warmer water regimes. The
affected by that predator. The re-occupation of sea otter species is associated with the warm-temperate California
into southern California could have adverse consequences region from Baja California to southern California. Green
on the already depleted pink abalone. abalone were commonly found in rock crevices, under
rocks and other cryptic cavities from the low intertidal to
subtidal zones. They are mostly found between 10 and 20
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
92
foot depths, often associated with surf grass beds, but are
Abalone
4.5
sometimes seen at 50 and 60 foot depths. 4.0
millions of pounds landed
3.5
The shell is brown with the surface marked by many low,
Red Abalone
3.0
at-topped ribs which run parallel to the pores. The shell 2.5
has ve to seven pores with edges elevated from the 2.0
surface and a groove that runs parallel on the outside 1.5
1.0
edge of the pores. The edge of the foot, the epipodium, is
0.5
mottled cream and brown, with a frilly edge and scattered 0.01916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
tubercles. The tentacles are olive green in color. Green
abalone attain a size of 10 inches but are usually smaller. 4
millions of pounds landed
Sexual maturity occurs at about three and a half inch shell
3
length (approx. 5 to 7 years). Individuals average about
Pink Abalone
one half inch of shell growth per year for the rst ve 2
to seven years. After maturity, shell growth slows down.
The spawning season for green abalone is between early 1
summer and fall and spawning often occurs several times
during this period. Average fecundity for a population of 0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
greens at Santa Catalina Island was estimated to be about
1.2
2.5 million eggs per female per year.
millions of pounds landed 1.0
Green abalone are opportunistic drift algae feeders, and
Green Abalone
0.8
eat a wide variety of drift algae, but they prefer eshy
red algae. Predation of juveniles plays a major role in 0.6
shaping adult population size. Abalone experience a high 0.4
mortality early in life due mainly to predation. Some 0.2
of the predators of juvenile abalone are crabs, lobsters,
0.0
other gastropods, sea stars, octopuses, and shes. The 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
two spot octopus is the main predator of young green 150
abalone at Santa Catalina Island. Larger individuals have a
thousands of pounds landed
125
refuge in size from most of these predators. However, bat
White Abalone
100
rays and sea otters prey selectively on larger abalones.
75
Since they prefer well sheltered, hidden niches, green
50
abalone are able to exist in the high energy area of the
low intertidal shallow subtidal areas where most other 25
abalone species cannot exist. They are often concentrated 01916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
in shallow subtidal surf grass beds where wave action
2.0
facilitates a steady ow of drift algae.
millions of pounds landed
Green abalone may occupy a particular site, called a 1.5
Black Abalone
homesite or scar. Abalone larger than one inch seldom
leave their home scar to forage, relying on algal drift. 1.0
Smaller individuals actively forage but return to their
home scar in the day. 0.5
0.0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Black abalone Commercial Landings 1916-1999, Multiple Abalone
I
Data Source for all figures: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts. Graphs
n black abalone the shell is smooth, black to slate gray
stacked to depict movement of catch effort from one abalone species to the next
in color, though some may have lost much of the outer
over time. Prior to 1949, identification of abalone species landed was not
layer leaving it white. This abalone has the most distinc-
required. However, commercial abalone landings between 1916 and 1949 consisted
tive shell of the California species. The shell is usually
primarily of red abalone. The data presented here for red abalone includes
clean though some have barnacles growing on them. There
landings recorded as unspecified abalone during this time period. There were
are ve to nine open pores, which are ush with the shell.
no commercial landings reported for pink or green abalone prior to 1950; no com-
In more southern populations as many as 14 pores may be
mercial landings are reported for white abalone prior to 1959; and no commercial
open. The epipodium has a smooth texture and is black.
landings are reported for black abalone prior to 1956.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 93
The interior of the shell is silvery-white nacre (mother-of- individuals appear to be well protected from most preda-
Abalone
pearl) and has a muscle scar. tors, at least as long as they remain attached to the
substrate. Sea otters are the main natural predator of
Black abalone are reported from as far north as Oregon,
this species. The absence of sea otters from southern
but most are found south of San Francisco Bay to southern
California is the primary reason for the dense concentra-
Baja California including the offshore islands. By the mid-
tions of abalone that developed in California and Mexico.
1990s, only remnant populations existed at the Farallon and
Channel Islands, and along the mainland southern California The recent commercial shery in California began in
shoreline they were totally absent. Small populations exist in approximately 1968 at the Channel Islands with the devel-
central and northern California. opment of an Asian market. Landings peaked in the 1970s,
and began a slow decline thereafter.
Essential habitats includes rocky intertidal areas, often
within the high energy surf zone. Consequently, it is In 1985, weak, shriveled, and dying black abalone were
exposed to a broad range of conditions, including wave observed by scientists in tide pools at the Channel Islands.
wrack, exposure during low tides to hot, dry periods of Black abalone were literally falling off the rocks in large
direct sun, and to chilling cold winter conditions. Because numbers at several of the islands. The disease is char-
natural populations of black abalone form exposed, easily acterized by weight loss, pedal atrophy, weakness, and
accessible aggregations, protection from take is impor- lethargy. Early experiments showed that once an abalone
tant, particularly along the mainland coast. In light of the exhibited signs of this syndrome, it quickly died.
growing human population in California, it is possible that Withering syndrome (WS), caused by a Rickettsia-like pro-
coastal populations of black abalone will never return. caryote is the causative agent of this catastrophic disease
Remote totally protected intertidal areas on the mainland of abalone. It has ravaged all the Channel Islands and the
and the Channel Islands may be required for reestablish- remaining mainland populations of black abalone as far
ment of natural populations. north as Pacica, San Mateo county. Most locations experi-
It is not known whether subpopulations of this abalone enced almost total loss of black abalone populations.
exist. Because of the extensive distribution of suitable A few individuals survive WS. These resistant abalone
habitat, limited migration, and the method of reproduc- will be the basis of any natural recovery and are also
tion, there may be genetic differences that have evolved utilized in captive breeding programs to develop resistant
among local populations, particularly at the extreme ends strains. In 1998, the NMFS added black abalone to the
of the range, and between coastal and insular popula- candidate species list for possible listing under the federal
tions. Black abalone appear to recruit locally, but further Endangered Species Act.
examination of the recruitment pattern in this species is
needed for better resource management and restoration.
White abalone
Black abalone grow most quickly during the rst ve to
W
10 years. Growth varies between locations, and is likely hite abalone inhabit deep, rocky substrata from 60
affected by stress, including disease, food availability, and to 200 feet deep, from Point Conception, in southern
climatic variation. This abalone is a long-lived species, California to Bahia Tortugas, in central Baja California,
attaining an age of 25 years or more. Sexual maturity including the offshore islands and banks. Because it is
occurs at a relatively small size, with most individuals found primarily in depths greater than about 75 feet, it
being mature at less than two inches. Spawning occurs wasn’t described as a species until 1941.
in the spring and early summer, and a second period of
The shell is high and oval in shape with a row of high pores
spawning may occur in the fall.
spiraling to the highest part of the shell, the spire. Gener-
Black abalone larvae settle onto hard substrate, and are ally, the surface of the shell is free of heavy encrustation,
often found in the vicinity of larger individuals. The newly but often the shell is covered with pink, coralline algae.
settled larvae are cryptic, and remain so until they attain There appears to be no harm to the abalone, and the
a length of four inches or greater. Small juveniles are algae often matches the shell to the surrounding habitat.
found under rocks and deep in crevices, while larger black The shell is considerably lighter in weight than the shells
abalone in natural unharvested areas congregate on rocks of other species. The interior of the shell is silvery-white
and in tide pools, sometimes in great numbers. Newly nacre and lacks a muscle scar. Three to ve of the largest
settled and juvenile black abalone forage on bacterial pores are open, the rest being lled in during growth.
lms. As the abalone grows it shifts to larger drift algae
Little is known about natural growth of white abalone.
brought into the intertidal areas by waves and currents.
Individuals settled in the laboratory grew at about 0.6 inch
Small black abalone are preyed upon by sea stars, octo- per year, less than that of other abalones. Estimates from
pus, and several crabs found in the intertidal areas. Larger a few individuals indicated that growth during the rst
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
94
ve years averages about an inch per year slowing down for listing as endangered under the federal Endangered
Abalone
thereafter, which is a similar growth pattern to other Species Act.
California abalones. The life span of white abalone was
estimated at about 35 to 40 years. There is no evidence
Status of the Populations
of a signicant recruitment event since the late 1960s
or early 1970s; thus the remaining individuals are likely
C urrently, all ve major species of abalone in central
approaching the end of their life spans.
and southern California are depleted, a result of
Reproduction in white abalone is probably similar to other cumulative impacts from commercial harvest, increased
species. Successful reproduction depends upon population market demand, sport shery expansion, an expanding
density, spawning period, and fecundity, and conditions population of sea otters, pollution of mainland habitat,
conducive to successful settlement. White abalone spawn disease, loss of kelp populations associated with El Niño
in the winter, with synchronous gamete release, but the events, and inadequate wild stock management. The
cue is unknown. The release of sperm initiates egg release political/legislative climate and limited funding has pre-
in some abalones. Abalone may reproduce annually, but vented the department from establishing and managing to
evidence suggests that settlement of the larvae may be sustain yields for each species and area. Fish and Game
only occasionally successful. Because of the short larval Commission and California legislative action halted sport
life, and the discontinuous habitat there are likely to and commercial shing for abalones in southern California
be genetic differences between remote locations, particu- in 1997. Sport shing is allowed north of San Francisco
larly at the extremes of its range. Bay. It seems paradoxical that all shing for abalone would
Abalone are herbivorous, feeding on bacterial and diatom be closed in the southern two thirds of California, while
lms when small, and foraging on attached and drift kelp a viable sport shery exists in the north. The difference
later. White abalone are associated with deep living kelps, between the two areas is centered on the way abalones
and have been observed feeding on these. They have also are taken. In the south, scuba and commercial dive equip-
been observed near the interface of sand and rock, a ment made all abalone available to harvest, while in the
position that would facilitate the capture of drift algae. north only skin diving and shore picking are allowed. In
the deeper areas beyond free diving depth, the popula-
Abalone predators include sea stars, octopus, crabs, lob-
tion is dense and individuals are large, conditions that
ster, and shes, particularly sheephead, cabezon, and bat
maximize reproduction and recruitment. It is these de
rays, all of which have been observed in white abalone
facto refuge areas that provide a sustainable resource that
habitat. Sea otters are likely not signicant predators of
can be shed year after year.
white abalone, and are not responsible for low white aba-
lone population numbers. Otters have been absent from The northern California abalone shery provides insight
most of the areas where white abalone occur since well into what is necessary to maintain a sustainable resource,
before the establishment of the white abalone shery. upon which a shery can be allowed. In the northern
shery signicant areas of good abalone numbers are
As the nearshore abalone resources declined throughout
unavailable to the shery, including individuals larger than
California, divers went farther and deeper, eventually
minimum legal size. Such areas are maintained passively
encountering virgin stocks of white abalone. The commer-
because most skin divers cannot get to them in the often
cial shery for white abalone began about 1965, though
severe oceanic conditions found there. In contrast, all
whites were probably taken incidentally before then.
areas in southern California were available to commercial
The high quality of the meat and the knowledge of the
and sport divers, and eventually the larger individuals
resource spurred commercial landings to a peak in 1972 of
were taken, leaving little for stock rebuilding.
almost 144,000 pounds. Thereafter landings declined and
became insignicant in the mid-1980s. The recreational The primary regulation of the abalone shery was the size
shery also took white abalone, but landings are unknown, limit, which was set at a relatively large size, allowing
and probably far less than the commercial landings. Rela- individuals as old as 15 years (in red abalone) to reproduce
tive to the whole shery, white abalone comprised a before entering the shery. Implicit in size limits is the
small part of the landings, but its high quality and value assumption of regular reproduction and more importantly,
bolstered the shery for a short time. settlement. To have reproduction and settlement there
must be large numbers of adults close together. Such
In 1997, the NMFS added the white abalone to the candi-
areas are exactly what is sought in the shery. Man-
date species list to be considered for listing under the
agement efforts to protect stocks through size limits
federal Endangered Species Act. This action required a
and limits on the number of commercial abalone sh-
status review, which concluded that overexploitation was
ermen have been ineffective. Stock declines have led
the major cause of the decline. In May 2000, white aba-
to near extirpation of three species with red and pink
lone became the rst marine invertebrate to be proposed
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 95
abalone reduced to remnant populations on islands in if environmental temperatures increase WS could become
Abalone
southern California. a problem.
The poor survival rates observed in most abalone seeding WS has the capacity to eliminate abalones throughout
experiments suggest that seeding will not be an effective large areas. A signicant increase of the incidence could
method for restoration of depressed stocks. Adult translo- eliminate the remaining, already low, populations of aba-
cation to aggregate spawners may be the only hope to lones. Research is forthcoming about breeding resistant
replenish depleted stocks or prevent extinction for some abalone and treating abalones held in captivity. Addition-
species. Unfortunately for most species, few adults remain ally, any management decisions about abalone must take
to aggregate. Expensive articial breeding programs may disease effects into consideration.
be necessary to obtain sufcient numbers of large aba- Climatic and periodic oceanographic disturbances, par-
lones upon which to start rebuilding the resource. Addi- ticularly those that bring warm water northward can have
tionally, unless stocks are reestablished in well-protected severe effects on abalones, especially those in southern
refuge areas, illegal take will undermine these efforts. California. The effect of increased sea water temperature
In northern California, red abalone stocks continue to can affect disease susceptibility; lower growth in kelps,
provide abalone to an important recreational shery. The thus reducing abalone food sources; alter distribution pat-
continuation of this shery depends upon the protection terns of marine animals; and bring storms which disrupt
of the de facto deep water refuge, monitoring the annual local habitats. Each of these could further place additional
harvest to assure that the resource can accommodate stress on abalone populations.
sport harvest, continued effective resource protection, The southward movement of the sea otter into its ancient
education, and assessment. Recovery of the southern Cali- range in southern California would undoubtedly further
fornia abalone resource will likely require many years and reduce remaining abalone, and other invertebrate popula-
the establishment of marine protected areas to encourage tions further. Along the central coast, sea otters have
and protect dense populations of abalones. removed the larger emergent abalone populations, and
Three natural phenomena will have a decisive effect restricted them to cryptic habitat.
on California’s future abalone sheries — disease, Paradoxically, each of these three developments, are nat-
oceanographic events (El Niño), and sea otter expansion. ural events with which abalone and all marine organisms,
Each is already inuencing research and management have endured to some extent in the past. The difference is
decisions. that historically, populations were larger and more adapt-
WS is a bacterial disease that has virtually eliminated able, and better suited to evolve strategies to cope with
black abalone from large areas of its habitat in southern changing conditions. Today, populations are smaller, and
California. The spread and effectiveness of the disease is they cannot respond sufciently enough or quickly enough
enhanced by higher than average sea water temperatures. to adapt. In some cases, local, and perhaps total extinc-
In black abalone, some individuals appear to be resistant tion of species will result.
to it, but because these individuals are healthy, they
were often taken in the course of shing. It is precisely
Management Considerations
these healthy individuals that are necessary to obtain
natural recovery. After the discovery of WS, rather
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
than establishing a general moratorium on the take of
further information.
black abalone, each island was closed after populations
had crashed. The continued shing removed most of the
potentially resistant abalones. Peter L. Haaker, Konstantin Karpov, Laura Rogers-
Bennett, Ian Taniguchi, and Carolyn S. Friedman
WS is known in each of the other California abalones, but
California Department of Fish and Game
little is known how it affects the other species, particu-
larly along the mainland. Red abalone at San Miguel Island Mia J. Tegner
are infected, but incidence seems to be low. Green aba- Scripps Institution of Oceanography
lone, which overlaps with the distribution of black aba-
lone, appears to have suffered from WS at some islands.
References
A few northern California red abalone have been collected
with WS pathogens, but it has not caused any symptoms.
Ault, J.S. and J.D. DeMartini. 1987. Movement and disper-
The cooler seawater temperatures off northern California
sion of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in northern Cali-
are sufcient to prevent the occurrence of symptoms, but
fornia. Calif. Fish Game, 73:196-213.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
96
Cox, K.W. 1962. California abalones, Family Haliotidae. Tegner, M.J., P.A. Breen, and C.E. Lennert. 1989. Popula-
Abalone
Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 118:1-133. tion biology of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in south-
ern California and management of the red and pink, H.
Davis, G. E., P. L. Haaker, and D. V. Richards. 1996. Status
corrugata, abalone sheries. Fish. Bull., U.S. 87:313-339.
and trends of white abalone at the California Channel
Islands. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society Tutschulte, T.C. 1976. The comparative ecology of three
125: 42-48. sympatric abalone. Ph. D. Dissertation. Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, San Diego.
Geiger, D.L. 1999. Distribution and biogeography of the
recent Haliotidae (Gastropoda; vestigastropoda) world-
wide. Bollettino Malacacologico 35(5-12):57-120.
Haaker, P.L. 1974. Assessment of abalone resources at
the Channel Islands. Edited by Halvorson, W.L. and G.J.
Maender, in The Fourth California Islands Symposium:
Update on the status of resources. Santa Barbara Museum
of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
Haaker. D.O. Parker, K. C. Barsky, and C.S. Chun. 1998.
Growth of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens (Swainson) at
Johnsons Lee, Santa Rosa Island, Calif. J. Shell. Res. 17(3):
847-854.
Hobday, A. J. and M. J. Tegner. 2000. Status review of
white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) throughout its range
in California and Mexico. NOAA Technical Memorandum
NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWR-035. U. S. Department of Commerce.
Karpov, K.A., P.L. Haaker, I.K. Taniguchi, and L. Rog-
ers-Bennett. 2000. Serial depletion and the collapse of
the California abalone (Haliotis) shery. In Workshop on
rebuilding abalone stocks in British Columbia. Edited by
A. Campbell. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish Aquat. Sci. 130 pp.
In press.
Karpov, K.A. 1991. A combined telephone and creel survey
of the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens (Swainson), sport
shery in California from Monterey to the Oregon border,
April through November 1989. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Mar. Res. Div., Admin. Rep. 91-2. 72 p.
Karpov, K.A., J. Geibel, and P. Law. 1997. Relative abun-
dance and size composition of subtidal abalone (Haliotis
sp.), sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus sp.) and abundance
of sea stars off Fitzgerald Marine Reserve, California,
September 1993. Calif. Dept. Fish Game Mar. Res. Admin.
Rep.. No. 97-1, 16 pp.
Karpov, K.A., P.L. Haaker, D.Albin, I.K.Taniguchi, and
D.Kushner.1998. The red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in
California: importance of depth refuge to abalone man-
agement. J. Shellsh Res. 17:863-870.
Rogers-Bennett, L. and Pearse, J.S.. 1998. Experimental
seeding of hatchery-reared juvenile red abalone in north-
ern California. J. of Shellsh Res. (17)3: 877-880.
Tegner, M.J. 1989. The California abalone shery: produc-
tion, ecological interactions, and prospects for the future.
Pages 401- 420. In: J.F. Caddy (ed.) Marine invertebrate
sheries: their assessment and management. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 97
California
Spiny Lobster low of 152,000 pounds in the 1974-1975 season. Landings
started back up the next season, but remained between
400,000 and 500,000 pounds for nine consecutive seasons
History of the Fishery from 1979-1980 to 1987-1988. The next nine years the
landings ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 pounds with
S ince the late 1800s, there has been a commercial sh- a peak of 950,000 in the 1997-1998 season. Landings
ery for California spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) dropped back down after that. The peaks and valleys that
in southern California. Commercial shermen use box-like have characterized this shery are not unexpected in a
traps constructed of heavy wire mesh to capture spiny shery that is strongly inuenced by the weather, El Niño
lobsters. Traps of other materials, such as plastic, are and La Niña events, and the export market.
allowed, but wire traps remain the most popular. About
About 90 percent of the legal lobsters taken in the com-
100 to 300 traps per sherman is common, but some sh
mercial shery weigh between 1.25 and 2.0 pounds, which
as many as 500 at the peak of the season. The traps are
produces the size of tail desired for the restaurant trade.
baited with whole or cut sh and weighted with bricks,
Most of the harvest in recent years has been exported
cement, or steel. They are shed on the bottom, and
to Asian countries and France. However, depressed econo-
each trap is marked with a buoy bearing the sherman’s
mies overseas have resulted in an effort to re-establish
license number followed by the letter P. High-speed boats
domestic markets. The price paid to the sherman is in
in the 20 to 40-foot size range are popular in this shery,
the range of $6.75 to $8 a pound. The largest portion of
but everything from 15-foot skiffs to 50-foot shing boats
the commercial and sport harvest is always taken during
are used. Most trap boats are equipped with a davit and
the rst month of the season, October, which also is the
hydraulics to assist in pulling the traps.
highest month of trapping effort. The effort and catch
Commercial lobster shing occurs in shallow, rocky areas drop off sharply in January through the middle of March
from Point Conception to the Mexican border and off the (the season’s end). San Diego County, being the most
islands and banks (such as Cortes and Tanner banks) of central to the spiny lobster’s range, usually produces the
southern California. Some marine life refuges and reserves highest landings, followed by Los Angeles/Orange, and
are closed to the take of lobster, as are areas in Santa Santa Barbara/Ventura counties.
Monica and Newport Bays and at Santa Catalina Island.
Commercial and recreational lobster shermen are
Sophisticated electronic equipment enables trappers to
restricted to a minimum size limit of 3 1/4 inches carapace
nd suitable lobster habitat and relocate their traps there.
length (CL). Historically, the season for both has run from
Traps are shed along depth contours in waters less than
early October to mid-March. Since 1992, the sport season
100 feet, or clustered around rocky outcrops on the
has opened the weekend before the rst Wednesday in
bottom. At the beginning of the season the traps are
October, the ofcial commercial season opener. Com-
usually very close to shore. By the end of the season they
mercial sh traps, including lobster traps, must have a
are in 100 to 300 feet of water.
destruct-device of a type approved by the Department of
Seasonal landings in the 200,000 to 400,000 pound range Fish and Game. This is to ensure that lost or abandoned
rose following World War II and peaked in the 1949-1950 traps do not continue to capture marine life indenitely.
season, with a record 1.05 million pounds landed. A gen- Since the 1976-1977 season, it has been required that
eral decline followed for the next 25 years, reaching a lobster traps be tted with rectangular escape ports (2
3/8 by 11 1/2 inches) to minimize the retention of undersized
lobsters. This requirement has been credited with reversing
the long downward trend in landings previous to that.
A formal commercial restricted access program was initi-
ated in April of 1997. All lobster shermen are required
to have an operator permit ($285). Deckhands that assist
them must have a lobster crewmember permit ($125).
Recreational harvesters need a valid sport shing license
with an ocean enhancement stamp, and may use hoop
nets or bare (gloved) hands when skin or scuba diving
for lobster. No appliance, such as a sh spear or a short
hooked pole, may be used to snag the animals from deep
crevices or caves. The daily bag limit for sport shing is
seven lobsters, reduced from 10 in 1971.
California Spiny Lobster, Panulirus interruptus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
98
California Spiny Lobster
1.0
millions of pounds landed
0.8
Spiny Lobster
0.6
0.4
Commercial Landings
0.2 1916-1999, Spiny Lobster
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Status of Biological Knowledge shed its exoskeleton. This process of molting is preceded
by the formation of a new, soft shell under the old one. An
T he California spiny lobster ranges from Monterey Bay, uptake of water expands the new shell before it hardens.
California to Manzanillo, Mexico. There is also a small, Lobsters are vulnerable to predation and physical damage
isolated population of this species at the northwestern right after they molt, until their new shell hardens.
end of the Gulf of California. The majority of the pop- Molt rates for the California spiny lobster are assumed
ulation is found between Point Conception, California to be similar to those of the Japanese spiny lobster. A
and Magdalena Bay, Baja California. Adult lobsters usually 0.24-inch CL specimen goes through 20 molts to reach 1.18
inhabit rocky areas from the intertidal zone to depths of inches CL at the end of its rst year. Four molts during
240 feet or more. the second year will result in a carapace length of two
Spiny lobsters mate from November through May. The inches, and there are three molts in the third year. It
male attaches a putty-like packet of sperm, called a sper- takes a lobster from seven to 11 years to reach a legal size
matophore, to the underside of the female’s carapace. of 3.25 inches CL. Spiny lobsters molt annually, following
When the female releases her eggs, she uses the small the reproductive period, once they reach 2.5 inches CL.
claws at the end of her last (fth) pair of walking legs to Growth rates, or the period between molts, are highly
open the spermatophore and fertilize the eggs with the variable. They have been correlated with food availability,
sperm inside the packet. Fertilized eggs are attached to size, and sex. The larger an animal, the slower it grows.
the underside of the female’s tail primarily in May and Injuries or disease will often result in a slowing or complete
June. “Berried” females are generally in water less than cessation of growth until the injury has been repaired.
30 feet deep and carry their eggs for about 10 weeks. The Juvenile lobsters usually spend their rst two years in
larger the size of the female, the more eggs she produces. nearshore surf grass beds. Sub-adults have also been
Females sampled at San Clemente Island carried between found in shallow rocky crevices and mussel beds. Adult
120,000 (2.6 inches CL) and 680,000 (3.6 inches CL) eggs. lobsters are found in rocky habitat, although they also
Spiny lobster eggs hatch into tiny, transparent larvae will search sandy areas for food. During the day, spiny
known as phyllosomas that go through 12 molts. They have lobsters usually reside in a crevice or hole, dubbed a den.
attened bodies and spider like legs, and drift with the More than one lobster is usually found in a den. At night,
prevailing currents feeding on other planktonic animals. the animals leave their dens to search for a wide range
They may drift offshore out to 350 miles, and may be of food. Adult lobsters are omnivorous and sometimes
found from the surface to a depth of over 400 feet. After carnivorous. They consume algae and a wide variety of
ve to nine months, the phyllosoma transforms into the marine invertebrates such as snails, mussels, sea urchins,
puerulus or juvenile stage. The puerulus is still transpar- and clams as well as sh, and injured or newly molted
ent, but now looks like a miniature adult with extremely lobsters. Lobsters are eaten by sheephead, cabezon, kelp
long antennae. The puerulus actively swims inshore where bass, octopuses, California moray eels, horn sharks, leop-
it settles to the bottom in shallow water and starts to ard sharks, rockshes and giant sea bass.
grow if the habitat is suitable. A large portion of the spiny lobster population makes
The spiny lobster’s outer shell serves as its skeleton, and an annual offshore-onshore migration that is stimulated
is referred to as an exoskeleton. To grow, a lobster must by changes in water temperature. During winter months,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 99
Management Considerations
male and female lobsters are found offshore at depths
California Spiny Lobster
of 50 feet and deeper, although individuals of both sexes
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
have also been found in shallow water in winter. In late
further information.
March, April, and May, lobsters move into warmer onshore
waters less than 30 feet. The higher temperatures on
shore shorten the development time for lobster eggs.
Kristine C. Barsky
Nearshore waters also have a more plentiful supply of
California Department of Fish and Game
food. In late October and November, the onshore waters
cool, and most lobsters move offshore. Winter storms that
cause increased wave action in shallow water encourage
References
this movement. Lobsters generally move after dark and in
small groups across the sand. Bodkin, J.L. and L. Brown. 1992. Molt frequency and
size-class distribution in the California spiny lobster (Panu-
California spiny lobsters of both sexes reach maturity at
lirus interruptus) as indicated by beach-cast carapaces
ve or six years and 2.5 inches CL. After maturity, male
at San Nicolas Island, California. Calif. Fish and Game
lobsters grow faster, live longer, and reach larger sizes
78(4):136-144.
than the females. Males can live up to 30 years, and
females at least 20 years. There are records of male Cali- Booth, J.D. and B.F. Phillips. 1994. Early life history of
fornia spiny lobster weighing over 26 pounds and attaining spiny lobster. Crustaceana 66(3):271-294.
lengths up to three feet. Today, lobsters over ve pounds
Dexter, D.M. 1972. Molting and growth in laboratory
are considered trophy-size. Trophy-size animals are usually
reared phyllosomes of the California spiny lobster, Panuli-
taken by recreational divers.
rus interruptus. Calif. Fish and Game 58:107-115.
Duffy, J.M. 1973. The status of the California spiny lobster
Status of the Population resource. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources
Tech. Rep. No. 10. 15 p.
P opulation size is unknown for the California spiny lob-
Engle, J.M. 1979. Ecology and growth of juvenile California
ster. Commercial landings have uctuated through the
spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). Sea Grant
years and are inuenced by some factors that are inde-
Dissertation Series, USCSC-TD-03-79. 298 p.
pendent of the health of the population.
Lindberg, R.G. 1955. Growth, population dynamics, and
The closed season protects egg-carrying and molting
eld behavior in the spiny lobster Panulirus interruptus.
female lobsters. The size limit ensures that there will be
Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 59(6):157-248.
several year classes of broodstock, even if all legal-size
Mitchell, C.T., C.H. Turner, and A.R. Strachan. 1969. Obser-
lobsters are caught each season. The escape port has
vations on the biology and behavior of the California spiny
been effective in reducing the capture and handling of
lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). Calif. Fish and
juvenile lobster. An illegal market has always existed for
Game 55(2):121-131.
“shorts” (undersized lobsters). Public education and ade-
quate warden enforcement are key elements in reducing
this problem.
The Department of Fish and Game has had a commercial
logbook system in place since 1973. Catch effort, the
numbers of legal and short lobsters taken, number of
traps shed, and depths where the traps are shed are
required information on the logs. The presence of shorts is
generally a good indicator of a healthy shery.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
100
Red Sea Urchin
History of the Fishery During the period 1973 through 1977, 80 to 90 percent
Red Sea Urchin
of the landings originated from these islands. In more
T he commercial shery for red sea urchins (Strongylo- recent years, however, there has been a decrease in
centrotus franciscanus) has been one of California’s the contribution from the northern Channel Islands as
most valuable sheries for more than a decade. This shing effort has shifted south to San Clemente Island,
shery is relatively new, having developed over the last 30 San Nicolas Island, and the San Diego area. This spatial
years, and caters mainly to the Japanese export market. shift occurred at the same time that catches decreased
Archaeological evidence however, shows that sea urchins throughout the region. In 1990, the southern California sea
in California have been shed by coastal American Indians urchin catch peaked at over 27 million pounds, and has
for centuries. The gonads of both male and female urchin declined steadily to 10.9 million pounds in 1999. In the
are the object of the shery and are referred to as “roe” 1990s, the shery was impacted by two El Niños and a
or “uni,” in Japanese. Gonad quality depends on size, weakening yen; both factors have contributed to reduce
color, texture, and rmness. Algal food supply and the shing effort and catches.
stage of gonadal development affect quality and price. Ex-
vessel prices during the season typically range from less
Northern California Fishery
than $0.20 to more than $2 per pound with the highest
prices garnered during the Japanese holidays around the
T he northern California commercial sea urchin shery
new year. Sea urchins are collected by divers operating
began in 1972, and remained insignicant until 1977,
in nearshore waters. Divers check gonad quality and are
when 386,000 pounds were landed in the Fort Bragg
size selective while shing to ensure marketability. In the
region. The second major shery expansion began in
last few years the red urchin shery has become fully
1985, fueled partly by decreasing landings in southern
exploited throughout its range in northern and southern
California and favorable monetary exchange rates. The
California. Because of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) preda-
large and unexploited sea urchin biomass in northern
tion, sea urchin stocks in central California occur at densi-
California sparked a gold rush as hundreds of new sher-
ties too low to sustain a commercial shery. The purple
men enter the unregulated shery. In northern California
sea urchin (S. purpuratus), which occurs over the same
(Half Moon Bay to Crescent City) landings jumped from
geographical range, is harvested in California, but only on
1.9 million pounds in 1985 to 30.4 million pounds in 1988,
a limited basis.
far exceeding landings from southern California. Northern
California sea urchin landings and catch-per-unit effort
Southern California Fishery (CPUE) began a steep decline in 1989, before leveling off
in 1996 at about three to four million pounds annually and
T he shery in southern California began in 1971 as about 700 pounds per shing day per diver. Preliminary
part of a National Marine Fisheries Service program landings data for 1999 show a catch of 3.2 million pounds
to develop sheries for underutilized marine species. The with an ex-vessel value of $2.4 million. In northern Califor-
shery was also seen as a way to curb sea urchins destruc- nia, Fort Bragg has remained the center of the shery,
tive grazing on giant kelp. There have been two periods of while the ports of Albion, Point Arena, and Bodega Bay
rapid shery expansion in California. The rst culminated accounted for about two-thirds of the catch in 1999. Rocky
in 1981 when landings peaked at 25 million pounds in reefs around Crescent City also support a small shery.
southern California. Contributing to this rapid escalation
of the shery was a pool of shermen and boats involved
in the declining commercial abalone dive shery. Sea
urchin landings then decreased following the El Niño of
1982-1983, when warm water weakened or killed kelp,
the primary food source for sea urchins. Catches did not
recover until 1985-1986, helped in part by the strengthen-
ing of the Japanese yen relative to the U.S. dollar, favor-
ing California shermen and exporters. Prices for urchin
from the south are typically higher than for urchins from
northern California due to the longer market presence and
consistently higher gonad quality of the former.
The majority of sea urchin landings in southern California
have come from the northern Channel Islands off of Santa
Red Sea Urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus
Barbara, where large and accessible stocks once occurred.
Credit: Chris Dewees
CA Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 101
Status of Biological Knowledge between these species at sites in northern California con-
Red Sea Urchin
cluded that there is an inverse relationship between red
S ea urchins are locally abundant subtidal herbivores that abalone and red sea urchin abundance at sites where
play an important ecological role in the structure of urchin density is high. Sea urchins may be more successful
kelp forest communities. Sea urchins belong to the phylum in competing for limited food because of their aggressive
Echinodermata, which includes sea stars, brittle stars, sea foraging and ability to survive starvation conditions.
cucumbers, and sand dollars. They have a hard calcareous Fishing abalone and sea urchins has no doubt altered
shell called a test, with spines and small pinchers called these relationships.
pedicellariae. Tube feet are located between the spines Several signicant predators of red sea urchins are known.
which are used in respiration, locomotion, and for grasp- Sea otters, spiny lobsters, sea stars, crabs, white sea
ing food and the substrate. On the bottom, or oral side, is urchins, and shes such as sheepshead eat red sea urchins.
the mouth, consisting of ve calcareous plates making up Within the sea otter’s present range, the red sea urchin
a jaw structure called Aristotle’s lantern. The mouth leads resource has been reduced to a level which precludes
to the digestive system which voids through the anus on shery utilization. Urchin diseases have decimated sea
the top, or aboral, side. urchin populations in the Caribbean islands, however the
Sea urchins are omnivorous, eating primarily foliose algae. dynamics of sea urchin diseases in California remain poorly
The perennial giant kelp is the preferred food in southern understood. Sea urchins in southern California are suscep-
California, whereas in northern California urchins feed on tible to disease during warm water El Niño events.
the annual bull kelp and perennial brown algae. The There are no reliable methods of aging sea urchins since
red sea urchin’s ability to survive during periods of food rings on the test plates are not laid down annually. Sea
shortages contributes to the its ability to persist in high urchin growth rates vary depending on food availability.
densities in areas devoid of algae, known as urchin bar- Growth rates must be determined by tagging and recap-
rens. The formation of barrens in southern California can turing animals. Internal tags (PIT tags) or chemical (uo-
follow oceanographic events such as El Niño during which rescent) tags that bind to calcium have been used to
kelp beds die-off resulting in shortages of standing and successfully tag sea urchins. Tagging studies reveal that
drift algae. These food shortages may trigger urchins to red urchins are long-lived, are certainly older than 50
aggregate and move in fronts denuding the remaining kelp years and large individuals may be older than 100 years.
forest. Based on examination of long-term aerial photos Growth to a harvestable size of 3.5 inches (test diameter,
and on kelp forest ecology studies in northern San Diego exclusive of spines) averages six to eight years. There
county, sea urchin grazing at its most severe probably are no patterns in growth along a latitudinal gradient
accounts for about 20 percent mortality in a given kelp from Baja California to Alaska, however there is a clear
bed. Conversely, the intense shery for red sea urchins in trend in population mortality rates. Mortality estimates
northern California appears to have had a positive effect for southern populations were found to be greater than for
on kelp availability. Aerial photographs of surface kelp northern populations. Likely mechanisms include higher
at one location during the period of concentrated urchin rates of disease and temperature-related stresses as one
shing, showed a 15-fold increase in the surface canopy moves from north to south.
from 1982 to 1989.
Red sea urchins become sexually mature at about two
Red sea urchins may compete with abalone for both space inches. The sex ratio in urchins about one to one. Sea
and food. A recent study on competitive interactions urchin spawning is seasonal but can vary from year to year
and from one locality to another. Food supply and ocean
temperatures play a role in the timing and magnitude of
spawning. In most southern California locations, spawning
generally occurs in winter. In northern California, major
spawning occurs in spring and summer, with some spawn-
ing activity also in December.
As for many marine invertebrates, fertilization is external
and success is highly dependent on density. Subtidal stud-
ies suggest that red urchins at densities of less than
two per square meter can have poor fertilization success.
Females spawn up to several million eggs at a time.
Larval development is dependent on temperature and the
abundance of phytoplankton (single-celled algae) and is
Packing sea urchin gonads
thought to extend for six to eight weeks. As the larvae
Credit: California Sea Grant Extension Program
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
102
mature they settle to the bottom and metamorphose into tion may increase the chances for larvae to encounter
Red Sea Urchin
benthic juveniles. The long planktonic phase suggests that habitat suitable for settlement. Continued recruitment
juvenile sea urchins may disperse long distances from the at present levels, however, is not guaranteed; in fact,
adults that have spawned them. intensive sea urchin harvesting in northern California and
Baja California could result in a decrease in sea urchin
Settlement patterns have been studied for red and purple
larvae in southern California in the future.
sea urchins on articial substrates at sites in northern
and southern California since 1990 and are similar for the Catches in southern California have exhibited a pattern
two species. Peak settlement periods tend to be in spring resembling the serial depletion that characterized the
and early summer although there is substantial year-to- decline and collapse of the abalone sheries in the mid-
year variation both in timing and intensity. Settlement 1990s. The northern Channel Islands have supplied most of
tends to be less variable south of Point Conception and the catch over the years, but beginning in 1992 catches
is depressed during El Niño events. However, El Niño in the northern islands began to decline as effort and
events appear to favor settlement in northern California. harvests started to increase in the southern islands of San
Recruitment patterns of red sea urchins in northern and Nicolas and San Clemente, signaling a shift away from the
southern California generally mirror those of settlement. northern islands. Recently, San Clemente Island catches
Recruitment in southern California appears to be rela- have declined precipitously indicating that the shable
tively constant while in the north, recruitment rates are stock there may be largely depleted. Whether the harvest-
lower and more sporadic. The more variable pattern of able stocks can recover to their previous levels in these
settlement in the north is consistent with more energetic heavily shed areas remains a concern, particularly if sh-
offshore advection of water during spring periods when ing effort remains largely uncontrolled.
larvae are available, especially around headlands. The northern California shery has been characterized by
Newly settled juvenile urchins are highly susceptible to rapid growth to 30 million pounds in 1988 and decline to
mortality. Juveniles appear to suffer increased mortality less than ve million pounds in the late 1990s. Fishery
in the kelp forest habitat, where micro-predators are dependent modeling of the sea urchin shery during the
presumably more abundant than in similar rocky habitats period of rapid decline estimated that the 50,800 tons of
just outside of the kelp beds. Adult sea urchins and red urchins harvested from 1988 through 1994 represented
their spines are important structuring organisms in sub- about 67 percent of the shable stock available at the
tidal communities. The canopy formed by the spines is start of 1988. Effort declined during this period as the 126
a micro-habitat in which juvenile sea urchins, shrimps, divers who had worked exclusively in northern California
crabs, brittle stars, sh, abalone and other invertebrates during 1991 had dwindled to 69 by 1995. Annual catch per
can be found. The spine canopy is most likely an impor- permittee declined by 57 percent from 1990 to 1995.
tant habitat for juvenile sea urchins especially in areas Densities of shable stocks continue to be depressed at
where alternative cryptic habitats (e.g., crevices and subtidal survey sites examined in the Fort Bragg area
undersides of boulders) are rare or absent. since 1988. From 1988 to 1997, legal-sized red urchins
surveyed outside of reserves, declined from 47 percent
to 20 percent of the population, and from 0.8 per square
Status of the Population meter to 0.2 per square meter surveyed. In contrast,
I
during this period densities in two area reserves averaged
n southern California, the red sea urchin resource now
over 3.0 red urchins per square meter. These patterns
produces about 10 million pounds annually, with harvest-
were observed to continue during northern California sur-
able stocks (dened as exceeding the minimum legal size
veys in 1999 and 2000. Episodic and infrequent recruit-
and containing marketable gonads) in decline since 1990.
ment combined with intensive harvesting on the north
Between 1985 and 1995, the percentage of legal-sized
coast have had a serious impact upon catches, as the
red sea urchins at survey sites in the northern Channel
shery has evolved into a recruitment shery, with sher-
Islands declined from 15 percent to 7.2 percent. Although
men targeting harvest of newly recruited sea urchins. For
shing has signicantly reduced density in many areas
example, in 1999, 47 percent of the catch was less than
and catch-per-unit of effort has decreased, localized juve-
3.9 inches, just over the 3.5-inch minimum size limit. The
nile recruitment has, thus far, somewhat mitigated shing
size limit and seasonal closures may help prevent shery
pressure. Consistent recruitment has been noted on arti-
collapse but may not improve recruitment, particularly
cial settlement substrates and along subtidal transects
if its success is primarily a function of oceanographic
over the last decade at monitoring stations along the
factors, spine canopy micro-habitat and maintaining large
southern California mainland coast and the northern Chan-
spawners in the population.
nel Islands. This may be partly due to ocean current pat-
terns in the Southern California Bight, where water reten-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 103
Red Sea Urchin
60
millions of pounds landed
50
Red Sea Urchin
40
30
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Red Sea Urchin
20
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Red Sea Urchin
10
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0 1916
and commercial landing
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
receipts.
Management Considerations in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. Ecol
73:248-254.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Rogers-Bennett, L., H.C. Fastenau, and C.M. Dewees.
further information. 1998. Recovery of red sea urchin beds following experi-
mental harvest. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Proceeds.
9th Intern. Echinoderm Conf. (Eds). R. Mooi and M. Tel-
Peter Kalvass and Laura Rogers-Bennett
ford. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Neth. 805-809.
California Department of Fish and Game
Rogers-Bennett, L., W.A. Bennett, H.C. Fastenau, and C.M.
Dewees. 1995. Spatial variation in red sea urchin repro-
References duction and morphology: implications for harvest refugia.
Ecol. Appl. 5(4):1171-1180.
Botsford, L.W., S.R. Wing, and J.L. Largier. 1998. Popula-
Tegner, M.J. and P.K. Dayton. 1977. Sea urchin recruitment
tion dynamic and management implications of larval dis-
patterns and implications of commercial shing. Science
persal. S.Afr.J.Mar.Sci. 19:131-142.
196:324-326.
Ebert, T.A., J.D. Dixon, S.C. Schroeter, P.E. Kalvass, N.T.
Richmond, W.A. Bradbury, D.A. Woodby. 1999. Growth 60
California Red Sea Urchin Catch
and mortality of red sea urchins Strongylocentrotus fran- 50
and Value in Millions
ciscanus across a latitudinal gradient. Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser.
Red Sea Urchin
40
190:189-209.
30
Ebert, T.A. 1998. An analysis of the importance of Allee 20
effects in management of the red sea urchin Strongylo- 10
centrotus franciscanus. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Pro- 0 1971 1980 1990 1999
ceeds. 9th Intern. Echinoderm Conf. (Eds). R. Mooi and M. Catch in Millions of Dollars
Catch in Millions of Pounds
Telford. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Neth p 619-627.
California red sea urchin catch (lbs) and ex-vessel value.
Ebert, T.A., S.C. Schroeter, J.D. Dixon and P. Kalvass.
Data Source: market receipt database.
1994. Settlement patterns of red and purple sea urchins
(Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in
California, USA. Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser. 111:41-52.
Kalvass, P.E. and J.M. Hendrix. 1997. The California
red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, shery:
catch, effort and management trends. Mar. Fish. Rev.
59:1-17.
Kato, S. and S.C. Schroeter. 1985. Biology of the red sea
urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, and its shery in
California. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(3):1-20. CPUE (catch per diver day)
Catch (millions of lbs.)
Levitan, D.R., Sewell, M.A. and F.-S. Chia 1992. How dis-
Northern California landings and catch per unit of effort (CPUE).
tribution and abundance inuence fertilization success
Data source: DFG logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
104
Purple Sea Urchin
History of the Fishery before metamorphosis takes place and juveniles are ready
Purple Sea Urchin
to settle to the bottom. Peak settlement periods tend to
P urple sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) have be in spring and early summer and there is substantial
been used by humans in California for thousands of year-to-year variation both in timing and intensity. Set-
years as shown by remains in middens left by American tlement tends to be less variable south of Point Con-
Indians along the coast. Prior to the early 1970s, few ception and is depressed during El Niño events. El
people harvested purple sea urchins and, along with red Niño events appear to favor settlement in northern Cali-
sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), they were fornia, however. Energetic movements of water to the
considered to be pests because they grazed kelp. offshore in northern California have been associated with
reduced recruitment.
The purple sea urchin has shery potential, its roe being
reported to be very similar in quality to some of the highly Growth is highly variable and strongly linked with food
desirable domestic Japanese species as well as being a availability. At one year of age, purple sea urchins can
desirable product in Mediterranean countries. However, it be between about 0.4 and 1.2 inches. After ve years,
has been harvested only on a limited and experimental size can range from 1.25 to 2.0 inches. Growth rates of
basis in California as an adjunct to the much larger and very small individuals up to an age of one year are not
more lucrative red sea urchin shery. All the requirements well known.
of the restricted access commercial sea urchin permit Predators of purple sea urchins include those for red sea
shery apply to harvest of purple sea urchins except urchins but, because purple sea urchins are common in the
there are no minimum sizes or closed periods. A minor intertidal zone, predators also include sea gulls, oyster
recreational shery for purple urchins also takes place in catchers, and raccoons. Sea otters are able to reduce
southern California with a daily bag limit of 35. sea urchin populations to levels unsuitable for commercial
Since 1990, annual purple sea urchin landings have ranged or recreational shing, but apparently not to levels that
from 14,000 to 388,000 pounds, averaging 139,000. Land- would threaten the species’ continued existence.
ings were less than 50,000 pounds in ve of those years, Purple sea urchins show increased mortality above 73˚F,
with the highest landings of 388,000 and 316,000 pounds which appears in part to be physiological stress, but ele-
in 1991 and 1992 when several attempts were made to vated temperatures also promote development of one or
develop a viable shery for this species for the Japanese more pathogens that can cause mass mortalities. Mass
market. In recent years, purple sea urchins have also mortalities have been observed more frequently in south-
been exported to markets in the Mediterranean region. ern than in northern California especially in association
Harvesting has occurred in both southern and northern with elevated water temperatures during El Niño events.
California with approximately 60 percent of the landings
coming from northern areas since 1990. Unfavorable
Status of the Population
harvesting and processing economics and limited
availability of harvestable quality purple sea urchins for
L arval settlement rates monitored at a number of loca-
the Japanese market have been the main impediments to
tions in southern and northern California over the past
growth of this shery.
10 years do not indicate a change in larval production and
recruitment patterns, which indicates that the status of
Status of Biological Knowledge this species appears to be stable.
G eneral biology of the purple sea urchin is very similar
to the closely related red sea urchin and will not
be repeated in detail here. In addition to external color
differences, maximum size is much smaller for purple sea
urchins and only rarely do they attain a test diameter over
four inches. Purple sea urchins live primarily in shallow
water and are the only abundant sea urchin in intertidal
areas along the California coast. The maximum reported
depth is 500 feet. The published range is from Cedros
Island, Baja California, to Alaska.
Feeding habits and reproduction are quite similar to the
red sea urchin. Age of rst reproduction probably is one
or two years. Larvae spend an uncertain length of time in
the plankton, and it is probably at least six to eight weeks
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 105
Purple Sea Urchin
450
thousands of pounds landed
400
350
Purple Sea Urchin 300
250
200
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Purple Sea Urchin
100
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Purple Sea Urchin 50
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts.
Management Considerations References
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Ebert, T. A. 1968. Growth rates of the sea urchin Stron-
further information. gylocentrotus purpuratus related to food availability and
spine abrasion. Ecology 49: 1075-1091.
Ebert, T. A., S. C. Schroeter, J. D. Dixon and P. Kalvass
David O. Parker
1994. Settlement patterns of red and purple sea urchins
California Department of Fish and Game
(Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in Cal-
Thomas Ebert
ifornia, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 111:41-52.
San Diego State University (emeritus)
Gilles, K.W. and J.S. Pearse. 1986. Disease in sea urchins
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus: experimental infection
and bacterial virulence. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
1:105-114.
Kato, S. and S.C. Schroeter. 1985. Biology of the red sea
urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, and its shery in
California. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(3):1-20.
Kenner, M. C. 1992. Population dynamics of the sea urchin
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus in a central California kelp
forest: recruitment, mortality, growth, and diet. Marine
Biology 112: 107-118.
Pearse, J. S. and A. H. Hines. 1987. Long-term population
dynamics of sea urchins in a central California kelp forest:
rare recruitment and rapid decline. Marine Ecology Prog-
ress Series 39: 275-283.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
106
Dungeness Crab
History of the Fishery 1982-1983, landings have uctuated much less dramatically
Dungeness Crab
and have not been as clearly cyclic. Recent landings have
D ungeness crabs (Cancer magister), also known as ranged from 2.2 to 13.1 million pounds and have averaged
market crabs or edible crabs, were rst taken com- about 6.7 million pounds.
mercially off San Francisco in about 1848. The shery blos- Dungeness shing grounds off northern California are over
somed early, and now the California harvest of this impor- twice the size of those in central California. They extend
tant marine resource occurs from Avila to the Oregon from Fort Bragg to the Oregon border with the prime
border. Before the 1944-1945 season, the shery was cen- area between Eureka and Crescent City. The northern
tered in the San Francisco area, and average annual state- California eet uctuated between 100 and 200 vessels in
wide production was only 2.6 million pounds. The shery the 1950s and 1960s, dropped to a low of 61 in 1973-1974,
expanded into the Eureka-Crescent City area as World War then peaked at 410 during 1976-1977. Since then, effort
II ended. In the early 1940s, crab traps replaced the hoop has been high, averaging 330 vessels per season. Before
net, leading to signicantly increased landings with strong the mid-1970s, most vessels were converted salmon troll-
contributions from northern California. Annual statewide ers 30 to 60 feet in length; however, the complexion of
production since the 1945-1946 season has averaged about the eet changed during the record production years of
10 million pounds and recent ex-vessel annual value has the 1970s. Vessels ranging in size from 22-foot dories to
been about $15 to 20 million. Approximately 75 percent trawlers in excess of 100 feet entered the shery.
of the catch is sold as whole crab (live, fresh-cooked or
The dividing line for management of the northern and
frozen) and the remainder is picked and vacuum packed.
central California areas is the Mendocino-Sonoma county
The commercial shery for Dungeness crabs occurs in two line. Both sheries are managed on the basis of simple
areas: northern and central California. Central California “3-S” principles — sex, season, and size. Only male crabs
shing areas include Avila-Morro Bay, Monterey, and San may be retained in the commercial shery (thus protect-
Francisco-Bodega Bay. The Morro Bay and Monterey sher- ing the reproductive potential of the populations), the
ies have been of minor importance and San Francisco shery has open and closed seasons, and a minimum size
has always been the center of this shery. Central Cal- limit is imposed on commercial landings of male crabs.
ifornia landings were relatively stable from 1945-1946 The central California season opens the second Tuesday
to 1955-1956, and peaked at 8.4 million pounds in the of November and continues through June 30, whereas
1956-1957 season. The shery then steeply declined at a the northern California season opens December 1 and
rate of more than one million pounds per season until continues through July 15. The summer-fall closed periods
1961-1962, when only 710,000 pounds were landed. The are intended to prevent shing on male crabs when they
central California shery remained seriously depressed are soft-shelled. At this time, male crabs would be vulner-
from 1962-63 through 1984-85 when annual landings aver- able to shery-related handling mortality and would have
aged less than one million pounds. More recent landings market quality well below their potential. During open
have averaged closer to two million pounds. seasons, male crabs should be in prime condition (greatest
The central California shery utilizes an area of over 400 meat content) for the market. The opening and closing
square miles, including the Gulf of the Farallones north to are two to three weeks earlier in central California
the Russian River. The eet consisted of 200 to 230 boats than in northern California, because crabs in central Cali-
during the 1950s. When the shery declined in the 1960s, fornia molt earlier and achieve adequate market condition
a reduction in the number of boats followed and the eet earlier than in the north. The director of the department
now consists of about 100 vessels. The central California
crab eet has evolved from, but still includes, some old
“Monterey” style vessels. Larger multiple purpose vessels
are now the norm.
The northern California shery increased substantially
after 1945. Landings reached an initial peak in the late
1950s but, unlike the central California shery, which
peaked and then experienced low production levels for
many years thereafter, the north coast shery then exhib-
ited three 10-11 year “cycles” of production. In these
repeating cycles, about six years of good or outstanding
landings (a record 25.6 million pounds in 1976-1977) were
followed by about four years of poor or extremely poor
Dungeness Crab, Cancer magister
landings (as low as 350,000 pounds in 1973-1974). Since
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 107
Dungeness Crab
40
35
millions of pounds landed
30
Dungeness Crab 25
20
15
10
Commercial Landings
5
1916-1999, Dungeness Crab
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0 1916
and commercial landing receipts. 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
may delay the northern California season opening to as Because California Dungeness crabs are caught almost
late as January 15, if market condition of crabs is not exclusively within three miles of shore and because Cali-
sufciently high on December 1. Depending on crab con- fornia, Oregon and Washington often undertake coordi-
dition, marketable crabs typically yield from 20 to 28
percent of their body weight as cooked meat. 30
Commercial gear for Dungeness crab is essentially the
Central/Northern California
25
millions of pounds landed
same throughout California. It consists of a circular steel
Dungeness Crab
20
trap three to 3.5-feet in diameter weighing 60 to 120 15
pounds. Each trap is required to have two 4.25-inch diam- 10
eter circular openings to allow sublegal male and small
5
female crabs to escape. These escape ports are remark-
0
ably effective in reducing handling of undersize crabs as 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Northern California
most male crabs that are retained are close to or exceed Central California
the minimum size limit for males of 6.25-inches across the
Northern and Central California Landings Per Season
back. Traps must possess a destruction device that causes
1916-1999, Dungeness Crab
traps to open allowing crabs to escape should traps be
Seasonal landings for northern California, including Eureka, Cresecent City, and Fort
lost. The heavily weighted traps rest on the bottom and
Bragg Landing, and central California including Bodega Bay, San Francisco Area,
each is buoyed independently to the surface. Traps are
Monterey, and Morro Bay.
left overnight or longer depending on shing conditions.
Note: data are recorded as seasonal landings, which differ from the DFG Catch Bulletin
Most traps are shed at depths ranging from about 60 to
and commercial landing receipt data, which are reported on an annual basis.
240 feet, but some traps are shed in shallower and in
Data Source: Seasonal Landings determined from reported commercial landings
deeper waters.
recorded by DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
Almost all of the California Dungeness crab catch is landed
millions of pounds landed per week
in the commercial trap shery. Trawl vessels are allowed 3.5
3.0
an incidental take of 500 pounds per trip during the
Dungeness Crab
2.5
regular season, but only a few thousand pounds of trawl-
2.0
caught crabs are landed annually in California. (Com-
1.5
mercial trawling is prohibited within three miles of shore,
1.0
where the vast majority of Dungeness are captured.)
0.5
There is limited sport use of Dungeness crabs in central
0.0
and northern California. The sport size limit is 5.75 inches 1 10 20 30 33
Pounds Landed Per Week 1997-1998 Season
across the back for either sex, and a limit of 10 crabs of Pounds Landed Per Week 1998-1999 Season
either sex may be possessed. The annual sport harvest is Commercial Landings by Week, Dungeness Crab
believed to be less than one percent of the commercial 1997-1998 and 1998-1999, Dungeness Crab Catch data indicate consistent high early
take, but there have not been any recent estimates of season landings of Dungeness crab.
total sport catch. Data Source: Seasonal landings determined from reported commercial landings recorded
by DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
108
nated management activities under the auspices of the Thereafter, they are carried beneath the abdominal ap
Dungeness Crab
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, the shery of the female. The smallest females carry about 500,000
has remained under effective state jurisdiction despite eggs and the largest from 1.5 to 2.0 million. Freshly
repeated federal concerns regarding harvests beyond molted females carry larger numbers of eggs than do
three mile state jurisdictional authority. Although total gravid females that have missed a molt. “Skip-molt”
landings are not restricted by quota, beginning in 1995 females that have extruded eggs but have not molted
California implemented a limited entry program that is recently must rely on stored sperm for fertilization of
designed to achieve an eventual reduction in the number their eggs. Females may store viable sperm for at least
of shery participants. As of March 2000, limited entry 2.5 years. The eggs range in diameter from 0.016 to 0.024
permits have been granted to 604 California residents and inches and are bright orange after extrusion, becoming
70 non-residents. progressively darker as they develop. Hatching occurs
between November and February.
The newly hatched larvae pass through ve zoeal and
Status of Biological Knowledge one megalops stage before metamorphosing into the adult
D
form. Larval development is inversely related to water
ungeness crabs range from the eastern Aleutian
temperature, and in central California 105 to 125 days
Islands, Alaska, to perhaps Santa Barbara; however,
are required to complete the larval stages. Zoeae are
the species is considered rare south of Point Conception.
hypothesized to have an offshore movement regulated by
Temperature apparently determines the distribution, and
factors such as depth, temperature, salinity and ocean
the 38° to 65° F surface isotherms are considered the
currents. They are found near the surface at night and as
limits of the range. The geographic range of the species
deep as 80 feet in daytime. Megalopae are transported
probably depends more on the restricted thermal toler-
to nearshore waters beginning in April. Metamorphosis
ance range of larvae than of adults. Optimal temperatures
occurs from April to June. Estuarine areas such as Hum-
for larval growth and development are 50° to 57° F.
boldt Bay and San Francisco Bay are important nursery
This species has a preference for sandy to sandy-mud
areas for young Dungeness crabs, but most rearing must
bottoms but may be found on almost any bottom type.
take place in nearshore coastal waters.
Dungeness crabs may range from the intertidal zone to a
Growth is accomplished in steps through a series of dis-
depth of at least 750 feet, but are not abundant beyond
crete molts. In northern California, Dungeness crabs of
300 feet.
both sexes molt an average of six times during their
The resource off California has been demonstrated by
rst year and attain an average width of one inch. Six
tagging experiments to consist of ve subpopulations:
more molts are required to reach sexual maturity at the
one each in the areas around Avila-Morro Bay, Monterey,
end of their second year, when they are approximately
San Francisco, Fort Bragg, and Eureka-Crescent City. As
four inches across. Once maturity is reached, growth of
noted above, only the latter three are of commercial
females then slows as compared to males. Females molt
importance. DFG surveys indicate the combined San Fran-
at most once per year after reaching maturity and rarely
cisco and Fort Bragg populations are not as large as
exceed the legal size of males. Maximum female size is
the population extending from Eureka into Oregon. Little
about seven inches. Male crabs usually molt twice during
or no intermixing occurs. Tagging studies have also dem-
their third year and once per year thereafter. The average
onstrated random movement by both sexes. At times, an
size of males three, four and ve years of age is about six,
inshore or offshore migration is observed, but most move-
seven and eight inches, respectively. Males may undergo
ment is restricted to less than 10 miles. Travel up to 100
a total of 16 molts during a lifetime, reaching a maximum
miles has been noted for individual males, but female move-
size of nine inches and age of six to eight years.
ments seem much more limited.
Dungeness crabs are opportunistic feeders not limited by
Female molting and mating occur from February through
abundance or scarcity of a particular prey. Clams, sh,
June in California. Male crabs are able to sense when
isopods and amphipods are preferred, and cannibalism
females are about to molt (presumably through detection
is prevalent among all age groups. Predators on the var-
of pheremones released by females) and carry such
ious life stages of Dungeness crabs, especially pelagic
females in a protective pre-mating embrace for several
larvae and small juveniles, include octopuses, larger crabs
days until they molt. Hard-shelled males then mate with
and as many as 28 species of sh, including coho and
the freshly molted, soft-shelled females. Sperm deposited
chinook salmon, atshes, lingcod, cabezon and various
by males are stored in a spermatheca inside the female.
rockshes.
Fertilization of eggs takes place when internally-develop-
ing eggs are extruded between October and December.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 109
Status of the Population stable long-term mean for more than 30 years. One
Dungeness Crab
might therefore consider this resource to have a healthy
D ungeness crab populations in California have been status. Compared to other sheries of similar importance
fully exploited for at least 40 years and intensity of and economic value, however, the Dungeness crab has
sheries is extreme. In most years, from 80 to 90 percent received less attention than other species. Among other
of all available legal-sized male crabs are captured in the things, no formal shery management plans or stock
sheries. Although such high exploitation rates on adult assessments have been produced for any west coast pop-
males might give rise to concerns that female mating suc- ulations. Fishery management has rested on the very
cess might be reduced as a consequence, recent studies simple, though biologically sound, 3-S principles and typi-
have shown that essentially all molting females receive cally restrictive shery regulations such as landings quotas
attention from males in northern California. Usually one have never been imposed on this shery. A casual assess-
or no more than two year-classes of male crabs dominate ment of healthy status therefore rests on limited informa-
annual landings. Thus, since about 1960, annual landings tion.
provide a reasonable notion of abundance of legal-sized Although imposition of limited entry in California should
males and also provide a strong signal of variation in year- prevent any further increases in the total number of ves-
class strength of recruited crabs. The dramatic decline in sels that participate in the Dungeness crab shery, it does
Dungeness crab catches in the central California shery not prevent increases in shing effort – numbers of traps
during the late 1950s focused considerable research atten- shed and the intensity with which they are shed. With
tion on this resource during the 1970s. No denitive cause declines in abundance and allowable landings of salmon
for the decline in the central California shery has been and groundsh, many larger multipurpose vessels now
established although researchers have assessed the pos- devote greater attention to the Dungeness crab shery
sible effects of changes in ocean climate on survival and and sh upwards of 1,000 traps. In the early season,
development of crabs eggs and larvae, the role of nemer- these larger vessels sh continuously, day and night,
tean worm predation on egg survival, the effects of pol- even in heavy seas. Total annual landings are largely unaf-
lution on survival of juvenile crabs in San Francisco Bay, fected by such increases in trap-days of shing effort,
and possibly unstable internal population dynamics. Of but increased shing effort has produced substantial shifts
these possible causes, a shift to warmer waters during in the distribution of catch over time. Prior to about
and following the decline during the late 1950s seems the 1980, crab landings were normally spread throughout the
most plausible. If correct, the abundance of crabs in the entire open season. In a typical recent season in northern
central California shery may improve over the next two California, more than 80 percent of total landings are
decades if California coastal water temperatures remain made during the month of December.
cooler as a consequence of apparent ocean regime shifts.
Uncontrolled increases in the numbers of traps shed by
The dramatic and periodic landings cycles that were individual vessels and the resulting front-loading of annual
exhibited in the northern California shery from about landings may have important consequences with respect
1945 to 1982 have caused this shery to receive even to allocation of shery income among limited entry permit
greater attention from population dynamics modelers. holders. Also, the shortened period of substantial crab
Possible causes for the uctuations in this shery have landings means that live Dungeness crab, the most valu-
included the nemertean egg predator, various internal able product, are available over a relatively short time
density-dependent processes reecting uctuations in the period, thus possibly diminishing total economic value of
abundance of unharvested females or cannibalism by the shery.
adults on juveniles, and combinations of internal den-
These shery economics issues are the subject of current
sity-dependent controls and variable oceanographic fac-
research efforts.
tors. There seems little doubt that crab populations, with
their extremely large fecundities and extremely vulner-
able early larval stages, are prone to large natural uc- David Hankin
tuations in abundance and that variable oceanographic Humboldt State University
factors (temperature, wind, currents) have important
Ronald W. Warner
impacts on survival of year-classes.
California Department of Fish and Game
Although many crustacean sheries throughout the world
have been overexploited and are now at low abundance
levels compared to historic levels, Dungeness crab popula-
tions off northern California, Oregon and Washington have
produced landings that have uctuated around a fairly
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
110
References
Dungeness Crab
Hankin, D.G., T.H. Butler, Wild, P.W., and Q-L. Xue.
1997. Does intense shing on males impair mating success
of female Dungeness crabs? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
54:655-669.
Higgins, K, A. Hastings, J. Sarvela, and L.W. Botsford.
1997. Stochastic dynamics and deterministic skeletons:
population behavior of Dungeness crab. Science, 276 p.
1431-1435.
Melteff, B.R. (coordinator). 1985. Proceedings of the sym-
posium on Dungeness crab biology and management. Uni-
versity of Alaska Sea Grant Report 85-3. 424 p.
Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission. 1978. Dungeness crab
project of the state-federal sheries management pro-
gram. 196 p.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 111
Rock Crabs
History of the Fishery not been successfully marketed frozen or canned. During
1999, ex-vessel prices for whole rock crabs and crab claws
R ock crabs are shed along the entire California coast. averaged about $1.25 per pound
The catch is made up of three species — the yellow
Several trap designs and materials are used in the rock
rock crab (Cancer anthonyi), the brown rock crab (C.
crab shery. The most popular are single chamber, rectan-
antennarius), and the red rock crab (C. productus). The
gular traps of two by four-inch or two by two-inch welded
commercial shery is most active in southern California
wire mesh. Several types of molded plastic traps are used
(from Morro Bay south), where 85 to 90 percent of the
by some shermen because the traps are collapsible or
landings occur, and of lesser importance in northern areas
nest together on a boat deck. Traps are set and buoyed
(Monterey, Halfmoon Bay, and Eureka yield 10-15 percent),
singly or, perhaps, in pairs if loss to vessel trafc is a
where a shery for the more desirable Dungeness crab
concern. Most trapping occurs in depths of 90 to 240 feet
takes place. A major recreational shery has not devel-
on open sandy bottom or near rocky reef-type substrate.
oped, but recreational crabbing is popular in many areas
Two hundred or more traps may be shed by one boat,
and is often conducted in conjunction with other shing
with a portion pulled up and emptied each day. Traps
activities.
are usually “soaked” for 48 to 96 hours prior to pulling.
In 1950, a separate reporting category for commercial Commercial crab boats are usually small, ranging from
rock crab landings was established. Since then, landings skiffs to vessels of 40 feet or more.
have risen from 20,000 pounds to over two million pounds
Recreational gear ranges from a diver’s or shore picker’s
in 1986. Landings increased by 10 percent per year from
hand to baited hoop nets, collapsible star traps, or tradi-
1957 to 1971, jumped nearly 50 percent in 1972, and
tional traps (north of Point Arguello) shed from piers,
continued a steady increase to two million pounds in 1986.
jetties, and boats. Most of this effort takes place along
Prior to 1987, a portion of the landings calculated whole-
the shallow, nearshore open coast and in bays. Some
crab weights based on landings of claws only. Since then,
increased recreational take has occurred in central and
whole crabs and claws have been reported separately,
northern California in recent years as combination shing
and whole crab landings have showed a commensurate
and crab trips aboard commercial passenger shing ves-
decline. Rock crab landings for 1999 were 790,000 pounds
sels have developed. Traps, primarily targeting Dungeness
and have averaged 1.2 million pounds per year since 1991,
crabs, are set and pulled during these trips. However,
including the landings of claws converted to whole weight.
depending on location and season, rock crabs (brown and
Commercial crabbing has expanded from nearshore areas red) are often taken as well.
around major ports such as San Diego, San Pedro, Santa
Commercial regulations have been enacted to protect
Barbara, and Morro Bay to more distant mainland areas
crabs below reproductive size. Present regulations require
and the Channel Islands. Most rock crabs are landed alive
a minimum harvest size of 4.25-inch carapace width and
for retail sale by fresh sh markets. Often the crabs are
escape rings measuring 3.5 inches in diameter in each
cooked and eaten on site and, depending on the tastes
trap. Due to the multi-species nature of the shery, the
of the consumer, muscle tissue, as well as other organs
minimum size was chosen to accommodate the different
(ovaries in particular) are consumed. Rock crab meat has
characteristics of the three rock crab species. The recre-
ational take is controlled by a four-inch minimum carapace
width and a personal bag limit of 35 crabs per day.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Y ellow rock crabs range from Humboldt Bay into south-
ern Baja California, brown rock crabs from northern
Washington to central Baja California, and red rock crabs
from Kodiak Island to Central Baja California. All three
species inhabit waters from the low intertidal zone down
to depths of 300 feet or more. Although these species may
occur together throughout much of their range, yellow
rock crabs are most abundant in southern California,
brown rock crabs in central California and red rock crabs
in northern California. Yellow rock crabs prefer open sand
Yellow Rock Crab, Cancer anthonyi
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
112
Rock Crabs
2.5
millions of pounds landed
2.0
Rock Crabs
1.5
1.0
0.5 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Rock Crabs
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
or soft bottom habitat, while brown and red rock crabs to feed on rock crabs. Important invertebrate predators
prefer rocky or reef-type substrate. include the octopus and certain sea stars. As rock crabs
grow larger, they become less susceptible to predators
Rock crabs, like other crustaceans, grow in a step-wise
except during the soft-shell post-molt period; however,
fashion with each molt of the external shell. Yellow and
the sea otter is one animal that is an effective predator
brown rock crabs molt 10 to 12 times before reaching
on large rock crabs.
sexual maturity at about three inches carapace width.
Crabs of this size may molt twice a year, while crabs as Rock crabs do not appear to migrate or to undertake
large as six inches carapace width or more may molt once large-scale movements. Tagged adults have moved several
a year or less. Growth-per-molt, as a percentage of size, miles, but no pattern was apparent. Some local move-
decreases as the crab increases in size and age. Males of ments also may occur in relation to mating or molting.
all three species attain sizes 10 to 15 percent larger than Egg-bearing yellow rock crabs are known to congregate in
females. Yellow rock crabs grow to exceed seven inches rock-sand interface habitats.
in carapace width, brown rock crabs 6.5 inches, and red
rock crabs eight inches. While the longevity of rock crabs
Status of the Populations
is not well known, many crabs may reach ve or six years
of age.
I nformation is not available on stock sizes, recruitment
Mating takes place after the females molt and are still and mortality rates, the effects of different oceano-
in the soft-shell condition. In southern California, mating graphic regimes, or potential yield of rock crab popula-
is most common in the spring, but occurs throughout the tions. The commercial shery, however, has had a local-
year. About three months after mating, the eggs are laid, ized effect on crab abundance and size. Fishing areas
then fertilized from a sperm packet left by the male intensively exploited over an extended period show a
during mating. The developing eggs are carried in a mass lower catch-per-trap and a reduced size-frequency dis-
under the abdomen of the female. Depending on size and tribution compared to lightly exploited areas. In Santa
species, nearly four million eggs may be carried by a Monica Bay, an area closed to commercial crab shing for
female rock crab. After six to eight weeks, the eggs hatch decades, experimental catch rates were higher, crab sizes
into planktonic larvae, which undergo seven developmen- larger and size-frequencies broader than in adjacent areas
tal molts before settling to the bottom as juveniles. open to commercial trapping. Future research should be
Rock crabs are both predators and scavengers, feeding aimed at a better understanding of shery-related rock
on a variety of other invertebrates. Strong crushing claws crab population parameters.
allow them to prey on heavy-shelled animals such as
snails, clams, abalone, barnacles, and oysters. The olfac-
tory sense of crabs is well developed and allows them to
detect and locate food at a distance.
Rock crabs, especially juveniles, are preyed upon by a
variety of other marine organisms. Fishes such as cabezon,
barred sand bass and several species of rocksh are known
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 113
Management Considerations References
Rock Crab
Carroll, J.S. 1982. Seasonal abundance, size composition,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
and growth of rock crab, Cancer antennarius Stimpson, off
further information.
central California. J. Crust. Biol. 2:529-561.
Carroll, J.C. and R.N. Winn. 1989. Species proles: life
David O. Parker
histories and environmental requirements of coastal shes
California Department of Fish and Game
and invertebrates (Pacic Southwest) -- brown rock crab,
red rock crab, and yellow crab. U.S. Fish Wild. Serv. Biol.
Rep 82 (11.117). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4.
16 p.
Reilly, P.N. 1987. Population studies of rock crab, Cancer
antennarius, yellow crab Cancer anthonyi, and Kellet’s
whelk, Kelletia kelletii, in the vicinity of Little Cojo Bay,
Santa Barbara County, California. Calif. Fish and Game.
73:88-98.
Winn, R.N. 1985. Comparative ecology of three cancrid
crab species (Cancer anthonyi, C. antennarius and C. pro-
ductus) in marine subtidal habitats in southern California.
Ph.D. dissertation. University of southern California, Los
Angeles. 235 p.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
114
Sheep Crab
History of the Fishery water and the subsequent decline in claw landings, the
Sheep Crab
retail value has substantially decreased. In 1999, the
U ntil 1984, the sheep crab (Loxorhynchus grandis) was retail value was approximately $310,000, with whole crabs
of little commercial or recreational value. Before being sold for up to $4 per pound live and claws up to
that, they were occasionally landed as by-catch and were $3 per pound.
also taken by some recreational divers. Santa Barbara sh- An increase in claw landings seems unlikely given the
ermen and processors began to experiment with market- nature in which the shery was developed (i.e., to provide
ing them and by 1984, 30,000 to 40,000 pounds of whole some value to a by-catch species). In fact, prior to 1991,
crabs were landed. The shery for this underutilized spe- rock crab and spider crab claw landings were combined
cies expanded rapidly, stimulated by development of a in the landings data, with spider crab claws comprising
market for claws. The shery peaked in 1988 with land- 75 percent of the landings. In 1991, a size limit went
ings of 107,609 pounds of live crabs and 385,886 pounds into effect for rock crabs, and shermen were prohibited
of claws (combination of sheep and rock crab claws; 75 from taking any “part” of those crabs. However, the
percent and 25 percent respectively). The sheep crab was loss of supply of rock crab claws has not been compen-
the only shery in the United States with sizable landings sated for by an increase in landings of spider crab claws.
of claws and whole crabs. However, a 1990 California State This is most likely because implementation of the rock
Initiative banned the use of gillnets in shallow water. crab regulations coincided with the banning of gillnets in
Subsequently, landings of sheep crab claws plummeted to shallow water.
an average of only 5,000 pounds annually once gillnets
Fishing effort for, and landings of whole crabs remain
were completely phased out in 1994. During this same
relatively low since shermen generally have to establish
period, landings of live, whole crabs remained fairly con-
their own live markets and be able to hold the crabs alive
stant and relatively low, averaging approximately 75,000
for up to a week or more. In addition, because of the
pounds annually.
heavily calcied carapace of the crab, processing the body
The California sheep crab shery is centered in the Santa meat is presently uneconomical. Thus, current landing
Barbara Channel and off the northern Channel Islands. patterns may increase if new marketing efforts expand
The bulk of the landings are in Santa Barbara and Ventura
counties although most of the crabs are marketed in
the San Pedro and greater Los Angeles area. The shery
primarily operates over sandy bottom, where gear is set
in shallow waters (30-70 feet) in spring and summer and
then moved to deeper waters (120-240 feet) in fall and
winter months. Both male and female adult crabs are
taken for the live, whole body shery. The claw shery is
supported solely by large adult male crabs, as the claws
of adult female crabs and small adult males do not reach
market size.
Crab and lobster trap shermen supply the bulk of live
crabs. Modied rock crab or lobster traps with an enlarged
funnel are used, permitting entry of large adult male
and female crabs. Set gill-netters supply the claw market,
usually killing the crab in the claw removal process.
Sheep crabs are a nuisance to gillnet shermen because
they become tangled in the gear and their removal from
the nets is time consuming, usually resulting in damage
to the animals. However, with the development of the
claw shery the crabs became a valuable resource for
gill-netters.
At the peak of the shery, the retail value of the com-
bined catch was about $1.9 million per year, with claws
being sold for $5.75 per pound and whole crabs going
for $3 per pound live and $4.25 per pound cooked. Claw the live markets or if processing of whole crabs becomes
landings and value far exceeded those of the whole body
Sheep Crab, Loxorhynchus grandis
shery. However, with the banning of gillnets in shallow Credit: Diane Pleshner
CA Seafood Council
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 115
Sheep Crab
120
thousands of pounds landed
100
80
Sheep Crab
60
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Sheep Crab
40
Sheep crab landings are
recorded by DFG as spider
20
crab. Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
economically feasible. Such expansion seems likely given can reach a length of 6.8 inches; thus, size alone is
the continued interest in the California shery and the insufcient to determine maturity. The presence of a gap
recent development of an experimental sheep crab shery in the serrated gape of the claw of adult male crabs
off Baja California. distinguishes them from juvenile males. It is uncertain
how morphometric maturity relates to physiological and
behavioral maturity.
Status of Biological Knowledge The abundance of berried females peaks in late spring and
S
remains high throughout the summer, although they can
heep crab is the common name of one species within a
be found throughout the year. Adult females are able to
family of crabs (Majidae), which collectively are often
mate when soft or hard shelled. Sperm storage allows
called spider crabs. Consequently, the sheep crab is often
for multiple broods to be oviposited even in the absence
called a spider crab and is the largest member of the Cali-
of males. Egg numbers probably increase with size of
fornia majid crabs. They range from Cordell Bank (Marin
brooding female crabs. Small broods contain 125,000 eggs,
County) south to Cape Thurloe, Baja California, in depths
whereas large broods can have as many as 500,000 eggs.
of 20 to 410 feet. It is not known whether the entire
Laboratory observations suggest that sheep crabs feed on
resource consists of just one or of a number of different
a variety of prey. They readily eat dead sh, crushed
populations. Sheep crabs are apparently most abundant
mussels, and kelp. Cannibalism of newly molted animals
off southern California.
occurs in the laboratory when crabs are not well fed. No
Longevity is currently unknown, but many adults appear
observations are available on foraging behavior in nature,
to be at least four years old. In contrast to most other
nor have gut contents been analyzed.
commercially important crustaceans, most majid crabs are
Predatory interactions have not been observed in the
believed to cease molting upon reaching maturity. Studies
eld either, but it is likely that small crabs are preyed
of molt staging, limb regeneration, and molting frequency
upon by cabezon, sheephead, octopus, sharks and rays.
support the existence of a terminal molt in sheep crab.
Small sheep crabs disguise themselves by decorating their
After this molt, crabs do not increase in size nor do
carapace with algae, sponges, or other encrusting materi-
they regenerate limbs. This phenomenon is an important
als. Large crabs probably have few predators.
biological characteristic that may require development
of a management scheme different from those of other Two parasitic infections could potentially impact recruit-
California crab sheries. ment — an undescribed species of nemertean or ribbon
worm and a rhizocephalan barnacle. The former consumes
Maturation is dened only in morphometric terms. At
the developing embryo in the egg. The latter eliminates
maturity the relative width of the abdomen of females
reproductive output and also inhibits growth of the crab.
and the length of the claw of males increase markedly
Preliminary observations indicate that certain areas con-
when compared to a standard measure of body size such
tain a high prevalence of individuals parasitized by the
as carapace length. Females become morphometrically
rhizocephalan and that crabs are infected as juveniles.
mature between 4.2 and 6.8 inches carapace length (from
margin of orbit). Adult males range in size from 4.2 to 9.6 Male crabs winter in deep water. Both sexes migrate
inches. However, morphometrically juvenile male crabs onshore in early spring, and piles of adult females have
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
116
been observed in spring and summer. Large adult males
Sheep Crab
have been seen on the perimeter of these aggregations.
The biological signicance of the piles is apparently
related to mating, as the majority of females are gravid,
the males often exhibit competitive behavior for mates
and there are many obstetrical pairs (a mating behavior
where a male and female crab are hooked together
back-to-back by the males back limbs). Similar aggregate
mating phenomena have been reported for other
spider crabs.
Status of the Population
T he abundance of sheep crabs is unknown. Abundant
populations have been reported off Los Angeles and
San Diego. Furthermore, although this spider crab has
been a by-catch for many years, there is no evidence of
declining populations in the Santa Barbara Channel where
most shing takes place. However, some have reported a
decrease in overall crab size. Such a phenomenon could
be due to the immense shing pressure on large males
both for claws and whole body. Because this species
undergoes a terminal molt, removal of large crabs may
leave only small animals to contribute to the gene pool.
If the terminal molt is genetically regulated, this could
result in a population of smaller crabs.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Carolynn S. Culver and Armand M. Kuris
University of California, Santa Barbara
References
Anonymous. 1983. Guide to underutilized species of Cali-
fornia. National Marine Fisheries Service Admin. Rept.
T-83-01. 29 p.
Culver, Carolynn S. 1991. Growth of the spider crab, Loxo-
rhynchus grandis. M.A. Thesis, Univ. of Calif. Santa Bar-
bara, California. 101 p.
Pleschner, D.B. 1985. Fish of the Month: Spider Crab.
Pacic Fishing Magazine. 8(6): 33-39 p.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 117
Ocean Shrimp
History of the Fishery shermen were limited to the use of beam trawls with a
minimum mesh size of 1.5 inches between the knots. In
T he commercial shery for ocean shrimp (Pandalus jor- 1963, shrimpers were permitted to use otter trawls with
dani), also called pink shrimp, started in 1952 after the same size mesh. The mesh size was reduced from 1.5
commercial quantities were found by DFG research vessels inches to 1 3/8 inches in Areas A, B-1, and B-2 in 1975.
in 1950 and 1951. The California Fish and Game Commis- Prior to 1974, all shrimp boats in California pulled a single
sion established regulations for the new shery in 1952, rig of one net and two doors, but starting with the 1974
including net type with mesh restrictions and a season. season, vessels towing a double rig from outriggers, one
The rst catches were made later that same year. Three on each side of the boat, entered the shery. The double-
regulation areas were also designated and catch quotas rigged vessels are approximately 1.6 times more effective
established for each. The three regulatory areas were than single-rigged vessels.
Area A, Oregon border to False Cape; Area B, False Cape
During the rst year of the shery, only six boats partici-
to Pigeon Point; and Area C, Pigeon Point to the Mexican
pated. The number of boats increased to 27 by 1960, then
border. In 1956, Area B was divided into two areas; B-1
averaged 24 boats per season over the next 16 years.
extended from False Cape to Point Arena and B-2 from
The record catch in 1977 started a rapid inux of boats
Point Arena to Pigeon Point.
into the shrimp shery and reached a high of 104 vessels
Catch quotas governed the shrimp take from 1952 to 1976. during 1980, but the number declined to 33 during 1983
Quotas were based on recommendations by DFG and were when the catch fell to a low of 1,176,000 pounds. As
set each year by the Fish and Game Commission. In 1976, the catch recovered from that El Niño-induced low, many
all quotas were dropped in favor of four criteria believed boats reentered the shery. The number of vessels per
to protect the resource. The criteria were: 1) a season season averaged 88 from 1983 through 1999. A record-high
from April 15 through October 31, designed to protect egg- 155 boats shrimped during the 1994 shery, the rst year
bearing females; 2) a net mesh size of 1 3/8 inches, to of a moratorium on new shrimp permits —ß probably the
allow escapement of small zero- and one-year-old shrimp; cause of the large increase in the number of vessels.
3) a count per pound of 170 or less, intended to protect
California landings have averaged 4,843,000 pounds annu-
one-year-old shrimp; and 4) a minimum catch rate of 350
ally from 1952 through the 1999 season, ranging from a
pounds per hour to protect shrimp when the population
low of 206,000 pounds in 1952 to a high of 18,683,000
is at a low level. If these requirements were not met,
pounds in 1992. Average landings have increased each
the DFG had the option to close the shery. In 1981,
decade since the start of the shery in the 1950s: 969,000
the regulations were changed again to bring them into
pounds in the 1950s, 1,810,000 pounds in the 1960s,
accord with an agreement with Oregon Department of Fish
5,679,000 pounds in the 1970s, 5,871,000 pounds in the
and Wildlife and Washington Department of Fisheries to
1980s and 9,127,000 pounds in the 1990s. Area A has been
have coast-wide uniform regulations. The new regulations
the most consistent producer and, since 1954, has had the
included a season from April 1 through October 31, a
highest annual landings. The only exception was the El
maximum count per pound of 160, and a minimum mesh
Niño year of 1983, when Area C had the highest landings.
size of 1 3/8 inches measured inside the knots. These
Since the inception of the shery, 86.8 percent of the
regulations are still in effect. From 1952 to 1963, shrimp
shrimp have been landed in Area A ports, 5.4 percent
in Area B-1, 2.9 percent in Area B-2, and 4.9 percent in
Area C.
The price paid to the shermen (ex-vessel price) has
ranged from a low of $0.07 per pound in 1955 to a high
of $0.87 per pound in 1987. The ex-vessel price remained
fairly constant at $0.10 per pound during the 1950s and
1960s, increased in price from $0.12 per pound to around
$0.30 per pound in the 1970s, and since has uctuated
around $0.50 per pound.
The largest portion of ocean shrimp landed in California
is picked and individually quick-frozen. Small amounts are
sold fresh whole, as cooked picked meat or packed in
vacuum cans. Most of California’s shrimp catch was hand
picked until 1969, when machines were introduced in the
Eureka area. Shrimp machines have enabled the shrimp
Catch of Ocean Shrimp, Pandalus jordani
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
118
industry to pick much smaller shrimp than was possible begin extruding eggs in October. The female carries the
Ocean Shrimp
with hand picking. eggs between the posterior swimming appendages until
the larvae hatch. The peak of hatching occurs during late
March and early April. Ocean shrimp go through a larval
Status of Biological Knowledge period that lasts 2.5 to three months. The developing
juvenile shrimp occupy successively deeper depths as they
O cean shrimp are found from Unalaska in the Aleutian
develop, and often begin to show in commercial catches
Islands to off San Diego, California, at depths from 150
by late summer. Shrimp grow in steps by molting or shed-
to 1200 feet. In California, this species is generally found
ding their shells. Growth rates for ocean shrimp vary
from depths of 240 to 750 feet. Spawning probably occurs
according to region and also by sex and year class. There
throughout the range, but commercial harvest is limited
is a clear pattern of seasonal growth despite the varia-
to the area between Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
tions mentioned, with very rapid growth during spring
and Point Arguello, California.
and summer and slower growth over the winter. The
Concentrations of shrimp generally remain in well-dened growth rate decreases as the shrimp age. Shrimp growth
areas or beds from year to year. These areas are associ- rates increased markedly in Oregon after 1979, suggesting
ated with green mud and muddy-sand bottoms. Although a density dependent growth response to shing. Ocean
there is some evidence of minor onshore-offshore and shrimp may reach 5.5 inches in total length, but the
coast-wide movement within the connes of a bed average catch size is about four inches. In California, few
throughout the year, no convincing evidence of migratory shrimp survive beyond their fourth year.
behavior has been produced. Horizontal movements prob-
Studies on natural mortality estimate that the survival
ably are governed by feeding activities and prevailing
between shing seasons (over winter) is 46 percent, 76
currents. Ocean shrimp also exhibit vertical migrations.
percent, and 43 percent for ocean shrimp during their
These movements toward the surface during periods of
rst, second, and third winters of life, respectively.
darkness appear to be associated with feeding on plank-
ton. Adults from the different beds probably intermix
Status of the Population
rarely, but the planktonic larvae undoubtedly intermingle,
as there are no indications of genetically distinct subpopu-
P
lations. Genetic stock identication work on ocean shrimp opulation estimates of the various shrimp beds were
has failed to isolate any genetic differences between obtained by department sea surveys from 1959 to
ocean shrimp from off the coasts of California, Oregon, 1964; catch quotas were set at one quarter of the esti-
Washington and British Columbia. mated population. Area A sea survey continued until 1969.
The highest Area A population estimate from sea surveys
Ocean shrimp feed mostly at night on planktonic animals.
was 10,700,000 pounds in the fall of 1967. Because the
The stomach contents of shrimp taken at night indicated
cost of sea surveys was quite high, another method of
that the most common food items were euphausiids and
estimating population was needed. A mathematical popu-
copepods, while the stomachs of shrimp collected during
lation model, designed by department statisticians, was
daytime contained little food. Identiable food items
used to estimate the population size and set the quota
included polychaete worms, sponges, diatoms, amphipods,
from 1969 until 1976, when the model was dropped and no
and isopods.
further attempts to estimate the population were made.
Many species of sh prey on ocean shrimp. Major sh
It was established that the ocean shrimp population abun-
predators include Pacic hake, arrowtooth ounder, sable-
dance off California is determined by environmental con-
sh, petrale sole and several species of rocksh.
ditions, which causes natural uctuations in recruitment
Ocean shrimp are protandric hermaphrodites; that is,
that are apparently unrelated or minimally related to
during their rst year and a half of life most will function
commercial shing effort. Since the abandonment of
as males, then pass through a transitional phase to
quotas, the shrimp population, as evidenced by the com-
become females. During some years, large percentages
mercial catch, has gone through two extreme highs (1977
(up to 60 percent) of the one-year-old shrimp become
- 15,600,000 pounds; 1992 - 18,683,000 pounds) and two
females and never mate as males. Female shrimp usually
lows (1983 - 1,200,000 pounds - primarily in Area C; 1998
carry between 1,000 and 3,000 eggs. Small individuals in
- 1,836,000 pounds). The population appears to be headed
their second year have been found carrying as few as 900
up again since the 1998 low.
eggs, whereas larger shrimp in their third or fourth year of
Investigations of the population dynamics of shrimp off
life have been found with up to 3,900 eggs. Mating takes
Oregon suggest shrimp are inherently resistant to oversh-
place during September and October, and the external
ing. Annual recruitment success has been shown to be
fertilization of the eggs takes place when the females
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 119
Ocean Shrimp
20
millions of pounds landed
15
Ocean Shrimp
10
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Ocean Shrimp
Data Source: DFG Catch
5
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. No commercial
0 1916
landing are reported for ocean
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
shrimp prior to 1952.
linked to the strength and timing of the spring transition with Pacic hake (Merluccius productus). Can. J. Fish
in coastal currents immediately following larval release. Aquat. Sci. 52:1018-1029.
An early, strong transition produces large year classes. Hannah, R. W., S.A. Jones and M. R. Long. 1995. Fecundity
Shrimp are short-lived and exhibit exible rates of sex of the ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
change that act to maintain a roughly balanced sex com- Sci. 52:2098-2107.
position, despite highly variable mortality rates. Other
Hannah, R.W. 1993. The inuence of environmental varia-
evidence also suggests that shrimp exhibit density-depen-
tion and spawning stock levels on recruitment of ocean
dent growth. In combination, these biological traits
shrimp (Pandalus jordani). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
increase the shing pressure a stock can withstand with-
50(3):612-622.
out suffering decline. Nonetheless, some evidence has
Hannah, R.W. and S.A. Jones. 1991. Fishery induced
been presented recently suggesting shrimp are periodically
changes in the population structure of pink shrimp (Pan-
“recruitment-overshed” in a manner that delays the stock’s
dalus jordani). Fishery Bulletin. U.S. 89:41-51.
rebound from El Niño-related recruitment failures. However,
overshing in such a short-lived resource has relatively minor Hannah, R.W. and S.A. Jones. 1973. Status of the Califor-
impacts on yield and changes in management await addi- nia ocean shrimp resource and its management. Calif.
tional research on how shing is altering yield. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech. Rep. 14. 17 p.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1980. Draft of the
shery management plan and environmental impact state-
Patrick C. Collier
ment for the pink shrimp shery off Washington, Oregon
California Department of Fish and Game
and California. Pac. Fish. Mgmt. Council, 526 S.W. Mill St.,
Robert W. Hannah
Portland, OR. 191 p.
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
Pearcy, W.G. 1970. Vertical migration of the ocean shrimp,
Pandalus jordani: a feeding and dispersal mechanism.
References Calif. Fish and Game, 56:125-129.
Rothlisberg, P. C. 1975. Larval ecology of Pandalus jordani
Dahlstrom, W.A. 1970. Synopsis of biological data on the
Rathbun. Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University, Cor-
ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani Rathbun, 1902. FAO Fish.
vallis, Oregon. 117 p.
Rep. 57(4):1377-1416.
Hannah, R. W. 1999. A new method for indexing spawning
stock and recruitment in ocean shrimp, Pandalus jordani,
and preliminary evidence for a stock-recruitment relation-
ship. Fish. Bull. 97:482-494.
Hannah, R. W. 1995. Variation in geographic stock area,
catchability and natural mortality of ocean shrimp (Panda-
lus jordani): some new evidence for a trophic interaction
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
120
Spot Prawn
History of the Fishery trawl, northern California trap, southern California trawl
Spot Prawn
and southern California trap. From 1994 until 1998, state-
T he shery for spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) origi- wide landings nearly doubled from 444,000 pounds to a
nated nearly 68 years ago in Monterey when prawns historic high of 780,000 pounds. All of the shery compo-
were caught incidentally in octopus traps. It was a minor nents showed some growth with the northern trawl shery
shery with landings averaging around 2,000 pounds annu- experiencing a 14-fold increase in landings while southern
ally until the early 1970s. In 1974, trawl shermen shing trawl and northern trap showing a four-fold increase and
out of Santa Barbara caught over 182,000 pounds. Trawl southern trap almost doubling its landings. There were
landings steadily grew as more shermen entered this new several reasons for this rise including increased market
shery and new areas were explored reaching a peak of demand, which raised the average price for live prawns
more than 375,500 pounds in 1981. Landings fell drasti- from $6 per pound to $8; increased effort by California
cally in the next few years causing concern by shermen and Washington shermen displaced from other sheries;
and DFG biologists. An area and season closure was insti- changes in gear design, specically the use of large
tuted between Point Conception and Point Mugu during rollers (rock hopper gear) on the groundline of the trawl
the peak egg-bearing months of November, December and nets; and increased availability due to strong spot prawn
January in 1984. Following the implementation of an area recruitment in 1996 and 1997.
closure, trawl landings remained low until 1993 averaging The advent of rock hopper gear allowed shermen to sh
about 54,000 pounds annually. The low catch rates for the areas once off limits because of the rocky nature of the
trawl eet were due in part to the development of other bottom. These areas had previously acted as de facto
sheries such as ridgeback prawn, sea cucumber and the reserves, providing new recruits for adjacent areas tradi-
increased demand for fresh sh, which caused growth in tionally worked by trawl vessels. The rise in the number
the groundsh trawl shery. of participants and a 21 percent decline in statewide
In 1985, a trap shery for spot prawn developed in the 1999 landings, prompted shermen once again to ask for
Southern California Bight. The trap shery was concen- further regulation and a limited access plan. An ad-hoc
trated around all of the Channel Islands and along coastal committee of trap and trawl shermen and department
submarine canyons in water depths between 600 and biologists developed several management recommenda-
1,080 fathoms. Fishing was now occurring in areas of tions, which included a limit on the size of roller gear to
southern California that the trawl eet did not have access 14-inches. In 2000, the Commission adopted some but not
to because trawling was not allowed within three miles all of the proposed regulations with slight modication.
of the shore. The advent of the trap shery also meant Instead of a simultaneous closure for trap and trawl sher-
the start of a live prawn shery for the Asiatic community ies north of Point Conception, a May to August closure for
locally and overseas. With traps, prawns could be kept the trap shery was selected by the Commission. While
alive using holding tanks set at optimum water tempera- northern California trappers can catch prawns during the
tures. Annual landings in the trap shery grew from 8,800 peak egg-bearing season, they are limited to 300 traps
pounds in 1985 to over 247,000 in 1991. During this period, within state waters. Other regulations adopted by the
trapping accounted for 75 percent of statewide landings; Commission for this shery included a requirement for
trawling accounted for the remaining 25 percent. bycatch reduction devices on trawl nets, and an observer
Two years of declining landings in the trap shery and
the continued low landing levels by the trawl eet lead
shermen and biologists once again to address manage-
ment of California’s spot prawn resource. The Fish and
Game Commission, with the support of the trap and trawl
shermen, expanded the trawl area and season closure to
include the entire Southern California Bight in 1994. They
also instituted the rst regulations for the trap shery by
requiring a one inch by one inch trap mesh size, limiting
traps per vessel to 500, and initiating an area and season
closure for the same area and time period as the trawl
shery.
Following these management measures, the spot prawn
shery underwent signicant changes in composition and
statewide growth. The spot prawn shery was now com-
Spot Prawn, Pandalus platyceros
prised of four shery components: northern California
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 121
Spot Prawn
900
thousands of pounds landed
800
700
600
Spot Prawn
500
400
300
Commercial Landings
200
1916-1999, Spot Prawn
100
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
program for all components of the spot prawn shery. A boats are about 30 to 60 feet in length and usually sh
control date for limited entry was established, but the rest for salmon during the summer. Currently, there are about
of the plan was put on hold. six boats shing the Monterey Bay area, and they sh 10
months a year. The southern California trap eet ranges
The 1999 price for live prawns ranged from $6 to $10
between 30 and 40 boats depending on prawn availability.
per pound, whereas dead (heads-on) prawns bring only
These boats range in size from 20 to 75 feet with an aver-
$4.50 to $5.50 per pound. Live prawns are now taken
age of 34 feet. Trap designs are limited either to plastic
by trap and trawl vessels and account for 95 percent of
oval-shaped traps or to the more popular rectangular wire
landings. The change from a trap-only live shery follows
traps. The dimension of the single chamber plastic traps is
experimentation by trawl shermen on net design and tow
approximately 2.5 feet by 1.5 feet while the typical size of
duration, which maximizes prawn catch while reducing or
the wire traps is 3.0 feet by 1.5 feet by 1.0 foot with two
eliminating incidental take of non-target species.
chambers. Normally, a sherman will set 25 to 50 traps
The trawler eet consists of approximately 54 vessels
attached to a single groundline (string) with anchors and
operating coast-wide from Bodega Bay to the United
buoys at both ends. In both shing areas, traps are set at
States-Mexico border. Most vessels operate out of Mon-
depths of 600 to 1,000 feet along submarine canyons or
terey, Morro Bay, Santa Barbara, and Ventura, although
along shelf breaks.
a number of Washington-based vessels participate in this
shery during the fall and winter. The vessel length of
Status of Biological Knowledge
the trawl eet ranges from 28 to 85 feet with an average
vessel length of 47 feet. Standard gear is a single-rig
S
shrimp trawl of a semi-balloon, or Gulf Shrimp Act, design. pot prawns range from Alaska to San Diego, California,
Occasionally, double-rig or paired shrimp trawls are used. in depths from 150 to 1,600 feet. Areas of higher
The body of the trawl net is typically composed of a single abundance in California waters occur off of the Farallon
layer of 2.5- to three-inch meshes with a 36-square inch Islands, Monterey, the Channel Islands and most offshore
bycatch reduction device, and a minimum codend mesh banks. This species is a protandric hermaphrodite, begin-
size of 1.5 inches. Many shermen prefer to use a double ning life as a male. Sexual maturity is reached during
codend composed of two- to three-inch mesh. A variety the third year averaging 1.5 inches carapace length (CL).
of roller gear is added to the groundline of the trawl By the fourth year, many males begin to change sex to
net, which keeps the ground off the bottom and prevents the transitional stage. By the end of the fourth year, the
a variety of benthic invertebrates such as sea stars, sea transitionals become females averaging 1.75 inches CL.
fans, and anemones as well as rocks from being scooped Maximum observed age is estimated at over six years but
into the net. Standard roller gear, which spins freely there are considerable differences in age and growth of
around the groundline, varies in size from eight-inch disks spot prawns between areas. Animals from Canada live no
to 28-inch tires. longer than four years, whereas the prawns from southern
California can reach six years. Studies indicate that prawns
The spot prawn trap eet operates from Monterey Bay to
grow faster in a temperate environment than in a cold
southern California. The northern trap shery continues to
environment.
produces prawns, although it has never reached the large
volume of the southern California shery. Monterey-area
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
122
References
Spawning occurs once a year, and each individual mates
Spot Prawn
once as a male and once or twice as a female. Females
Butler, T.H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution
spawn at a carapace length of 1.75 inches. Spawning takes
of pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
place at depths of 500 to 700 feet. September appears
Canada. 21:1403-1452.
to be the start of the spawning season, when the eggs
are extruded onto the female’s swimmerets. She carries Butler, T.H. 1986. Growth and reproduction of spot prawns
the eggs for a period of four to ve months before they in the Santa Barbara Channel. Calif. Fish and Game.
hatch. By April, only 15 percent of females still carry eggs. 72:83-93.
Fecundity varies with size, ranging from 1,400 to 5,000
California Department of Fish and Game. 1980 to 1999.
eggs for the rst spawning down to 1,000 eggs for the
Final Bulletin Tables for California Commercial Landings -
second spawning. Eggs hatch over a 10-day period and the
Table 15. The Resources Agency, State of California.
larvae are planktonic. As they develop into the juvenile
California Department of Fish and Game. 1995. Final Envi-
stage, they begin to settle out at depths as shallow as 175
ronmental Document - Spot Prawn Commercial Fishing
feet, but move deeper as they reach adulthood.
Regulations (Section 120 and 180, Title 14, California Code
Spot prawns feed on other shrimp, plankton, small mol-
of Regulations). State of California. Resources Agency. 131
lusks, worms, sponges, and sh carcasses. They usually
pps + appendices.
forage on the bottom throughout the day and night.
Sunada, J.S. 1984. Spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) and
ridgeback prawn (Sicyonia ingentis) sheries in the Santa
Status of the Population Barbara Channel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep.
25:100-104.
E xploratory surveys conducted by the DFG during the
1960s revealed the presence of prawns along the
coast, but no estimates of population size were made.
During the 1980s, additional surveys were conducted in
southern California to further dene distribution and
range. The development of the southern California trap
shery in the mid-1980s detected sizable aggregations of
this species, which were previously unknown. The intro-
duction of roller gear on trawl nets in the 1990s led to the
exploration of even more areas and location of additional
habitat suitable for spot prawns. Thus, it appears that this
species is more numerous and widespread than previously
believed as attested by the geographic expansion and rise
in total landings.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Mary L. Larson
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 123
Ridgeback Prawn
History of the Fishery regulations include a prohibition of trawling within state
waters (three-miles from the mainland shore and islands),
I ntermittent catches of small numbers of ridgeback a minimum shing depth of 25 fathoms, a minimum mesh
prawns (Sicyonia ingentis) in Santa Barbara-area sh size of 1.5 inches for single-walled codends or three inches
trawls led to the development of regulations to allow the for double-walled codends and a logbook requirement.
take of prawns with small mesh trawl nets. Enactment of Demand for this resource continues to be high, as its
these regulations in 1965 resulted in the landing of 30,200 sweet avor and low price make it a favorite among fresh
pounds of prawns the following year; however, landings sh buyers. As this species does not freeze well, it is
quickly slumped when prawns proved difcult to market. primarily sold as fresh whole prawns; however, prawns
Annual landings were below 5,000 pounds from 1974 to are often landed live to supply a secondary live prawn
1977, except in 1975 when they were 28,000 pounds. The market, and also to prevent discoloration from a black
catch increased to 356,000 pounds in 1979, but declined to pigment that forms after death, which lowers consumer
129,000 pounds three years later. In 1985, landings peaked appeal. In 1999, live prawns accounted for 28 percent of
at nearly 900,000 pounds, but they subsequently declined the landings, but have been as high as 68 percent in 1997.
to 142,000 pounds in 1988 following several year-class The median ex-vessel price in 1999 for all ridgeback prawn
failures. Landings reached a low of 64,000 pounds in 1992, was $1.30 per pound. Live prawns sold for a median price
but increased to 607,000 pounds in 1996. After a dip to of $2 per pound, with a range of $1 to $5 per pound, while
387,000 pounds in 1997, ridgeback prawn landings reached fresh dead prawns sold for a median of $1 with a range of
a new high of about 1,391,000 pounds in 1999. $0.20 to $3.35 per pound.
The shery is centered in the Santa Barbara Channel and
off Santa Monica Bay. In 1999, 32 boats participated in the
Status of Biological Knowledge
shery. Traditionally, a number of boats sh year round
for both ridgeback and spot prawns, targeting ridgeback
R idgeback prawns occur from Monterey, California to
prawns during the closed season for spot prawns and
Cedros Island, Baja California, at depths ranging from
shing for spot prawn during the ridgeback closure. Most
less than 145 feet to 525 feet. Major concentrations occur
boats typically use single rig trawl gear (only one boat was
in the Ventura-Santa Barbara Channel area, Santa Monica
noted to be using double rig gear in 1999). The average
Bay, and off Oceanside. One study found ridgeback prawns
trawler length is 45 feet with a range of 28 to 76 feet. Six
to be one of the most common invertebrates to appear
of these boats are over 50 feet in length.
in its trawls, occurring in 59 percent of tows along the
Following the 1981 decline in landings, a summer closure mainland shelf within the Southern California Bight. Other
(June 1 through September 30) was adopted by the Cali- pockets of abundance are found off Baja California. This
fornia Fish and Game Commission to protect spawning species occurs on substrates of sand, shell and green
female and juvenile ridgeback prawns. An incidental take mud. As these animals are relatively sessile, little or
of 50 pounds of prawns or 15 percent by weight is no intermixing occurs. Their maximum life span is ve
allowed during the closed period. During the season, a years and sexes are separate. Females reach a maximum
maximum of 1,000 pounds of other sh may be landed length of 1.8 inches carapace length (CL), and males 1.5
with ridgeback prawns. Any amount of sea cucumbers may inches CL.
be landed with ridgeback prawns as long as the vessel
These shrimp are free spawners, as opposed to other
owner/operator possesses a sea cucumber permit. Other
shrimps, which carry eggs. Both sexes spawn as early as
the rst year, but most spawn during the second
year at a size of 1.2 inches CL. The spawning period
is more seasonal than with other penaeid shrimp.
Studies suggest that this species undergoes multiple
spawning from June through October. Following spawning,
both sexes undergo molting and continue molting
throughout winter and spring. The number of eggs pro-
duced averages 86,000.
The food habits of the ridgeback prawn are unknown, but
it may be a detritus feeder like closely related species.
In Baja California, ridgeback prawns are preyed on by
several species of sea robins. In southern California, it is
presumed other groundsh such as rocksh and lingcod
Ridgeback Prawn, Sicyonia ingentis
Credit: David Ono, DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
124
Ridgeback Prawn
1.6
1.4
millions of pounds landed
1.2
Ridgeback Prawn
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Commercial Landings
0.2 1916-1999, Ridgeback Prawn
0.0 1916 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts.
Management Considerations
prey on them as well. Other likely predators include octo-
pus, sharks, halibut, and bat rays.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Status of the Population
Y John S. Sunada
early sea surveys between 1982 and 1991 documented
California Department of Fish and Game
relative abundance and year-class strengths of juvenile
ridgeback prawns. Relative abundance in terms of num- John B. Richards
bers of animals per 15-minute tow began increasing from University of California, Santa Barbara
66 animals per tow in 1982 to 1,200 animals per tow by
Revised by Leeanne M. Laughlin
1984, but began to decline in 1985 when the catch fell to
California Department of Fish and Game
132 per tow. These trends mirrored the rise and fall of
yearly commercial catches. The population of ridgeback
prawns in the Ventura area increased dramatically during
References
1983 to 1985, but then began declining.
Allen, M.J., and S.L. Moore. 1997. Recurrent groups of
Ridgeback prawn trawl logs, required since 1986, show
megabenthic invertebrates on the mainland shelf of south-
an average of 147 pounds of ridgeback prawn caught per
ern California in 1994. pp. 129-135 in: S.B. Weisberg,
tow/hour, dropping to a low of 32 pounds per tow/hour in
C. Francisco, and D. Hallock (eds.), southern California
1992, and steadily increasing to 213 pounds per tow/hour
Coastal Water Research Project Annual Report 1996.
in 1999. This increase is in addition to an increase in
southern California Coastal Water Research Project. West-
the number of vessels (from 17 in 1992, a high of 43
minster, CA.
vessels in 1995, to 32 in 1999), and more effort directed at
ridgeback prawns during the spot prawn closed season. Anderson, S.L., L.W. Botsford, and W.H. Clark, Jr. 1985.
Size distributions and sex ratios of ridgeback prawns (Sicy-
Potential causes for this increase are the effects of El
onia ingentis) in the Santa Barbara Channel (1979-1981).
Niño, which may have provided optimum conditions for
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 26:169-174.
growth and recruitment; reduced predator populations;
and regulatory restrictions on the shery. No population Anderson, S.L., W.H. Clark, and E.S. Chang. 1985. Multiple
estimates were available for any of the major shing spawning and molt synchrony in a free-spawning shrimp
grounds, although the majority of catches consisted of (Sicyonia ingentis: Sicyoniidae). Biol. Bull. 168:377-394.
two- and three-year-old animals.
Herkelrath, J.M. 1977. Some aspects of the growth
and temperature tolerance of ridgeback prawn, Sicyonia
ingentis (Burkenroad), in southern California waters. M.S.
thesis. Department of Biology, Whittier College.
Pérez Farfante, I. 1985. The rock shrimp genus Sicyonia
(Crustacea: Decopoda: Penaeoidea) in the eastern Pacic.
Fish. Bull., U.S. 83:1-79.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 125
Price, R.J., Tom, P.D., and Richards, J.B. 1996. Recom-
Ridgeback Prawn
mendations for handling ridgeback shrimp. UCSGEP 96-1,
Sea Grant Extension Program, University of California,
Davis, CA.
Schmitter-Sotol, J.J., and Castro-Aguirre, J.L. 1996. Tro-
phic comparison among Triglidae (Pisces: Scorpaeni-
formes) off Baja California Sur, Mexico. International Jour-
nal of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 44(2).
Sunada, J.S. 1984. Spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) and
ridgeback prawn (Sicyonia ingentis) sheries in the Santa
Barbara Channel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep.
25:100-104.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
126
Red Rock Shrimp
History of the Fishery pounds per trap. Bycatch in the traps consists primarily
Red Rock Shrimp
of octopus, rock snails, sea cucumber, and an occasional
T clingsh. Purple sea urchins and Kellet’s whelks are often
he red rock shrimp (Lysmata californica) shery has
found clinging to the underside of the traps.
been sporadic and of small magnitude since the late
1950s. It has persisted, however, due to the relatively high The shery is seasonal, from October to April, for several
market value of this species for recreational shing bait. reasons, including: 1) market competition from more plen-
Fishermen typically receive up to $25 a pound (about 100 tiful summertime baits, such as sand crabs; 2) higher rates
shrimp per pound) when sold to retail bait stores. Bait of trap vandalism due to increased shoreline recreational
stores will then sell the shrimp either by the dozen or the shing activity during summer months; 3) participation
ounce at approximately twice the wholesale price. Red in other commercial sheries during the summer such as
rock shrimp are highly regarded by anglers as the bait of barracuda, white seabass and tunas; and 4) decreased
choice for opaleye, black croaker, rubberlip surfperch, pile shrimp availability in traditional trapping areas beginning
perch and other sh found along breakwaters, jetties and in the spring.
sea walls. In order to bring a premium price, the shrimp
The red rock shrimp shery is regulated by the Fish and
must be delivered to the bait stores alive. This requires
Game Commission. Prior to 1986, a tidal invertebrate
special handling on the part of the sherman as well as by
permit and a general trap permit were required. Regula-
the bait store. The shrimp are kept in aerated bait tanks
tions include marking traps with buoys, servicing traps
or in oating "receivers" by the sherman until delivery to
once every 96 hours, and trap destruct-devices to prevent
the store. The bait stores are able to keep the shrimp alive
ghost shing of lost gear. Legislation enacted in 1986
for 24 to 48 hours by covering them with rags soaked in
generally restricted the use of trap gear for shrimp and
seawater. Dead shrimp can be salted or sugar cured but
prawns to water 50 fathoms or greater. This included
are then usually sold at a lower price. A secondary market
the harvest of red rock shrimp. As a result, shermen
for the shrimp is the aquarium trade. Pet and aquarium
have had to apply to the Fish and Game Commission for
stores that sell marine sh will often buy red rock shrimp
an experimental gear permit to harvest red rock shrimp.
to sell to their customers. Wholesale prices may range up
Under this permit, a sherman has ve years to establish
to ten dollars per shrimp. The shrimp must be in excellent
a viable shery, with annual requests for renewal. In
condition, which requires special care in handling.
recent years the commission has required shermen to
The red rock shrimp shery is concentrated in shallow take onboard observers supplied by the Department of
waters along breakwaters and sea walls where the shrimp Fish and Game, report their shing activity through sub-
congregate in rock crevices. This makes the shery ideally mission of shing activity logs, including any bycatch,
suited to small shing boats, usually around 20 feet long. A and immediately returning all incidental species to the
small boat is easier and safer to maneuver in the shallow, sea. In addition to the experimental gear permit, sh-
rocky waters. However, sherman can only carry about 20 ermen must also follow the general trap and tidal
traps on a boat of that size. The traps are typically made invertebrate regulations.
of 1 1/4-inch wood lath, spaced about 1/8-inch apart.
Traps measure about 18 inches on a side. A funnel-shaped
Status of Biological Knowledge
opening enters the trap from the bottom. About 20 pounds
of concrete, either poured or in the form of blocks,
R ed rock shrimp occur from Santa Barbara, California,
is added to each trap to keep it rmly on the rocky
south to Bahia Viscaino, Baja California. They are
bottom. Fishermen have also experimented with pegboard
often found in low intertidal pools and crevices and
and berglass frames, which add strength while weighing
extend subtidally to a depth of more than 180 feet.
less than waterlogged wood. Additionally, modied metal
They tend to occur in groups of several hundred, dispers-
minnow traps have also been tried but catch rates rarely
ing somewhat at night but regrouping in sheltered areas
equal those of the lath traps. Because the traps are set in
during the day. It should be noted that since about 1990
shallow water and are often visible from shore, vandalism
a population of red rock shrimp has appeared annually
is a problem for the sherman. Up to 25 percent of traps
in the open ocean lter housing of the Monterey Bay
are vandalized per week of shing.
Aquarium (MBA). The MBA staff has conducted surveys
The traps are baited with whatever sh or sh trimmings
of the local intertidal and subtidal areas, but has not
may be available to the shermen. Occasionally unbaited
discovered any other populations of red rock shrimp. The
traps will also have good catches since shrimp will enter
exact mechanism for this occurrence north of the normal
the traps for cover. Traps are usually left to soak for 24
range has not been determined but suggests that oceano-
to 48 hours. Catch rates average one pound per trap,
graphic events can signicantly affect the distribution of
but occasionally a very good catch will be four to ve
this species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 127
Red Rock Shrimp
3.0
thousands of pounds landed
2.5
Red Rock Shrimp
2.0
1.5
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
1.0
Red Rock Shrimp
Data Source: DFG Catch
0.5
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Landing data
0.0
not available prior to 1993. 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Management Considerations
These shrimp grow to a length of about three inches. They
are conspicuously colored with longitudinal broken stripes
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
of red on a transparent body. Red rock shrimp may be
further information.
simultaneous hermaphrodites like several other species of
Lysmata. Captive berried females will continue to produce
viable clutches following removal of the larvae. Eggs on
Kevin Herbinson
ovigerous females are red following initial deposition on
Southern California Edison Co.
the pleopods and turn pea green just before hatching.
Mary Larson
Eggs have been noted as early as April but are more
California Department of Fish and Game
common in May, June, and July. Preliminary examination
of berried females has shown that each female carries
about 4,000 eggs. California’s red rock shrimp is one of
References
the larger, but less specialized, of the “cleaning” shrimp.
They are often seen sharing crevices with, and cleaning,
Bauer, R. T. and G.J. Holt. 1998. Simultaneous hermaph-
California morays. They are also known to perform clean-
roditism in the marine shrimp Lysmata wurdemanni (Cari-
ing activities on divers’ hands when placed in their vicin-
dea: Hippolytidae): an undescribed sexual system in the
ity, paying particular attention to areas around ngernails
decapod Crustacea. Marine Biology 117: 129-143.
or scratches on the skin.
Chace, Jr., Fenner A. and D. P. Abbott, 1980. Caridea:
The “cleaning” activity does not seem to be highly evolved
The Shrimps. In Intertidal Invertebrates of California (ed.
and probably only supplements the diet. Most of the diet
R.H. Morris, D.P. Abbott and E. C. Haderlie), pp. 567-576.
seems to come from scavenging scraps of decaying tissue
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
on rocky surfaces or, when the opportunity arises, feeding
Feder,H.M., C.H. Turner, and C. Limbaugh. 1974. Observa-
on carcasses of dead sh and invertebrates.
tions on shes associated with kelp beds in southern Cali-
fornia. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 160:1-138.
Status of the Population MacGinitie, G. E., and N. MacGinitie. 1968. Natural history
of marine animals. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 523
There are very few data available regarding population
pp.
size and distribution of red rock shrimp. At the present
Ricketts, E.F., and J. Calvin. 1968. Between Pacic
time, the bait shery for red rock shrimp appears to have
Tides. 4th ed. Revised by J. W. Hedgepeth. Stanford,
little effect on the population. Diver observations suggest
Calif.:Stanford University Press. 614 pp.
that they are widespread throughout southern California.
Fishing effort, however, is very limited and concentrated
at only a few locations such as breakwaters and sea walls.
Since these shrimp are relatively short lived, there are
probably large uctuations in annual abundance.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
128
Coonstripe Shrimp
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Coonstripe Shrimp
T C
he commercial shery for coonstripe shrimp (Pandalus oonstripe shrimp, called dock shrimp in Oregon,
danae) occurs off Crescent City, California primarily Alaska and Canada, are red-brown shrimp and derive
in depths ranging from 23 to 28 fathoms. This species, the name “coonstripe” from the irregular, black-edged
also known as dock shrimp, is often caught incidentally in brown or red striping found on the abdominal area. The
ocean shrimp trawl nets and Dungeness crab traps along surface of the species is nely pitted and has 10 to 12
the northern California coast. Early efforts to develop a median dorsal spines. The rostrum is a little longer than
targeted commercial trap shery were unsuccessful prior the carapace. They range from Sitka, Alaska to San Luis
to 1995. The rst signicant commercial landings of 2,488 Obispo Bay, California in 10 to 100 fathoms, and prefer
pounds were made in 1995. The developing live market sand or gravel substrate in areas of strong tidal current.
and high price led to effort yielding 79,269 pounds in Exploratory trap surveys conducted in northern California
1997. Landings dipped to 64,718 pounds in 1998 and then yielded catches off Tolo Bank, False Cape, Patrick’s Point
climbed to 75,540 pounds in 1999. Two vessels pioneered and the Saint George Reef. Coonstripes have also been
this shery in 1995, while effort through 1999 ranged from found in trawl surveys ranging in depth from 11 to 100
eight to 20 vessels per year. The initial ex-vessel value in fathoms off the Eel River, Table Bluff, Humboldt Bay, Mad
1995 was $1.50 per pound. However, since this species was River, Trinidad Head, Big Lagoon, Patrick’s Point, Redding
destined for the live market, coonstripe shrimp quickly Rock, Klamath River and Point Saint George. This species
rose in value, averaging over $4 per pound in 1998. Coon- is a protandrous hermaphodite - initially maturing as male
stripe shrimp ranked eighth in single species value for the and then undergoing transition to female. Egg bearing
Crescent City port during 1997 and 1998. The ex-vessel females may be found throughout the year, but gravid
value rose again in 1999 to an average of $4.22 per pound females primarily occur from November to April. Average
with some businesses paying as much as $7.50 per pound. fecundity is 1,140 eggs, and a progression of ve larval
stages occurs near the place of hatching. Research off
The coonstripe shrimp trap shery uses various trap con-
British Columbia, showed that metamorphosis takes place
gurations. The most common design is a rectangular
by late June. Growth is rapid until October, when most
trap covered in 1 3/8-inch mesh shrimp trawl webbing,
shrimp mature as males at an average size of 0.50-inch
with two circular openings. The traps are set in areas of
carapace length (CL). Primary females, those maturing
high currents, such as along Saint George Reef from May
directly as females, also may be found. Some shrimp
through October. The traps are set in strings composed
remain as males for another year and average 0.68 inch
of between 20 and 30 traps per string. Fishermen report
CL. Shrimp that transition to females over the rst winter
using 300 to 400 traps during the shing season. Many
average 0.71 inch CL. Second year females average 0.85
types of bait are used including small pelagic sh such as
inch CL. All shrimp are females by the third year and prob-
herring, sardine, and mackerel.
ably do not survive into the fourth year. Off Crescent City,
To participate in the commercial shery, a sherman
count per pound for trap-caught females taken during the
must be a registered commercial sherman, have a com-
1997 spring period ranges from 25 to 30 and males from 40
mercial vessel registration and a general trap permit. In
to 65. Large shrimp attain a length of ve inches.
addition, a commercial coonstripe shrimp trapper must
Data are lacking on the specic food habits of coonstripe
comply with all trap regulations regarding size of traps,
shrimp, but most likely their diet is similar to that of
destruct devices, marking the trap, and trap servicing.
other shrimp, feeding on planktonic and small benthic
Currently, there are no other management restrictions on
organisms. It is assumed that various species of sh
this shery.
such as lingcod, rocksh, ounder, hagsh, sole, or whit-
The developing commercial shery led to an interest in a
ing, which prey on other shrimp species, are major preda-
sport shery for this resource since the shrimp are close
tors. Like spot prawns, coonstripe shrimp undergo an
to shore and are caught in small, lightweight traps. The
onshore-offshore spawning migration pattern; however,
sport shing daily bag and possession limit was increased
along-shore movement within their range is unknown.
from 35 shrimp to 20 pounds per day in 1997. Data are
not available on sport harvest, but take is thought to
be minimal.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 129
Coonstripe Shrimp
90
thousands of pounds landed
75
Coonstripe Shrimp
60
Commercial Landings
45
1916-1999,
Coonstripe Shrimp
30
Commercial landing for
Coonstripe Shrimp were not
15
reported prior to 1996. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
Status of the Population References
D ue to the recent development of this shery, there is Berkeley, A. A. 1930. The post-embryonic development of
too little shery dependent data to determine what the common pandalids of British Columbia. Contributions
effect the commercial shery has had on the coonstripe Canadian Biology., N.S., 6(6): 79-163.
shrimp population or on the size composition of the popu- Butler, T. H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution
lation. To date there has been no shery-independent of Pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. Journal of the
estimates of population or structure. Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 21(6): 1403-1452.
Butler, T. H. 1980. Shrimps of the Pacic coast of Canada.
Management Considerations Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. No.
202.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Nelson, N. E. 1971. Cruise Report 71-S-2. Prawns. Califor-
further information. nia Department of Fish and Game.
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1994. Develop-
Ronald W. Warner and Mary Larson mental Fisheries Program. Staff Report: 40-42.
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
130
Sea Cucumbers
History of the Fishery enhancing properties, including lowering high blood pres-
Sea Cucumbers
sure, aiding proper digestive function, and curing impo-
T wo species of sea cucumbers are shed in California tency. Studies of the biomedical properties of various sea
– the California sea cucumber (Parastichopus califor- cucumber chemical extracts, such as saponins, and chon-
nicus) also known as the giant red sea cucumber, and droiton sulfates, are being conducted by western medical
the warty sea cucumber (P. parvimensis). The warty sea researchers investigating the efcacy of these substances
cucumber is shed almost exclusively by divers. The Cali- for pharmaceutical products.
fornia sea cucumber is caught principally by trawling in There is no signicant sport shery for sea cucumbers in
southern California, but is targeted by divers in northern California. Few sport shermen have shown an interest in
California. Sea cucumber sheries have expanded world- sea cucumber as a food item, and sport shing regulations
wide, and on this coast there is a dive shery for warty forbid their take in nearshore areas in depths less than
sea cucumbers in Baja California, Mexico, and dive sher- 20 feet.
ies for California sea cucumbers in Washington, Oregon,
A special permit to sh for sea cucumbers commercially
Alaska, and the coast of British Columbia, Canada.
was required beginning with the 1992-1993 shing season.
The rst recorded commercial landings of sea cucumbers Qualications for the permit were based upon meeting a
in California were made in 1978 at Los Angeles area ports. minimum 50 pound landing requirement during a four-year
Divers shing sea cucumbers at Santa Catalina Island “window” period. In 1997, legislation was enacted that
were the rst to make landings, but they were soon imposed a new regulatory regime on the sea cucumber
joined by trawl vessels. Annual landings remained under shery. The major regulatory changes included creating
100,000 pounds until 1982 when the principal shing area separate permits for each gear type, and limiting the
shifted to the Santa Barbara Channel. In that year, 140,000 number of permittees in the sea cucumber shery. The
pounds were landed with an ex-vessel value of about maximum number of permits allocated was based on the
$25,000. Recorded landings uctuated between 52,350 to number of permits issued during the 1997-1998 permit
160,000 pounds over the next eight years, and in 1991 year, and the meeting of a minimum landing requirement.
reached more than 577,390 pounds. Through the rst 18 There are currently 113 sea cucumber dive permittees
years of the shery, trawl landings composed an average and 36 sea cucumber trawl permittees. A permit transfer
of 75 percent of the annual sea cucumber harvest. In procedure and transfer fee of $200 was also initiated
1996, combined trawl and dive sea cucumber landings by the 1997 legislation. Sea cucumber dive permits can
reached an all time high of 839,400 pounds with an ex- be transferred only to other dive shermen, while sea
vessel value of $582,370. Between 1997 and 1999, sea cucumber trawl permits can be transferred to either trawl
cucumbers landed by divers accounted for more than 80 or dive shermen.
percent of the combined dive and trawl landings. During
that time period, trawl effort declined substantially, due
primarily to court cases pursued by the department which
ruled that 16 trawl shermen had fraudulently obtained
their sea cucumber permits. Those shermen were subse-
quently excluded from the shery. Diver effort and land-
ings, in contrast, increased markedly during those three
years, driven by both a 1997 moratorium of the abalone
shery, a sea urchin shery depressed by El Niño condi-
tions, and a poor Japanese export market. Beginning in
1997, many commercial sea urchin or abalone divers, who
also held sea cucumber permits, targeted sea cucumbers
more heavily than before.
Most of the California and warty sea cucumber product is
shipped overseas to Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, and Korea.
Chinese markets within the United States also purchase a
portion of California’s sea cucumber catch. The majority
are boiled, dried, and salted before export, while lesser
quantities are marketed as a frozen, pickled, or live prod-
uct. The processed sea cucumbers can sell wholesale for
up to $20 per pound. In Asia, sea cucumbers are claimed
California Sea Cucumber, Parastichopus californicus
to have a variety of benecial medicinal or health Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 131
Sea Cucumbers
900
thousands of pounds landed
750
Sea Cucumbers
600
Commercial Landings
450
1916-1999, Sea Cucumbers
1916-1999, Sea Cucumber
300
No commercial landings are
reported for sea cucumber
150
prior to 1978.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts
Status of Biological Knowledge Sea cucumbers can reach moderately high densities and
are thought to be important agents of bioturbation. During
S ea cucumbers are long, soft-bodied, marine inverte- feeding and reworking of surface sediments, sea cucum-
brates in the class Holothuroidea. They are related to bers can alter the structure of soft-bottom benthic com-
other organisms in the phylum Echinodermata such as sea munities. The California sea cucumber crawls an average
urchins and sea stars. Their skeleton has been reduced to of 12 feet per day with no directional bias, presumably
small calcarious pieces (ossicles) in the body wall, which due to the even distribution of detrital food. Tagging
have distinct species-specic shapes. studies are difcult since external tags are frequently
lost and internal tags can be shed through the body
The California sea cucumber reaches a maximum length
wall. Sea cucumbers are also known to have a predator
of 24 inches and is red, brown or yellow in color with
escape response involving a rapid creeping or swimming
red-tipped papillae. The warty sea cucumber is 12 to 16
behavior propelling the sea cucumber away. Water can
inches in length and chestnut brown with black-tipped
also be taken up in the respiratory tree and then force-
papillae on the ventral surface. Size however, is difcult
fully discharged. Predators include sea stars, various shes
to determine, as sea cucumbers can contract, making
such as kelp greenlings, sea otters and crabs. Compara-
length measurements unreliable, and they can take up
tively few studies have been done with sea cucumbers,
water, rendering body weights unreliable.
and as recently as 1986, a new species, P. leukothele,
The California sea cucumber is distributed from Baja
was described that is distributed from Pt. Conception,
California to Alaska. The warty sea cucumber is distrib-
California to British Columbia, Canada.
uted from Baja California to Monterey Bay, although it
Sea cucumbers are broadcast spawners with fertilization
is uncommon north of Pt. Conception. The California sea
in the water column. Sea cucumbers have a distinctive
cucumber is found from the low intertidal to 300 feet and
spawning posture, detaching from the substrate and form-
the warty sea cucumber from the low intertidal to 90 feet,
ing an “S” shape to release their gametes up and away
generally in areas with little water movement.
from the benthic boundary layer. There are separate
Sea cucumbers are epibenthic detritivores that feed on
sexes and the sex ratio is one to one. Individuals do not
organic detritus and small organisms within sediments
form spawning aggregations. Spawning is partially synchro-
and muds. Buccal tentacles trap food particles using an
nous with a portion of the population spawning simulta-
adhesive mucus. Sea cucumbers are non-selective with
neously. Triggers for spawning are largely unknown, how-
respect to grain size and ingest only the top few mil-
ever spawning is thought to coincide with phytoplankton
limeters of sediment. One study of warty sea cucumbers
blooms during sunny days in late spring and summer.
around Santa Catalina Island found that those living on
Oocytes are light orange in color and surrounded by a
rock rubble were 27 percent smaller and seven times more
jelly coat. After fertilization, the embryo hatches into
numerous than those residing on sandy substrates. The
the gastrula (64 hours) and starts to swim. A feeding
detritus on rock rubble was found to have three times
auricularia larva develops 13 days after fertilization and
more organic material per gram compared to the detritus
begins ingesting phytoplankton. Auricularia develop into
from the sand substrate, and sea cucumbers on the sand
doliolaria larvae (37 days post-fertilization) losing up to
ingested eight times more sediment.
90 percent of its body volume and rearranging its ciliary
bands. The nal doliolaria larval stage metamorphoses
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
132
(51 to 91 days post-fertilization) into newly settled pen- an established reserve in northern California (Cabrillo
Sea Cucumbers
tactula. Pentactula have ve primary buccal tentacles, Reserve) at depths of 150 to 180 feet revealed densities
and attach to the substrate using a single pedicle. In the averaging around 1,000 per acre. By comparison, densities
eld, juveniles recruit to a variety of substrates including at a newly established reserve (Punta Gorda Ecological
rock crevices, polychaete worm tubes, and lamentous Reserve) were much lower, ranging from 120 to 350 per
red algae. Growth is slow in sea cucumbers. Juveniles acre. Only the large size classes were observed in these
become reproductively mature at four to eight years. surveys, suggesting low levels of recruitment.
Both species of sea cucumber undergo visceral atrophy
each year. During atrophy the gonad, circulatory system,
Management Considerations
and respiratory tree are resorbed and reduced in size, and
the gut degenerates. Feeding and locomotion stop prior See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
to visceral atrophy, which occurs in the fall. Following further information.
the resorption of the visceral tissue, the animal loses 25
percent of its body weight. The weight of the body wall
Laura Rogers-Bennett and David S. Ono
cycles during the year, being the lowest early in the
California Department of Fish and Game
year and the highest in early fall, prior to the start of
visceral atrophy. Within two to four weeks regeneration
begins, starting with the gut tube, then the respiratory
tree and circulatory system, and nally the gonad regrows
branched tubules. Juveniles also undergo yearly visceral
atrophy; however, they do not have gonads at this stage.
In the fall, animals may spontaneously eviscerate internal
tissues if handled roughly, although this is not a common
occurrence.
Status of the Population
T here is presently very little known about populations
of California and warty sea cucumbers in California.
The distribution of these species on rocky or sandy sub-
strates is characterized as patchy, without any apparent
seasonal aggregating, spawning, or feeding behavior. Sea
cucumbers undergo sporadic recruitment, have a rela-
tively high natural mortality, and are slow growing. Spe-
cies with these life history traits tend to have a low
maximum yield per recruit and are particularly vulnerable
to overshing.
The Channel Islands National Park Service has been moni-
toring warty sea cucumbers at 16 sites in the northern
Channel Islands and Santa Barbara Island since 1982.
These shery-independent data show that populations
of warty sea cucumber are variable but have been declin-
ing at shed sites since 1990. Meanwhile, sea cucumber
catches from the dive shery have increased at some of
these sites. Recent analytical work comparing population
trends at shed sites to those of two small reserves where
shing is prohibited indicate that the population at shed
sites range from 50 to more than 80 percent lower than
at protected sites.
Density of Warty Sea Cucumber, 1982 to 1999
Fishery-independent sea cucumber density estimates have Density of warty sea cucumber from 16 Channel Islands National Park sites
also been made using underwater video technology. Pre- at five of the northern Channel Islands, San Miguel Island, Santa Rosa Island,
Santa Cruz Island, Ancapa Island, and Santa Barbara Island from 1982 to 1999.
liminary observations of California sea cucumbers in
Data Source: California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 133
Sea Cucumbers
Representative of spawning and development through settlement and metamorphasis of P. californicus. Development does not deviate significantly from
that expected for an aspidochirote holothurian with planktotrophic larvae.
Drawing not to scale.
References Mottet. M.G. 1976. The shery biology and market prepa-
ration of sea cucumbers. Wash. Dept. Fish. Shellsh Pro-
Anonymous. 1983.Guide to the underutilized species of gram, Tech. Rep. 22. 57 p.
California. Natl Mar. Fish. Serv. Admin. Rept. No. T-83-01. Muse, B. 1998. Management of the British Columbia sea
P.24. cucumber shery. Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Com-
Cameron, J.L. and P.V. Fankboner. 1986. Reproductive mission, Alaska. 19 p.
biology of the commercial sea cucumber Parastichopus Phillips, A.C. and J.A. Boutillier. 1998. Stock assessment
californicus (Stimpson) (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea). and quota options for the sea cucumber shery. In (eds).
2. Observations on the ecology of development, recruit- Waddell, B.J. Gillespie, G.E. and Walthers, L.C. Inver-
ment, and the juvenile life stage. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. tebrate Working Papers reviewed by the Pacic Stock
127: 43-67. Assessment Review Comm. (PSARC) Can. Tech. Rep. Fish.
Lambert, P. 1997. Sea cucumbers of British Columbia, Aquat. Sci./ Rapp. Tech. Can. Sci. 2215: 147-165.
southeast Alaska and Puget Sound. University of British Schroeter, S.C., D. Reed, D. Kushner., J. Estes, and
Columbia Press. 166 p. D.S. Ono. 2000. The use of marine reserves for shery
independent monitoring: a case study for the warty sea
cucumber, Parastichopus parvimensis. mss in prep.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
134
Pismo Clam
History of the Fishery Recreational clamming is regulated by bag limit (10), a
Pismo Clam
minimum size (5.0 inches north of and 4.5 inches south of
H umans and other predators have utilized the Pismo the San Luis Obispo/Monterey county line), the immediate
clam (Tivela stultorum) resource for thousands of measuring and reburial of sub-legal clams, and closed
years. The Pismo clam has been found in 25,000-year-old seasons and areas. The objectives of these regulations
Pleistocene (ice age) deposits and in American Indian are to prevent the depletion of the clam population and to
kitchen middens 200 to 2,000 years old. Indians used maintain a population of sexually mature clams that have
the clam for food and the shells for digging, scraping and a chance to spawn several times before being harvested.
ornaments. The name Pismo is derived from the Indian
word pismu meaning tar. Natural deposits of tar are found
Status of the Biological Knowledge
in the Pismo Beach area.
Records of the commercial harvest of Pismo clams began
T he Pismo clam shell is thick, heavy, and strong, and
in 1916, and were kept through 1947 when the commercial the outside is smooth with ne concentric growth
shery in California was prohibited. During that period, lines. The inside of the shell is white and the outside
approximately 3,137 tons were commercially harvested. has a varnish-like periostracum, usually yellowish, tan or
The majority was harvested from the Pismo Beach and greenish. Shells of individual clams vary considerably in
Morro Bay areas, with a small percentage from Monterey both color and pattern, ranging from pale beige to brown,
Bay. Annual landings ranged from a high of 332.8 tons occasionally with brown radiating marks running from the
in 1918 to a low of 13 tons in 1945. The average annual umbo to the margin on a light background.
harvest was approximately 98,600 clams (average two
The historic range of the Pismo clam is Half Moon Bay,
pounds each) with a high of 334,700. The clams were
California to Socorro Island, Baja California Sur, Mexico,
purchased by restaurants, were sold whole and canned in
including two of the Channel Islands (Santa Cruz and
markets, and were used as bait and animal food.
Santa Rosa Islands). However, it has not been found at
The importation of Pismo clams from Baja California Half Moon Bay for decades and its present range extends
occurred as early as 1919 and most likely continues to northward only to Monterey Bay. It is found in the inter-
this day. After 1962, clam imports from Mexico into the tidal zone and offshore to 80 feet on relatively at,
United States have not been identied by species. From sandy beaches of the open coast. Occasionally, it is also
1919 through 1962, 232 tons of Pismo clam, mostly canned, found in entrance channels to bays, sloughs and estuaries.
were imported into the United States. In Baja California Because of its short siphons, the Pismo clam generally
Norte, from 1990 through 1999 Pismo clam landings ranged lives close to the surface of the sand and seldom burrows
from a low of 411 tons in 1994 to high of 1,025 tons in deeper than six inches, but it has been found eight to
1992, with a 10-year average of 434 tons. In Baja California 12 inches deep in southern California. The clam charac-
Sur, from 1978 through 1995 landings ranged from a low teristically orients vertically with the hinge and excurrent
of 1,213 tons in 1984 to high of 6,505 tons in 1981, with a siphon toward the ocean, the mantle edge and incurrent
18-year average of 3,234 tons.
The usual method of collection by recreational clammers
is by using a four- to six-tined garden fork. During a low
tide the clammer selects a section of beach with exposed
wet sand or water of wading depth and probes in the sand
until encountering a clam. Another method is to shufe
one’s bare feet along the bottom until a siphon or shell
is felt. Pismo clams can also be found by looking for
the half-inch-long tufts of the commensal hydroid (Clytia
bakeri) which attaches to the shell and is exposed above
the sandy surface. Divers search for the clams by probing
with a knife or looking for exposed shells, siphons, or tufts
of hydroids.
Pismo clams have a distinctive and excellent avor; they
are prepared as chowder, seafood cocktail, fried or eaten
raw. Pismo clams have been implicated in several human
fatalities involving Paralytic Shellsh Poisoning (PSP). It is
Pismo Clam, Tivela stultorum
advised that only the white meat be consumed and that
Credit: DFG
all dark meat and digestive organs be discarded.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 135
siphon toward the beach, and the ligament at the center byssal threads degenerate. In laboratory culturing experi-
Pismo Clam
of the hinge oriented up. Burrowing is accomplished by ments, fertilized eggs hatched into larvae in approxi-
moving the foot rapidly to loosen the surrounding sand. mately 48 hours. Larvae 60 to 72 hours old displayed
Then jets of water eject the loosened sand up along the the behavior of settling to the bottom and remaining
shell sides, and the weight of the clam and pull of the foot benthic or near-benthic throughout larval development. If
together drag the clam down through the sand. larval Pismo clams in nature also exhibit a benthic phase,
larval transport by nearshore currents may be limited.
The age of Pismo clams has been determined by observa-
Larvae larger than 0.009 inch and 22 to 50 days old have
tion of marked individuals and by growth rings on the
completed metamorphosis, developed a foot, and buried
shell. In California, a growth ring is generally formed
themselves in the sand. At day 120, post-larval clams
during the winter months when water temperatures are
(0.048 inch) have the triangular appearance of an adult.
cool and food abundance is relatively low. In Baja Califor-
No byssal threads were observed on laboratory-cultured
nia, most clams form a growth ring during the August-
post-larval Pismo clams.
October period, although some may form a ring at any
time of the year. Little is known of post-larval conditions in nature; how-
ever, in laboratory cultures post-larval growth was rela-
The Pismo clam is about 0.009 inch at metamorphosis and
tively slow, and survival generally poor. Although spawn-
may grow to more than 7.3 inches in length. Growth is
ing probably occurs every year, it is not always measurably
continuous throughout the clam’s life, with the average
successful. In some years, virtually no young-of-the-year
length increasing by approximately 0.84 inch per year for
clams settle on beaches. Recruitment success appears
the rst three years. Increases in shell length are greatest
to be inuenced by oceanographic conditions (water tem-
in spring, summer and early fall. Growth of older clams is
perature, currents), which in turn inuence phytoplankton
slower. At age 10, the increase in shell length is usually
availability. Unfortunately, the necessary conditions for
not more than 0.2 inch per year. A 4.5-inch clam may be
optimum spawning success are not known.
from ve to nine years old. At Pismo Beach, clams reach
4.5 inches between ages seven and eight. The Pismo clam is a lter feeder. Water taken in through
the incurrent siphon passes over the gills, where food par-
In California, the largest Pismo clam reported was 7.32
ticles are removed. Food includes organic and inorganic
inches long and estimated to be 23 years old. The oldest
particles such as phytoplankton, bacteria, zooplankton,
Pismo clam was estimated to be 53 years old. In Baja Cali-
eggs, sperm, and detritus from the disintegration of plants
fornia, the largest Pismo clam reported was 7.36 inches
and animals. The inhalant siphon has a very ne net of
long and estimated to be 26 years old. Several Pismo clams
delicately branched papillae across the opening, forming
from Baja have been aged to be 43 years old. The smallest
a screen that excludes the entrance of large particles but
Pismo clam reported from the wild was 0.24 inch long.
permits the intake of water and food particles. Despite
In the majority of Pismo clams, the sexes are separate
this elaborate system, half of the stomach contents is
with equal numbers of males and females. Fertilization
sand. An actively feeding three-inch clam lters as much
occurs externally when the male releases sperm and the
as 15 gallons of water per day.
female releases eggs into the surrounding water. Pismo
Pismo clams have many predators, including moon snails,
clams are mature at one year in southern California and
rock crabs, sharks, rays, some surf shes such as the Cali-
two years in central and northern California. The smallest
fornia corbina in southern California, gulls, sea otters, and
known mature clam in southern California was 0.7 inch
humans. Otters were estimated to have eaten 520,000
and in northern California was 0.5 inch.
to 700,000 Pismo clams in one year at Monterey Bay.
Spawning can occur anytime, but the majority spawn from
A single sea otter was observed to eat 24 clams in 2.5
June to September. The number of eggs per female
hours. The extension of the sea otter’s range to Monterey
increases with increased shell size and ranges from 10
Bay in 1972, Morro Bay in 1973 and Pismo Beach in 1979
to 20 million eggs per female, with an average of 15
has precluded the recreational shery for Pismo clams in
million per ve-inch female. In laboratory-held clams,
those areas.
egg numbers were roughly proportional to clam size. The
Parasites of the Pismo clam include a polychaete worm
number of eggs ranged from as many as 4.7 million in a
that bores into the clamshell, and larval cestodes, which
2.9-inch female to 0.4 million in a 1.2-inch female. Eggs
have been found inside the clam as 0.15-inch diameter
range in diameter from 0.00296 to 0.00324 inch.
yellowish-white cysts. The cestodes can impair the clam’s
The larvae metamorphose, settle to the sandy bottom,
sexual development but are not harmful to man if eaten.
and attach themselves to the sand grains by means of
Trematodes have been reported in some clam popula-
byssal threads. After several months, when the clam is
tions. A commensal hydroid is often found attached to the
more able to maintain a position on the sandy bottom, the
external shell of the clam, and commensal pea crabs are
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
136
Management Considerations
occasionally found in the mantle cavity and feed on food
Pismo Clam
particles collected by the clam’s gills.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Status of the Population
P Christine A. Pattison
ismo clam populations have been highly variable over
California Department of Fish and Game
the years and from beach to beach. Settlement and
recruitment have also been highly variable from year to
year. The Department of Fish and Game rst examined
References
Pismo clam recruitment in 1919, and annual surveys have
been conducted from 1923 to 2000 to obtain information
Coe, W.R. 1947. Nutrition, growth and sexuality of the
on age, recruitment, year class strength, and exploitation
Pismo clam, Tivela stultorum. J. Exp. Zool. 104(1):1-24.
trends. Through 1948, only Pismo Beach was surveyed.
Coe, W.R. and J.E. Fitch. 1950. Population studies, local
Since 1948, beaches in Morro Bay, Cayucos, Monterey
growth rates and reproduction of the Pismo clam (Tivela
County, and from Santa Barbara County to San Diego
stultorum). J. Mar. Res. 9(3):188-210.
County were subsequently included.
Herrington, W.C. 1930. The Pismo clam: further studies of
During the storms of 1982-1983, Pismo clam populations
the life history and depletion. Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
along southern California beaches were severely depleted,
Fish Bull. 18. 69 p.
resulting in limited recreational sheries after 1983. The
Pismo Beach clam populations had three successive strong Searcy-Bernal, R. 1989. Periodicity of internal growth
year classes (1986, 1987, and 1988), resulting in the largest ring deposition in the Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum)
number of sublegal clams ever recorded from surveys on from Playa San Ramon, B.C., Mexico. Ciencias Marinas
Pismo Beach. Because of the exceptional recruitment in 15(3):45-56.
the Pismo Beach area and low abundance in southern
McLachlan, A., J. E. Dugan, O. Defeo, A. D. Ansell, D.
California, 10,000 clams were transplanted from the Pismo
M. Hubbard, E. Jarmill, and P. E. Penchaszadeh. 1996.
Beach area to Huntington State Beach in 1989. The rst
Beach Clam Fisheries. Oceanography and Marine Biology:
follow-up survey found only 142 clams, the second only 14
an Annual Review 34, 163-232.
clams and three partial shells. Biologists are uncertain as
Weymouth, F.W. 1923. The life-history and growth of the
to the fate of the clams. At the same time, approximately
Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum Mawe). Calif. Fish and Game
1,000 clams were transplanted within the Channel Island
Commission, Fish Bull. 7. 120 p.
National Park.
In 1990, abundance of young Pismo clams appeared to
be a widespread phenomenon along southern and central
California from San Diego to Pismo Beach. Densities were
documented at Ventura County and Pismo Beach of ve
clams per square foot (one- to three-year olds) and 26
clams per square foot (one- to six-year olds), respectively.
From 1990 to the present, recreational shing for Pismo
clams continues on a few southern California beaches.
From 1990 to 1993 a recreational shery occurred in the
Pismo Beach area for the rst time since 1982. During this
period, sea otters were foraging off shore and in other
areas. In 1992, sea otters were again observed foraging in
the Pismo Beach area and in 1993 the last take of a legal
size Pismo clam was reported there. Pismo clam surveys
in the Pismo Beach and Morro Bay areas from 1992 through
2000 indicated low levels of recruitment.
No population estimates have been made for the total
Pismo clam resource in California. Whether successful
recruitment will result in ongoing recreational sheries in
light of continuing human growth and the expansion of the
sea otter’s ranges is unclear.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 137
Sand Crab
History of the Fishery Based on recent catch records, there appears to be poten-
tial for expanding the current market for sand crabs
T he rst complete commercial catch records for sand as bait.
crabs (Emerita analoga) were collected in 1963, when
4,673 pounds were landed. By 1967, reported landings
Status of Biological Knowledge
totaled over 8,300 pounds of sand crabs worth $17,152
to shermen. Since 1977, catch records indicate a greatly
T he sand crab occurs from British Columbia to Magda-
reduced utilization of sand crabs for bait; the annual
lena Bay, Baja California. Although found on nearly all
catch has ranged from zero to 96 pounds averaging only
open-coast sandy beaches, there are gaps in this range
22 pounds per year. This reduced catch should not be
where no sand crabs can be found.
interpreted as a reduction in the size of the sand crab
When feeding, sand crabs burrow tail-rst into the sand
population. Sand crab populations are still robust, though
leaving only the tip of their heads and their large, feath-
they uctuate annually depending on oceanic and climatic
ery antennae protruding. The antennae are extended into
conditions. Instead, the reduced catch is probably due
the backwash of a receding wave and strain food particles
to reduced harvest effort and replacement of sand crabs
from the water. Food particles are transferred to the
with other bait such as ghost shrimp, clams and mussels.
mouth by wiping the antennae through the mouthparts.
Sand crabs are collected in 30 to 36-inch wire mesh nets
The extended antennae produce characteristic V-shaped
by sport and commercial shermen. Mesh size varies from
ripple marks on the beach that indicates the presence of
0.25 to 0.50 inch. The shermen wade into the surf
sand crabs.
and place the net on the bottom as a wave begins to
Mating occurs mostly in spring and summer, but some
recede. The backwash carries the sand crabs into the net,
mating and egg-bearing females are seen year-round.
from which they are removed and placed in a container
Females are larger than males, reaching 1.5 to two inches
held on a belt around the sherman’s waist. Usually only
in length; males seldom exceed 0.75 inch. A two-inch
“soft shelled” crabs (those that have molted recently) are
female may produce as many as 30,000 eggs. The number
saved. Commercial shermen usually sell sand crabs by
of eggs varies with the size of the animal as well as with
the dozen. The size of sand crabs varies widely depending
temperature and food availability. The eggs are carried on
on season and location where they are taken. Because of
the female’s abdomen (pleopods) until hatched. It takes
this, the price per dozen may go up or down based on the
the young two to four months to pass through nine to
size of the crabs available. Demand for sand crabs is often
ten larval stages before they resemble adults. During their
higher through the winter months because of weather-
various larval stages the young Emerita drift at the mercy
related shifts in shing effort from offshore species to
of the currents and may be carried for long distances.
nearshore species. The demand is also increased when
Shifting currents, which carry the larvae “off course,” may
bait stores sponsor perch shing contests. In winter, when
account for population uctuations on a given beach. In
soft-shelled sand crabs are difcult to nd, hard-shelled
southern California, the megalops larvae arrive on the
crabs are also sold. These are often sold by the gallon
beach in the greatest numbers from April to July. Sand
(further complicating commercial catch landing records).
crabs reproduce during their rst year of life in southern
California, and may not live more than two or three years.
Sand crabs that settle in sub-optimal habitat may not
survive their rst winter. Sand crabs in colder waters
might not reproduce in their rst year.
Shore birds, sea gulls, surf scoters, otters and other
marine mammals include sand crabs in their diet. In
addition, many sh eat sand crabs, including surf sh such
as corbina, yellown croaker, spotn croaker and barred
surfperch. For this reason, they make excellent bait for
sport sh, especially for shing from sandy beaches. They
also make good bait for shing from rocky shores or
breakwaters for opaleye.
Sand Crab, Emerita analoga
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
138
Sand Crab
1.2
thousands of pounds landed
1.0
0.8
Sand Crab
0.6
Commercial Landings
0.4
1916-1999, Sand Crab
Data Source: DFG Catch
0.2
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Landings data
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 not available prior to 1992.
Status of the Population Management Considerations
T he reported harvest in 1967 was 8,303 pounds or about See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
two million sand crabs. Most of the catch came from further information.
about 20 miles of beach in the southern part of the
state. Southern California has more than 200 miles of
Kevin Herbinson
sandy beaches, and the total population of sand crabs,
Southern California Edison Company
while undetermined, is extensive. Since only the recently
Mary Larson
molted, soft-shelled sand crabs are usually taken and the
California Department of Fish and Game
hard-shelled crabs are returned, there is little danger
of overshing. A high market demand for hard-shelled
crabs, however, perhaps for purposes other than bait,
References
could result in a shery that would be detrimental to
the population. Though extensive in range, sand crabs are
Cubit, J. 1969. Behavior and physical factors causing
vulnerable to capture because of their habit of forming
migration and aggregation of the sand crab Emerita
dense aggregations near piers and jetties, especially at
analoga (Stimpson). Ecology 50:118-23.
night. Although population sizes are not well known, and
Dillery, D. G., and L. V. Knapp. 1977. Longshore move-
the number of sand crabs on any given beach may uctu-
ments of the sand crab, Emerita analoga (Decapoda, Hip-
ate from year to year, the resource appears to be in good
pidae). Crustaceana 18:233-40.
condition. Although sand crab commercial landings have
been low in recent years, casual observations indicate Dugan, J. E. and D.M. Hubbard. 1996. Local variation in
that the population is as strong as it was in the 1960s. populations of the sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson)
There does not appear to be any reason why annual on sandy beaches in southern California. Revista Chilena
harvests could not equal the 8,000 pounds that were de Historia Natural. 69:579-588.
harvested in 1967 when no apparent detriment to the
Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard and A. M. Wenner. 1994.
population was detected.
Geographic variation in life history in populations of the
sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson), on the California
coast: relationships to environmental variables. J. Exp.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 181: 255-278.
Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard and A. M. Wenner. 1991.
Geographic variation in the reproductive biology of the
sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson), on the California
coast. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 150: 63-81.
Fusaro, C. 1978. Growth rate of sand crabs, Emerita
analoga (Hippidae), in two different environments. Fish.
Bull. 76:369-75.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 139
Wavy Turban Snail
History of the Fishery ing license to harvest these snails. The only regulations
that restrict harvesting are the commercial tidal inverte-
T he California commercial shery for wavy turban snails brate regulations that prohibit the harvest of any snail
(Megastrea undosa) is a small emerging shery that species within 1,000 feet of the low tide mark on shore.
began in the early 1990s. Today, turban snails are of com- This regulation has prevented expansion of the shery
mercial value in southern California and Baja California, from the San Diego area to the Channel Islands where most
Mexico. Although still in its infant stages with a small of the snail habitat occurs within this restricted zone.
number of participants and a limited market, this shery
has the potential for rapid growth in light of the snail’s
Status of Biological Knowledge
increased market value and the closure and decline of
other dive sheries. Archaeological evidence suggests that
L ittle is known about the biology of the wavy turban
native peoples shed wavy turban snails prior to European
snail. Its classication is problematic, as there have not
and Asian settlement of California.
been analyses of related genera worldwide. This results
Wavy turban snails are harvested by divers, and the shing in a question of whether Megastraea is proposed as a
gear is identical to gear used in the commercial shery full genus, as we have done here, or is recognized as
for red sea urchins. Participants in the shery are also a subgenus of Astraea. A closely related species is M.
commercial sea urchin harvesters. Recorded landings of turbanica, which was rst discovered on the outer coast of
this species began in 1992 with overseas markets for Baja California, Mexico.
the meat (foot) and the shell (made into buttons). Land-
This species of snail is one of the largest turbinid gastro-
ings peaked in 1993 and crashed the following year with
pods living in California waters. Shells reach six inches in
the loss of market demand. Landings uctuated between
diameter and have heavy, sculptured, undulating ridges.
1995 and 1997 with the development of new markets and
The base of the shell is at and the operculum is hard,
peaked again at a higher level in 1998. The snail shery
thick, oval, and uncurved, with well-dened rough ridges.
is centered in the area off San Diego with most of the
The shell is covered with a brous periostracum that gives
landings coming from Point Loma.
the shell a light brown or tan color. The periostracum is
Current market demand for the species is for the foot, often covered with coralline algae and other epiphytes.
which is processed and sold to restaurants as an aba- Wavy turban snails are commonly found on rock substrate
lone-like product called wavalone. Other potential mar- from Point Conception, California to Isla Asuncion, Baja
kets occur in Mexico, where a shery for this species California. They range in depths from the intertidal zone
“caracol panocha” has existed for years. In Mexico, the down to over 250 feet.
wavy turban snail shery produces a canned meat prod-
The wavy turban snail is a herbivorous generalist and
uct. Future expansion of the California shery may rely on
individuals have been observed feeding on kelp and cor-
export of snails to Mexico for the canned product market.
alline algae. Predators of this snail are likely the sea
In California, the wavy turban snail shery has virtually no stars and the Kellet’s whelks based on demonstrated
regulations governing the harvest of the species. Fishery escape responses in laboratory experiments. Other preda-
participants need only a valid California commercial sh- tors include octopuses, lobsters, and shes.
Wavy turban snails exhibit differential distribution in size
and density by depth, which may be correlated with physi-
cal (water motion) and biological (intraspecic competi-
tion, predation) processes. Smaller snails are found in
shallow areas with a high density of individuals, and larger
snails are found in deeper depths at lower densities. In
extreme shallow (less than 10 feet) and deep portions
of the depth range, snail densities are also very low. To
escape predation within kelp forests wavy turban snails
crawl or migrate up into the canopy of the giant kelp
plants each night. Large snails can be found in deep water.
For example, a six-inch diameter snail weighing 2.7 pounds
was recently collected from Farnsworth Bank, near Santa
Catalina Island, in 120 feet of water.
A growth study on a population of wavy turban snails
Wavy Turban Snail, Megastrea undosa at Santa Catalina Island indicates that these snails are
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
140
Commercial Landings
Wavy Turban Snail
70 1916-1999,
thousands of pounds landed
Wavy Turban Snail
60
Prior to 1996, there was no specific
Wavy Turban Snail
50 species code for wavy turban snail
landings on the DFG Commercial
40 Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy
turban snail data for 1992-1996
30
were derived from commercial land-
20 ing receipts that were recorded under
the miscellaneous sea snail and com-
10 mercial dive gear codes. Data Source:
DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Management Considerations
slow growing. Growth rates in this study varied both by
snail size and density. As is typical for many marine
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
invertebrates, growth rates are higher for smaller sized
further information.
snails and progressively slower as size increases. Aside
from a slow growth rate, this study also reports sexual and
seasonal variations in growth. Two different growing peri-
Ian Taniguchi and Laura Rogers-Bennett
ods during the year were identied, a low growth period
California Department of Fish and Game
in the spring and summer months and a high growth period
in fall and winter. Sexual differences in growth rate were
observed with females growing more slowly than males.
References
Studies on reproduction conducted in Baja California sug-
Alfaro, A.C. and R.C. Carpenter. 1999. Physical and biologi-
gest that reproductive activity is year-round with major
cal processes inuencing zonation patterns of a subtidal
peaks in the spring and fall. Immature gonads were
population of the marine snail, Astraea (Lithopoma) undosa
observed in juveniles less than 2.2 inches in shell diam-
Wood 1828. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 240(2): 259-283.
eter. Fully mature gonads were observed in females with
shell diameter greater than 3.5 inches and males greater Bea, A.G. and W.F. Ponder 1979. A revision of the species of
than 3.1 inches. Histological examination of gonad samples Bolma Risso, 1826 (Gastropod: Turbinidae). Records of the
showed that the snails might spawn either completely, Australian Museum 32: 1-68.
partially, incompletely, or not at all. In shallow water,
Belmar Perez, J., S.A. Guzman del Proo, and I. Martinez
partial spawners were more abundant than in deeper
Morales. 1991. Gonadic maturity and reproductive cycle of
water (60 feet). Complete spawners were dominant. Three
wavy turban snail (Astrea undosa Wood, 1828: Gastropoda:
reproductive phases occur during the year. Gonad growth
Turbinidae) in Bahia Tortugas, Baja California Sur. Anales
and maturity take place during the spring and early
del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia, Universidad
summer, followed by spawning in late summer. Somatic
Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. 18: 169-187.
growth occurs during the fall and winter. Recruitment of
German, F. and G. Torres. 1996. Age and growth of Astraea
new juveniles has been observed from January to April.
undosa Wood. in Baja California, Mexico. Bull. Mar. Sci.
59(3): 490-497
Status of the Population Halliday, E.B.B. 1991. The natural history and ecology of
Astraea undosa in a southern California kelp forest. M.S.
A lmost nothing is known about the population densities
Thesis, University of California , Santa Cruz.
of wavy turban snails in California. Estimates of popu-
McLean, J.H. 1970. New Eastern Pacic Subgenera of Turbo
lation abundance of wavy turban snails are made periodi-
Linnaeus, 1758 and Astraea Röding, 1798. The Veliger
cally by the Channel Islands National Park Kelp Forest
13:71-72.
Monitoring Program each year. These shery-independent
surveys from the northern Channel Islands and Santa Bar- Morris, R.H., D.P., Abbott, and E.C., Haderlie. 1980. Inter-
bara Island have been conducted since 1982. Density sur- tidal Invertebrates of California. Stanford University Press,
veys indicate interesting temporal patterns in abundance Stanford California.
with abundance in 1998 and 1999 the greatest in the
time series.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 141
Rock Scallop
History of the Fishery shellsh measures ve to six inches in shell diameter, but
occasionally individuals exceeding eight inches are found.
P urple-hinge rock scallops (Crassadoma gigantea,
Sexes are separate although cases of hermaphroditism
referred to in earlier literature as Hinnites multirugo-
have been reported. An increase in number of females
sus) are very popular among sport divers and shore col-
relative to males among larger adults has suggested pro-
lectors in California, Mexico, and the Pacic Northwest.
tandry (functioning early as males, but later becoming
The shellsh is prized for its avorful, almost sweet, meat
females). Other possible explanations for this nding
(adductor muscle). No commercial taking of rock scallops
include differential growth rates and/or survival. southern
has been allowed in California. The California Department
California rock scallops exhibit a bimodal annual repro-
of Fish and Game (DFG) determined several decades ago
ductive cycle with spawning periods in late spring-early
that these mollusks were patchy in distribution and com-
summer and again in mid-fall.
mercial exploitation would endanger their survival. Thus,
Rock scallops are lter feeders deriving the bulk of their
rock scallops have remained in the domain of the non-
nutrition from phytoplankton. Dinoagellates appear to
commercial collector. Large numbers of rock scallops are
dominate the diet. Detritus may also be utilized as food.
taken by collectors at low tides and by divers near shore
Predation may limit numbers of rock scallops chiey due
or aboard sport diving vessels in southern California.
to losses of early free-living and newly cemented juveniles
It is difcult to estimate landings of rock scallops since
to sea stars and crabs, but adults enjoy a high degree of
many are taken incidentally. However, records of the DFG
immunity to such activity by virtue of their ability to close
1978-1987 indicate an average of 928 were taken per year
sharp margined valves quickly. However, sea otters may
by divers from commercial passenger sport diving boats
succeed in breaking the shells of adult rock scallops using
operating largely at the Channel Islands.
their favored tools, cobble stones.
The scallops are usually pried from their attachment sur-
An intensive study of the biology and aquaculture poten-
faces with an “abalone iron.” The large adductor muscle is
tial of the rock scallop was undertaken in the mid-1970s
easily shucked from the opened shells and separated from
by researchers at San Diego State University, supported
mantle and viscera. Divers often eat the scallops fresh
by the UC Sea Grant Program. Basic biological information
from the shell, either underwater or above! As part of
was gained concerning reproduction, culture, foods, and
a research program at San Diego State University, rock
environmental requirements. Under the most favorable
scallop adductor muscle samples were analyzed by a pro-
conditions, growth rate of juveniles and young adults held
fessional taste panel, compared to common brands of
in the sea in suspended culture exceeded two inches per
commercial scallops. By almost all criteria, rock scallops
year. It was established that the rock scallop could be
ranked superior to others.
reared from the microscopic egg to marketable size (four
to ve inches) in about two and a half years.
Status of Biological Knowledge Rock scallops proved intolerant of salinity reduction
greater than 30 percent. Thus, the species is not found
T he purple-hinge rock scallop is distinctive, typically in estuaries and bays where freshwater dilutes the saline
having an irregular oval outline, a rather rugose upper water to levels below 25 parts per thousand. In areas with
free shell (left valve) and a tentacle-bearing mantle, usu- well-circulated oceanic water, adults proved amazingly
ally orange or gray. The interior aspect of the hinge line hardy; survival from juvenile to adult stages was usually
on both valves bears a zone of purple pigment. Adults close to 100 percent.
typically are rmly attached to the substratum, in contrast
For many years, oyster farmers at Point Reyes have reared
to most other scallops that live free on sand or mud
rock scallops in pens for sale at a local retail market.
bottom. After passing a free-living juvenile life, attach-
Juveniles set naturally among the oysters under cultiva-
ment is achieved by temporary byssal threads. Permanent
tion in Drakes Estero are recovered and placed in sub-
attachment occurs once the young scallop reaches a size
merged mesh cages for rearing to a size of about ve
of about one-inch through deposition of shell material by
inches (about two years). These scallops are sold for about
the right valve in conformity to the microrelief of the
$1 each. The adductor muscle in scallops of that size
substratum.
weighs about a tenth of a pound. Rock scallop meats,
Throughout its range from Sitka, Alaska, to Magdalena therefore, were valued (1982) at $10 per pound.
Bay, Baja California, Mexico, the rock scallop is generally
While rock scallops in southern California show two spawn-
found from the lower intertidal to depths as great as 100
ing peaks during the year, some northern populations
feet. Offshore reefs are typically populated, but concrete
spawn only once a year. Year-round spawning can be
pier pilings and jetty rock at entrances to bays in southern
achieved in the hatchery. Larvae are reared through their
California have become favored habitats. Commonly this
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
142
Status of the Population
planktonic stages (about ve weeks) and fed unicellular
Rock Scallop
algae until settlement and the onset of metamorphosis.
T his shellsh is locally common, especially on offshore
Early juvenile stages at 1/16- to 1/8-inch cling to the
reefs, but in no case is it numerous. Heaviest take of
substrate by byssal threads. These anchoring laments
rock scallops occurs at spots frequented by sport diving
may be detached by the young scallop, allowing swimming
vessels. Larger adults are becoming rare in these locations
for brief periods and relocation if necessary. When the
and individuals as small as two inches are being taken
juvenile scallop reaches one-half to one inch (about six
in large numbers. The present bag limit is 10, but rock
months), attachment becomes permanent through cemen-
scallops may benet from some size, bag, and seasonal
tation. Usually rm substrates such as rock and shell are
limitation.
preferred in nature. Specially formed plastic surfaces are
provided for cementation in aquaculture.
Through experiments conducted at San Diego State Uni-
Management Considerations
versity, it was found that metamorphosing young rock
scallops may be collected from the plankton using “spat See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
collectors” developed in Japan for the Japanese sea scal- further information.
lop. The spat collectors, onion bags packed with monola-
ment gillnetting, are now known to be attractive to larvae
David L. Leighton
of many species of scallops, regardless of adult habitat.
Marine Bioculture and Carlsbad Aquafarm
As an alternative to production of young in a hatchery
system, the simple placement of spat collectors at inter-
mediate depths in the ocean for several months’ time
References
is an economic advantage. Several aquaculture groups in
California, Washington state, and British Columbia, have
Leighton,D.L. 1991. Culture of Hinnites and related scal-
tested the concept of rock scallop spat collection. The
lops on the Pacic American coast. Chapter 7 in: Estuarine
principal difculties encountered so far are coincident col-
and Marine Bivalve Mollusk Culture. W. Menzel, Ed. CRC
lection of pink and spiny scallops and in northern waters,
Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
and kelp scallops in southern waters, making separations
Leighton, D.L. and C.F. Phleger. 1981. The Suitability of
tedious. Typically, a single spat collection bag, approxi-
the Purple-hinge Rock Scallop for Marine Aquaculture.
mately one cubic foot, immersed at a depth of 20 feet for
Univ. Calif. Sea Grant Program, Technical Series. San Diego
two months, will yield between 100 and 500 juvenile scal-
State University, Center for Marine Studies, Contribution
lops, perhaps 25 percent being rock scallops. Until com-
No. 50.
mercial hatcheries are developed to produce substantial
numbers of juvenile stock available to growers at a few MacDonald, B.A., and N.F. Bourne. 1989. Growth of the
cents each, the use of spat collectors seems a preferred purple-hinge rock scallop, Crassadoma gigantea Gray, 1825
practice. In addition, commercial hatcheries in Washing- under natural conditions and those associated with sus-
ton state and Alaska have produced commercial quantities pended culture. Jour. Shellsh Res. 8(1): 179-186.
of seed for their own use. The seed is available to other
shellsh growers for purchase at reasonable prices.
Generally, rock scallops have not been subject to prob-
lems associated with pollutants. The adductor muscle is
usually all that is consumed. That tissue is not a storage
organ for metabolites or toxins. A single case of paralytic
shellsh poisoning was reported in 1980 during a red tide
off northern California. In this instance, which was fatal, a
diver consumed viscera in addition to the adductor muscle
from several scallops. This unique case is thought to have
been exacerbated by alcohol consumed by the victim at
the same time.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 143
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Black Green Pink Red White Unidentified All Purple Sea Red Sea
Abalone1
Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Urchin Urchin
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 762,001 762,001 ---- ----
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 637,780 637,780 ---- ----
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 602,919 602,919 ---- ----
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 759,203 759,203 ---- ----
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 806,716 806,716 ---- ----
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,481,170 1,481,170 ---- ----
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,523,394 1,523,394 ---- ----
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,555,134 1,555,134 ---- ----
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,241,812 2,241,812 ---- ----
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,352,861 2,352,861 ---- ----
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,060,770 2,060,770 ---- ----
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,816,530 2,816,530 ---- ----
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,066,243 2,066,243 ---- ----
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,438,858 3,438,858 ---- ----
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,176,513 3,176,513 ---- ----
1931 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,262,166 3,262,166 ---- ----
1932 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,817,345 2,817,345 ---- ----
1933 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,756,188 2,756,188 ---- ----
1934 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,223,492 3,223,492 ---- ----
1935 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,870,921 3,870,921 ---- ----
1936 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,302,195 3,302,195 ---- ----
1937 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,863,175 2,863,175 ---- ----
1938 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,121,468 2,121,468 ---- ----
1939 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,804,440 1,804,440 ---- ----
1940 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,724,084 1,724,084 ---- ----
1941 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,002,330 1,002,330 ---- ----
1942 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 164,462 164,462 ---- ----
1943 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 680,274 680,274 ---- ----
1944 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,630,402 1,630,402 ---- ----
1945 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,429,312 2,429,312 ---- ----
1946 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,095,762 2,095,762 ---- ----
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,669,285 2,669,285 ---- ----
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,195,852 3,195,852 ---- ----
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,599,998 3,599,998 ---- ----
1950 ---- 9,958 2,019,710 1,431,071 ---- ---- 3,460,739 ---- ----
1951 ---- 8,367 2,719,381 1,352,317 ---- ---- 4,080,065 ---- ----
1952 ---- 4,186 3,587,636 1,182,022 ---- ---- 4,773,844 ---- ----
1953 ---- 5,852 3,439,657 1,412,948 ---- ---- 4,858,457 ---- ----
1954 ---- 1,223 2,703,219 1,394,595 ---- 108 4,099,145 ---- ----
1955 ---- 1,225 2,189,039 1,996,511 ---- ---- 4,186,775 ---- ----
1956 660 14,002 1,845,006 2,428,393 ---- ---- 4,288,061 ---- ----
1957 1,950 47,880 2,804,111 2,566,813 ---- ---- 5,420,754 ---- ----
1958 ---- 905 2,545,709 1,677,404 ---- ---- 4,224,018 ---- ----
1959 ---- 560 2,375,531 2,180,658 5,075 ---- 4,561,824 ---- ----
1960 ---- 455 1,572,096 2,693,857 ---- ---- 4,266,408 ---- ----
1961 ---- 526 1,678,275 2,873,628 1,337 ---- 4,553,766 ---- ----
1962 ---- 3,710 1,717,271 2,462,200 ---- ---- 4,183,181 ---- ----
1963 ---- 33,319 1,502,639 2,807,920 ---- ---- 4,343,878 ---- ----
1964 ---- 97,273 1,612,376 2,369,564 ---- ---- 4,079,213 ---- ----
1965 ---- 12,129 2,071,242 2,490,875 438 ---- 4,574,684 ---- ----
1966 ---- 145,420 2,162,941 2,656,408 ---- ---- 4,964,769 ---- ----
1967 200 106,545 1,619,746 2,697,610 4,100 ---- 4,428,201 ---- ----
1968 700 427,135 2,270,108 1,776,054 845 ---- 4,474,842 ---- ----
1969 4,991 157,263 1,900,206 1,564,205 28,009 ---- 3,654,698 ---- ----
1970 15,327 270,200 1,408,921 1,194,788 11,212 ---- 2,900,448 ---- ----
1971 46,650 1,089,706 347,983 1,193,948 36,741 ---- 2,715,189 ---- 200
1972 1,014,892 424,808 403,709 1,104,462 143,819 ---- 3,093,558 ---- 76,457
1973 1,912,519 156,804 371,352 663,919 83,112 ---- 3,192,730 ---- 3,594,695
1974 1,145,396 121,563 455,324 751,060 113,765 ---- 2,594,993 ---- 7,101,815
1975 684,793 170,927 458,235 742,769 71,821 ---- 2,135,839 ---- 7,567,154
1976 356,951 120,489 431,143 739,621 81,907 ---- 1,733,147 ---- 11,106,426
1977 463,301 97,457 318,494 537,450 17,603 ---- 1,435,172 ---- 16,536,295
1978 420,045 92,987 287,052 488,800 3,633 ---- 1,293,058 ---- 14,427,547
1979 331,489 61,166 156,491 439,476 502 ---- 989,389 ---- 20,558,950
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
144
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Black Green Pink Red White Unidentified All Purple Sea Red Sea
Abalone1
Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Urchin Urchin
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 518,619 63,234 139,267 516,304 1,071 ---- 1,238,566 ---- 22,167,108
1981 521,007 64,003 94,257 429,922 162 112 1,109,494 ---- 26,433,986
1982 633,400 88,696 86,282 430,902 907 256 1,240,455 ---- 19,441,151
1983 484,366 56,910 67,239 230,973 482 55 840,074 ---- 17,756,472
1984 436,620 31,945 57,495 300,173 498 1,156 827,966 2,575 14,978,869
1985 359,898 24,152 68,914 368,689 1,655 1,015 824,329 2,260 19,998,191
1986 273,927 25,943 51,872 267,709 1,228 6,048 626,787 1,430 34,134,025
1987 311,666 28,985 31,631 396,705 2 1,550 770,546 ---- 46,061,653
1988 203,443 23,521 19,025 324,461 2 75 570,526 ---- 51,987,994
1989 228,955 20,150 22,554 475,264 22 775 747,719 1,500 51,188,502
1990 94,193 27,333 23,268 378,915 17 217 523,942 89,633 45,269,659
1991 27,220 8,162 12,883 330,975 3 2,812 382,057 388,000 41,938,120
1992 37,714 10,304 18,229 448,841 ---- ---- 515,088 316,134 32,366,557
1993 2,031 10,858 19,933 428,591 ---- ---- 461,414 165,032 26,852,646
1994 ---- 992 15,575 285,990 47 15 302,664 137,613 23,770,707
1995 ---- 1,073 16,398 245,524 37 ---- 263,079 79,802 22,260,967
1996 ---- 56 4 233,816 ---- 138 234,020 55,701 20,066,110
1997 ---- ---- ---- 124,808 ---- ---- 124,808 122,004 18,020,774
1998 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 14,068 10,554,835
1999 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 29,797 14,173,288
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented here indicates
that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was closed after 1997.
2
Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
3
Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for 1992-1996 was
derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 145
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Sea Dungeness Rock Sand Spider Spiny Coonstripe Ocean Red Rock
Crab 2
Cucumber Crab Crab Crab Lobster Shrimp Shrimp Shrimp
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- 1,296,912 ---- ---- ---- 250,632 ---- ---- ----
1917 ---- 2,580,840 ---- ---- ---- 355,259 ---- ---- ----
1918 ---- 1,619,280 ---- ---- ---- 195,750 ---- ---- ----
1919 ---- 1,304,904 ---- ---- ---- 256,894 ---- ---- ----
1920 ---- 1,220,568 ---- ---- ---- 247,156 ---- ---- ----
1921 ---- 800,952 ---- ---- ---- 334,271 ---- ---- ----
1922 ---- 860,328 ---- ---- ---- 376,310 ---- ---- ----
1923 ---- 1,075,800 ---- ---- ---- 384,381 ---- ---- ----
1924 ---- 1,506,816 ---- ---- ---- 294,356 ---- ---- ----
1925 ---- 3,234,312 ---- ---- ---- 432,059 ---- ---- ----
1926 ---- 3,296,280 ---- ---- ---- 442,198 ---- ---- ----
1927 ---- 2,960,712 ---- ---- ---- 508,123 ---- ---- ----
1928 ---- 3,574,464 270 ---- ---- 355,800 ---- ---- ----
1929 ---- 1,792,776 ---- ---- 396,764 ---- ---- ----
1930 ---- 1,992,384 12 ---- ---- 374,450 ---- ---- ----
1931 ---- 2,231,384 56 ---- ---- 383,697 ---- ---- ----
1932 ---- 2,433,987 145 ---- ---- 319,307 ---- ---- ----
1933 ---- 3,208,494 14,818 ---- ---- 380,014 ---- ---- ----
1934 ---- 3,768,081 24,570 ---- ---- 366,651 ---- ---- ----
1935 ---- 3,680,188 12,817 ---- ---- 371,661 ---- ---- ----
1936 ---- 2,311,802 16,202 ---- ---- 414,183 ---- ---- ----
1937 ---- 1,627,753 1,710 ---- ---- 393,242 ---- ---- ----
1938 ---- 3,873,600 3,847 ---- ---- 308,378 ---- ---- ----
1939 ---- 5,953,361 3,984 ---- ---- 376,928 ---- ---- ----
1940 ---- 5,151,014 3,460 ---- ---- 281,102 ---- ---- ----
1941 ---- 4,260,340 2,645 ---- ---- 357,334 ---- ---- ----
1942 ---- 2,414,110 80 ---- ---- 168,641 ---- ---- ----
1943 ---- 2,315,338 ---- ---- ---- 298,377 ---- ---- ----
1944 ---- 2,934,776 540 ---- ---- 512,490 ---- ---- ----
1945 ---- 4,334,383 12,188 ---- ---- 478,619 ---- ---- ----
1946 ---- 9,624,368 11,600 ---- ---- 690,272 ---- ---- ----
1947 ---- 10,733,398 15,244 ---- ---- 593,401 ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- 11,892,891 20,938 ---- ---- 563,520 ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- 11,115,476 18,636 ---- ---- 834,658 ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- 11,704,648 20,007 ---- ---- 933,449 ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- 11,568,353 22,592 ---- ---- 824,611 ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- 12,997,451 16,977 ---- ---- 807,070 ---- 205,485 ----
1953 ---- 8,278,519 49,300 ---- ---- 749,245 ---- 287,410 ----
1954 ---- 7,829,651 39,058 ---- ---- 901,293 ---- 296,797 ----
1955 ---- 6,119,320 54,051 ---- ---- 855,416 ---- 838,656 ----
1956 ---- 14,320,549 59,171 ---- ---- 735,869 ---- 1,168,519 ----
1957 ---- 19,118,484 151,131 ---- ---- 647,281 ---- 1,376,641 ----
1958 ---- 17,282,766 166,962 ---- ---- 632,618 ---- 1,728,680 ----
1959 ---- 17,262,261 129,534 ---- ---- 505,947 ---- 1,785,228 ----
1960 ---- 14,876,148 120,903 ---- ---- 351,032 ---- 2,026,787 ----
1961 ---- 11,711,327 151,782 ---- ---- 412,453 ---- 2,002,709 ----
1962 ---- 3,222,580 200,304 ---- ---- 515,816 ---- 1,782,955 ----
1963 ---- 1,951,461 240,611 ---- ---- 584,192 ---- 2,093,063 ----
1964 ---- 1,815,363 263,885 ---- ---- 446,655 ---- 1,100,147 ----
1965 ---- 4,803,906 328,686 ---- ---- 480,325 ---- 1,422,364 ----
1966 ---- 12,376,390 330,843 ---- ---- 489,088 ---- 1,190,197 ----
1967 ---- 11,716,488 324,386 ---- ---- 449,874 ---- 1,412,513 ----
1968 ---- 16,015,581 351,657 ---- ---- 312,483 ---- 2,274,770 ----
1969 ---- 7,938,996 504,076 ---- ---- 309,472 ---- 2,947,563 ----
1970 ---- 15,413,589 539,579 ---- 1,032 225,399 ---- 4,047,589 ----
1971 ---- 9,662,265 542,732 ---- ---- 224,486 ---- 3,080,583 ----
1972 ---- 1,563,006 843,530 ---- ---- 398,217 ---- 2,489,970 ----
1973 ---- 1,022,873 955,788 ---- ---- 233,179 ---- 1,239,976 ----
1974 ---- 685,000 864,033 ---- 52 190,950 ---- 2,387,366 ----
1975 ---- 3,934,663 1,201,867 ---- ---- 201,412 ---- 4,998,369 ----
1976 ---- 15,726,774 1,227,766 ---- ---- 292,534 ---- 3,500,788 ----
1977 ---- 33,647,863 1,083,015 ---- ---- 251,568 ---- 15,871,332 ----
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
146
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Sea Dungeness Rock Sand Spider Spiny Coonstripe Ocean Red Rock
Crab 2
Cucumber Crab Crab Crab Lobster Shrimp Shrimp Shrimp
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1978 8,780 9,362,197 956,874 ---- 1,919 560,986 ---- 13,887,379 ----
1979 69,438 12,978,505 953,590 ---- 14,402 419,529 ---- 5,182,703 ----
1980 23,060 15,934,778 1,083,957 ---- 9,869 416,249 ---- 3,868,214 ----
1981 ---- 10,435,441 1,375,227 ---- 10,914 478,863 ---- 4,164,495 ----
1982 139,487 6,973,679 1,277,872 ---- 16,495 524,710 ---- 4,543,806 ----
1983 163,495 5,301,828 1,397,109 ---- 47,108 525,087 ---- 1,132,742 ----
1984 52,354 5,340,088 1,676,298 ---- 56,338 444,998 ---- 1,628,992 ----
1985 ---- 6,210,272 1,739,835 ---- 41,777 447,848 ---- 3,381,117 ----
1986 77,967 7,758,277 2,097,408 ---- 34,678 488,804 ---- 6,757,818 ----
1987 107,678 6,857,118 1,567,138 ---- 99,556 449,778 ---- 8,023,390 ----
1988 159,106 11,297,300 1,237,934 ---- 107,609 610,859 ---- 11,236,298 ----
1989 160,011 5,717,145 1,302,687 ---- 70,066 742,571 ---- 13,351,218 ----
1990 147,284 10,367,719 1,784,135 ---- 93,451 705,341 ---- 8,700,916 ----
1991 581,974 4,246,029 1,594,010 ---- 99,269 589,240 ---- 10,364,782 ----
1992 549,191 8,327,150 1,468,309 57 89,871 585,556 ---- 18,682,775 ----
1993 646,210 11,958,039 1,287,378 1,072 71,173 554,438 ---- 7,126,933 2,564
1994 646,926 13,491,363 1,002,397 127 67,290 470,144 ---- 11,225,390 27
1995 589,888 9,236,191 935,535 51 59,427 616,382 ---- 5,784,944 186
1996 839,382 12,331,365 1,040,812 4 58,852 668,453 10,142 9,351,086 94
1997 452,640 9,908,520 1,181,159 216 95,801 915,272 79,173 13,983,357 12
1998 770,679 10,692,760 1,234,160 3 99,797 735,703 64,718 1,843,246 63
1999 600,875 8,713,702 790,437 65 68,621 493,201 75,540 4,241,744 308
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented here indicates
that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was closed after 1997.
2
Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
3
Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for 1992-1996 was
derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 147
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Ridgeback Spot Wavy
Ridgeback Spot Wavy
Turban Snail 3
Prawn Prawn
Turban Snail 3
Prawn Prawn
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 281,661 213,826 ----
1916 ---- ---- ----
1981 192,637 370,536 ----
1917 ---- ---- ----
1982 129,402 302,268 ----
1918 ---- ---- ----
1983 153,779 109,096 ----
1919 ---- ---- ----
1984 589,998 50,464 ----
1920 ---- ---- ----
1985 896,816 63,941 ----
1921 ---- 1,006 ----
1986 670,573 102,486 ----
1922 ---- ---- ----
1987 241,872 88,535 ----
1923 ---- ---- ----
1988 142,694 166,670 ----
1924 ---- ---- ----
1989 165,527 189,878 ----
1925 ---- ---- ----
1990 90,842 317,655 ----
1926 ---- ---- ----
1991 128,732 311,431 ----
1927 ---- ---- ----
1992 75,757 225,441 324
1928 ---- ---- ----
1993 80,532 347,792 17,777
1929 ---- ---- ----
1994 162,761 444,354 1
1930 ---- 8,736 ----
1995 414,660 394,986 4,640
1931 ---- 4,114 ----
1996 574,724 527,581 1,571
1932 ---- 982 ----
1997 387,549 761,605 2,414
1933 ---- 798 ----
1998 435,837 787,857 65,605
1934 ---- 910 ----
1999 1,392,370 613,129 24,276
1935 ---- 2,351 ----
1936 ---- 1,861 ----
- - - - Landings data not available.
1937 ---- 3041 ----
1938 ---- 3,285 ----
1
Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since
1939 ---- 4,271 ----
identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented
1940 ---- 2,361 ----
here indicates that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was
1941 ---- 5,357 ----
closed after 1997.
1942 ---- ---- ----
2
Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
1943 ---- 43 ----
3
Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings
1944 ---- ---- ----
on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for
1945 ---- 1,452 ----
1992-1996 was derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under
1946 ---- 5,175 ----
the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
1947 ---- 1,687 ----
1948 ---- 2,771 ----
Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
1949 ---- 3,952 ----
1950 ---- 5,790 ----
1951 ---- 2,694 ----
1952 ---- 3,016 ----
1953 ---- 2,723 ----
1954 ---- 2,695 ----
1955 ---- 1,182 ----
1956 ---- 1,233 ----
1957 ---- 767 ----
1958 ---- 911 ----
1959 ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- 147 ----
1961 ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- 694 ----
1963 ---- 8,445 ----
1964 ---- 5,775 ----
1965 ---- 697 ----
1966 ---- 3,575 ----
1967 ---- 2,590 ----
1968 ---- 7,239 ----
1969 ---- 5,073 ----
1970 ---- 22,259 ----
1971 ---- 11,773 ----
1972 ---- 20,970
1973 ---- 24,384 ----
1974 4,015 218,167 ----
1975 28,522 173,498 ----
1976 3,130 112,069 ----
1977 2,972 53,838 ----
1978 45,716 67,547 ----
1979 356,715 83,778 ----
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
148
Nearshore Ecosystem
Fish Resources: Fishery Management Plan. The status of most nearshore
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
shes is still uncertain, and it is expected to take time
Overview to determine the effects of current management of
individual stocks.
A
Non-rocksh species have differing afnities (generally
bout 450 species of nsh occupy California’s near-
dened by their adult behavior) to the nearshore eco-
shore ecosystem within the limits of the continental
system habitats. They include the open-water, coastal-
shelf. The 60 plus species addressed in this chapter exhibit
migratory species (e.g., yellowtail, California barracuda,
a wide range of distribution, habitat preferences, move-
white seabass, and Pacic bonito); the nearshore sandy-
ment patterns, reproductive characteristics, age, and
bottom dwellers (e.g., California halibut, sanddabs, starry
growth. Their contributions to the sheries of California
ounder, Pacic angel shark, skates and rays); kelp and/or
are varied as well. As a group these sh inhabit all avail-
rocky reef inhabitants (e.g., kelp bass, giant sea bass,
able nearshore habitats (e.g., kelp forests, rocky inter-
lingcod, opaleye and halfmoon); and those that spend
tidal, sandy bottom, open water) in the nearshore ecosys-
most of their lives in or near the surf-zone (e.g., California
tem at some stage in their life-cycle.
corbina, surfperches, grunion, and the croakers). Most of
The kinds and distributions of sh occupying the nearshore
these species are commercially harvested, but a few have
ecosystem off California are inuenced by several envi-
been designated for sport sh use only (e.g., kelp bass,
ronmental factors, water temperature being perhaps the
barred sand bass, spotted sand bass, California corbina,
most important. California’s lengthy coastline spans nearly
and spot and yellown croakers). Giant sea bass has been
10 degrees of latitude resulting in waters varying from
managed under a moratorium on both commercial and
cool-temperate in the north to warm-temperate in the
recreation take since 1982. While very little has been
south. Warmer waters off southern California and Baja
done to assess the population size of most of these spe-
California, Mexico, support several game sh and other
cies, catch and landing trends can often be used to
locally important sh that are found infrequently if at all,
gauge the health of the resource. For example, California
north of Point Arguello, the northern reach of the South-
halibut catches have been remarkably stable over the last
ern California Bight. By contrast, species common north
two decades, and, while both lingcod and Pacic bonito
of Point Arguello may nd preferred water temperatures
catches show precipitous declines in landings, California
to the south by moving deeper in the water column. In
barracuda sport sh catches have increased to the levels
addition, seasonal, annual, and decadal changes in water
of the 1950s. However, the status of most is uncertain.
temperature (e.g., El Niño) result in northerly movements
This uncertainty stems from a lack of historic and current
of sh that might otherwise be found mostly off Baja Cali-
sheries data useful in stock assessments, absence of
fornia, or southern California. Besides water temperature,
life history and recruitment data, as well as insufcient
habitat preferences and general ecological requirements
understanding of habitat relationships and requirements,
control distributions.
and the probable effects of habitat alterations (including
Nineteen species, mostly rocksh, have been included pollution) on stocks.
in the Nearshore Fisheries Management Plan required by
Commercial sheries for these species utilize a variety of
the Marine Life Management Act of 1998. These species
gear, which has been made more efcient over the past
occur coast-wide, but some are rarely seen in southern
century through the introduction of modern net, line, and
California (e.g., quillback, China and black rockshes, kelp
greenling and monkeyface prickleback), while others are
rare north of Point Conception (e.g., California sheephead,
California scorpionsh, calico rocksh and treesh). Col-
lectively, these species are relatively long-lived, slow-
growing sh that take several years to reach maturity
and spawn. Most of the species were seldom harvested
commercially until the development of the live-sh shery
during the early 1990s. No estimates of abundance exist
on a coast-wide basis for any of the species. Managers,
shermen, and scientists are all concerned about the sus-
tainability of the shery. These concerns have resulted in
the imposition of several recent management measures to
balance harvests with available resources, reduce sport-
commercial conicts, and stabilize the nearshore shery
Surf
pending completion of a more comprehensive Nearshore
Credit: Darrel Deuel
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 149
trap materials, modied shing techniques and strategies, and peaked during the 1980s (1,122 General Gill and Tram-
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
improved deck machinery and hydraulics, and advances in mel Net Permits issued during 1985). However, these nets
sh nding electronics. Some gear determined to be too have since been largely restricted to deeper waters from
effective or not sufciently selective has been prohibited. one to ten miles offshore, and prohibited in the inshore
Historically and currently used commercial gear includes rocksh shery. They are also prohibited north of Point
ve general types as follows: 1) traps; 2) hook-and-line; Reyes, Marin County. Restrictions on the use of this gear
3) gill and trammel nets; 4) trawl nets; and 5) round were enacted to address problems with accidental entan-
haul nets. glement and drowning of seabirds and marine mammals
and to address sport-commercial shery allocation con-
Traps: The nsh trap is a relative newcomer to nearshore
icts. Gill and trammel net use in the nearshore ecosys-
commercial sheries. During the late 1980s, nsh traps
tem has declined since the mid-1980s (presently about 220
were introduced into nearshore waters off southern Cali-
permits issued annually), but the gear is still used to vary-
fornia for taking several shallow-water species (including
ing degrees to take lingcod, white seabass, California bar-
California sheephead, cabezon, kelp and rock greenling,
racuda, California halibut, and rocksh in waters seaward
California scorpionsh, several species of rocksh, and
of areas closed to its use. California halibut and rocksh
moray eel). The nsh trap shery has since expanded in
taken in gill and trammel nets have increasingly appeared
number of participants and number of species harvested,
in the live/premium sh shery, while nets (trawl and gill
and has progressed northward to nearshore waters off
and trammel nets) accounted for about 23 percent of 1999
central and northern California. Traps accounted for about
landings of live/premium sh. Restrictions on the use of
seven percent of the statewide live/premium sh landings
gill and trammel nets include minimum mesh sizes for
during 1999. The nsh trap shery off southern California
several species, limits on the length of net that may be
has operated under a nsh trap permit as a limited entry
shed for various species, and several depth closures.
shery since 1996. North of Point Arguello a nsh trap
permit is not required, but a recent moratorium on issuing Trawl nets: Early commercial trawls such as paranzella
general trap permits restricts entry pending evaluation of and beam trawls have been largely replaced by otter
comprehensive limited access measures. trawls used to take bottom and midwater shes including
rocksh, lingcod, California halibut, and other atshes.
Hook-and-Line: A variety of commercial hook-and-line
Trawl nets are presently authorized for use to take
gear (vertical and horizontal setlines, troll lines, rod and
nsh three or more nautical miles offshore, and to
reel, and “stick gear”) is employed to take a variety of
take California halibut in the halibut trawl grounds off
nsh in the nearshore ecosystem. Of most immediate
southern California. Restrictions on trawl nets include
interest (and concern) is the live sh hook-and-line shery
minimum cod-end mesh sizes to enable the release of
that employs primarily rod-and-reel and “stick” or “pipe”
sub-adult shes.
gear. In general, this gear is used to harvest the same spe-
cies of live/premium sh as nsh traps and is conducted Round Haul Nets: Round haul gear (purse seine and lam-
under the same nearshore shery permit. Seventy percent para) used during the 1920s to harvest millions of pounds
of the statewide live/premium sh landings were caught of white seabass, barracuda, and yellowtail is now prohib-
on hook-and-line gear. The number of nearshore hook-and- ited for these species. Presently, smaller scale round haul
line shery participants increased during the past decade, gear in the form of lampara and drum seines (bait nets)
with about 1,130 permits issued during 1999. This number is used to take white croaker, perch, and bait species that
is expected to remain stable with recent adoption of the include smelt, white croaker, and queensh, but this take
moratorium on new permits. Commercial vessels using is relatively small.
shing lines within one mile of the mainland shore are Early recreational shing during the late–1800s off Califor-
limited to a maximum of 150 hooks per vessel and 15 nia targeted giant sea bass, tuna, white seabass, and
hooks per line. These restrictions were enacted in 1995 yellowtail using handlines and early rod-and-reel shing
to address initial concerns for the rapidly expanding com- gear from private or chartered craft. During the 1920s and
mercial hook-and-line shery that included some vessels 1930s, early commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFV)
employing thousands of hooks. Other hook-and-line gear began to carry anglers to nearby popular shing grounds,
include troll lines used to harvest California halibut in enabling catches of game shes that were not as readily
the San Francisco Bay area and rod-and-reel used to take available to those shing from shing barges, piers, jet-
redtail surfperch in northern California. ties, and beaches. Following World War II, the number
Gill and Trammel Nets: The use of gill and trammel nets to of CPFV increased dramatically to serve a public eager
harvest rocksh, California halibut, white seabass, Califor- to go shing. In southern California, the CPFV shery
nia barracuda, soupn shark, angel shark, white croaker, expanded during the 1960s into winter shing for rocksh
and other nearshore species, increased during the 1960s and lingcod to make year-round what had been a spring-
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
150
through-fall shery. Also, improved rod-and-reel shing
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
equipment, the introduction of skin and SCUBA diving
equipment, and accelerated private boat ownership begin-
ning in the 1950s helped to increase the recreational
take of sh during the latter half of the 1900s. By the
1950s, ocean sport shing was becoming a recognized
factor in the potential over-harvest of some species, and
regulations affecting the take of popular nearshore shes
were promulgated along with commercial restrictions to
maintain stocks of shes in the nearshore ecosystem.
Other hook-and-line gear types include handlines that still
are seen occasionally on piers, and the “poke pole” used
in intertidal areas along the north coast to capture cabe-
zon, greenling, and an occasional shallow water rocksh
or prickleback. Most commercial forms of nets and traps
are prohibited for sport use. However, baited hoop nets
are permitted for taking certain species, and beach nets
may be used to take surf smelt north of Point Conception.
Spears, harpoons, and bow-and-arrow shing tackle may
be used to take all varieties of skates, rays, and sharks
(except white shark) and grunion may be taken only by
hand. Recreational divers operating from shore or from
vessels use spearshing equipment with or without aid
of SCUBA gear. Anglers seeking game sh generally use
live bait when available (anchovy, sardine, squid, and
small croakers), but are often equally effective with the
extensive arsenal of articial lures available ranging from
shrimp ies to one-pound or greater hexagon steel bars
tipped with a single or treble hook (often used for ling-
cod). A variety of sand worms, sand crabs, mussels and
squid are favored bait for shore shing while squid is the
standard for most rockshes.
The outlook for sustaining healthy nearshore sh stocks
and sheries has generally improved in the eyes of manag-
ers with enactment of California’s recent landmark legisla-
tion, the Marine Life Management Act of 1998. Fishery
management plans for nearshore sh and white seabass
should be close to adoption by the California Fish and
Game Commission as this report nears publication date.
The draft master plan, which is also a required by MLMA,
calls for additional FMPs to be developed for California
halibut, skates and rays, surfperches, kelp bass and barred
sand bass.
Don Schultze
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 151
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
154
California Sheephead
History of the Fishery family Labridae. All have protruding canine-like jaw teeth
California Sheephead
and large cycloid scales. The sheephead is easily dis-
A lthough the commercial catch of California sheephead tinguished from the others by its color pattern, greater
(Semicossyphus pulcher) dates back to the late 1800s, body depth, and large size. Males have a black head and
a renewed interest in this shery has developed only tail separated by a reddish middle section. The chin is
recently. Today, it is exploited by sport divers, anglers, white in both sexes but females are uniformly pinkish.
and especially by a growing live sh commercial industry. Young-of-the-year are bright reddish orange with a lateral
longitudinal white stripe and large black spots at the
In the late 1800s, Chinese shermen took large quantities
rear of the dorsal n and upper caudal. Although the
of sheephead for drying and salting. Since that time,
sheephead ranges from Monterey Bay, California to the
except for brief periods, sheephead was not a targeted
Gulf of California, it is not common north of Point Concep-
species until the 1980s. In the recently developed live sh
tion. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, beginning life
shery, the sh are trapped and taken live to supply Asian
as a female with older, larger females developing into
seafood restaurants. Because small sh, usually females,
secondary males. Female sexual maturity may occur in
are easier to keep alive in small aquaria, prereproductive
three to six years and shes may remain female for up
individuals have often been taken. A recent minimal size
to fteen years. Timing of the transformation to males
limit of 12 inches should reduce this possibility.
involves population sex ratio as well as size of available
The largest commercial catches of California sheephead
males and sometimes does not occur at all.
were from 1927 to 1931, peaking in 1928 at more than
Males have been aged at around 50 years, and can achieve
370,000 pounds. During and shortly after World War II
a length of three feet and a weight exceeding 36 pounds.
(1943-1947), the sheephead catch increased from 50,000
As growth rates are higher and mortality lower at the
to 267,00 pounds, probably because of easy availability
northern end of the range, the sexual transformation
close to port. Since the 1940s and until the late 1980s, the
occurs later there and the males are larger. Batch spawn-
average annual landing has been about 10,000 pounds and
ing occurs between July and September, and estimates
the price of this catch was under $0.10 per pound. During
of yolky oocytes present in the ovary vary from 36,000
the 1980s, the price and catch increased slightly until the
to 296,000 for sh from eight to 15 inches. Larval drift
live sh market began in the late 1980s. The price of live
ranges from 34 to 78 days with two settlement patterns.
sh has reached as high as $9 per pound. Between 1989
Most larvae settle at about 37 days, but some slow their
and 1990, the catch quadrupled and reached a peak in
growth at this time and may continue as pelagic larvae
1997 of 366,000 pounds and a market value of $840,176.
for another month. Settlement size remains between 0.5
During 1994 to 1999, the live catch varied between 87.8
and 0.6 inches. The sheephead has a broad diet with
percent and 73.7 percent of the total sheephead landings.
crabs, barnacles, mollusks, urchins, polychaetes and even
The catch has decreased from 1997 to 1999, but the
bryozoa occasionally dominant. There appears to be no
market value has remained high.
evidence of its preference for abalone and lobster as cited
The estimated recreational catch of sheephead between
in earlier literature. Because of its large size of adult
1983 and 1986 averaged 312,400 pounds with a maximum
males, there are few known predators. The sheephead is a
estimate of 448,800 pounds for 1986. Commercial pas-
rocky reef, kelp bed species found to depths of 280 feet.
senger shing vessel data from 1947 to 1998 indicate an
Adults are usually solitary, but sometimes are seen in large
average take of 28,030 sh per year with a maximum in
schools, perhaps associated with spawning aggregations.
1983 of about 69,000 sh. Using an average weight of two
pounds per sh (a low estimate) the sport catch, except in
the cited maximal periods, often exceeds the commercial
catch. During the 1930s, sheephead were considered “junk
sh” by most recreational anglers and were not kept
because of their soft esh. However, the large size, ne
avor, and use as a lobster substitute in salads and other
recipes has more recently made them a preferred and
even targeted species by anglers and divers.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he California sheephead and two other common South-
California Sheephead (male), Semicossyphus pulcher
ern California species, the rock wrasse and the seno-
L.Sinclair
rita are members of the mostly tropical, worldwide wrasse Miller & Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 155
California Sheephead
400
thousands of pounds landed
350
California Sheephead
300
250
200
150
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
100
California Sheephead
50
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
Management Considerations
They are considered resident species and no systematic
movements have been described.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Status of the Population
T John Stephens
here has been no ongoing analysis of the status of
Occidental College-retired
the California sheephead. Long-term studies at two
localities in southern California, Palos Verdes Point and
the King Harbor breakwater, have shown that the species
References
was not abundant in the cool period of the early 1970s.
The population increased at both sites with the onset
Cowen, R.K. 1991. Variation in planktonic larval stage
of the little El Niño of 1977-1978. At King Harbor, the
duration of Semicossyphus pulcher Mar. Ecol. Prog. Series
.
population peaked in 1978, decreased through the end of
69, 1-2:9-15.
the great El Niño of 1982-1983, and remained low until
Cowen, R.K. 1990. Sex change and life history patterns of
the early 1990s when it again reached a large size (1994
the labrid Semicossyphus pulcher across an environmental
and 1998). With the exception of 1982-1983 El Niño, the
gradient. Copeia 1990(3):781-795.
population seems to increase during El Niño conditions
and this is reected in increased recruitment. At Palos Cowen, R.K. 1985. Large scale patterns of recruitment
Verdes, the population peaked in 1981, then declined until by the labrid Semicossyphus pulcher; causes and implica-
1983, but has remained relatively stable since. At maxi- tions. J. Mar. Res. 43(3)1985:719-742.
mum, the density of sheephead at the Palos Verdes kelp
Victor, B.C. 1987. Growth, dispersal, and identication of
bed was three times that of the King Harbor breakwater.
planktonic labrid and pomocentrid reef sh larvae in the
There is no evidence from these very limited data that the
Eastern Pacic ocean. Mar. Biol. 95(1):145-152.
population is threatened by existing shery practices. The
Warner, R.R. 1975. The reproductive biology of the
projected decrease in landings during 1999 may reect
protogynous hermaphrodite, Pimelometopon pulchrum
the imposition of a minimum size limit.
(Pisces:Labridae) Fish. Bull. U.S. 73:262-283.
80
thousands of fish landed
California Sheephead
60
40
20
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Sheephead
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
156
Cabezon
History of the Fishery Concerns over the increased harvesting of nearshore spe-
Cabezon
cies and potential impacts on shed populations led to
E vidence exists for subsistence use of cabezon (Scorpae- passage of legislation known as the Marine Life Manage-
nichthys marmoratus) by prehistoric native Americans ment Act of 1998 (MLMA) which was enacted in January of
along the central California coast. Cabezon represented 1999. Within the MLMA, minimum commercial size limits
ve percent of the sh remains taken from exposed rocky were implemented for several nearshore species including
coastal archaeological sites. a 14-inch size limit for cabezon. Implementation of the
size limit may have been responsible for the decline in
As game sh, cabezon are prized by sport divers for
landings between 1998 and 1999.
edibility, size, and ease of capture. The recreational take
aboard commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs) does
not comprise a large proportion of the catch, but those
Status of Biological Knowledge
that are taken are usually of a good size, averaging
around 3.5 pounds. In central California, cabezon gener-
T he cabezon is the largest member of the cottid family.
ally account for less than one percent of observed annual In Spanish, cabezon means bigheaded or stubborn and,
CPFV catches. Recreational landings data are available proportionally, the massive head is denitely the largest
from 1980 to 1999 for CPFV and private boat anglers as feature of this sh. The specic name marmoratus refers
well as shore and pier anglers from the National Marine to the marbled or mottled appearance of the body, which
Fisheries Service Recreational Fisheries Information Net- can be reddish, greenish, or bronze. Generally the belly
work (RecFIN). RecFIN data from 1982 to 1999, for all four is a pale turquoise or white, and there are no scales on
modes of recreational shing showed a 40 percent decline the body.
in average annual landings between the 1982 through 1989
Populations range along the eastern Pacic coast from
and 1993 through 1999 periods, from 122 to 74 tons. Data
Point Abreojos, Baja California to Sitka, Alaska. They are
from RecFIN also suggest that cabezon are more common
found on hard bottoms in shallow water from intertidal
in catches north of Point Conception and more frequently
pools to depths of 250 feet. Fish frequent subtidal habitats
caught by anglers shing on private boats and from shore
in or around rocky reef areas and in kelp beds.
than on CPFVs.
Cabezon may reach an age in excess of 20 years. The
Cabezon were taken incidentally in commercial catches
largest recorded size is 39 inches in length and over 25
by boats shing for rocksh using hook-and-line or gillnets
pounds. Limited information available on age at sexual
until 1992. From 1916 to 1992, commercial landings only
maturity in published literature suggests that in central
exceeded 30,000 pounds in 1951 and again from 1979
California males begin to mature in their third year and
to 1982, when reported landings reached 62,614 pounds.
all are mature by their fourth year. Average size of males
Development of the live/premium shery in the late 1980s
in their fourth year is 17 inches. Some females begin to
resulted in increasing commercial catches of many species
mature in their fourth year between 16 and 20 inches in
occupying the nearshore environment in and around kelp
length, and all females are sexually mature by the sixth
beds. The commercial catch of cabezon started increasing
year when they are 19 to 23 inches in length. These
in 1992 with the expansion of marketing live sh to mar-
data collected from 1950-1951 suggest a size of female 50
kets and restaurants in California’s Asian communities.
percent maturity greater than 16 inches. Unpublished DFG
Most of the initial increase in landings was from the Morro
data collected in the Morro Bay area from 1996 to 1999
Bay area, but by 1995, landings in most central and north-
indicates that half of females are mature at 14 inches.
ern California ports had increased dramatically. Sampled
catches from the Morro Bay area from 1995 to 1998 sug-
gested a large proportion of landings were immature sh.
Commercial landings continued to increase through 1998
with over 373,000 pounds reported, then declined slightly
in 1999 but remained over 300,000 pounds. Live sh are
taken primarily by trap and hook-and-line gear. About 90
percent of the catch is landed live. Markets demanded top
quality live sh, and shermen received premium prices
for their catches evidenced by the increase in average
price per pound from $0.85 in 1990 to $3.30 in 1998.
The estimated value of reported landings in 1998 was
$1,231,700.
Cabezon, Scorpaenichthys marmoratus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 157
Cabezon
In California, spawning commences in late October, peaks Cabezon normally occur nearshore, except as larvae. Usu-
in January and continues until March, whereas in Washing- ally solitary, juveniles and adults are common on rocky
ton, the spawning season begins in November and extends bottom areas with dense algal growth. They are often in
to September with a peak in March and April. There is the vicinity of kelp beds, jetties, isolated rocky reefs or
some evidence that females may spawn more than once pinnacles, and in shallow tide pools.
in a season. Females spawn their eggs on subtidal, algae- Most of their time is spent lying in holes, on reefs, in
free rocky surfaces, which can be horizontal or vertical in pools, or on kelp blades beneath the canopy. As sh get
orientation. Up to 152,000 eggs can be expected from a older and larger they tend to migrate to deeper water. In
large female (30 inches, 23 pounds). Masses of the pale shallower water, they migrate in and out with the tide to
green or reddish eggs are up to 18 inches in diameter and feed. Their habit of lying motionless makes them an easy
up to two to four inches thick. As the eggs develop they target for sport divers.
change to an olive green color.
There have been several reports on the toxicity of cabe-
Status of the Population
zon roe. In the 1950s, the well-known ichthyologist Carl
Hubbs published a personal account of eating cabezon roe.
L imited information is available on population biology
As part of an ongoing search for another caviar, Hubbs
or changes in biomass over time. Recent increases in
and his wife consumed the roe and esh of a cabezon
commercial shing pressure on cabezon have intensied
for dinner. Four hours later they “... awoke in misery ...
efforts to learn more about their life history charac-
and were violently ill throughout the rest of the night.”
teristics, population biology, and to assess stock size.
Laboratory evidence indicates that the roe is lethal to
Recreational landings have declined concurrent with the
mice, rats, and guinea pigs. Anecdotal information on egg
increase in commercial shing efforts and reported com-
masses exposed at low tide suggests they are not preyed
mercial landings. As shing effort increases, it is likely
upon by natural predators such as raccoons, mink, or
that populations living in heavily utilized areas will decline
birds. Observations of captive cabezon have documented
further.
a female eating her own eggs with no resulting ill effects.
Males fertilize the eggs after spawning by the female, and
Management Considerations
the male guards the nest. Apparently the same nest sites
are used from year to year. Fish are very protective of
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
the nests for the two to three weeks it takes the eggs to
further information.
develop and hatch.
Pelagic juveniles are silvery when small, spending their
rst three to four months in the open ocean feeding on Deborah Wilson-Vandenberg and Robert Hardy
tiny crustaceans and other zooplankton. At a size of about California Department of Fish and Game
1.5 inches, juveniles leave the open water and assume a
demersal existence. They appear in kelp canopies, tide
References
pools, and other shallow rocky habitats such as breakwa-
ters from April to June in California.
Fuhrman, F.A., G.J. Fuhrman, D.L. Dull, and H.S. Moser.
Cabezon can be aptly described as “lie-in-wait” predators.
1969. Toxins from eggs of shes and amphibians. J. Agric.
Their mottled coloration lets them blend in with the sur-
Food and Chem. 17:417-424.
roundings, as they lie motionless to wait for their next
Gobalet, K.W. and T. L. Jones, 1995. Prehistoric Native
meal. With large, robust pectoral ns set low on the body
American sheries of the central California coast. Trans.
and a powerful tail, they quickly lunge after unwary prey,
Amer. Fish Soc. 124:813-823.
engulng it in their large mouth.
Lauth, R.R. 1989. Seasonal spawning cycle, spawning fre-
Their diet consists mainly of crustaceans, although large
quency, and batch fecundity of the cabezon, Scorpaenich-
and small cabezon have different diets. Adult sh eat
thys marmoratus, in Puget Sound, Washington. Fish. Bull.,
crabs, small lobsters, mollusks (abalone, squid, octopus),
U.S. 87:145-154.
small sh (including rockshes), and sh eggs. Small juve-
niles depend mainly on amphipods, shrimp, crabs, and O’Connell, C.P. 1953. The life history of the cabezon
other small crustaceans. Scorpaenichthys marmoratus (Ayres). Calif. Dept. Fish and
Game, Fish Bull. 93. 76 p.
Juveniles are eaten by rockshes and larger cabezon, as
well as by lingcod and other sculpins. Large cabezon may
be preyed upon by harbor seals or sea lions.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
158
Cabezon
400
thousands of pounds landed
350
300
Cabezon
250
200
150
Commercial Landings
100
1916-1999, Cabezon
50 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
30
thousands of fish landed
25
20
Cabezon
15
10
5
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Cabezon
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 159
California Scorpionfish
History of the Fishery sh mature at six inches (one year), over 50 percent are
mature by seven inches (two years) and all reproduce by
T he California scorpionsh (Scorpaena guttata) is a nine inches (four years). Spawning occurs from April to
valuable commercial sh in southern California. For August, peaking in June and July. Scorpionsh are ovipa-
many years, the shery experienced a long decline, with rous, have external fertilization, and females produce
peak catches of 223,000 pounds in 1925 and uctuating eggs imbedded in the gelatinous walls of hollow, pear-
catches thereafter. However, the rise of the live sh shaped “egg-balloons.” These paired structures, each ve
shery in the 1990s led to the shery’s resurgence, as this to 10 inches long, are joined at their small ends. The walls
species’ bright red color and hardiness after capture has of these “balloons” are about 0.1 inch thick, transparent
made it a favorite target. Today, about 85 percent of the or greenish in color, and contain a single layer of eggs.
commercial California scorpionsh catch goes to the live Each egg is about .05 inch in diameter. The egg masses
sh shery. Catches in 1998 totaled about 75,000 pounds oat near the surface and the eggs hatch within ve
valued at $175,000. Most sh are taken in traps or by days. Very young sh live in shallow water, hidden away
hook-and-line. in habitats with dense algae and bottom-encrusting organ-
isms. Small crabs are probably the most important food
California scorpionsh are a moderately important part
of California scorpionsh, although other items, such as
of the sport shery in southern California. They are
small shes, octopuses, shrimps and even pebbles are
taken primarily from party boats and private vessels, and
sometimes eaten. These animals are primarily nocturnal
occasionally from piers and jetties, mostly from Point
and feed at night. Octopuses prey on small individuals.
Mugu southward.
California scorpionsh make extensive spawning migra-
tions in late spring and early summer, when most adults
Status of Biological Knowledge move to 12 to 360 foot depths, forming large spawning
aggregations on or near the bottom. During spawning,
C alifornia scorpionsh are easily distinguished from these aggregations rise up off the bottom, sometimes
most other California shes. They are a relatively approaching the surface. Spawning occurs in the same
heavy-bodied species, with strong head and n spines, areas year after year, and it is likely that the same
ranging in color from red to brown, often with purple sh return repeatedly to the same spawning ground.
blotches and always covered with dark spots. They reach When spawning ends, the aggregations disperse and many
a length of 17 inches. (though not all) of the sh move into shallower waters.
California scorpionsh live from tide-pool depths to about The sharp spines on the dorsal, anal and pelvic ns are
600 feet (usually in about 20-450 feet) from Santa Cruz to poisonous. The toxin is produced in glands that lie at
southern Baja California, and in the northern part of the the base of each spine and run up to the tip through a
Gulf of California. Preferring warmer water, the species groove. A wound, although painful, is seldom fatal, and
is common as far north as Santa Barbara. While they are bathing the wound in hot water can reduce the pain. The
most abundant on hard bottom (such as rocky reefs, sewer heat alters the toxin’s structure making it harmless. One
pipes and wrecks), they are also found on sand. should be careful not to make the water so hot as to
damage tissue.
California scorpionsh grow to 17 inches and some live
at least 21 years. After four years of age, females grow
faster than males and reach a larger size. Although a few
Status of the Population
N o population estimates exist for California scorpi-
onsh. However, data from trawl studies conducted
by the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Southern
California Coastal Water Research Project and the Orange
County Sanitation District from 1974-1993 show that there
are substantial short-term uctuations in California scorpi-
onsh abundance within the Southern California Bight.
California Scorpionfish, Scorpaena guttata
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
160
California Scorpionfish
250
thousands of pounds landed
California Scorpionfish
200
150
100 Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
50 California Scorpionfish
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Management Considerations 250
thousands of fish landed
California Scorpionfish
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for 200
further information. 150
100
Milton Love 50
University of California, Santa Barbara
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Scorpionfish
References CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (Party Boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
Love, M. S., B. Axell, P. Morris, R. Collins and A. Brooks.
1987. Life history and shery of the California scorpi-
onsh, Scorpaena guttata, within the southern California
Bight. Fish. Bull. US 85(1):99-116.
Stull, J. K. and C.-L. Tang. 1996. Demersal sh trawls off
Palos Verdes, southern California, 1973-1993. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Res. Rep. 37:211-240.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 161
Black Rockfish
History of the Fishery vessel (CPFV) catches from Fort Bragg south to the San
Francisco/Princeton area. Black rocksh also are impor-
B lack rocksh (Sebastes melanops), also known as black tant to divers. In a 1972 survey in northern and central
snapper and black bass, are a minor to moderate California, black rocksh comprised approximately eight
component of nearshore commercial and recreational sh- percent of all sh taken by divers, and were primarily
eries, with increasing importance from the San Francisco taken in northern California.
area northward. The Eureka area accounts for 80 percent A six- to seven-fold increase in estimated annual landings
to 90 percent of all commercial landings in the “black of black rocksh in the recreational shery occurred
rocksh” market category (which may contain other spe- between 1957 through 1961 and 1979 through 1986, which
cies, most commonly blue rocksh). Annual statewide reects a substantial increase in shing effort between
landings in the 1990s ranged from 189,000 to 277,000 the two periods. Since then, estimated total recreational
pounds, except in 1993 when only 86,000 pounds were catch has been variable and has not continued to increase
landed. Landings from port areas south of San Francisco steadily. During the 1990s, the annual estimated take of
have never comprised more than 10 percent of total land- black rocksh in the recreational shery was fairly similar
ings in the market category. In the San Francisco port to that of the commercial shery.
area, “black rocksh” landings increased fteen-fold from
In 1992, DFG initiated a voluntary catch-and-release pro-
1989 to 1992. The majority of black rocksh in commercial
gram in recreational and commercial sheries for black
sheries are landed dead but a small portion are now
rocksh less than 14 inches in total length in response
landed live in the recently expanded live sh shery,
to concerns over the lack of larger sh in sampled rec-
primarily from Morro Bay north to Fort Bragg. They are
reational catches, particularly in the San Francisco/Half
also taken incidentally in the commercial salmon troll sh-
Moon Bay area. The program was unsuccessful in the
ery. Black rocksh also comprise minor to signicant pro-
primary target area (Bodega Bay to Santa Cruz) and was
portions of other market categories, in particular “blue
not continued due to two factors: 1) increased recruit-
rocksh,” “small rocksh,” and “unspecied rocksh.”
ment of sub-adult sh to the shery (i.e., recreational
Black rocksh are an important recreational species, par- anglers were unwilling to return a substantial portion of
ticularly in northern California. Long-term monitoring of their catch to the water); and 2) perceived competition
the recreational skiff shery in the Eureka/Crescent City for the same resource from non-cooperative shermen.
area showed them as the most frequently taken species
every year in the 1990s; in 1997, for example, black
Status of Biological Knowledge
rocksh comprised 58 percent of the observed catch.
During the period from 1981 through 1986, the Marine
B lack rocksh range from Amchitka Island, Alaska to
Recreational Fisheries Statistical Survey (MRFSS) showed
Santa Monica Bay in southern California, but are
that in Humboldt and Del Norte Counties (northern Cali-
uncommon south of Santa Cruz. They frequently occur in
fornia), black rocksh comprised from 15 to 31 percent
loose schools ten to twenty feet above shallow (to 120
annually of the estimated total marine recreational catch
feet) rocky reefs, but may also be observed as individuals
for all shing modes combined. South of the Eureka
resting on rocky bottom, or schooling in midwater over
area, black rocksh gradually decrease in importance
deeper (to 240 feet) reefs. They may attain a maximum
in the recreational catch and are infrequently observed
length of 25.5 inches in California, although individuals
south of Santa Cruz. They are often among the top 10
over 20 inches are rarely observed today. Average size
species observed annually in commercial passenger shing
observed in commercial and recreational sheries now is
14 to 15 inches in northern California and 11 to 13 inches
in central California.
Black rocksh have a relatively fast growth rate. First
year growth is usually 3.5 to 4.0 inches. Most individuals
become available to the shery by the time they have
reached three to four years of age and are approximately
10 to 11.5 inches. They are larger at equal age then blue
rocksh; four-to-seven-year old black rocksh may average
from 11.5 to 13.8 inches, while blue rocksh range from 10
to 12 inches within that age range. By age ve, growth
rate of female black rocksh surpasses that of males, and
Black Rockfish, Sebastes melanops
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
162
by age 15, female black rocksh may average 2.4 inches
Black Rockfish
600
longer than males.
thousands of fish landed
500
At six years, or about 14 inches, half of all males are
Black Rockfish
400
sexually mature. At seven to eight years, or about 16 300
inches, half of all females are sexually mature.
200
As with all members of the genus Sebastes, fertilization 100
and development of embryos takes place within the 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
female’s body. Black rocksh mating generally occurs
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Black Rockfish
between September and November. Females store the
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
sperm until their eggs mature in December or January, at
which time the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm.
shes) showed an afnity to the same habitat and depth
The larvae develop within thirty days, at which time
range as black rocksh. It is commonly known among
black eyespots become visible to the naked eye. The eyed
shermen that black rocksh in central California are char-
larvae are released into the water from late January to
acterized by localized areas of relatively high abundance
May, peaking in February off of California.
in the nearshore area.
Larvae may remain in the ocean’s surface waters for
The DFG has conducted limited tagging studies on juvenile
three to six months where they are dispersed by currents,
and adult black rockshes. Between 1978 and 1985, 89
advection, and upwelling. They begin to reappear as
black rocksh were tagged in central California. Four tags
young-of-the-year (YOY) in shallow, nearshore waters by
were returned from sh which had been at liberty from
May, but the major recruitment event usually occurs from
18 to 552 days; all sh were recaptured in the same areas
July to August. YOY black rocksh generally recruit to the
where they were released.
shallower portions of kelp beds (15- to 40-foot depth) as
well as semi-protected sandy areas of the coast. As newly
settled YOY (approximately 1.5 inches) they most closely
Status of the Population
resemble yellowtail rocksh YOY. As they grow, YOY black
rocksh more closely resemble YOY blue rocksh in pig-
A lthough no shery-independent population estimates
mentation but lack the mottling on the sides, which are
have ever been made of black rocksh stocks in Cali-
a uniform tan to light brown. As juveniles and adults,
fornia, substantial information exists on relative abun-
black rocksh are frequently mistaken for blue rocksh.
dance and length frequency from shery-dependent sur-
The best characteristics that separate black from blue
veys. Data from the 1981-1986 MRFSS survey showed
rocksh are a wide, unmottled, light blue-gray area along
a 23 percent decline in the average weight of black
the lateral line, a relatively large mouth, the shape of the
rocksh taken compared with sh harvested from 1958
anal n, and black speckling in the dorsal n.
through 1961.
Although black rocksh may occur with blue rocksh, par-
Onboard observations from CPFVs in the San Francisco
ticularly in central and northern California, they are not
area documented a signicant change in the length fre-
considered to be competitors because their diets share
quency of the sampled catch from 1989 to 1990. During
little in common. Juvenile and adult black rocksh primar-
that period, the occurrence of larger adult black rocksh
ily consume crab megalopae, amphipods, isopods, and
(greater than 15 inches) declined precipitously. This
other shes, including YOY rockshes,.
occurred during a time when nearshore commercial hook-
Major predation occurs on all rockshes from the moment and-line shing effort and landings were expanding, as
of larval release throughout the rst year by a variety of mentioned previously. Mean length in the sampled catch
shes and invertebrates, as well as marine birds. Larger from the San Francisco area declined from 14.3 inches
black rocksh are preyed upon by lingcod and marine in 1988-1989 to 12.1 inches in 1990-1991, and has ranged
mammals such as sea lions. from 11.4 to 12.6 inches annually from 1993 to 1998. This
is well below the average length at 50 percent sexual
Black rocksh are commonly associated with other near-
maturity. Since 1993, all other CPFV port areas from
shore sh species, particularly other rockshes. A statis-
Fort Bragg south to Morro Bay have yielded similar low
tical technique, cluster analysis, was used to partition
mean lengths.
CPFV catch data from 1987 to 1992 in the Monterey area
based on the frequency of occurrence of species in the Results from commercial shery sampling are consistent
sampled catch. Interestingly, no other schooling rocksh with the above. For example, 296 black rocksh sampled
was closely associated statistically with black rocksh, from the Morro Bay area commercial nearshore shery
but three benthic species (gopher, China, and brown rock- from 1993 to 1997 averaged 12.2 inches. Coincident with
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 163
these observed declines in mean length were increased Sullivan, M.S. 1995. Grouping of shing locations using sim-
Black Rockfish
harvest rates (catch per angler hour) observed in the ilarities in species composition for the Monterey Bay area
CPFV shery in central California, particularly from 1994 Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel shery, 1987-1992.
to 1997. Thus, the observed decline in mean length is Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech. Rep. No.
partially related to stronger recruitment, and, in spite 59. 37 p.
of increased shing effort on black rocksh in recent VenTresca, D.A., J.L. Houk, M.J. Paddack, M.L. Gingras,
decades, localized populations of adults still must be pres- N.L. Crane, and S.D. Short. 1996. Early life-history studies
ent in California to provide this recruitment. of nearshore rockshes and lingcod off central California,
1987-92. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div.
Admin. Rep. 96-4. 77 pages.
Paul Reilly
California Department of Fish and Game Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish
Bull., U.S. 85:229-250.
References
Hallacher, L.E. and D.A. Roberts. 1985. Differential utiliza-
tion of space and food by the inshore rockshes (Scorpae-
nidae: Sebastes) of Carmel Bay, California. Environ. Biol.
Fishes. 12(2):91-110.
Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, and W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
The marine recreational shery in northern and central
California: a historical comparison (1958-86), status of
stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
current. Calif. Dept. sh and Game, Fish Bull. 176. 192 p.
Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
related sport shes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.
177. 109 p.
Miller, D.J. and J.J. Geibel. 1973. Summary of blue rock-
sh and lingcod life histories; a reef ecology study; and
giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, experiments in Monterey
Bay, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 168.
137 p.
Miller, D.J., J.J. Geibel, and J.L. Houk. 1974. Results of
the 1972 skindiving assessment survey. Pismo Beach to
Oregon. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
Rep. 23. 61 p.
Miller, D.J, and D. Gotshall. 1965. Ocean sportsh catch
and effort from Oregon to Point Arguello, California, July
1, 1957-June 30, 1961. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 130. 135 p.
Miller, D.J. and R.N. Lea. 1972. Guide to the coastal
marine shes of California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Fish Bull. 157. 235 p. [reprinted in 1976 with Addendum,
249 p.]
Reilly, P.N., D.Wilson-Vandenberg, D.L. Watters, J.E. Hard-
wick, and D. Short. 1993. On board sampling of the
rocksh and lingcod Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel
Industry in northern and central California, May 1987 to
December 1991. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour.
Div. Admin. Rep. 93-4. 242 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
164
Blue Rockfish
History of the Fishery averaged 335,000 sh. This species truly has been the
Blue Rockfish
bread and butter of the nearshore recreational angler in
T he blue rocksh (Sebastes mystinus), also known as northern and central California.
bluesh, blue perch, blue bass, priestsh, and reef In a survey of divers conducted in 1972 in northern and
bass, is most commonly caught from the northern Channel central California, blue rocksh ranked second in impor-
Islands (in the Southern California Bight) to the Oregon tance to lingcod with 10.5 percent of all sh landed and
border. Although only a small portion of blue rocksh was the most common rocksh taken, comprising 29.6
landings is from the commercial shery, those landings percent of all rockshes. Preliminary data from a 1999
have increased in the past decade. During the 1987-1989 survey of Monterey Bay area divers revealed that blue
period, landings in the “blue rocksh” market category rocksh was the fourth most abundant species harvested,
(which may include other morphologically similar rock- after California halibut, kelp rocksh, and lingcod.
shes) averaged 25,670 pounds; in 1998 landings were
For more than 25 years, the recreational harvest of rock-
approximately 92,000 pounds. Based on market sampling
sh was limited to 15 sh per day, with 15 blue rocksh
in the Morro Bay area, total landings of the species blue
allowed within that limit. Effective January 1, 2000, the
rocksh are signicantly greater than those of the market
bag limit was reduced to 10 rocksh overall, with 10 blue
category “blue rocksh.” For example, in 1998 in this
rocksh allowed within that limit. The National Marine
port area, estimated total landings for the species were
Fisheries Service considers the blue rocksh a “nearshore
19,300 pounds, yet total reported landings for the market
species.” Effective January 1, 2000, very restrictive limits
category were only 2,100 pounds. The former estimate
on the commercial harvest of nearshore rockshes have
is based on the percentage of blue rocksh in various
been imposed by the National Marine Fisheries Service
sampled market categories and the total landed weight
upon recommendation of the Pacic Fishery Management
of all market categories. Blue rocksh are often landed
Council. In addition, the DFG now requires a special
as “unspecied rocksh” or “group small rocksh,” both
permit for the commercial harvest of nearshore shes,
frequently used market categories.
and it is likely that a restricted access program will be
Blue rocksh have become a minor component of the developed for the nearshore commercial nsh shery
live sh shery, which developed during the 1990s in in California.
California. For example, in the Morro Bay area during the
1996-1998 period, less than one percent of the live sh
Status of Biological Knowledge
landings were blue rocksh, and about four times as many
blue rocksh were landed dead than alive. In 1998, the
B lue rocksh range from the Bering Sea to Punta Baja,
ex-vessel value of all sh landed statewide in the “blue
Baja California, and from surface waters to a maximum
rocksh” market category was $57,700.
depth of 300 feet. They are less common south of the
The blue rocksh is one of the most important recre-
northern Channel Islands and north of Eureka, California.
ational species in California. It is usually the most fre-
They are a medium-sized species among all rockshes; the
quently caught rocksh north of Point Conception for
largest known specimen was 21 inches, although individu-
anglers shing from skiffs and Commercial Passenger Fish-
als exceeding 15 inches are uncommon in central and
ing Vessels (CPFVs). It is also an important species for
southern California. Average size in California recreational
skin and scuba divers using spears, and is occasionally
sheries today is 11 to 13 inches. In central and southern
caught by shore anglers shing in rocky subtidal areas.
California, larger blue rocksh are now common only in
In a 1981-1986 survey of sport sh taken between the
areas distant from shing ports or in larger kelp beds
southern boundary of San Luis Obispo County and Oregon,
which are practical to sh only from the edges.
an estimated 800,000 blue rocksh were harvested annu-
ally - more than any other species. This represents a
doubling of the estimated annual harvest from a similar
survey conducted in 1957-1961.
In every complete year sampled by the department, from
1988 through 1998, blue rocksh has been among the
three most frequently observed species caught on CPFVs
in every major port area from Morro Bay to Fort Bragg.
Based on the Department of Fish and Game’s (DFG)
onboard observations and log book summaries, estimated
annual take of blue rocksh by CPFV anglers ranged from
Blue Rockfish, Sebastes mystinus
199,000 to 546,000 sh for the period 1988 to 1995 and
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 165
Rockshes in general are considered to be slow-growing
Blue Rockfish
2.00
shes. However, blue rocksh are among the faster grow- 1.75
millions of fish landed
ing rockshes. First year growth may vary from 3.0 to 4.5 1.50
Blue Rockfish
inches (central California average about 4.25 inches), and 1.25
1.00
after two years blues may reach six inches. An occasional
0.75
two- or three-year old blue rocksh may be caught by 0.50
anglers, but most do not recruit to the sport and com- 0.25
mercial sheries until four to seven years of age when 0.00
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
they range from eight to 10 inches. Females grow at a
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Blue Rockfish
slightly faster rate than males. Maximum age is about
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
24 years.
During their rst few months on nearshore reefs, larval
Age at rst spawning is protracted for both sexes. Only
and YOY blue rocksh are preyed upon by most large
about 10 percent spawn for the rst time at three years
piscivorous shes. As adults, their predators include ling-
of age. At ve years, or about 10 to 10.5 inches, half of
cod, harbor seals, sea lions, and, occasionally, larger rock-
all males are sexually mature. At six years, or about 11
shes, especially bocaccio.
inches, half of all females have spawned.
Adult blue rocksh are common in kelp beds, where food
In males, the gonads increase in size from May to July, but
is plentiful and the kelp provides protection from preda-
in females the eggs begin maturing from July to October.
tors, but they also occur on deeper rocky reefs between
Males transfer sperm to the females in October, but the
100 and 300 feet deep. In kelp beds they form loose to
embryos do not begin to develop until December when
compact aggregations. Under dense kelp canopies, they
the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm. Embryos
will sometimes form columns at least 30 wide and 80 feet
develop within the female and hatch immediately upon
deep and may be extremely compact. In deeper waters,
being released into the water; larval release usually peaks
they form aggregations that may extend from the surface
in mid-January. Larvae live in the surface waters for four
to the bottom, but they are usually at or below mid-depth.
to ve months, where they may be carried many miles
by ocean currents. Young-of-the-year (YOY) blue rocksh Blue rocksh are commonly associated with other near-
begin to appear in the kelp canopy and shallow rocky shore sh species, particularly other rockshes. A statisti-
areas by late April or early May when they are about 1.2 cal technique, cluster analysis, was used to partition CPFV
to 1.4 inches in length. However, they are not considered catch data from 1987 to 1992 in the Monterey area based
fully recruited each year until July due to the variability in on the frequency of occurrence of species in the sampled
the planktonic period. As YOY, they are mottled reddish- catch. In a broad area along the entire Monterey Peninsula
blue in color upon settlement and may appear in massive extending out to 240 feet deep, blue rocksh were the
swarms in certain years in inshore areas, especially in predominant species and were in close association with
kelp beds. olive, yellowtail, starry, and rosy rockshes. This statisti-
cal relationship has been supported with observations
After more than two decades of estimating relative abun-
using scuba and submersibles.
dance of blue rocksh in central California, DFG biologists
have shown a positive statistical correlation with blue The DFG has conducted marking studies on all size ranges
rocksh recruitment and annual upwelling index. Continu- of blue rocksh from 1.8 to 18 inches. A population study
ing research is directed towards the mechanisms by which using freeze branding as a marking technique resulted
YOY rocksh recruit to nearshore areas, and the relation- in more than 80,000 recently-settled blue rocksh being
ship between spawning areas and recruitment areas, as marked in a ve-week period. These sh showed very
inuenced by current patterns and oceanographic events. little movement from an isolated reef 100 x 150 feet and,
in fact, showed very little movement from one part of the
Feeding habits vary considerably depending upon life his-
reef to another.
tory stage, depth, and locality. Larval and YOY blue rock-
sh consume primarily planktonic crustacea. Adult shes Tagging studies of adult blue rocksh indicate they do
in deeper water feed almost entirely on macroplankton not migrate laterally along the coast. Between 1978 and
consisting of tunicates (salps), scyphozoids (gonadal mate- 1985, over 1500 blue rocksh were tagged and released in
rial of jellysh), and crustaceans. In shallow areas and central California waters by DFG biologists. Eighteen tags
kelp beds, blue rocksh feed on the same types of macro- were subsequently returned, with the sh being at liberty
plankton as those in deeper water, but they also feed on from 11 to 502 days; all were recaptured in the same
algae, small shes, hydroids, and crustaceans, including locations where they were tagged. The longest recorded
amphipods and crab larvae. movement of a blue rocksh from any tagging study was
15 miles. While these studies show adult blue rocksh
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
166
References
populations are more or less discrete at each shing port,
Blue Rockfish
it is not known how much larval drift occurs between
See black rocksh reference list.
shing areas.
Status of the Population
A lthough no shery-independent population estimates
have ever been made of blue rocksh stocks, it
appears that they have withstood considerable shing
pressure over the last four decades and continue to be
healthy, at least north of Point Conception. There is
evidence of a decline in blue rocksh stocks off southern
California since the 1970s. There is a well-documented
difference in the population structure between northern
and central California stocks. Northern stocks are gener-
ally characterized by a wider size range of adults, a
higher proportion of adults greater than 15 inches and
a correspondingly greater mean length, less variability
in annual recruitment, and most likely a higher growth
rate. These attributes are likely a result of a combination
of greater shing pressure and a greater inuence of
anomalous oceanic conditions such as El Niño events in
central California. Greater variability in annual recruit-
ment results in occasional strong year classes which cause
strong length-frequency modes in the sampled catch;
this occurred four times in recreational shery samples
obtained from 1959 to 1983 in central California. It is
believed that the last exceptionally strong year class of
blue rocksh in central California occurred in 1988, which
is cause for concern. However, a relatively strong year
class also was observed in 1999. In 1993, when the
majority of the 1988 year class had become available to
recreational anglers, mean lengths in the sampled catch
declined substantially in central California. For example,
mean length of blue rocksh sampled from Monterey area
CPFVs declined from 11.9 inches in 1992 to 11.0 inches
in 1993. In heavily shed and well-sampled populations of
rockshes, changes in annual mean length from one year
to the next are commonly less than 0.5 inches.
The total number of blue rocksh caught in recreational
sheries increased substantially from the late 1950s to
the mid-1980s, concurrent with increased effort. However
in the past 15 years recreational shing effort has been
variable but has not shown a consistent increase; the
recreational catch of blue rocksh has shown the same
pattern. However, increased commercial shing in the
nearshore area during the same period has put additional
stress on blue rocksh populations. Fishery managers have
increased monitoring efforts for this keystone species of
nearshore ecosystems.
Paul Reilly
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 167
Olive Rockfish
History of the Fishery From April to September, young-of-the-year olive rocksh,
around 1.2 to 1.6 inches long, settle out of the plankton
Olive rocksh (Sebastes serranoides) form a minor part to kelp beds, oil platforms, surfgrass and other structures
of the commercial shery in central and southern Califor- at depths as shallow as 10 feet. During the day, young
nia, where they are primarily taken by hook-and-line. A sh aggregate in the water column, occasionally with blue
relatively small number nd their way into the live sh and black rocksh. They spend the night near or on the
shery. Historically, olive rocksh have been common in bottom, sheltering under algae or among rocks. Young
the recreational shery as far north as Fort Bragg and olives also are found under drifting kelp mats. Olives
were particularly important from central California to the about 2.5 inches long become more active at night, but
northern Channel Islands. As late as the 1980s, olives it is not clear whether adult olives are nocturnal. They
were a very important recreational species throughout do feed commonly on octopuses, which are more available
much of southern California. However, a combination of at night. Sub-adult and adult olives live over high relief
overshing and poor juvenile survival brought about by reefs, as well as around the midwaters of oil platforms.
changes in oceanographic conditions led to a steep decline In shallow waters, they are found throughout the water
(83 percent) in southern California party vessel catches column and occasionally rest on the bottom. They form
between 1980 and 1996. In addition, while they were small to moderate-sized schools and a few often are mixed
still commonly taken in the central California recreational with blue rocksh schools. From tagging studies, most
catch, olive rocksh also declined there in the late 1990s. olive rocksh move relatively little; a maximum movement
of 20 miles has been reported.
Olive rocksh live at least 25 years. Females grow larger,
Status of Biological Knowledge and, beginning at maturation, tend to be longer at a given
age. Males reach maximum length earlier. Throughout
Olive rocksh are streamlined sh with almost no head
California, males mature at a somewhat smaller size and
spines. Their body color is dark brown or dark green-
a slightly greater age than females, however the differ-
brown on the back and light browns or green- brown
ence is not large. Off central California, a few sh were
on sides. There are a series of light blotches on the
mature at 10.6 to 11.2 inches (three years), 50 percent
back. The ns range from olive to bright yellow, and
were mature at 12.9 to 13.7 inches (ve years), and
olives are often mistaken for yellowtail rocksh. Olive
all were mature by 15.2 inches (eight years). Females
rocksh are somewhat drabber in appearance, and yel-
release larvae once a year from December through March,
lowtail rocksh have red-brown ecking on the scales.
peaking in January. Females produce between 30,000 to
They reach a maximum length of two feet.
490,000 eggs per season. Small juveniles are planktivo-
Olive rocksh occur from southern Oregon to Islas San
rous, feeding on copepods, gammarid amphipods, cladoc-
Benitos (central Baja California) from barely subtidal
erans, euphausiids, other crustaceans and sh larvae. As
waters to 570 feet (the latter based on a trawl
they grow, their diet shifts to shes, such as juvenile
specimen collected by the Southern California Coastal
rockshes, squids, octopuses, isopods, polychaete worms
Water Research Project). They are common from about
and krill.
Cape Mendocino to Santa Barbara and around the North-
ern Channel Islands from surface waters to about 396 feet.
Status of the Population
Olives appear to be uncommon off much of both southern
California and Baja California.
T here has been no stock assessment of this species.
However, there is clear evidence that olive rocksh
have declined in abundance south of Pt. Conception.
Milton Love
University of California, Santa Barbara
Olive Rockfish, Sebastes serranoides
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
168
Olive Rockfish
350
thousands of fish landed
300
Olive Rockfish
250
200
150
100
50
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Olive Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
References
Lea, R. N., R. D. McAllister and D. A. Ventresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California. Calif. Dep. Fish Game,
Fish Bull. 177.
Love, M. S. 1980. Isolation of olive rocksh, Sebastes
serranoides, populations off southern California. Fish. Bull.
U.S. 77:975-983.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines
in nearshore rocksh recruitment and populations in the
southern California Bight as measured by impingement
rates in coastal electrical generating stations. Fish. Bull.
96:492-501.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and W. V. Buskirk. 1998. A
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. Fish. Bull. 39:180-195.
Love, M. S. and W. V. Westphal. 1981. Growth, reproduc-
tion, and food habits of olive rocksh, Sebastes serranoi-
des, off central California. Fish. Bull. U.S. 79:533-545.
Pearson, D. E. 2000. Data availability, landings, and
length trends of California’s rocksh. NMFS Adm. Rep.
SC-00-01.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 169
Brown Rockfish
History of the Fishery rocksh has been the most common rocksh species sold
live in San Francisco markets and comprised nearly 50
B rown rocksh (Sebastes auriculatus), commonly percent of the live rocksh catch in 1999.
referred to as bolina by shermen and markets, have The number of vessels landing brown rocksh peaked
long been an important component of the marine recre- in the early 1990s, when over 250 hook-and-line vessels
ational shery and a relatively minor but important com- made an average of over 1,300 landings per year state-
ponent of the nearshore commercial shery in California, wide, usually ranging from 60 to just over 100 pounds
especially north of Point Conception. In the commercial per landing. Total landings of brown rocksh peaked in
shery freshly caught whole brown rocksh are sold either 1991, decreased through the mid-1990s, and increased
dead or alive in the fresh sh markets. Brown rocksh again during the late 1990s coincident with an increasingly
have not been reported separately from other rockshes active nearshore premium and live sh shery. Though
in catch statistics, but comprise the majority of the landings have uctuated over the last two decades, the
market grouping called bolina, which also includes other value of the catch has continued to increase, particularly
similar-looking rocksh species, such as copper or quill- during the last decade, as rocksh quotas have been
back rocksh, that are sold at the same price. In samples reduced and demand has continued to remain high. Mar-
obtained from 1999 landings, brown rocksh comprised 70 kets in areas such as San Francisco (especially those in
percent by weight of the bolina category. Brown rocksh Chinatown) sell their brown rocksh whole and preferably
are also mixed into other market categories, such as the live. Dead-landed sh obtain an ex-vessel price of $1 to
red rocksh group (19 percent by weight in 1999 landings). $2 per pound, whereas live brown rocksh have demanded
Commercial catches were made in the past with hook-and- an ex-vessel price from $2 to $4 per pound. With the
line gear and, to a lesser extent, gillnets until gillnets recent management-related reductions in supply, prices
were excluded from state waters in 1991. Today, brown have increased to over $6 to $8 per pound at times in
rocksh are primarily taken with hook-and-line gear, 1999 and 2000.
which includes mainly rod-and-reel and horizontal longline Sport anglers regularly catch brown rocksh with rod-and-
gear, along with some vertical longline (stick) and troll reel either from the shore, commercial passenger shing
longline gear. In most port areas of the state, the majority vessels (CPFVs), or private/rental boats (PRBs), especially
of bolina group catch is made by rod-and-reel, although, in nearshore reef habitats (depths of less than 175 feet).
in the San Francisco area, the longline eet accounts for Brown rocksh are most common in sport catches near
over 70 percent of bolina taken. The species is targeted San Francisco. In a sport sh survey conducted from 1980
directly in both nearshore and offshore ocean environ- through 1986, brown rocksh were among the top ve
ments. In the San Francisco area, the brown rocksh was species of rocksh caught and composed up to 6.6 percent
estimated to be the third most common rocksh species of the estimated sport catch. Inside San Francisco Bay,
landed by weight in the hook-and-line commercial shery they are the most common sport-caught rocksh species.
through the 1990s. The 1999 and 2000 catch estimates Although catches south of Point Conception are lower,
suggest that they are now equal to line-caught landings brown rocksh have comprised up to one percent of rock-
of chilipepper and the two are the most common species sh take and have remained among the top 15 species of
in nearshore catches. Since the early 1990s, the brown rocksh caught during the last 20 years. These represent
a seven-fold increase by number in statewide take relative
to a 1958 to 1961 survey of recreational shing. Substantial
increases in take have occurred in all modes of shing,
especially by shore shing, pier shing, and PRBs.
Status of Biological Knowledge
B rown rocksh are found along the Pacic Coast of
North America from the northern Gulf of Alaska to
central Baja California. They live in shallow subtidal
waters and bays, and have been found at depths of just
over 400 feet, although they most commonly reside above
175 feet. Brown rocksh are typically found associated
with sand-rock interfaces and rocky bottoms of articial
and natural reefs. In shallow waters, they may be found
Brown Rockfish, Sebastes auriculatus
in small aggregations associated with rocky areas and kelp
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
170
Brown Rockfish
250 Commercial Landings
Group Bolina (Brown Rockfish)
1916-1999,
millions of pounds landed
Brown Rockfish
200
Group Bolina (Brown) rockfish
landings were aggregated as rockfish
150
prior to 1979. DFG market sampling
indicates that 75 percent of the
100 Group Bolina rockfish market
category is made up of brown
50 rockfish, the remaining 25 percent
consists primarily of widow rockfish.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
plankton layer for approximately a month before meta-
400
morphosing into pelagic juveniles as part of the plankton
350
thousands of fish landed
and micronekton, and subsequently settling out into
300
Brown Rockfish
250
shallow nearshore waters. Although brown rocksh repro-
200
duce on the open coast, young-of-the-year sh commonly
150
migrate into bays and estuaries for use as nursery habitat,
100
which is an uncommon practice for rocksh species. They
50
may remain in the bay around rubble, piers and other
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
structures in areas of higher salinity for one to two years
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Brown Rockfish
before returning to the open coast.
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
Brown rocksh feed on increasingly larger prey as they
grow. They shift from small crustaceans, amphipods, and
beds, whereas they stay near the rocky bottom when
copepods as juveniles, to an adult diet of crabs and sh.
in deeper waters. The sub-adults migrate into both high
Little is known about predation on brown rocksh, but it
and low relief reefs and are strongly residential to their
is thought to be similar to that of other nearshore rocksh
home sites.
species: Most predation on the brown rocksh presumably
Distinguishing characteristics of brown rocksh include
occurs during the larval and juvenile stages, with less
orange-brown or dark brown mottling, especially on the
predation occurring on the adults.
back, and a prominent dark brown blotch on the gill cover.
Little sexual dimorphism is evident between male and
female brown rocksh in relation to growth or maturity
Status of the Population
rates. Recent studies found maturity as early as three
W
years, and 100 percent maturity at six years, or roughly hile there have been studies of local abundance
12.2 inches total length (TL). Half of the population was in certain coastal areas and within bays, the popula-
mature at 3.9 and 4.2 years of age, measuring 9.8 tion size and structure of this species has not been com-
and 10.4 inches TL in males and females, respectively. prehensively assessed. Evidence of stress on brown rock-
Brown rocksh grow to a maximum size of 22 inches, sh stocks in California exists, however, and some relative
and live less than 25 years. This is a relatively short changes in the population have been identied. Com-
life span compared with most offshore rocksh species, mercial and recreational catches have steadily increased
though many nearshore rocksh species have a similar or during the last 40 years, while the average length and
shorter lifespan. weight of brown rocksh in landings have declined. When
recreational statistics collected during the last 20 years
As with all members of the genus Sebastes, brown rocksh
were compared to results from a 1958 through 1961 rec-
are ovoviviparous. A 12-inch TL female may produce
reational survey, brown rocksh showed a 49 percent
approximately 42,500 eggs, while an 18-inch TL female
decrease in average weight per sh over 30 years. Mean
may produce as many as 266,000 eggs. Peaks in larval
length of brown rocksh obtained from CPFVs and PRBs in
release occur in the pelagic environment in both Decem-
northern California declined by 18 percent and 21 percent
ber-January and May-June. Larvae live in the upper zoo-
respectively over 40 years. In southern California, mean
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 171
References
length in the CPFV catches declined by 31 percent during
Brown Rockfish
the same period. In relation to the length at which 50
Adams, P.B. 1992. Brown Rocksh. In: California’s Living
percent of males and females are mature, recreational
Marine Resources and Their Utilization, W.S. Leet, C.M.
landings data indicate that from 1958 to 1961, most brown
Dewees, and C.W. Haugen, eds. California Sea Grant
rocksh taken had reached sexual maturity. By the 1980s,
Extension Publication UCSGEP-92-12: 127.
however, few sh taken from shore or from the bays,
and about half taken from PRBs were sexually mature. Baxter, R. 1999. Miscellaneous Species: Brown Rocksh.
Lengths of brown rocksh sampled from commercial land- In: Report on the 1980-1995 Fish, Shrimp and Crab Sam-
ings during the last decade also reect that half of the pling in the San Francisco Estuary, California, J. Orsi, ed.
sh were at or below the size at which 50 percent of the Interagency Ecological Study Program for the Sacramento-
population is sexually mature, and few larger adult sh San Joaquin Estuary, Technical Report 63: 443-452.
are being landed compared to historic values. The decline
Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, W.H. VanBuskirk. 1995. The
in size of sh in these sheries does not seem to be
marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
associated with incoming year classes, but instead with a
fornia: A historical comparison (1958-86), status of stocks
depletion of larger adults due to shing pressure. Although
(1980 - 86), and effects of changes in the California cur-
nearly half of the sh landed statewide are adults that
rent. California Department of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin
can replenish the population, there are now few large
176: 192 pp.
adults above the length of the median-sized sh recorded
Love, M.S., J.E. Caselle, and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines
in the 1958 through 1961 survey. The brown rocksh has
in nearshore rocksh recruitment and populations in the
been identied as a species vulnerable to severe localized
southern California Bight as measured by impingement
depletions in other geographic areas; in Washington state,
rates in coastal electrical power generating stations. Fish.
the Puget Sound stock of brown rocksh was recom-
Bull. 96: 492-501.
mended for listing as a threatened species in 1999.
Love, M.S. and K. Johnson. 1999. Aspects of the life
histories of grass rocksh, Sebastes rastrelliger and brown
,
Susan E. Ashcraft and Mark Heisdorf
rocksh, S. auriculatus, from southern California. Fish.
California Department of Fish and Game
Bull. 97 (1):100-109.
Matthews, KR. 1990. A comparative study of habitat use
by young-of-the-year, sub-adult, and adult rockshes on
four habitat types in central Puget Sound. Fish. Bull. 88
(2): 223-239.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
172
Copper Rockfish
History of the Fishery rocky reef as well as sandy areas and are referred to as
Copper Rockfish
benthic juveniles. Copper rocksh in the early juvenile
T he copper rocksh (Sebastes caurinus) is a highly stage are morphologically similar to two closely related
variable species in terms of coloration, and due to species, gopher rocksh and black-and-yellow rocksh,
this characteristic it has been known by several names, and the three species at this life stage are extremely
depending to some degree upon locality. These include difcult to distinguish. Upon settling, color patterns and
copper rocksh, whitebelly rocksh, gopher, white gopher, morphological characteristics develop and the three spe-
and bolina (this name is most commonly applied to the cies become separable.
brown rocksh). Copper rocksh is most widely used and Copper rocksh are an important component of the near-
is the recommended vernacular name. Historically, copper shore rocky reef system and are frequently encountered
rocksh was considered a common nearshore species. by scuba divers in this environment. Submersible obser-
Over the past 20 years, copper rocksh have become a vations of the biotic community off the Big Sur coast
less frequent component of the nearshore environment. revealed copper rocksh between depths of 70 and 325
Commercially, copper rocksh are landed in a number of feet. The majority of sightings were of individual (sol-
market categories including copper rocksh as well as red, itary) sh occurring over rocky reef or boulder elds
bolina, and gopher rocksh groups. It is sold as llets by and most frequently in areas of high relief. Occasionally,
the market names rocksh or red rocksh and often whole an individual was observed over sand. Coppers are
as red rockcod; it is considered an excellent food sh. considered epibenthic, normally occurring slightly above
Copper rocksh is one of the species taken in the live-sh the substrate.
shery. They have been an important component of the Tagging studies indicate that copper rocksh, for the most
recreational catch in both skiff and commercial passenger part, show little movement once they have settled to the
shing vessel sheries, especially off central and northern bottom. Movement of up to one mile has been noted but
California. Due to its relatively large size, known to reach the majority of tagged and recaptured copper rocksh
22.9 inches in length, copper rocksh has been considered are from the locality where they were originally taken.
one of the premium species in the recreational angler’s This life history characteristic makes species with high
catch and a prime target for the sport diver. site delity susceptible to local depletion. In areas close
to shing ports and higher rates of utilization, fewer and
smaller copper rocksh are caught.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Copper rocksh reach sexual maturity at about 11.6 inches
T he copper rocksh was one of the rst species of total length (TL) for females and 14.6 inches TL for males.
rockshes to be described from the Pacic Coast, This is at about ve years of age for females and seven
having been scientically named in 1845 by John Richard- years for males. Size and age for copper rocksh from off
son from Sitka, Alaska. For many years, the copper and central California for the rst ve years are as follows: age
whitebelly rocksh were considered as separate species zero, 3.6 inches TL; age one, 3.7 to 5.9 inches TL; age two,
but morphological and biochemical analyses in the 1980s 4.2 to 9.4 inches TL; age three, 7.0 to 11.5 inches TL, and
have shown these two nominal forms to be conspecic, age four, 8.9 to 13.2 inches TL. There appears to be no
a highly variable-colored but genetically unique species. signicant difference in the growth rates between sexes.
The copper rocksh is broadly distributed geographically,
known from the Gulf of Alaska to off central Baja Califor-
nia, Mexico. It also has a broad bathymetric distribution,
known to occur from the shallow subtidal to 600 feet.
As with all rockshes, coppers are viviparous and highly
fecund. A 13.4-inch female is capable of producing
215,000 ova and an 18.5-inch sh of producing 640,000
ova. The largest individuals may well produce over one
million larvae. The larvae are released during winter
months (Jan.-March). Young-of-the-year copper rocksh
are pelagic and recruit into the nearshore environment
at about 0.8 to 1.0 inch during April and May off central
California. The newly recruited copper rocksh initially
associate with canopy-forming kelps such as Macrocystis,
Cystoseira, and Nereocystis. After several months, and at
Copper Rockfish, (Sebastes caurinus) and a sea anemone
about 1.6 inches, the juveniles settle to the bottom on Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 173
Off central California, copper rocksh have been aged to
Copper Rockfish
500
28 years for a 22.1-inch individual. Copper rocksh from
thousands of fish landed
400
Puget Sound have been aged to 34 years.
Copper Rockfish
300
Copper rocksh feed on a wide variety of prey items.
Crustaceans form a major part of their diet; these include 200
Cancer crabs, kelp crabs, and shrimps. Squid of the 100
genus Loligo and octopuses are also important food items.
0
Fishes, which include young-of-the-year rockshes, cusk- 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
eels, eelpouts, and sculpins are important forage for Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Copper Rockfish
larger individuals. Juvenile copper rocksh feed primarily Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
on planktonic crustaceans.
Hybridization of copper rocksh with brown rocksh has
Phillips, Julius B. 1939. Rocksh of the Monterey wholesale
been suspected in Puget Sound, but this has not been
sh markets. Calif. Fish and Game 25(3):214-225.
noted from anywhere else within their range.
Phillips, Julius B. 1958. Rocksh review. In The marine
sh catch of California for the years 1955 and 1956 with
Status of the Population rocksh review. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
105:7-25.
T here has been no stock assessment of this species
in California. However, there is compelling evidence
that copper rocksh populations have severely declined
in many areas and large individuals are noticeably less
common than in past decades. Due to their solitary
nature, high habitat specicity, and the size they can
enter the shery (as juveniles), the copper rocksh is a
prime candidate for local depletion.
Robert N. Lea
California Department of Fish and Game
References
Karpov, K. A., D. P. Albin, and W. H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
The marine recreational shery in northern and central
California: a historical comparison (1958-86), status of
stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
Current. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 176, 192 p.
Lea, R. N., R. D. McAllister, and D. A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
related sportshes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
177, 109 p.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle, and W. Van Buskirk. 1998. A
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Reports 39:180-195.
Miller, D. J. and D. Gotshall. 1965. Ocean sportsh catch
and effort from Oregon to Point Arguello, California July
1, 1957-June 30, 1961. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 130, 135 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
174
Canary Rockfish
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Canary Rockfish
P C
rior to 1944, the primary gear used for the capture of anary rocksh, referred to as orange rocksh in
rocksh was the hook-and-line (primarily vertical long- older reports, occur from Baja California to southeast
line). Soon after World War II, the “balloon” trawl became Alaska. Their center of distribution is the Washington-
the dominant gear used to capture rocksh. Canary rock- British Columbia area, and in California they have com-
sh (Sebastes pinniger) became the largest component in mercial importance only as far south as Bodega Bay. Elec-
the trawl shery landings in northern California. From trophoretic differences indicate that canary rocksh may
the 1940s to the late 1960s, rocksh landings began to have two separate subpopulations: one north, the other
increase steadily, due in part to Asian market demands. south of central Oregon. A recent assessment of these
Estimated canary rocksh landings for this time period two portions of the canary rocksh resource suggests the
indicate annual catches of 550 to 2,200 tons, the majority southern area may be receiving population enhancements
being landed in northern California with trawl gear. The from the northern spawned sh. Canary rocksh have
exact amounts harvested during this time period are not been caught at depths below 1,000 feet, but are taken in
known since rocksh landings were not recorded sep- abundance only to 500 feet.
arately until 1981. During the 1970s, total landings of
Canary rocksh grow rapidly until they reach maturity at
canary rocksh in California decreased slightly to between
about 17 inches, then more slowly to a maximum age of
440 and 990 tons. Trawl gear continued to dominate
70 years and a maximum length of 24.5 inches for females
the total catch (60-70 percent), with recreational catches
and 21 inches for males. For example, at one year, females
(15-30 percent) and commercial hook-and-line (5-15 per-
average 5.4 inches and males 4.3 inches; at four years
cent) accounting for the rest.
both females and males average about 11.7 inches; by age
In 1982, the trawl catch of canary rocksh in California 12, females average 20.2 inches and males 19.1 inches. By
accounted for 77 percent of the total canary rocksh age 50 they have added little length (females, 24.4 inches;
catch (1,200 tons), with most of the sh being landed in males, 20.9 inches). Most populations have few individuals
Eureka and Fort Bragg. Recreational and commercial hook- older than 20 years.
and-line catches accounted for 21 percent and 2 percent
Females begin to mature sexually at 10.6 inches, reaching
of the total in 1982. During the 1980s, a new gear, the
50 percent maturity at 17.3 inches, and 100 percent matu-
setnet or gillnet entered the shery. Gillnet catches began
rity at 21.2 inches. Males begin to mature at 11 inches,
to replace hook-and-line catches for a few years, but
reaching 50 percent maturity at 15.7 inches, and 100
accounted for less landings compared to the recreational
percent maturity at 17.7 inches. A 10.6-inch female carries
and trawl catches. The trawl remains the dominant gear
about 69,000 eggs; a 17.3-inch female about 489,000 eggs;
type for harvesting canary rocksh to this day, but has
and a 21.2-inch female about 1,113,000 eggs.
experienced declines to levels nearly matching the hook-
Canary rocksh are viviparous, meaning that the females
and-line catches. Since 1982, the total harvest of canary
bear free-living young and contribute some energy to their
rocksh in California has declined dramatically to 250
young while they are inside the mother. Males fertilize
tons in 1998. The trawl, commercial hook-and-line, recre-
the females around December, and the females hold their
ational, and setnet catches account for 50 percent, 42
young until December to March. Pelagic juveniles occur
percent, 8 percent, and less than 1 percent of the total
in the upper 100 feet of the surface waters from April
canary rocksh landings in 1998. Canary rocksh are cur-
to June. It is assumed that the juveniles descend to
rently being managed through bi-monthly trip limits.
Canary rocksh is an important component of the com-
mercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) recreational catch
from central and northern California. This species was
consistently one of the top ten species landed by CPFV
anglers shing in the San Francisco area north to the
Eureka area. Average length of canary rocksh caught by
CPFV anglers is small and usually involves immature sh
(less than 50 percent maturity).
Canary Rockfish, Sebastes pinniger
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 175
References
benthic habitats after mid-June. Juvenile canary rocksh,
Canary Rockfish
like most rockshes, tend to settle in the shallower
depths of their range and move to deeper waters as they
Crone, P.R., K.R. Piner, R.D. Methot, R.J. Conser, and
grow older.
T.L. Builder. 1999. Status of the canary rocksh resource
Adult canary rocksh feed primarily on euphausiids. Next
off Oregon and Washington in 1999. In Pacic Fishery
in importance as prey are sh, mainly myctophids and
Management Council. 1999. Appendix: status of the Pacic
adult shortbelly rocksh which are most abundant in the
coast groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended
fall and winter diet. Gelatinous zooplanktors and associ-
acceptable biological catches for 2000: stock assessment
ated hyperiid amphipods are common prey but are a minor
and shery evaluation. Portland, Oregon.
part of the diet. Pelagic juvenile canary rocksh feed on
Williams, E.H., S. Ralston, A.D. MacCall, D. Woodbury,
copepods and euphausiid eggs and larvae.
and D.E. Pearson. 1999. Stock assessment of the canary
Predation on canary rocksh is most severe during the
rocksh resource in the waters off southern Oregon and
pelagic larval and juvenile stages. Juveniles (one to three
California in 1999. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
inches) are commonly found in the stomach contents
1999. Appendix: status of the Pacic coast groundsh sh-
of chinook salmon. Undoubtedly, other predators of juve-
ery through 1999 and recommended acceptable biological
nile sh (other shes, mammals and birds, including the
catches for 2000: stock assessment and shery evaluation.
common murre) prey on juvenile canary rocksh. After the
Portland, Oregon.
juveniles descend to the benthos and become adults they
are much less vulnerable to predators.
Status of the Population
T he canary rocksh population has declined since the
early 1970s, particularly in the waters north of Califor-
nia. The population size of age three and older canary
rocksh for California was estimated to be approximately
4,700 tons in 1973 and had decreased nearly 60 percent
to 1,900 tons in 1998. The mean length of canary rocksh
has declined 13 percent since 1980 in the trawl shery,
indicating the removal of larger, older sh from the popu-
lation. Off the coast of Washington and Oregon age two
and older sh were estimated at 73,700 tons in 1967; in
1999 the estimate was 12,100 tons. The spawning popula-
tion of canary rocksh has seen even more dramatic
declines, with estimates of 1999 spawning population sizes
of 6-23 percent of historically unshed levels. In 1999, the
canary rocksh resource off the entire U.S. West Coast
was declared overshed. Recent predictions of population
trends indicate the population may take many decades
to recover to shable levels. Attempts to decrease shing
pressure on canary rocksh are resulting in severe restric-
tions for many other West Coast sheries.
Erik H. Williams and Peter B. Adams
National Marine Fisheries Service
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
176
Quillback Rockfish
History of the Fishery quillback to be residential (no movement) or to show
Quillback Rockfish
movement of less than six miles. They have also demon-
Q uillback rocksh (Sebastes maliger) are a minor com- strated homing ability and day-night movement patterns.
ponent of the commercial passenger shing vessel In California, quillback rocksh have been aged to 15
(CPFV) shery and in general are only observed from the years, but are known to live longer, as they have been
ports of Monterey northward. Only in the Eureka area does aged to 76 years in Canada. Quillback can grow to 24
this species rank among the 10 most frequently observed inches, and growth rates differ along its range. In Cali-
benthic sport shes caught by CPFV anglers. In the Fort fornia, size for a 12-year-old quillback is approximately
Bragg area, quillback rocksh ranked between 13 and 17 7.1 inches. Size at rst maturity for males is 8.7 inches
among benthic sport shes caught by CPFV anglers, and (four years), and for females is 10.2 inches (six years).
their importance in the shery diminishes with decreasing In California, size at 50 percent maturity for males and
latitude. A survey of all recreational sport shing modes females was found to be the same as for rst maturity.
from 1981 to 1986 indicated an average annual harvest of
As with all Sebastes, quillback have internal fertilization
approximately 9,000 sh.
and produce live young. In California, mating takes place
Commercial landings of the “quillback rocksh” market in the late winter and early spring, with birth occurring
category are signicant only from the San Francisco area from April through July. After roughly one to two months
northward. However, historical landings are difcult to in the plankton (0.7 to 2.8 inches), they begin to settle
determine because of the low frequency of quillback near shore.
rocksh and confused identication with other similar
As planktonic larvae and after they settle, quillback rock-
species. Statewide landings in this market category in
sh feed on other planktonic animals and eggs. As adults
1999 comprised less than 0.3 percent of all rockshes.
they feed on a variety of prey such as crustaceans, espe-
Since 1992, this market category has not been used
cially shrimps; small sh, including rockshes and at-
every year and when used, may have consisted of several
shes; clams; marine worms; and sh eggs.
different species.
Quillback rocksh larvae are subject to predation by jelly-
sh and arrow worms. As juveniles, they are preyed upon
Status of Biological Knowledge by shes, including larger rockshes, lingcod, cabezon and
salmon. Various marine birds and pinnipeds eat juvenile
T he quillback rocksh was rst described by Jordan and quillback as well. Adults are also subject to predation by
Gilbert in 1880. Also referred to as orange-spotted, larger shes including some sharks, as well as sea lions,
yellow-back, or stickleback rocksh, it is part of central seals, and possibly, river otters.
and northern California’s nearshore benthic assemblage.
Juveniles inhabit very nearshore bottom areas and are
Quillback rocksh are relatively small, and are of “stout” found over both low and high rocky substrate. They are
morphology; a characteristic common among nearshore sometimes found among sponges and algae that provide
Sebastes found in close association with the bottom. They shelter. Adults are most often found in deeper water
are usually orange-brown to black in color with a yellow and are solitary reef-dwellers living in close association
or orange pale area between the eye and pectoral n. with the bottom. They are often seen perched on rocks
This pale area is also present as a saddle on the rst or taking shelter in crevices and holes. Adults have also
few dorsal spines and as speckling on the mid-dorsal been noted to retreat to eelgrass beds at night. Quillback
surface. A characteristic that helps distinguish this species
from similar species is its long dorsal spines and deeply
notched forward dorsal n membranes. Copper rocksh
and other nearshore shallow dwelling rocksh also have
deeply notched rst dorsals but not so much as quillback.
Quillback rocksh are known from the Gulf of Alaska
to Anacapa Passage in southern California, and are con-
sidered common between southeast Alaska and northern
California. They are found from near the surface to a
depth of 900 feet and can be common at depths of several
hundred feet.
Like other Sebastes of shallow, benthic habit, individual
quillback rocksh are not known to range far. Tagging Quillback Rockfish, Sebastes maliger
Credit: L. Sinclair
studies in central California and Washington have shown
Miller and Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 177
References
are also associated with the rock-sand interface, but are
Quillback Rockfish
rarely seen in the open away from suitable cover.
Love M.S. and R.N. Lea. 1997. Range Extension of the quill-
back rocksh, Sebastes maliger to the southern California
,
Status of the Population Bight. California Fish and Game 83(2):78-83.
Matthews, K.R. 1990. An experimental study of the habitat
W hile no stock assessment has been done for quillback
preference and movement patterns of copper, quillback,
rocksh in California, length-frequency data exist on
and brown rockshes (Sebastes spp.). Environmental Biol-
their occurrence in the recreational shery in northern
ogy of Fishes 30:161-178.
and central California, as well as in the commercial sh-
Moser, H.G. 1996. Scorpaenidae: scorpionshes and rock-
ery from the same region. Between the late 1980s and
shes. In: H.G. Moser (Editor), The early stages of shes
mid-1990s, quillback rocksh experienced increased take
in the California Current region, California Cooperative
by the commercial shery as the market demand for
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, Atlas No. 33, p 733-795.
premium, live sh increased, yet no signicant trend was
Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas.
noted in the average size of sh. Fishing pressure has
relaxed somewhat in recent years because of restrictions Roberts, D.A. 1979. Food Habits as an ecological partition-
placed on the shery. Concern over sustainability of the ing mechanism in the nearshore rockshes (Sebastes) of
commercial and recreational nearshore shery has made Carmel Bay, California. M.A. Thesis, San Francisco State
this species of particular interest to managers. University. 77 p.
Wylie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity an seasonality of reproduction. Fish-
David A. Osorio and Richard Klingbeil
ery Bulletin 85(2):229-250.
California Department of Fish and Game
Yamanaka, K.L. and A.R. Kronlund. 1997. Inshore rocksh
stock assessment for the west coast of Canada in 1996 and
recommended yields for 1997. Canadian Technical Report
30
of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 2175, 80 p.
thousands of fish landed
25
Quillback Rockfish
Yoklavich, M.M., V.J. Loeb, M. Nishimoto, and B. Daly.
20
1996. Nearshore assemblages of larval rockshes and
15
their physical environment off central California during
10
an expected El Nino event, 1991-1993. Fishery Bulletin
5
94(4):766-784.
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Quillback Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
178
Calico Rockfish
History of the Fishery phins have also been known to feed on juvenile and adult
Calico Rockfish
calico rocksh.
C alico rocksh (Sebastes dalli) are taken in the southern Calico rocksh up to 10 inches long and 1.25 pounds
and central California sport sheries for nearshore in weight have been measured. They have been aged
rockshes. During the 1980s, the estimated annual calico to between 11 and 12 years. Male calico rocksh rst
rocksh sport catch averaged 8,900 sh with a high of become sexually mature at age seven and females reach
21,000 sh taken in 1985. An onboard study of the south- sexual maturity at age nine. Spawning occurs in southern
ern California commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) California between January and May, with peak spawning
or partyboat shery from 1985 through 1987, ranked calico activity occurring in February. Fertilized eggs are present
rocksh among the top 20 species taken during two of in November and December. The range of fecundity
the three years surveyed. The same study also showed observed for calico rocksh was 1,700 to 18,000 eggs
that CPFV anglers discarded large numbers of calico rock- per female. The pelagic larval stage lasts from one to
sh at sea each year in a practice commonly known as two months, and the post-larvae then settle out of the
“high grading.” In high grading, only the largest sh were plankton between 0.08 and 0.1 inches in length.
retained by anglers as part of their bag limits, and the
smaller sh were selectively discarded. For calico rocksh,
Status of the Population
the estimated number of discards on CPFVs exceeded
the number of calico rocksh that were kept by anglers
T here are currently no estimates of abundance for
each year. This illegal practice has been widespread at
calico rocksh in California. There were more calico
times in the past and has been difcult to curtail. A
rocksh landed annually by sport anglers in the 1980s
more recent estimate of annual California sport catches of
than in the 1990s, which may have been a reection of
calico rocksh averaged 5,700 sh per year between 1993
the abundance of that species during two strong El Niño
and 1999, with a high of 8,000 calico rocksh caught in
events that occurred in the 1980s. Whether the reduced
1995 and in 1998.
calico rocksh catch during the 1990s was a result of
Calico rocksh comprise a very minor portion of the
changing oceanic conditions or was due to actual deple-
state’s commercial catch. Their small size and scattered
tion of calico rocksh stocks by sport and commercial
distribution probably preclude them from being targeted.
sheries is not known. Because of the relatively small
Calico rocksh, however, may be one of several small rock-
size of adult calico rocksh, they are not usually targeted
sh species, including squarespot, honeycomb, halfbanded
by either sport or commercial shermen but are caught
and starry rockshes, that are caught and subsequently
incidentally when other nsh species are targeted. Calico
discarded at sea as an unmarketable bycatch in nearshore
rocksh appear as bycatch in prawn trawls and other
hook-and-line, trap, or trawl sheries. The quantity of
nearshore sheries in southern California and are caught
calico rocksh bycatch in these sheries is currently
by sport anglers on CPFVs and private boats when they are
undetermined.
shing for other, larger benthic species.
Status of Biological Knowledge
C alico rocksh range from Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja
California to San Francisco within a depth range of 60
to 840 feet. They are small, colorful rocksh that inhabit
nearshore areas of southern and central California. Calico
rocksh are distinguished by having a greenish yellow
background color overlaid with dark-brown oblique bars
on the side, and a black spot on the edge of the gill
cover. Juvenile calico rocksh are found in areas of soft
sand-silt sediment, and on articial reefs. Adults inhabit
rocky shelf areas where there is a mud-rock or sand-mud
interface with ne sediments. They are usually associated
with structures that provide vertical relief and sheltered
habitat, including articial reefs. The main diet of calico
rocksh is pelagic crustaceans, including calanoid cope-
pods. They are preyed upon by larger rocksh species,
Calico Rockfish, Sebastes dalli
lingcod, cabezon, and salmon. Sea birds, sharks, and dol-
Credit: L. Sinclair, Miller and Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 179
References
Calico Rockfish
30
thousands of fish landed
25
Ally, J. R., D.S. Ono, R. B. Read, M. Wallace. 1991. Status
Calico Rockfish
20
of major southern California marine sport sh species with
15
management recommendations, bases on analysis of catch
and size composition data collected on board commercial
10
passenger shing vessels from 1985 through 1987. Calif.
5
Dept. Fish and Game. Marine Resources. Admin. Rept.
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
#90-2. 376 p.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Calico Rockfish
Haldorson, L. and M. Love. 1991. Maturity and fecundity
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1980 &
in the rockshes, Sebastes spp., a review. Marine Fisheries
1990-1992
Review 53(2):25-31.
Love, M.S., P. Morris, M. McCrae, and R. Collins. 1990.
Management Considerations Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the Southern California Bight. NOAA Tech-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
nical Report No. 87, 38 p.
further information.
Love, M.S., L. Thorsteinson, C.W. Mecklenburg, and T.A.
Mecklenburg. 1996. A checklist of marine and estuarine
David Ono
shes of the Northeast Pacic, from Alaska to Baja Cali-
California Department of Fish and Game
fornia. National Biological Service. Located at Web site
www.ucsb.edu/lovelab/home.html
Moser, H.G. and J.L. Butler. 1981. Description of reared
larvae and early juveniles of the calico rocksh, Sebastes
dallii. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investiga-
tions Reports. 22:88-95.
Moser, H.G. 1996. Scorpaenidae: scorpionshes and rock-
shes. In: H.G. Moser (Editor), The early stages of shes
in the California Current region, California Cooperative
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, Atlas No. 33, p 733-795.
Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas.
RecFIN MRFSS Sample Data, 1980-1989 and 1993-1999.
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission. Located at
Web site: www.PSMFC.org
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
180
Monkeyface
Prickleback algal cover, including high and low tide pools, jetties
Monkeyface Prickleback
and breakwaters, and shallow subtidal areas, particularly
rocky reefs and kelp beds. Juveniles are particularly
History of the Fishery adapted for living in the high intertidal zone. The species
T
is capable of living out of water under algae for extended
he monkeyface prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus)
periods and has air-breathing capacity. It is considered
is a nearshore sh that is a minor component of
to be a residential species, moving short distances from
the recreational and commercial catch. It is frequently
crevices or under rocks to foraging sites. It appears to
referred to as monkeyface eel and blenny eel due to its
occupy a small home range of several meters and is
eel-like appearance. However, it is more closely related
primarily active during periods of a ooding tide.
to bass-like shes (Perciformes) than to true eels. It is a
member of the prickleback family, Stichaeidae, of which The coloration of the species is a uniform light brown to
17 species occur in California. Its elongate body shape dark green, often with several rust-colored blotches on
is an adaptation for living in cracks, crevices, and under the sides of the body. Two dark stripes radiate behind the
boulders, primarily in the intertidal zone. Monkeyface eye. Adults have a lumpy ridge on top of the head. The
prickleback have been found in coastal Indian middens coloration of both sexes is similar.
of California along with cabezon and rockshes and were
25
undoubtedly exploited as a food resource in historic and
thousands of fish landed
Monkeyface Prickleback
prehistoric times. 20
A specialized recreational shery by shore anglers shing 15
in rocky intertidal and shallow subtidal habitat exists for 10
this species. The most common shing method is “poke
5
poling,” which normally consists of shing with a long
bamboo pole, a short piece of wire, and a baited hook. 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
The bait is placed in front of or in holes or crevices in the
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Monkeyface Prickleback
rock. Skin and scuba divers also spear them.
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
The monkeyface prickleback did not rank among the top
fteen species observed in either beach/bank or jetty/ Monkeyface prickleback grow slowly, particularly after the
breakwater shing categories in a 1980 through 1986 rst few years of life. A 12-inch sh is approximately three
Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey (MRFSS) years old, while a 24-inch sh will be 15 to 17 years old.
in California. The most recent (1999) MRFSS total catch Monkeyface prickleback have been aged to 18 years using
estimate for northern California from all recreational sh- the otolith and opercular bone, but the largest specimens
ing categories was 2,000 sh; however, the standard error have not been aged. The maximum reported size is 30
of the estimate was much higher than the estimate. inches in total length; 18 to 24 inch individuals are not
uncommon.
Commercial landing records in California date from 1928.
Catch since then can best be described as of minor signi- Information available on age at sexual maturity suggests
cance. Since 1991, annual landings have ranged from 12 to that both sexes begin to mature in their third or fourth
935 pounds, primarily from the port areas of San Francisco year at a total length range of 11.0 to 14.2 inches, while
and Santa Barbara. However, catch statistics may include 50 percent maturity occurs at approximately 15.4 inches
California moray, rock prickleback, wolf-eel, and other at ve years of age. Fertilization is internal and spawning
eel-like shes or true eels. activity occurs from January to May, with the peak spawn-
ing period from February to April. Females are oviparous,
depositing their eggs on subtidal, rocky surfaces. Fecun-
Status of Biological Knowledge dity is known to range from 17,500 eggs for a 16-inch,
seven-year old sh to 46,000 eggs for a 24-inch, 11-year-
T he monkeyface prickleback ranges along the Pacic
old sh, with smaller sh producing fewer eggs. Nest
coast from San Quentin Bay, Baja California, Mexico
guarding behavior has been observed but it is unclear
to central Oregon. It is most common off central Califor-
nia from San Luis Obispo County to Sonoma County, and
is uncommon south of Point Conception. They normally
occur in the intertidal zone with a depth range extending
from the high intertidal to a reported depth of 80 feet.
Typical habitat for monkeyface prickleback includes rocky
intertidal areas with ample crevices, boulders, and Monkeyface Prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus
Credit: PSMFC
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 181
Monkeyface Prickleback
1.2
thousands of pounds landed
Monkeyface Prickleback
1.0
0.8
Commercial Landings
0.6
1916-1999,
Monkeyface Prickleback
0.4
No commercial landing are
reported for monkeyface
0.2
prickback prior to 1990. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and 0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
Management Considerations
if the female, male, or both sexes guard the egg mass.
Larval length at hatching is unknown; larvae begin to
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
settle out of the plankton at 0.7 to 0.9 inches.
further information.
The diet of monkeyface prickleback shifts from carnivo-
rous to herbivorous with an increase in size. As early
juveniles, up to 3.1 inches, prey items are predominantly Robert N. Lea and Paul N. Reilly
zooplankton and include copepods, amphipods, isopods, California Department of Fish and Game
mysids, and polychaetes. At approximately three inches,
they then become almost exclusively herbivorous. Over
References
sixty species of algae have been recorded as food items.
Despite this wide array, they appear to feed selectively
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1971. Marine Food and
on eight to 10 species of red and green algae, mostly in
Game Fishes of California. University of California Press.
the genera Ulva, Porphyra, Mazzaella, Microcladia, and
179 p.
Mastocarpus. Adults appear to prefer annual red and green
algae to perennial red algae. This preference is deter- Horn, M.H., K.L.M. Martin, and M.A. Chotkowski [eds.]
mined to some degree by ocean season and availability. 1999. Intertidal Fishes: Life in Two Worlds. Academic
Press. 399 p.
Predators of monkeyface prickleback include piscivorous
birds, such as great egrets and red-breasted mergansers, Horn, M.H., S.N. Murray, and T.W. Edwards. 1982. Dietary
and shes such as cabezon and grass rocksh. Predation selectivity in the eld and food preferences in the labora-
is primarily on the earlier life stages of this species; tory for two herbivorous shes (Cebidichthys violaceus
large juveniles and adult sh most likely evade or outgrow and Xiphister mucosus) from a temperate intertidal zone.
these predators. Marine Biology 67:237-246.
Other intertidal boulder and crevice-dwelling eel-like Love, M. 1996. Probably More than You Want to Know
shes, such as the rock and black pricklebacks and pen- about the Fishes of the Pacic Coast. Really Big Press,
point and rockweed gunnels, are possible competitors Santa Barbara, California, 381 p.
with monkeyface prickleback for space and food resources.
Marshall, W.H. and T. Wyllie Echeverria. 1992. Age, length,
Status of the Population weight, reproductive cycle and fecundity of the monkey-
face prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus). California Fish
N o information is available on the status of stocks
and Game 78(2):57-64.
of monkeyface prickleback. The primary source of
Miller, K.A. and W.H. Marshall. 1987. Food habits of large
shing mortality is from recreational poke polers and
monkeyface prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus. California
commercial anglers shing from shore or the shallow sub-
Fish and Game 73(1):37-44.
tidal, with a lesser number taken spearshing by free
Ralston, S.L. and M.H. Horn. 1986. High tide movements
and scuba divers. Historically, both recreational and com-
of the temperate-zone herbivorous sh Cebidichthys viola-
mercial landings are considered to be low.
ceus (Girard) as determined by ultrasonic telemetry. Jour-
nal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 98:35-50.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
182
Kelp Greenling
History of the Fishery long while those caught at 20 to 40 feet tend to be eight
Kelp Greenling
to 13 inches long. Kelp greenling grow faster than most
K elp greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus) are shed nearshore shes during their rst three years. After the
primarily for sport. The commercial shery has histori- third year, growth slows, especially in males (as it does
cally been based largely on catch incidental to the lingcod in lingcod), so that by the fth or sixth year males are
or nearshore rocksh sheries, although their importance smaller than females. The maximum reported age and size
in the commercial catch has increased since 1997 with is 16 years and 21 inches. At age three, males average 10.6
the emergence of a nearshore “live” sh shery. Because inches and females 9.1 inches. By age ve, the males aver-
of their abundance in nearshore rocky areas, they are fre- age 12.6 inches while females are 14.7 inches. Ten-year-
quently caught by people shing from shore or small boats olds average 15.5 and 16.4 inches, respectively. These
and are a common target for spear shermen underwater. data are from Puget Sound, Washington.
Sport shing surveys made from 1958 to 1961 showed that The reproductive behavior of greenling is similar to that of
kelp greenling were the most frequent catch of shore the lingcod. Females are mature by their fourth year and
shermen north of San Francisco, where in some areas spawn adhesive egg masses on the sea bed and encrusting
they made up more than 30 percent of the total catch. biota within the territories of courting males. In Puget
In California, during those years, an average of 54,000 Sound, females deposit egg masses that range from golf-
kelp greenling were caught by hook-and-line shermen ball to tennis-ball size, with an average of about 4,000
and another 2,000 by spear shermen. In later surveys eggs per cluster. Females are batch spawners, capable of
conducted from 1980 to 1999, the estimated sport catch producing multiple clutches of eggs per spawning season.
averaged 106,650 sh per year, with 103,000 of those Males fertilize the eggs and guard the nests until larvae
taken between Monterey County and the Oregon border. about one third of an inch long emerge four to ve
It should be noted that the two sport shing surveys used weeks later. Often, males guard more than one egg
different sampling designs, so results may not be compa- mass at a time, each possibly produced by a different
rable. By comparison, the commercial catch reported from female. Studies done in British Columbia and California
1981 to 1999 averaged about 8,500 sh per year. This showed some nests did contain egg masses from multiple
average is somewhat exaggerated by exceptionally large females. Hatching occurs from December through Febru-
numbers of sh landed commercially in recent years by ary in northern California and gets progressively earlier
the nearshore live sh shery mentioned above. From to the north, November through January in Puget Sound
1981 to 1996 average commercial catch was only around and August through September in Alaska. Larvae and early
5,500 sh per year, while from 1997 to 1999 that average juveniles feed on small copepods and spend about one
increased to 27,400 sh per year. Until recently most of year in the pelagic environment before entering the near-
these sh were sold in the fresh-sh market, although shore benthic community.
now many are sold live to restaurants. Though llets
After they settle in the nearshore environment, kelp
from kelp greenling are not as large as those from their
greenling have exible food habits. During most of the
more popular relative, the lingcod, texture and taste are
year, they consume a variety of prey that are consistently
comparable.
available in the habitat, including crabs, amphipods, poly-
chaetes and ascidians. There are brief periods when
Status of Biological Knowledge organisms such as juvenile shes or herring spawn become
exceptionally abundant, and kelp greenling shift their food
K elp greenling range from San Diego to the Aleutian habits to take advantage of these opportunities.
Islands, but are common only north of Morro Bay.
Here they are one of the most conspicuous shes in
rocky nearshore habitats occurring often in and around
kelp beds. The male and female look so different that they
were rst described as separate species. The body color is
variable in both sexes, ranging from light gray to brown.
Males, however, have large irregular blue patches anteri-
orly, while females are uniformly covered with smaller
dark spots.
These solitary sh are common at depths between 10
and 60 feet, and range down to 150 feet. Sport catches
indicate that larger sh live in deeper water. For example,
sh caught at 80 to 100 feet range from 12 to 18 inches Kelp Greenling, Hexagrammos decagrammus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 183
References
The primary predators of adult greenling are lingcod and
Kelp Greenling
harbor seals. As juveniles they are probably prey to many
Barker, M. W. 1979. Population and shery dynamics of
nearshore predators.
recreationally exploited marine bottomsh of northern
Puget Sound. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington,
Status of the Population Seattle, 152p.
Crow, Karen D., D.A. Powers, and G. Bernardi. 1997. Evi-
T here are no estimates of abundance for kelp greenling
dence for multiple maternal contributors in nests of kelp
in California. The yearly sport catch remained rela-
greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus, Hexagrammidae).
tively constant during the rst ten years (1980-1989) it
Copeia 1: 9-15.
was surveyed, but has declined steadily from 1993 to 1999.
Demartini, E. E. 1986. Reproductive colorations, paternal
Since decline in catch is one symptom of overshing, this
behavior, and egg masses of kelp greenling, Hexagrammos
may be an indication that current levels of shing are
decagrammus, and whitespotted greenling, H. stelleri.
having adverse effects on the population, although no
Northwest Science 60(1):32-35.
population data are available at present to conrm this.
Spear shermen could oversh local populations, however, Gorbunova, N. N. 1970. Spawning and development of
because they can select individual targets, and greenling greenlings (family Hexagrammidae). In: Rass, T. S. (ed.),
are particularly vulnerable to spears when guarding their Greenlings: taxonomy, biology, interoceanic transplanta-
nests. Also, although commercial catch has been tradi- tion. (Trans. from Russian) Isr. Progr. Sci. Transl. No. 5553,
tionally very low compared to recreational catch, the p. 121-185.
increased shing pressure in recent years by the nearshore
Rothrock, G. C. 1982. Age-length, weight, fecundity, and
live sh shery could have a much broader impact on the
meristics of the kelp greenling (Hexagrammos decagram-
kelp greenling population in California.
mus) off California. Masters Thesis, University of California
of Davis, 95 p.
Dan Howard
National Marine Fisheries Service
Revised by:
Kelly R. Silberberg
National Marine Fisheries Service
150
thousands of fish landed
120
Kelp Greenling
90
60
30
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Greenling
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
184
Other Nearshore
Rockfishes cies are difcult to determine due to the inexact nature of
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
recording landings. Market categories are often comprised
History of the Fishery of multiple species; for example, sampled market catego-
ries from the Morro Bay area from 1993 to 1998 revealed a
H istorically, many of the nearshore rockshes have wide range of placement of the six species in both
been taken primarily by recreational anglers shing group and single species categories. Gopher and grass
from boats, the shore, or by diving. Kelp rocksh (Sebastes rocksh appeared most frequently in nine other market
atrovirens), gopher rocksh (Sebastes carnatus), black- categories than their own. The most common classica-
and-yellow rocksh (Sebastes chrysomelas), China rocksh tion error seemed to occur between gopher and black-
(Sebastes nebulosus), grass rocksh (Sebastes rastrelliger), and-yellow rockshes with 34.4 percent of the black-and-
and treesh (Sebastes serriceps) have been minor compo- yellow market category being made up of gopher rocksh.
nents of recreational and commercial sheries. Gopher The gopher group contained up to 61 percent gopher
rocksh is the only species of these six that comprised rocksh. While species misidentication does occur, sh
a signicant proportion of recreational landings and was are often grouped by price rather than by species com-
common enough in commercial landings to have a market plicating specic landing estimates. Based on DFG CMAS-
category prior to 1994. Gopher rocksh have comprised TER summaries of reported landings, landings of gopher
up to 13 percent annually of commercial passenger shing and grass rockshes and the gopher group peaked at
vessel (CPFV) observed landings from the Morro Bay area. 31,255 pounds ($35,740 value) in 1994, 109,003 pounds
A review of the marine recreational shery statistics ($506,670) in 1995, and 221,018 pounds ($521,163) in
survey (MRFSS) catch data from 1980 to 1999 indicated 1996, respectively.
recreational catches of grass rocksh, China rocksh,
The live sh market demand is mainly for sh in the one
gopher rocksh and kelp rocksh have declined since the
to two pound size range, and up to four pounds for grass
late 1980s and landings of treesh were higher from 1993
rocksh. For gopher, black-and-yellow, grass, and China
to 1999 than 1980 to 1989. While the MRFSS provides catch
rockshes, this size range is above the size of sexual
information for shore and vessel-based angling, divers are
maturity, although in the development of the shery all
not represented. The “private/rental boat” method con-
sh were kept regardless of size. Due to concerns over the
tributed the highest proportion of the gopher rocksh
harvest of immature sh, legislation passed in late 1998,
recreational catch for all of California. China rocksh have
the Marine Life Management Act, implemented minimum
accounted for up to three percent of CPFV observed
commercial size limits on grass, gopher, kelp, black-and-
catches from San Francisco north. Both China rocksh and
yellow, and China rockshes. The new size limits are
gopher rocksh are most frequently observed in CPFV
12 inches for grass and China rockshes, and 10 inches
and private boat catches. Grass rocksh, kelp rocksh,
for gopher, kelp, and black-and-yellow rockshes. The
black-and-yellow rocksh and treesh are more frequently
shallow, nearshore nature of this shery renders it very
caught by anglers shing from private boats than by
weather dependent. Poor weather, combined with lower
anglers shing from CPFVs or from shore.
overall allowable catches, implementation of minimum
Development of the live/premium shery in the late 1980s size limits, and a lack of a market north of Bodega Bay
resulted in increasing commercial catches of many species resulted in reduced catches from 1997 to 1999.
occupying the nearshore environment in and around kelp
Several of these species are also important in non-con-
beds, including these six rockshes. Live sh are taken
sumptive uses. Colorful, accessible, or both, treesh and
primarily by line gear and pot and trap gear, but other
gear types are used. The shery serves mainly Asian Amer-
ican markets that demand top quality (live) sh. Fisher-
men receive premium prices for their catches ranging
from $2 to $10 per pound, compared to $1.50 per pound or
less previously. Grass rocksh command the highest prices
up to $4.84 average price per pound in 1998. With the
exception of treesh, these nearshore rocksh species are
caught primarily north of Point Conception.
Historically, commercial landings have been recorded by
both specic (gopher rocksh) or nonspecic (gopher
group) market categories and until 1994 there were no
specic market categories for any of these nearshore spe-
cies except gopher rocksh. Annual total landings by spe- Gopher Rockfish, Sebastes carnatus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 185
kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and China rockshes are and range south to the region of Point Eugenia, Baja
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
frequently observed and photographed by divers. In addi- California. Each has a restricted habitat, with kelp rocksh
tion, individuals are taken for the aquarium trade. occurring almost exclusively in kelp forests, black-and-
yellow rocksh occurring in high-relief rocky bottom at
depths shallower than about 60 feet, and gopher rocksh
Status of Biological Knowledge occurring on rocky reefs from 40 feet to perhaps 150
feet. The geographical range of the grass rocksh extends
K elp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and grass rockshes are
throughout California and into southern Oregon, but its
relatively well studied, while treesh and China rock-
habitat is restricted to rocky areas shallower than about
sh are, to differing degrees, less well-known. Most of
20 feet.
these species occupy restricted ranges of geography or
The China rocksh is abundant into Washington, British
habitat. The treesh is most common in depths of less
Columbia, and southeastern Alaska, declining in abun-
than 100 feet or so on rocky reefs, and is restricted largely
dance south into California. It is quite rare south of Point
to the region south of Point Conception. Kelp, black-and-
Conception, and seems to inhabit progressively deeper
yellow, and gopher rockshes are not abundant north
water in the southern part of its range. The ranges for
of Sonoma County (or farther south, for kelp rocksh),
some of these species have changed in the last 15 to
100 500
thousands of fish landed
thousands of fish landed
80 400
China Rockfish
Kelp Rockfish
60 300
40 200
20 100
0 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Rockfish Recreational Catch 1947-1999, China Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
120 120
Black & Yellow Rockfish
thousands of fish landed
thousands of fish landed
100 100
Grass Rockfish
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Black & Yellow Rockfish Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Grass Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
70
500
60
thousands of fish landed
thousands of fish landed
400
Gopher Rockfish
50
Treefish
300 40
30
200
20
100
10
0 1947
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Gopher Rockfish Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Treefish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
186
20 years. Black-and-yellow rocksh and kelp rocksh abun- gests that typically sedentary individuals may occasionally
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
dance have declined since the early 1970s in the northern wander indeterminate distances, on the order of tens of
Channel Islands, and probably throughout the Southern meters, from their home ranges.
California Bight. Little has been documented on northward Available data suggest that diets of juvenile sh of all
range expansion for these species, and nothing has been six species include primarily crustacean zooplanktors such
documented regarding changes in the ranges of gopher, as barnacle cyprids. Overall adult diets are more varied.
China, and grass rockshes. The treesh seems to be more Crustaceans and small sh are common diet items for
abundant now in the Monterey area than in the 1980s. adult sh of all six species. Kelp rocksh also eat cepha-
These changes in distribution seem to be related to ocean lopods, gastropods, polychaetes, and tunicates. Cephalo-
warming that began in 1977. pods and gastropods are consumed by gopher rocksh
Five of the six species are relatively small for rocksh. The as well, along with ophiuroids (brittle stars) and poly-
grass rocksh, at about 20-22 inches, reaches the largest chaetes. Black-and-yellow rocksh and China rocksh also
size of the six species. The largest individuals of the other consume ophiuroids. A variety of mollusks are consumed
ve species rarely exceed 15-17 inches; among the ve, by China rocksh including cephalopods, gastropods, chi-
the China rocksh reaches slightly larger sizes than the tons, and nudibranchs. Small sh consumed by these rock-
others, followed in rough order by treesh, kelp rocksh, shes include juvenile rocksh (mainly blue rocksh), scul-
gopher, and black-and-yellow rockshes. Treesh have not pins, juvenile surfperch, kelpshes, and plainn midship-
been aged, but at least one study of age and growth man. Information on diet of treesh is limited.
has been conducted on kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher,
grass, and China rockshes. The greatest ages recorded
Status of the Populations
in each of these ve species are between 20 and 26
years. However, because the largest individuals observed
W hile there have been several studies of local abun-
in each species have typically not been aged and
dance in some of these species (particularly black-
because aging to date has been based largely on
and-yellow, gopher, and kelp rockshes), there is no com-
readings of whole otoliths, greater maximum ages may be
prehensive assessment of their populations. Each species
possible. Different studies have
is probably subject to local depression in abundance and
produced different estimates of age at rst maturity,
average size where diving, skiff shing, party boat activ-
perhaps because of differences in goals and methodology.
ity, or commercial shing is concentrated. The low fecun-
In the ve species that have been aged, many studies
dity, restricted habitats, and limited movements of these
suggest that rst maturity occurs in the range of
species make them vulnerable to local shing pressure.
three to four years, although one study indicates
Statewide, the limited geographic ranges and restricted
later maturity.
habitats of these species suggest that they have small
Treesh and kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and China populations in comparison to more widespread species
rockshes appear to reproduce once per breeding season. that have traditionally been the targets of commercial
Grass rocksh may reproduce only once per season, but shing. These species have limited depth distributions
some contradictory data exist. There are no data on so that all of the spawning population is vulnerable to
spawning seasonality in treesh, but the other ve species shing and few natural refugia probably exist. Because
appear to spawn in winter through spring. Grass rocksh good recruitment years are infrequent there is the
seem to reproduce the earliest, giving birth primarily in danger of removing too many spawners even with limited
December through February (except for an observation in shing pressure.
August), China rocksh reproduce slightly later, black-and-
yellow and gopher rockshes slightly later still (spawning
Management Considerations
through early spring), and kelp rocksh the latest, spawn-
ing through May and June.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
The adult movement of most of these species may be even
further information.
more restricted than other rockshes. Individual black-
and-yellow, gopher, and kelp rockshes have been shown
to inhabit restricted home ranges, and it is likely grass Ralph J. Larson
rocksh, China rocksh, and treesh share this behavior. San Francisco State University
Aggressive behavior has been observed in all except grass
Deborah A. Wilson-Vandenberg
rocksh (for which observations are limited), and gopher
California Department of Fish and Game
rocksh and black-and-yellow rocksh are denitely ter-
ritorial. However, some evidence from articial reefs sug-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 187
References
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
Haaker, P. L. 1978. Observations of agonistic behavior in
the treesh, Sebastes serriceps (Scorpaenidae). California
Fish and Game 64:227-228.
Hallacher, L. E., and D. A. Roberts. 1985. Differential
utilization of space and food by the inshore rockshes
(Scorpaenidae: Sebastes) of Carmel Bay, California. Envi-
ronmental Biology of Fishes 12:91-110.
Larson, R. J. 1980. Territorial behavior of black and yellow
rocksh and gopher rocksh (Scorpaenidae, Sebastes).
Marine Biology 58: 111-122. 1980.
Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
related sport shes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.
177. 109 p.
Love, M. S., and K. Johnson. 1998. Aspects of the life
histories of grass rocksh, Sebastes rastrelliger and brown
,
rocksh, S. auriculatus, from southern California. Fish.
Bull. 87:100-109.
Pattison, C. 1999. Nearshore Finshes, In Review of some
California sheries for 1998, CalCOFI Reports 40:16-18.
Wilson-Vandenberg, D. A., P. N. Reilly and L. Halko. 1995.
Onboard sampling of the rocksh and lingcod Commercial
Passenger Fishing Vessel Industry in northern and central
California, January through December 1993. Calif. Dept.
Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin. Rep. 95-2. 122 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
188
Vermilion Rockfish
History of the Fishery skinned, and deep-fried. They are also delicious when
Vermilion Rockfish
baked with vegetables in the oven or microwave. As with
V ermilion rocksh (Sebastes miniatus), though highly most other members of the family, the esh is white, ne
desirable because of their brilliant color and the aky in texture, and mild in avor.
texture of their esh when cooked, are only of moderate
importance in California’s commercial and sport sheries.
Status of Biological Knowledge
It is difcult to accurately determine what percent of
the commercial catch is comprised of vermilion rocksh,
V ermilion rocksh are found from the San Benito
because individuals in reported landings are often mis- Islands, Baja California, to Prince William Sound,
identied or combined with other red and orange-colored Alaska, and occur over rocky bottoms from the shallow
rockshes in the market category of “rocksh, Group subtidal to 1,400 feet. Large sh are more common at
Red.” From 1991 to 1993, vermilion rocksh landings were depths greater than 100 feet due to the combined shing
less than 2,000 pounds annually, statewide. This may be in pressure in shallower waters from commercial and recre-
part because, prior to 1994, there was no printed market ational shermen. Vermilion rocksh generally remain on
category for vermilion rocksh on landing receipts; thus, the same reef system on which they settle during their
they were only designated by species when shermen rst year. Tagging studies have shown no movement of
added the category. Since 1994, “Rocksh, vermilion” has sh at liberty for one to three years. Vermilion rocksh
been a printed market category on landing receipts. From are extremely long-lived. A 20-inch individual weighing 5.4
1994 to 1999, pounds landed for both market categories pounds was aged, using surface aging, at 25 years. Lengths
progressively declined. During this period annual landings up to 30 inches have been reported. Vermilion rocksh
quotas became more restrictive. Commercial landing in have lengthy juvenile life stages. Fifty percent of the
the San Francisco area in 1994 and 1995 accounted for 59 population is mature at eight years and these sh average
percent of statewide landings. From 1996 through 1998, 14 inches. The slow growth and long juvenile period make
this percentage declined to 44, 28, and 17, respectively. vermilion rocksh very susceptible to overshing. Once
From 1996 through 1998, the Eureka area reported the large individuals are removed from a reef system they are
highest landings within the state (54 percent average for replaced only by larval settlement.
the three-year period).
Peak spawning months are September in central and
Vermilion rocksh comprised less than two percent of northern California and November in southern California.
all landed shes observed on commercial passenger sh- The number of developing eggs increases from 63,000 in
ing vessels (CPFV) from Fort Bragg to Monterey from a sh 12.5 inches long to about 1.6 million in a 21.5-inch
1992 through 1995. During this same period, they consti- sh. Females are fertilized internally by males. In October
tuted between six and eight percent of all landed shes of 1997, while conducting population scuba surveys of
observed on CPFVs from Port San Luis and Morro Bay and subtidal shes in Point Lobos Ecological Reserve, Monterey
averaged 14 inches in length. Along lightly shed areas County, California, several vermilion rocksh courtship
of the central coast, sh of comparable size comprised displays were observed and videotaped by divers from
eight percent of the total CPFV catch. Fish taken north of California Department of Fish and Game. The absence
Monterey by CPFV anglers were slightly larger on average. of previously published description of vermilion rocksh
In a survey of southern California CPFVs from 1985 through mating or courtship may be due to the scarcity of mature
1987, vermilion rocksh ranked third in species composi- individuals in habitat shallow enough to allow routine
tion and represented eight percent of the total observed observations. Newly released larvae are free swimming
rocksh catch. Between 1983 and 1988, they ranged from and lead a pelagic existence for three to four months,
two to ve percent of the observed commercial catch of
rocksh landed south of Point Conception.
The average size of observed vermilion rocksh taken
by recreational hook-and-line anglers shing from Point
Piños to Yankee Point in Monterey County, based on creel
surveys at the Monterey Harbor, declined from 1981 to
1999. The average size was 18.8 inches in 1981, 16.1 inches
in 1983, 15.5 inches in 1985, and 14.3 inches in 1987. In
1999, the average size rose to 15.5 inches.
Vermilion rocksh are marketed primarily in a fresh then settle to the bottom. Juveniles are not strong swim-
dressed form. Because the esh has a short freezer life,
Vermilion Rockfish, Sebastes miniatus
it is rarely frozen. These rocksh are best when lleted, Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 189
References
mers and tend to be very secretive, often taking refuge
Vermilion Rockfish
in dense algae.
Boehlert, G.W. and M.M. Yoklavich. 1984. Reproduction,
The pelagic young of vermilion rocksh feed primarily embryonic energetics, and maternal-fetal relationship in
upon crustaceans, while adults feed on octopus, squid, the viviparous genus Sebastes (Pisces, Scorpaenidae). Biol.
and small shes such as anchovies and blue lanternsh. Bull. 167:354-370.
At times, macroplanktonic organisms such as euphausiids,
Gingras, M.L., D.A. VenTresca, M.D. Donnellan, and J.L.
pelagic red crabs, and pyrosomes (pelagic colonial tuni-
Fisher. 1998. First observations of vermilion rocksh court-
cates) are found in their stomachs.
ship are from a harvest refuge. Calif. Fish and Game
84(4):176-179.
Status of the Population Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
I n 1995, mean total length of observed vermilion rocksh Sebastes with notes on ecologically related species. Calif.
taken during CPFV trips in central and northern Califor- Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull. 177:109 p.
nia were consistently above the size of sexual maturation.
Reilly, P., D. Wilson-Vandenberg, C. Wilson, and K. Mayer.
Larger individuals and higher catch per-angler-hour were
1998. Onboard sampling of the rocksh and lingcod com-
generally observed when shing occurred in deep water
mercial passenger shing vessel industry in northern and
and greater than 10 nautical miles from ports. Based
central California, January through December 1995. Calif.
on adjusted logbook data from San Simeon, Port San
Depart. of Fish and Game, Mar. Res. Admin. Rept.
Luis, and Morro Bay, an estimated 23,000 vermilion rock-
98-1:110 p.
sh were landed by CPFV anglers in 1995. This total is
Singer, M.M. 1985. Food habits of juvenile rockshes
2.7-fold higher than the combined estimate (8,530) from
(Sebastes) in a central California kelp forest. Fish. Bull.
the remaining central and northern California ports.
83:531-541.
VenTresca, D.A., J.L. Houk, M.J. Paddack, M.L. Gingras,
David A. VenTresca
N.L. Crane, and S.D. Short. 1996. Early life history studies
California Department of Fish and Game
of nearshore rockshes and lingcod off central California,
1987-92. Calif. Depart. of Fish and Game, Mar. Res. Admin.
Rept. 96-4:77 p.
Wyllie-Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of Califor-
nia rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction.
Fish. Bull. 85(2):229-250.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
190
Lingcod
History of the Fishery the California recreational shery almost doubled during
Lingcod
that period, from 510,000 pounds per year to 890,000
T he lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) has long been an pounds per year. The increase was due largely to an
important source of food for people living along the increase in the private boat shery. In 1961, 61 percent
West Coast of North America, although current catches of the recreational landings came from commercial pas-
are low due to overexploitation of the stock. Archaeologi- senger shing vessels. Now, 70 percent of the recreational
cal studies of native American habitations along the cen- landings come from the private boat shery. In both the
tral California coast indicate that between 6200 BC and commercial and recreational sheries, landings occur pre-
AD 1830, large inshore species such as rockshes, lingcod, dominately in central and northern California.
and kelp greenling comprised more than half of the shes Stock assessments conducted by the Pacic Fishery Man-
caught on the open coast. American Indians used spears, agement Council (PFMC) have indicated large population
nets, weirs, traps, and lures of wood with bone hooks to declines for lingcod along its entire range. For the
catch lingcod. Early Caucasian settlers caught lingcod as management areas that include California and Southern
well. Fishing methods in the 1800s were similar to the Oregon (the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception manage-
hook-and-line techniques currently used to catch lingcod ment areas), the current estimate of female spawning
in the small boat jig shery. biomass is 13 percent of the unshed level. Consequently,
Catches of lingcod have been reported as a separate shery regulations have become more stringent, as shery
category since 1916 in California. Commercial landings managers try to rebuild the stock.
from 1916 through 1929 ranged from 400,000 pounds to 1.2 With the implementation of the PMFC’s Groundsh Plan
million pounds. Landings in the rst half of the century in 1983, the combined Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC)
reached a peak in 1930 at 1.3 million pounds, and then for the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception management
declined to a low of 314,000 pounds in 1942. The Califor- areas was 4.8 million pounds, or more than 1.5 million
nia lingcod shery grew again from 1943 through 1950, pounds higher than the commercial landings. In 1995, the
as landings ranged from 719,000 pounds to a high of 2.1 combined quota for these areas was reduced by about
million pounds in 1948, due primarily to strong markets for 50 percent, and a 22-inch commercial size-limit was insti-
liver oil and seafood. For the next two decades, landings tuted. A monthly commercial boat-limit of 20,000 pounds
averaged 1.2 million pounds per year, and then began to per month was established along with a trawl trip-limit
increase in the 1970s, due to the burgeoning west coast of 100 pounds under the 22-inch size-limit. By 2000, the
trawl shery. combined ABC for the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception
During this period of rapid shery growth, lingcod landings International North Pacic Fisheries Commission (INPFC)
in California almost tripled. From 1972 through 1982, areas was reduced in half again to less than 1.2 million
commercial landings of lingcod averaged almost three mil- pounds. The monthly boat limit was reduced to 1,000
lion pounds per year. After a decline in the mid-1980s, pounds and the commercial size-limit was increased to
landings rebounded to a high level again in 1989. Since 24 inches.
then, however, commercial catches have rapidly declined, Prior to 1980, there was a recreational catch limit of 10
partly due to management restrictions enacted to rebuild lingcod per angler. This bag limit was reduced to ve sh
depressed stocks. In 1999, commercial landings were only in 1980, and a 22-inch size-limit was introduced in 1981. In
313,000 pounds, valued at $283,000. 1996, the bag-limit was reduced to three sh to conform
The character of lingcod sheries has changed greatly to Oregon and Washington regulations, and the size-limit
in the past 30 years. In the 1970s, about 85 percent of
the commercially landed lingcod were caught with trawls;
however, hook-and-line gear now account for half of the
commercial landings. In addition, the recently developed
nearshore shery that delivers live sh to markets and res-
taurants landed an average of more than 40,000 pounds
per year in the 1990s. There has also been a shift in
the lingcod shery away from commercial and towards
recreational catches. Recreational landings as a percent-
age of total lingcod landings increased from 20 percent in
the 1970s to about 50 percent in the late 1990s. This was
because recreational shing effort in California increased
by 65 percent between the time periods 1958 through
Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus
1961, and 1980 through 1986. Average annual landings in
Credit: L. Sinclair, Miller and Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 191
Lingcod
5
millions of pounds landed
4
Lingcod 3
2
Commercial Landings
1
1916-1999, Lingcod
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
was increased to 24 inches. In 1999, the bag-limit was Individuals grow to a maximum length of 39 inches for
reduced to two sh. In 2000, the size-limit was increased males and 59 inches for females. Maximum age is thought
to 26 inches. Also, the lingcod shery was closed south to be 25 years. Although there is large variation in length
of Lopez Point, Monterey County during the months of at age, the average one-year-old sh is 13 inches long, and
January and February and from Lopez Point north to Cape a two-year-old is 17 inches long. After age two, females
Mendocino during March and April. begin to grow faster than males. The average length of a
four-year-old female is 24 inches, of an eight-year-old is
32 inches, and of a 12-year-old is 35 inches. The average
Status of Biological Knowledge length of a four-year-old male is 22 inches, of an eight-
year-old is 29 inches, and of a 12-year-old is 32 inches. In
T he lingcod is the largest member of the Hexagrammi-
California, the oldest lingcod on record is a 19-year-old,
dae family. The scientic name Ophiodon is a combi-
45-inch female, and the longest is a 51-inch female.
nation of two Greek words meaning snake and tooth, a
Lingcod length and age at sexual maturity vary with lati-
reference to the lingcod’s large teeth. The name elongatus
tude; lingcod in the northern part of their range are larger
is of Latin origin and refers to the elongated body. Lingcod
and mature later than sh in the southern part of the
are found only off the West Coast of North America. They
distribution. As with most shes, fecundity increases with
are distributed in nearshore waters from northern Baja
size of sh. In the northern end of the lingcod range,
California to the Shumagin Islands along the Alaskan Pen-
females can produce 50,000 eggs at a length of 24 inches,
insula. Their center of abundance is off British Columbia,
124,000 eggs at a length of 32 inches, and 170,000 eggs
and they become less common toward the southern end
at a length of 36 inches. This level of fecundity is low
of their range.
compared to many other marine species in the eastern
Lingcod lack a swimbladder and thus will rest on the
Pacic, but high for a species that guards eggs.
bottom or actively swim in the water column. They are
Lingcod exhibit an interesting spawning behavior, which
found over a wide range of substrates at depths from 10
includes a spawning migration into nearshore habitats for
to 1,300 feet, but most occur in rocky areas from 30 to
330 feet. Typically, larger lingcod occupy rocky habitats;
larger animals are found on deeper banks and reefs,
120
whereas smaller animals live in shallower waters. Adult
thousands of fish landed
lingcod are strongly residential, tending to remain near 100
the reefs or rocky areas where they live. Large-scale 80
Lingcod
conventional tagging studies have found that the vast 60
majority of mature lingcod are recaptured within six miles 40
of where they were tagged, however acoustic tagging 20
studies have indicated frequent short-term movements. 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Juveniles tend to disperse and travel over a wider range
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Lingcod
than adults.
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
192
the deposition of eggs in gelatinous masses, termed nests, young lingcod have a very large mouth for their body size,
Lingcod
on rocky substrates. Males establish territory as early as allowing them to feed on prey much larger than other sh
a month before females lay eggs, and remain on guard at of their age and size. For large juvenile and adult lingcod,
the nest until eggs are hatched. Preferred nest sites are sh is the dominant prey, accounting for about 80 percent
rocky areas in shallow water where there are strong cur- (by volume) of the stomach contents. In California waters,
rents. Males move on to spawning grounds rst, followed juvenile rockshes are the most important prey.
by large females, who spawn earlier than smaller females. Most predation on lingcod occurs during the egg stage,
After a female chooses a male and a spawning site, she and predation becomes less common with age. On rare
swims over the site and deposits a layer of several eggs. occasions, pelagic juvenile lingcod (1.5 to 2.6 inches) are
The male then swims over the site and fertilizes the eggs. found in the stomachs of chinook salmon. Other predators
This process is repeated until spawning is completed, of juvenile sh, such as seabirds and marine mammals
after which the female immediately leaves the spawning also prey on juvenile lingcod. Small benthic lingcod are
grounds. The eggs become rmly cemented to each other probably eaten by adult lingcod and marine mammals,
within the gelatinous mass in 24 to 48 hours. A relatively but have few other predators. Because of their large
strong current is necessary to oxygenate the egg mass and size, large juvenile and adult lingcod escape all but the
prevent death of the embryos. occasional predator.
After spawning, males guard the nests from predation
until the eggs hatch. On occasion, males have been found
Status of the Population
guarding two nests if they were close together, and some-
times if the male is removed, a new male will assume
L ingcod harvest has been higher than generally
the guardian role. The nest guarding behavior of lingcod
accepted population replacement rates for the last
make them susceptible to targeted shing during the
twenty years. Recent lingcod stock assessments have con-
spawning period. Males guarding nests are territorial and
cluded that the lingcod stock is seriously depleted, and
will aggressively strike at bait or lures that come close to
that California populations appear to be less than 25 per-
the nest. Targeted shing during the spawning season can
cent of their pre-1970s level. By federal law, this level of
thus directly increase lingcod mortality by increasing catch
stock depletion requires a management plan that rebuilds
rates. It can also indirectly increase mortality by dislodg-
lingcod populations. The rebuilding plan is intended to
ing animals from the nest, resulting in increased egg
restore the lingcod stock within 10 years. The substantial
mortality. Fish predators such as kelp greenling, striped
reduction in ABC after 1997 and resulting reduced shery
seaperch, and small sculpins will eat lingcod eggs if a
harvest was triggered by that rebuilding plan. Low levels
guardian male is removed from the nest. Invertebrates
of ABC and harvest will continue until lingcod populations
such as sea urchin, sunower star, and snails also feed on
show signs of rebounding. California lingcod appear to be
lingcod eggs, but are not chased away by males guarding
highly productive, however, and there is good potential for
the nest. The eggs generally hatch about seven weeks
rapid population increases given appropriate decreases in
after they are laid, but incubation can last from ve to
shing effort.
11 weeks. Hatching may continue for 24 to 48 hours, after
which the guardian male leaves.
Peter B. Adams
Egg hatching is generally synchronous, with most eggs
National Marine Fisheries Service
hatching within two to seven days of each other. Newly
hatched larvae are 0.25-0.4 inches in length, and grow Richard M. Starr
about 0.06 inches per day. The larvae are pelagic for University of California
about three months from early March to early June and
settle to the bottom when they are about three inches
long. Newly settled juveniles reside in shallow bays and
on nearshore sand and mud bottoms from the beach to
333 feet in depth. Juveniles occur over a wide range of
habitats including mud, sand, gravel, and eelgrass, but by
age two occupy similar habitats as adults.
During the pelagic juvenile stage there is a gradual tran-
sition from a diet of small copepods to one of larger
copepods, crab larvae, amphipods, euphausiids, and her-
ring larvae. As small benthic juveniles, lingcod feed on
herring, atshes, shiner perch, and other shes. Even
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 193
References
Lingcod
Adams, P., E. Williams, K. Silberberg, and T. Laidig. 1999.
Southern lingcod stock assessment in 1999. Appendix In:
Status of the Pacic coast groundsh shery through 1999
and recommended acceptable biological catches for 2000.
Pacic Fishery Management Council, Portland.
Cass, A.J., R.J. Beamish, and G.A. McFarlane. 1990. Ling-
cod (Ophiodon elongatus). Can. Sp. Pub., Fish. and Aquat.
Sci. 109. 30 p.
Fitch, J.E. 1958. Offshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
Fish Game. 80 p.
Jagielo, T.H. 1990. Movement of tagged lingcod Ophiodon
elongatus at Neah Bay, Washington. Fishery Bulletin 88(4):
815-820.
Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995. The
marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
fornia. A historical comparison (1958-86), status of stocks
(1980-86), and effects of changes in the California current.
California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 176.
192 p.
LaRiviere, M.G., D.D. Jessup, and S.B. Mathews. 1981.
Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus, spawning and nesting in
San Juan Channel, Washington. Calif. Fish and Game
67:231-239.
Miller, D.J. and J.J. Geibel. 1973. Summary of blue rock-
sh and lingcod life histories; a reef ecology study; and
giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, experiments in Monterey
Bay, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 158.
137 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
194
California Halibut
History of the Fishery Marine Resources Protection Zone (MRPZ) was established
California Halibut
in 1990 extending three miles off the southern California
C alifornia halibut (Paralichthys californicus) is an impor- mainland coast from Point Conception to the Mexican
tant atsh species in both the commercial and recre- border and within one mile or 70 fathoms (whichever is
ational sheries of central and southern California. The less) around the Channel Islands. Gill and trammel nets
highest recorded commercial landing of halibut was 4.7 have been prohibited in the MRPZ since Jan. 1, 1994.
million pounds in 1919, which was followed by an overall Historically, commercial catches of halibut by hook-and-
decline to a low of 950,000 pounds in 1932. Since 1932, the line gear have been insignicant when compared to the
average annual catch has been 910,000 pounds, with ve total pounds landed annually by the trawl and set gillnet
notable peaks in landings: 1936 (1.58 million pounds), 1946 sheries. However, over the last decade, catches of Cali-
(2.46 million pounds), 1964 (1.28 million pounds), 1981 fornia halibut by hook-and-line have ranged from 11 to 23
(1.26 million pounds), and 1997 (1.25 million pounds). percent of the total pounds landed annually. A majority of
The decline in commercial halibut landings after 1919 has those landings were made in the San Francisco Bay area
been attributed to increased shing pressure during World by salmon shermen mooching or trolling slowly over the
War I and to overshing. Fishing restraints during World ocean bottom.
War II may have allowed halibut stocks to increase, result- Catches by commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFV)
ing in peak landings in the late 1940s, followed by low displayed trends similar to the commercial landings from
catches in the 1950s. Increased landings in the mid-1960s 1947 through 1974, with two peaks in 1948 (143,000 hali-
followed warm water (El Niño) years in the late 1950s. but) and 1964 (141,000 halibut). Following the 1948 peak,
The lowest landings occurred in the early 1970s, with the annual landings plummeted below 11,000 sh by 1957. The
lowest recorded catch in 1970 of 257,000 pounds. Landings expansion of the CPFV eet and no size limit restriction
increased during the late 1970s to a peak again in 1981 for the take of California halibut can be attributed to the
and 1997. Since 1980, landings of California halibut have 13-fold decrease in landings between 1948 and 1958. While
remained relatively constant, averaging more than one the commercial catch increased in the late 1970s and
million pounds annually. steadied in the 1980s, the recreational catch remained low
Historically, halibut have been commercially harvested by and variable with an average annual catch of 8,600 sh
three principal gears: otter trawl, set gill and trammel from 1971 to 1989. By 1995, CPFV landings surged to a
net, and hook-and-line. The California halibut trawl shery 26-year high of 19,600 sh, declining to 14,200 sh in 1999.
evolved late in the 19th century in the San Francisco Since 1994, CPFVs operating in the San Francisco Bay area
Bay area. Since then, the boats used to tow this gear have landed a majority of the halibut statewide.
across the ocean bottom have gone from sail to steam To assist with the restoration of the California halibut
to gasoline, and nally to diesel powered engines. Today, resource through the protection of sub-adult sh, a regu-
trawling is permitted in federal waters (three to 200 lation was adopted in 1971 that set a minimum size limit
nautical miles offshore) using trawl nets with a minimum of 22 inches for sport-caught California halibut. Com-
mesh size of 4.5 inches. Trawling is prohibited within mercial landings increased slowly after this legislation,
state waters, except in the designated “California halibut whereas recreational landings remained low and did not
trawl grounds,” which encompass the area between Point recover to former catch levels.
Arguello and Point Mugu in waters greater than one nauti-
Although California halibut range from the Quillayute
cal mile from shore. Bottom trawls used in this area
River, Washington to Almejas Bay, Baja California, the
must have a minimum mesh size of 7.5 inches, and
trawling is closed from March 15 to June 15 to protect
spawning adults.
A decade after the introduction of the trawl shery to San
Francisco Bay, set gill and trammel nets were shed state-
wide along the coast. Historically, set nets have been the
gear of choice for commercial halibut shermen because
of the restrictions on bottom trawl gear in state waters.
In southern California, gill and trammel nets with 8.5-inch
mesh and maximum length of 9,000 feet are the principal
type of gear used. Today, gill and trammel net shing
is prohibited in Santa Monica Bay, shallow coastal waters
north of Point Sal, and is subject to many other area,
California Halibut, Paralichthys californicus
depth, and seasonal closures throughout the state. A
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 195
commercial shery is concentrated from Bodega Bay in mortality of newly-settled juveniles and an increase in
California Halibut
the north to San Diego in southern California, and across the growth rate of larger juveniles that feed upon the
the international border with Mexico. The contribution to abundant small shes in the bays. Juveniles emigrate from
California landings of halibut captured in Mexican waters the bays to the coast at about one year of age and 6.9 to
has varied but has generally been insignicant since 1966. 8.7 inches in length.
Historically, the shery was centered off southern Califor- Tagging studies have indicated that California halibut do
nia and Baja California, but over the past twenty years, not tend to move extensively. Most sublegal halibut tagged
the greatest landings have oscillated between ports in and released from CPFVs in southern California were
southern and central California. A majority of the halibut recovered within ve miles from their tag sites; only
landings made in central California occurred in the San 12 percent were found 10 miles or more from where
Francisco Bay area. A limited amount of shing occurs they were tagged. Larger halibut appear to travel the
around the Channel Islands of southern California, with greatest distances. One large tagged halibut (33 inches)
a catch of substantially larger halibut (average length = was recovered 64 miles away 39 days after release.
27 inches) than those caught in the nearshore mainland
California halibut may live to 30 years and reach 60 inches
shery (average length = 24 inches).
in length. The maximum-recorded weight is 72 pounds.
Commercial shing laws prohibit the sale of California Male halibut mature at one to three years and eight to
halibut less than 22 inches in total length, unless the twelve inches, whereas females mature at four to ve
weight is at least four pounds whole, 3.5 pounds dressed years and 15 to 17 inches. Female halibut attain larger
with the head on, or 3 pounds dressed with the head sizes at age than males and represent a greater fraction
off. Four halibut less than the legal minimum size may be of the commercial landings (60 to 80 percent). Female
retained for personal use. halibut reach legal size (22 inches) at ve to six years of
Recreational regulations also require a minimum size limit age, about a year before males.
of 22 inches, in addition to a daily bag limit of ve Cali- California halibut are ambushing predators. Adults prey
fornia halibut when shing south of Point Sur, Monterey primarily upon Pacic sardine, northern anchovies, squid,
County, and only three halibut per day when shing north and other nektonic nearshore sh species. Small juvenile
of Point Sur. Halibut can be taken in recreational sheries halibut in bays primarily eat crustaceans, including cope-
using hook-and-line, spear, or hand. pods and amphipods, until they reach about 2.5 inches.
They are then large enough to eat gobies that are found
commonly in bays but not on the open coast. Juvenile
Status of Biological Knowledge halibut become increasingly piscivorous with size. On the
A
coast, adult halibut feed primarily on Pacic sardine,
dult California halibut inhabit soft bottom habitats in
anchovies, and white croaker.
coastal waters generally less than 300 feet deep, with
greatest abundance at depths of less than 100 feet. Adults
spawn throughout the year with peak spawning in winter
Status of the Population
and spring. Pelagic eggs and larvae occur over the shelf,
A
with greatest densities in water less than 250 feet deep bundance of larval California halibut in plankton sur-
and within four miles of shore. Halibut larvae appear veys is correlated with commercial landings of halibut,
to move inshore as they approach metamorphosis. Early suggesting that this species has a cycle of abundance
larval stages (about 0.1 to 0.3 inches) occur in midwater approximately 20 years in length. However, the size of
more than one mile offshore, whereas transforming larvae the halibut population may be limited by the amount of
occur within 0.6 mile of shore and occupy the neuston available nursery habitat, as juvenile halibut appear to
(surface zone) at night and the bottom during the day. be dependent on shallow water embayments as nursery
California halibut have a relatively short pelagic larval areas. The overall decline in California halibut landings
stage (less than 30 days), transforming and settling to corresponds to a decline in shallow water habitats in
the bottom at a small size (0.35 to 0.5 inches). Newly southern California associated with dredging and lling of
settled and larger juvenile halibut are frequently taken in bays and wetlands.
unvegetated shallow-water embayments and infrequently
Recreational and commercial shermen are in conict
on the open coast, suggesting that embayments are the
over the California halibut resource in southern California.
important nursery habitats. However, settlement either
A differential minimum size limit of 22 inches for the
in bays or along the open coast varies yearly and may
recreational shery and 26 inches for the commercial
reect variability in nearshore currents that inuence the
shery was investigated as a possible management tool.
onshore transport of larvae. The advantages of bays as
This strategy would allow recreational anglers to harvest
nursery areas are probably a decrease in the risk of
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
196
California Halibut
5
millions of pounds landed
4
California Halibut
3
2 Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
California Halibut
1
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
halibut between 22 and 26 inches in length before sh population estimate was 3.9 million halibut for southern
had grown large enough to recruit to the commercial California, and 700,000 halibut for central California.
shery. Yield-per-recruit (Y/R) analysis indicated that: 1)
differential size limits would provide an increased Y/R for
Management Considerations
the recreational shery, whereas the commercial shery
would experience a loss; 2) overall shing effort was
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
about twice the optimum level; and 3) Y/R would probably
further information.
increase with diminished shing effort.
The total California biomass of the halibut resource
Sharon H. Kramer
obtained from virtual population analysis (VPA) estimates
MBC Applied Environmental Sciences
150
John S. Sunada
thousands of fish landed
120
California Department of Fish and Game
California Halibut
90
Revised by:
Stephen P. Wertz
60
California Department of Fish and Game
30
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Halibut
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
in the late 1980s was 5.7 to 13.2 million pounds, with
annual recruitment of sh at age one estimated to be
between 0.45 and 1.0 million sh. The number of juvenile
halibut emigrating from southern California bays to the
open coast (age one) estimated from beam trawl surveys
ranged between 250,000 and 400,000 in the late 1980s.
In the early 1990s, a swept-area trawl survey was con-
ducted to better understand California halibut population
dynamics. This shery-independent survey produced a
biomass and population estimate for halibut in southern
and central California. The survey results indicated a hali-
but biomass of 6.9 million pounds for southern California
and 2.3 million pounds for central California, while the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 197
References Reed, R.R. and A.D. MacCall. 1988. Changing the size
California Halibut
limit: How it could affect California halibut sheries. Calif.
Allen, L.G. 1988. Recruitment, distribution, and feeding Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 29:158-166.
habits of young-of-the-year California halibut (Paralichthys Valle, C.F., J.W. O’Brian, K.B. Wiese. 1999. Differential
californicus) in the vicinity of Alamitos Bay-Long Beach habitat used by California halibut (Paralichthys californi-
Harbor, California, 1983-1985. Bull. Southern Calif. Acad. cus), barred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer), and other
Sci. 87:19-30. juvenile shes in Alamitos Bay, California. Fishery Bulletin,
C.W. Haugen (ed.). 1990. The California halibut, Paralich- U.S. 97(3).
thys californicus, resource and sheries. Calif. Dept. Fish Wertz, S.P., and M.L. Domeier. 1997. Relative importance
Game, Fish Bull. 174. of prey items to California halibut. California Fish and
Domeier, M.L., and C.S.Y. Chun 1995. A tagging study Game 83(1):21-29.
of the Calfornia halibut, Paralichthys californicus. Califor-
nia Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports
36:204-207.
Kramer, S.H. 1990. Habitat specicity and ontogenetic
movements of juvenile California halibut, Paralichthys cal-
ifornicus, and other atshes in shallow waters of south-
ern California. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Calif. San Diego, 266 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
198
Starry Flounder
History of the Fishery Tagging studies have not demonstrated extensive migra-
Starry Flounder
tions, although there is some movement along the shore.
P rior to the late 1980s, the starry ounder (Platichthys There are also thought to be seasonal inshore-offshore
stellatus) was a common species in both the com- movements of these sh, possibly related to spawning.
mercial and recreational sheries of northern and central Most spawning occurs in shallow waters near the mouths
California. Though seldom targeted, it was often taken by of rivers and estuaries during the winter. In central Cali-
commercial shers seeking more valuable species such fornia, December and January are the peak months of
as petrale sole or California halibut. Historically, most of spawning. The number of eggs produced by each female
the commercial catch was made by bottom trawl. During depends upon her size. A 27-inch sh may produce about
the 1980s, many starry ounders were also taken by gill 11 million eggs. Fertilization is external.
and trammel nets in central California. During the late
Eggs of the starry ounder are pelagic, oating near the
1980s, commercial landings declined sharply and remained
ocean’s surface. Under laboratory conditions, eggs held
at relatively low levels through the 1990s. From 1992
at 51° F hatched in 4.5 days, while those held at 54.5° F
through 1999, landings averaged only 62,225 pounds, rang-
hatched in 2.8 days. Newly hatched larvae are less than
ing from a low of 25,353 pounds in 1995 to a high of
one-tenth inch long. Metamorphosis occurs 39 to 75 days
100,309 pounds in 1999. This is in contrast to annual land-
after hatching. Newly settled juveniles less than one-half
ings of more than a million pounds during the 1970s and
inch long are common in low-salinity estuarine waters,
half a million pounds in the 1980s.
although settling also occurs along the open coast.
The recreational catch of starry ounders is from piers,
Females grow faster and reach larger sizes than do males.
boats, and shore, usually in estuarine and adjacent coastal
In central California, most males are sexually mature at
waters. The estimated annual recreational catch for this
two years averaging 14.5 inches, most females at three
species in California from 1981 to 1989 averaged 40,000
years and 16 inches. The maximum size reported is
sh and ranged from less than 12,000 in 1985 to 63,000
36 inches.
sh in 1987. Estimated recreational catches, like com-
Larval starry ounders feed on planktonic organisms.
mercial landings, declined dramatically during the 1990s.
Newly metamorphosed sh feed largely on copepods and
Catch estimates from 1993 through 1999 averaged 6,000
amphipods. As they grow, their diet changes. Five-inch sh
sh per year, and ranged from a high in 1998 of 15,000 sh
have developed jaws and teeth that allow them to crush
to lows in 1994 and 1996 of 3,000 sh.
small clams and pull worms from their burrows. At 10 to 12
inches, they tend to graze on tips of siphons of clams too
Status of Biological Knowledge large to be ingested whole. Crabs and polychaete worms
are also taken. Sand dollars, brittle stars, and sh are
T he starry ounder is probably the most easily recogniz- included in the diets of larger starry ounders.
able of California’s atshes. The dorsal and anal
Wading and diving seabirds such as herons and cormo-
ns are prominently marked with alternating yellow or
rants, as well as marine mammals such as harbor seals,
orange and dark bars. The body surface is rough owing
feed on juvenile starry ounders in estuaries. However,
to modied star-shaped scales that give rise to the names
sea lions and harbor seals feeding on sh caught in gillnets
“starry” and “roughjacket,” as this sh is often called by
will pass up a dozen starry ounders to eat a more
shermen. It is very good at assuming the coloration of
the substrate upon which it nds itself. Starry ounders
in California are about equally divided between left-eyed
and right-eyed sh, while those of Japan are nearly all
left-eyed.
Starry ounders range from Korea and Japan, north to the
Bering and Chukchi Seas and the Arctic coasts of Alaska
and Canada, and southward down the coast of North
America to southern California, although they are uncom-
mon south of Point Conception. It is primarily a coastal
species, living on sand and mud bottoms, and avoiding
rocky areas. Though found to depths of 900 feet, they
are much more common in shallower waters. They are
frequently found in bays and estuaries, often one of com-
monest shes in these settings. They are tolerant of Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus
brackish and even fresh water. Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 199
Starry Flounder
1.2
millions of pounds landed
1.0
Starry Flounder
0.8
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
0.6
Starry Flounder
Starry flounder were aggre-
0.4
gated under the landing classi-
fication “unspecified flounders”
0.2
between 1970 and 1982. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and 0.0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
valuable California halibut, much to the consternation of which suggests that adult sh were no longer present in
the sherman. the areas where sheries normally operate, and were no
longer spawning in areas that had previously resulted in
On occasion, a sh is caught that displays physical charac-
higher levels of young-of-the-year within the San
teristics intermediate between a starry ounder and an
Francisco estuary. Recruitment is largely determined
English sole and may be a hybrid of those species.
by survival of larval and juvenile sh. Given the
importance of bays and estuaries to the young of
Status of the Population this species, the continued environmental health of
these areas may be the most important factor in
N o studies have been conducted to determine popula- maintaining healthy populations of starry ounder.
tion size of the starry ounder; however, the com-
mercial landing and the recreational catch trends suggest
Charles W. Haugen and Dave Thomas
the California population is now at extremely low levels.
California Department of Fish and Game
The circumstance could arise from either a relocation of
adult sh associated with the 1976-1977 oceanic regime
References
shift or a rapid decline in the abundance of spawning
adults due to shing pressure. The large population
decline suggested by shery trends is substantiated by Orcutt, H.G. 1950. The life history of the starry ounder,
a shery-independent trawl survey conducted by the Cali- Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
fornia Department of Fish and Game within the San Fran- Fish Bull. 78. 64 p.
cisco estuary from 1980 through 1995. Their results show Orsi, J. (editor) 1999. Starry Flounder. Pages 404-415 In:
age-zero and age-one-plus starry ounder abundance and Report on the 1980-1995, Shrimp, and Crab Sampling in
catch-per-unit-effort dropping dramatically during the late the San Francisco Estuary, California. The Interagency
1980s and remaining at low levels through the 1990s. Ecological Program for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estu-
There is very little or no yearly lag between the precipi- ary. Tech. Rept. 63.
tous drop in the shery harvest and the drop in abun-
dance of age-zero sh in the San Francisco estuary survey,
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
200
Sanddabs
History of the Fishery part of the unspecied atsh catch, which has decreased
Sanddads
from about 14,000 sh in 1990 to 4,000 sh in 1998.
A lthough not as important to California sheries as As an El Niño event is more likely to have an immediate
other atshes, sanddabs are nevertheless highly affect on the abundance of sanddab larvae than on har-
prized by the commercial industry and recreational vestable adults, the immediate drop in sanddab catches
anglers for their excellent edibility. Four species of during some El Niño years may be due in part to a shift in
sanddabs are found in California waters – Pacic sanddab shing effort to more desirable species.
(Citharichthys sordidus), longn sanddab (Citharichthys
xanthostigma), speckled sanddab (Citharichthys stig-
Status of Biological Knowledge
maeus), and gulf sanddab (Citharichthys fragilis). Com-
mercial sanddab landings and recreational catches consist
S anddabs belong to the family Paralichthyidae (some-
predominantly of the two largest species, Pacic sanddab
times included as part of Bothidae - left-eye oun-
and longn sanddab. Pacic sanddab is the most abundant
ders). Biogeographically, Pacic sanddab and speckled
and makes up the bulk of the landings in central and
sanddab are temperate species whereas longn sanddab
northern California waters, whereas Pacic sanddab and
and gulf sanddab are warm-temperate to tropical species.
longn sanddab are caught in southern California. Because
Pacic sanddab ranges from the Bering Sea to Cape San
of their smaller size, speckled and gulf sanddabs are not
Lucas, Baja California Sur, Mexico; speckled sanddab from
important to the sheries.
Point Montague Island, Alaska to Magdalena Bay, Baja Cali-
Recorded sanddab landings were highest (2.6 million
fornia Sur, Mexico; longn sanddab from Monterey Bay to
pounds) in 1917. In 1918, landings decreased to 1.8 million
Costa Rica; and gulf sanddab from off Ventura, California
pounds, and from 1919 to 1921 they remained less than 0.8
to Cape San Lucas, Baja California Sur, and the Gulf of
million pounds. In 1922, annual landings increased, reach-
California. Speckled sanddab and Pacic sanddab occur
ing approximately two million pounds in 1925. From 1930
throughout the state, with speckled sanddab occurring
to 1974, annual landings were below a million pounds.
from the surface to a depth of 1,200 feet, and Pacic
Since 1975, landings have uctuated between 1.4 million
sanddab at 30 to 1,800 feet. Maximum depths of both spe-
pounds and 0.6 million pounds annually. During the last
cies are suspect as the speckled sanddab seldom occurs
decade, landings have been above the historical annual
deeper than 300 feet and Pacic sanddab seldom deeper
average, except for 1983 and 1984, the period of a strong
than 600 feet. Longn sanddab occurs at depths from
El Niño event. Landings rebounded in 1985 and have
seven to 660 feet, but usually less than 450 feet, and gulf
increased since then. Approximately 1.44 million pounds
sanddab from 59 to 1,140 feet. Most species are found on
were landed in 1990, but landings crashed in 1992 (also an
muddy to sandy mud bottoms but speckled sanddab occurs
El Niño year) to 0.6 million pounds, and then rebounded
commonly on sandy bottoms.
to more than 2.0 million pounds in 1997 and 1999. In the
Pacic sanddab is the largest species, reaching 16 inches,
1990s, ex-vessel value ranged from $0.46 to $0.80 per
and up to two pounds. Most, however, are smaller than 10
pound (1990 and 1999, respectively). Value increased from
inches and weigh, at most, 0.5 pound. The next largest
$0.46 to $0.70 per pound from 1990 to 1993, dropped to
species is longn sanddab at 10 inches, followed by gulf
$0.51 per pound in 1995 and 1996, and then increase to a
sanddab at nine inches, and speckled sanddab at seven
high of $0.80 per pound in 1999.
inches. Pacic sanddab live to a maximum of 10 years
Since 1970, most of the commercial sanddab landings have
whereas speckled sanddab live to about 3.5 years. Pacic
been in northern and central California, with the largest
sanddabs mature at about three years, whereas the speck-
landings at Eureka and San Francisco Bay and less at
Monterey Bay. The commercial catch of sanddabs is mainly
by otter trawls and some by hook-and-line, especially in
the Monterey Bay area.
Many recreational anglers target them, mostly from small
boats and commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs).
Sanddabs are one of a few sh groups for which there is
no catch limit. Sanddab catches from CPFVs were small
during the 1990s, with reported catches reaching 2,200
sh in 1990 and dropping to about 100 sh in 1998 (a
strong El Niño year). About 70 percent of these were taken
in southern California between Long Beach and Newport
Pacific Sanddab, Citharichthys sordidus
Beach. Sanddabs comprise an unknown, but probably large
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 201
Sanddabs
3.0
thousands of pounds landed
2.5
2.0
Sanddabs
1.5
1.0
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Sanddabs
0.5
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
References
led sanddab matures at one year. Spawning begins in
July, peaks in August, and ends sometime in September
for Pacic sanddab and extends from spring to fall for Allen, M. J. 1976. Addition of Citharichthys fragilis Gilbert
speckled sanddab. Females may spawn twice during a to the California fauna. Calif. Fish Game 62(4):299-303.
season. In contrast, most northern atsh species spawn
Allen, M. J. 1982. Functional structure of soft-bottom sh
during late winter to early spring.
communities of the southern California shelf. Ph.D. dis-
Sanddab larvae are pelagic and may be found near the sertation. Univ. Calif., San Diego, La Jolla, CA. 577 p.
surface and out to many miles offshore. Sanddab larvae
Arora, H.L. 1951. An investigation of the California sand
transform and settle to the bottom at lengths of 0.6
dab, Citharichthys sordidus (Girard). Calif. Fish and Game.
to 1.6 inches. Juveniles and adults feed near or on the
37:3-42.
bottom on a variety of nektonic and benthic prey, includ-
Ford, R.F. 1965. Distribution, population dynamics, and
ing shrimp, crabs, marine worms, squid, octopus, eggs,
behavior of a bothid atsh, Citharichthys stigmaeus.
and small shes. Speckled sanddab feed largely on mysids
Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, San Diego. La
and amphipods, but small Pacic sanddabs feed on cope-
Jolla, CA.
pods and polychaetes. Adults feed more on euphausiids
Hensley, D. A. 1995. Paralichthyidae: Lenguados. Pages
and squid. Sanddabs, in turn, are preyed upon by larger
1349-1380 In: W. Fischer, F. Krupp, W. Schneider, C.
shes, diving birds, and marine mammals.
Sommer, K. E. Carpenter, and V. H. Niem (eds.), Guia
FAO para la identication de especies para los nes de
Status of the Population la pesca Pacico Centro-oriental, Vol. III, Vertebrados
Parte 2. United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organiza-
C ommercial landings indicate that sanddab populations tion, Rome, It.
are in good condition and currently are not being over-
Kramer, D. E., W. H. Barss, B. C. Paust, and B. E. Brachen.
harvested. The Pacic Fishery Management Council has
1995. Guide to Northeast Pacic atshes: families Bothi-
not recommended a change in the minimal acceptable
dae, Cynoglossidae, and Pleuronectidae. Alaska Sea Grant
biological catch of incidentally caught “Other Flatsh”
College Program, Marine Advisory Bull. No. 47. 104 p.
(which includes sanddabs) during the past decade, indicat-
Moser, H. G., and B. Y. Sumida. 1996. Paralichthyidae:
ing a stable and likely reasonably utilized resource.
lefteye ounders and sanddabs. Pages 1325-1355 In: H. G.
Moser (ed.), The early stages of shes in the California
M. James Allen Current Region. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Atlas
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project No. 33.
Robert Leos
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
202
Other Flatfishes
History of The Fishery in the annual landings of sole. Turbot landings averaged
Other Flatfishes
about 47,000 pounds per year from 1953 to 1999, with
S everal atsh species are taken incidentally in com- a peak of 176,000 pounds in 1954, and another good
mercial groundsh sheries. These include the rock year occurring in 1959 (129,000 pounds). Since 1964 there
sole (Pleuronectes bilineatus), butter sole (Pleuronectes has been an overall general decline in commercial turbot
isolepis), fantail sole (Xystreurys liolepis), sand sole (Pset- landings. Landings in 1999 were approximately 8,000
tichthys melanostictus), slender sole (Eopsetta exilis), pounds, the lowest since 1953. Pacic halibut contributed
bigmouth sole (Hippoglossina stomata), California tongue- heavily to the minor atsh shery prior to the mid-1950s.
sh (Symphurus atricauda), curln turbot (Pleuronichthys The last good year for Pacic halibut landings was 1952,
decurrens), hornyhead turbot (Pleuronichthys verticalis), when 242,600 pounds were landed. Landings then began
spotted turbot (Pleuronichthys ritteri), C-O turbot (Pleu- a rapid downward trend. From 1969 to 1988, no landings
ronichthys coenosus), diamond turbot (Hypsopsetta gut- were recorded, except for three years: 1971, 1972, and
tulata), arrowtooth ounder (Atheresthes stomias), and 1986 (25, 235, and 34,500 pounds, respectively). From
Pacic halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis). Some of these, 1989 to 1999, landings did increase somewhat, averaging
notably the Pacic halibut, diamond turbot, and rock sole, approximately 4,600 pounds per year.
are taken by recreational anglers as well, but most are Most of the incidental atsh are taken by otter trawls.
caught primarily by commercial boats. Arrowtooth oun- The exception is Pacic halibut, where set longline is the
der and Pacic halibut are considered as minor atshes dominant gear used. Trammel nets are used to catch
in California atsh sheries because they are landed some atsh in central and southern California waters,
in relatively small quantities. However, both species are and many small-boat commercial shermen use hook-and-
major components in the atsh sheries in northern line. Recreational anglers occasionally catch soles or tur-
waters from Oregon to Alaska. bots while shing for sanddabs, starry ounder, or Califor-
Landings of most of these atshes are difcult to extract nia halibut. Diamond turbots are sought by recreational
from landings data for the early years (beginning in 1916), anglers in quiet coastal waters, bays, and sloughs.
because many were combined with other categories of
atsh. For example, prior to 1931 turbots were included
Status of Biological Knowledge
with soles. Also, some species such as Pacic halibut are
included in California landings, even though most were
I n general, atsh spawn during late winter and early
landed elsewhere and shipped to California ports. Starting
spring. Arrowtooth ounder, however, spawn as late as
in the early 1950s, some of these atsh landings, primar-
August in the southeast Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska,
ily arrowtooth ounder (1950) and soles (1953), were listed
where the greatest concentrations of this species are
separately in the catch data.
found. The larvae are pelagic and undergo metamorphosis
Generally, incidental atsh catches have contributed to the adult form. After atsh settle on the bottom,
only a small amount to the annual statewide commercial they eat small crustaceans, polychaetes, and mollusks. As
landings. From 1953 to 1999, these annual atsh landings they grow, they eat larger food forms of the same groups.
averaged about 0.1 percent of the total statewide land- Some, such as sand sole, arrowtooth ounder, and Pacic
ings. During this period, ounders (mostly arrowtooth halibut, include sh in their diet.
ounder) comprised 49.2 percent of incidental atsh
landings, soles 41.2 percent, turbots 8.0 percent, and
Pacic halibut 1.6 percent. Starting in the 1960s, commer-
cial landings of minor atsh, as a group, have declined,
although not all species showed this trend.
Since 1950, arrowtooth ounder landings averaged
278,300 pounds per year with peak years occurring in 1956
(1,070,700 pounds), 1960 (1,007,700 pounds), and 1961
(1,100,900 pounds). These high landings were due, in part,
to the less desirable shes, such as arrowtooth ounder,
nding a market with the animal food industry, primarily
as mink food. Arrowtooth ounder no longer is used for
mink food, but is processed for human consumption. Inci-
dental sole landings since 1953 averaged about 244,000
pounds per year, with a peak in 1979 when 839,000 pounds
Diamond Turbot, Hypsopsetta guttulata
were landed. After 1979, there was a general decline
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 203
Other Flatfishes
1.2
millions of pounds landed
1.0
Arrowtooth Flounder
Commercial Landings
0.8
1916-1999,
Arrowtooth Flounder
0.6
Arrowhead
flounder were aggregated
0.4
under the landing classification
“unclassified sole” prior
0.2
to 1950. Data Source: DFG
Catch Bulletins and commercial
0.0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
200
millions of pounds landed
150
Turbot
100
Commercial Landings
50
1916-1999, Turbot
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
landing receipts. 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
As a group, minor atsh species range from the Gulf of by the Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC). The
California/Baja California to the Bering and Chukchi Seas densities of arrowtooth ounder are low south of Cape
off Alaska. Within this overall range some species are Blanco, Oregon. Pacic halibut landings in California have
quite restricted while others are found throughout most declined since the peak years during the 1930s; however,
of this range. They occur from shallow water to depths in the species is considered uncommon in California waters.
excess of 3,000 feet (Pacic halibut). Pacic halibut are monitored extensively by the Interna-
tional Pacic Halibut Commission (IPHC) and recent stock
assessment analysis indicates that while abundance in
Status of the Populations numbers is still quite high relative to the levels of 1975 or
1980, the prospect for a decline in the biomass in waters
M ajor uctuations of commercial landings of ounder,
north of California is a possibility.
soles, and turbot have occurred since 1950. Despite
these uctuations and declining commercial landings that
started in the 1960s, market sampling and commercial
landing records indicate that these populations remain
in good condition and currently are not being over-har-
vested. Arrowtooth ounder stock assessment work con-
ducted in 1993 by the Washington Department of Fisheries
indicated that the status of the population, at that time,
was in good condition because there was no decline
in shery catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) between 1987 and
1992 and no trend in triennial bottom trawl survey CPUE
from 1977 to 1992. Current catch levels remain well below
the level of acceptable biological catch (ABC) established
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
204
Management Considerations Kramer, D. E. et al. 1995. Guide to Northeast Pacic
Other Flatfishes
Flatshes. University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Marine Advisory Bulletin No. 47.
further information. Nitsos, R.J. and P.H. Reed. 1965. The animal food shery
in California, 1961-1962. Calif. Fish and Game. 51:16-27.
Robert Leos Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1999. Status of the
California Department of Fish and Game Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 1999 and Recom-
mended Acceptable Biological Catches for 2000. Pacic
Fishery Management Council, Portland, Oregon.
References Ripley, W.E. 1949. Bottom sh. Pages 63-75 in The com-
mercial sh catch of California for the year 1947 with an
Best, E. A. 1961. The California animal food shery,
historical review 1916-1947. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
1958-1960. Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission, Bulletin.
Bull. 74.
5:5-15.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 205
White Seabass
History of the Fishery line shing takes place during the early spring, when large
seabass are available.
W hite seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) have been Although the legal size limit for white seabass is 28 inches
favored by California anglers and consumers for at (about seven pounds), the average commercially caught
least a century. Coastal Indian middens have yielded sh is nearly 40 inches (about 20 pounds). Because of con-
many seabass ear bones (otoliths) suggesting that this sumer demand, seabass has always commanded relatively
sh was highly regarded for food and possibly used for high prices. In 2000, commercial shermen were typically
ceremonial purposes. paid $2.25 per pound for whole sh. At the retail level the
Commercial landings of white seabass have uctuated sh are sold fresh, primarily as llets and steaks.
widely over the nearly 85 years of record keeping. Almost Recreational shing for white seabass began around the
three million pounds were reported in 1922, 599,000 in turn of the century. Because of their size and elusive
1937, 3.5 million in 1959, and 58,000 in 1997. Since 1959 nature, seabass are popular with anglers. Historical
the trend has been one of decline, although landings have records show that anglers on commercial passenger shing
been over 100,000 pounds for the years 1984 through 1991 vessels (CPFVs), shing in California waters, landed an
and 1998-1999. Although there was a commercial shery average of 33,400 sh annually from 1947 through 1959.
in the San Francisco area from the late 1800s to the mid- The catch steadily declined to an average of 10,400 sh
1920s, landings of sh caught north of Point Conception in the 1960s, 3,400 sh in the 1970s, and 1,200 sh in
rarely exceeded 20 percent of the total California catch. the 1980s, but increased to 3,000 sh in the 1990s. In
Today, catches of white seabass are concentrated along fact, the 1999 recreational catch of white seabass from
the coast from Point Conception to San Diego and around California waters was greater than 11,000 sh and appears
the Channel Islands. The frequency of sh caught north to be as high for 2000. Additional seabass are caught
of Point Conception has increased in the past few years, by anglers aboard private boats, but accurate catches by
although the pounds landed still represent less than 20 private boat anglers are difcult to estimate.
percent of the total California catch. Before 1982, Califor- Today, sport anglers catch white seabass that are gener-
nia commercial shermen landed thousands of pounds ally between seven and 25 pounds. This was not true
of white seabass taken in Mexico. Often these landings in the past. While the 28-inch size limit also applies to
comprised more than 80 percent of the annual catch. recreational anglers, most of the catch prior to the 1990s
Since then, the Mexican government has denied access (kept and released) was between 20 and 24 inches. In a
permits to U.S. shermen, and the shery is concentrated survey of private boaters at launch ramp facilities from
in California. 1978 through 1982, biologists found that only six to 16
During the early years of the shery, commercial catches percent of the white seabass kept were of legal size. In
were made using gillnets, hook-and-line, and round haul a similar survey aboard CPFVs from 1985 through 1987,
nets such as lamparas and purse seines. Purse seining was biologists reported that 16 to 25 percent of the seabass
curtailed in the late 1920s because decreasing catches caught were legal. However, this has changed dramatically
made it uneconomical. Since all round haul nets were with the apparent increase in the abundance of legal-size
prohibited in the early 1940s, gillnets have been the major white seabass. During the period from 1995 through 1999,
commercial shing gear. Set gillnet shing for white sea- data collected from private boat anglers revealed 77 per-
bass within state waters was completely disallowed begin- cent of the sh were legal size while data from CPFV
ning in 1994. Therefore, drift gillnetting is the primary anglers showed 80 percent of the sh were legal size.
shing method utilized today. Some commercial hook-and- White seabass are more often caught with live bait than
with dead bait or lures, but all are effective when the sh
are actively feeding. Seabass can sometimes be brought
to the surface by heavy chumming with live bait. Anglers
shing around Santa Catalina Island have reported con-
sistently good catches using blacksmith and silversides
as bait. However, when available, live squid and Pacic
sardines are popular baits. Spearshing for large seabass
by free divers (without SCUBA) is successful in kelp beds.
Regulations covering white seabass have been in effect
since 1931, and have included a minimum size limit, closed
seasons, bag limits, and shing gear restrictions. Such
regulations are in effect today, with slight variations. A
White Seabass, Atractoscion nobilis
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
206
White Seabass
4
millions of pounds landed
3
White Seabass
2
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
1 White Seabass
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 landing receipts.
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
shery management plan for white seabass is presently Spawning occurs from April to August, with a peak in the
being adopted and the need for additional regulations will late spring to early summer. Fecundity (egg productivity)
be considered. for this species has not been determined, but a maturity
study in the late 1920s reported that females begin matur-
ing when four years old (nearly 24 inches), and some
Status of Biological Knowledge males were sexually mature at three years (20 inches). All
white seabass have probably spawned at least once by age
W hite seabass is the largest member of the croaker
six (nearly 32 inches).
family (Sciaenidae) in California. Fish weighing
The eggs, which are the largest of any croaker on the
nearly 90 pounds with lengths of ve feet have been
west coast (approximately 0.05 inch in diameter), are
recorded, but individuals larger than 60 pounds are
planktonic. The larvae, which are darkly colored, have
seldom seen. White seabass range from Magdelena Bay,
been collected from Santa Rosa Island, California to Mag-
Baja California, Mexico to the San Francisco area. They are
delena Bay, Baja California. Most are found in the inshore
also found in the northern Gulf of California. During the
areas of Sebastian Viscaino and San Juanico Bays, Baja
strong El Niño of 1957-1959, seabass were reported as far
California, indicating that major spawning occurs off cen-
north as Juneau, Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.
tral Baja California.
The center of the white seabass population presently
Young-of-the-year white seabass, ranging in length from
appears to be off central Baja California. Recent genetic
0.25 inch to 2.25 inches, inhabit the open coast in waters
research of seabass populations shows that some mixing of
12 to 30 feet deep. They associate with bits and pieces
sh from California and Mexico does occur. However, there
of drifting algae in areas of sandy ocean bottom. Some
may be local subpopulations of sh that do not mix regu-
time between the ages of one and three years old, they
larly. While the question of population continuity remains
move into protected bays where they utilize eelgrass com-
unresolved, there is evidence that each summer the sh
munities for cover and forage. Older juveniles are caught
move northward with warming ocean temperatures (as
off piers and jetties and around beds of giant kelp. Adult
demonstrated by catches). Biologists believe the move-
seabass occupy a wide range of habitats including kelp
ment is probably spawning-related.
beds, reefs, offshore banks, and the open ocean. Adult
white seabass eat Pacic mackerel, Pacic sardines, squid,
70
pelagic red crabs, and Pacic herring.
60
thousands of fish landed
Laboratory spawning of white seabass was rst induced in
50
White Seabass
1982. Beginning in 1983, the California Department of Fish
40
and Game initiated the Ocean Resources Enhancement
30
and Hatchery Program (OREHP) to test the feasibility of
20
raising seabass for population enhancement. That goal was
10
achieved in the rst 10 years of the program and the goals
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
of the program have been expanded to test the feasibility
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, White Seabass
of enhancing marine sh populations through the stocking
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
of cultured sh. By 1999, more than 375,000 juvenile
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 207
References
white seabass had been released off southern California,
White Seabass
and it is estimated that 17,500 of those may have
Allen, L.G. and M.P. Franklin. 1988. Distribution and abun-
survived to legal size or larger. Additionally, valuable
dance of young-of-the-year white seabass, Atractoscion
life history information has been gathered during this
nobilis, in the vicinity of Long Beach Harbor, California in
program through ecological surveys, tagging, and genetic
1984-1987. Calif. Fish and Game 74:245-248.
studies. However, more work is necessary to determine
if articial propagation is successful in enhancing the Clark, F.N. 1930. Size at rst maturity of the white seabass
seabass population. (Cynoscion nobilis). Calif. Fish and Game 16:319-323.
Moser H.G., D.A. Ambrose, M.S. Busby, J.L. Butler, E.M.
Status of the Population Sandknop, B.Y. Sumida, and E.G. Stevens. 1983. Descrip-
tion of early stages of white seabass, Atractoscion nobilis,
T with notes on distribution. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish.
he range of the white seabass population has con-
Invest. Rep. 24:182-193.
tracted since the early part of this century, and few
are found regularly north of Point Conception. Few data Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
are available concerning the status of seabass in Mexico, (croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
and it is difcult to determine whether the decline in Bull. 54. 62 p.
California waters indicates an overall population decline.
Thomas, J.C. 1968. Management of the white seabass
Population estimates have not been made. Fishery biolo- (Cynoscion nobilis) in California waters. Calif. Dept. Fish
gists have been concerned about the decline in landings and Game, Fish Bull. 142. 34 p.
since the late 1920s. Today, this concern still exists within
Vojkovich, M. and R.J. Reed. 1983. White seabass, Atrac-
the scientic community, commercial shing industry, and
toscion nobilis, in California-Mexican waters: status of the
with the angling public. Human-induced changes, such
shery. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:79-83.
as pollution, overshing, and habitat destruction have
probably contributed to this long-term population decline.
However, natural environmental changes can also inu-
ence the population. The large numbers of small seabass
caught in recent years suggests that the warm water
period beginning with the 1982-1983 El Niño helped to
increase young sh survival. Young sh surveys conducted
in southern California, as part of OREHP, showed a dra-
matic increase in the number of sh taken in research
gillnet sets. During research work in 1997 over 600 juve-
nile sh were captured, in 1998 approximately 700 sh
were taken, and in 1999 slightly over 1,300 juveniles were
captured. Anecdotal evidence from commercial and sport
shers conrms this dramatic increase in juvenile white
seabass. It is unknown whether this increase in juveniles
will subsequently enhance the adult spawning population.
Marija Vojkovich and Steve Crooke
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
208
Giant Sea Bass
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Giant Sea Bass
B A
ecause giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) grow slowly lthough this species is most frequently referred to
and mature at a relatively old age, they are suscep- as black seabass in California, the American Fisheries
tible to overshing. As a consequence, they have suffered Society has designated the common name as giant sea
a serious decline in numbers. Commercial landings from bass. Black seabass is an unrelated Atlantic coast species.
U.S. waters peaked in 1932 near 200,000 pounds before Giant sea bass were originally assigned to the grouper
declining. Mexican waters were more productive (peaking family, Serranidae, but later placed in a new family,
at over 800,000 pounds in 1932) and did not permanently Percichthyidae. Although family placement has still not
sink below 200,000 pounds until 1964. A few hook-and-line been resolved, similarities between larvae of wreckshes
shermen targeted giant sea bass, but they were and giant sea bass seem to support placement in the
also caught incidentally by gillnets set for halibut and family Polyprionidae.
white seabass. Small juveniles are bright orange with large black spots.
Recreational landings, reported in numbers of sh rather As they grow they lose the orange coloration and take on a
than pounds, show a similar trend of peaking and perma- bronzy purple color. The spots slowly fade as the sh gets
nently declining. The peak in California landings occurred larger and darker, with large adults appearing solid black
in 1963 while Mexican landings peaked in 1973. That these to gray with a white underside. Giant sea bass are capable
recreational sheries peaked after the commercial shery of rapid and dramatic color changes. Large sh retain the
is due to the later development of the recreational shery ability to display large black spots, can take on a bicolor
rather than a reection of the giant sea bass population. A appearance (light below, dark above), white mottling, jet-
few boats developed a special recreational shery target- black or light gray. As implied by the name, the most
ing spawning aggregations during the summer months. dramatic feature of giant sea bass is their large size. The
Trips made in July to certain reefs between Point Abreojos International Game Fish Association world record for this
and Magdalena Bay, Baja California, consistently produced species is 563.5 pounds, caught at Anacapa Island in 1968.
70 to 100 giant sea bass. One trip produced 255 in three Giant sea bass reach lengths in excess of seven feet, and
days. Once these aggregations were exploited the shery are nearly as big around as they are long.
disappeared with the sh. Despite the conspicuous size and protected status of giant
In 1981, a law was passed that prohibited the take of sea bass, there are no published scientic studies to pro-
giant sea bass for any purpose, with the exception that vide details of the biology and habits of this creature. In
commercial shermen could retain and sell two sh per the eastern Pacic, giant sea bass range from Humboldt
trip if caught incidentally in a gillnet or trammel net. This Bay to the tip of Baja California, and occur in the northern
law also limited the amount of giant sea bass that could be half of the Gulf of California. Some authors have stated
taken in Mexican waters and landed in California. A vessel that this species is also found along the coast of northern
could land up to 1,000 pounds of Mexican giant sea bass Japan and the Sea of Japan, but this may be a case
per trip but could not land more than 3,000 pounds in a of mistaken identity. Within California it is rarely found
calendar year. The law was amended in 1988, reducing the north of Point Conception. Adult giant sea bass seem to
incidental take to one sh in California waters. Although prefer the edges of nearshore rocky reefs. These reefs
this law may have prevented commercial shermen from are relatively shallow (35 to 130 feet) and often support
selling giant sea bass in California, it did not prohibit thriving kelp beds. Although the kelp may disappear due
shing over habitats occupied by this species and probably to a strong El Niño or overgrazing by sea urchins, giant
did little to reduce the incidental mortality of giant sea sea bass remain at the reef. At certain times of the year,
bass, as giant sea bass that were entangled in the nets
were discarded at sea. The 1981 rule changes were more
effective in protecting giant sea bass in Mexico, since
large landings had been historically made by hook-and-line
shermen targeting grouper, cabrilla, and giant sea bass
off the Pacic coast of Baja California. The banning of
inshore gillnets displaced the California shery from the
majority of areas inhabited by giant sea bass; it is reason-
able to assume that this closure signicantly reduced the
incidental mortality of giant sea bass in California.
Giant Sea Bass, Stereolepis gigas
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 209
Giant Sea Bass
Giant Sea Bass (total commercial landings)
1.0
millions of pounds landed
0.8
0.6
Commercial Landings
0.4
1916-1999, Giant Sea Bass
Data reflects catch from both
0.2
California and Mexican waters
landed in California. Data
source: DFG Catch Bulletins and 0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
found over at sandy bottom and are sometimes caught
900
over deep ridges (230-265 feet) off the coast of Del Mar by
thousands of pounds landed
800
anglers targeting rocksh.
700
Giant Sea Bass
600
Given their depressed population and protected status,
500
it is unlikely an aging study of giant sea bass will be
400
300
completed in the near future. Although aging data are
200
sparse, it is safe to say these sh grow slowly and live a
100
long time. Estimated growth-rates are six years to reach
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
30 pounds, 10 years to reach 100 pounds, and 15 years to
California Waters
MexicanWaters
reach 150 pounds.
Commercial Landings by Location 1916-1999, Giant Sea Bass
Spawning has never been observed in nature, but gonad
Landings separated by location of catch. All landings were recorded at California ports.
examinations suggest that it occurs between July and
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
September. Male sh have been observed to be mature
at 40 pounds, and females at 50 to 60 pounds. Anecdotal
900 information suggests that giant sea bass aggregate at spe-
800
cic locations and times to spawn. Because of the large
number of fish landed
700
Giant Sea Bass
size of this species, females are capable of producing
600
500 enormous numbers of eggs. The ovaries of a 320-pound
400
specimen contained an estimated 60 million eggs. Fertile,
300
hydrated giant sea bass eggs are relatively large for a
200
marine species, measuring about 0.06 inch in diameter.
100
0 1947
The eggs oat to the surface and hatch in about 24 to 36
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
California Waters
hours. The larvae drift and feed in the plankton for about
MexicanWaters
a month before settling to the bottom and beginning their
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Giant Seabass
lives as juveniles. Giant sea bass have spawned in captivity
Data derived from commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch
several times, most recently at the Long Beach Aquarium
as reported by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1936; no data available
of the Pacic where a single pair spawned in two succes-
for 1941-1946; data separated by location of catch. Catch Data was not available
sive years, nearly weekly beginning in June and ending in
for 1999.
August or September.
adults can be found well away from the reef foraging for
Examinations of sh caught in Mexico indicate that the
squid over a sandy bottom.
principal prey items are sting rays, skates, lobster, crabs,
The orange juvenile phase has been reported among drift-
various atsh, small sharks, mantis shrimp and an occa-
ing kelp scattered over the bottom in 20 to 35 feet of
sional kelpbass or barred sandbass. Earlier analyses found
water, over the soft muddy bottom outside of the Long
blacksmith, ocean whitesh, red crab, sargo, sheephead,
Beach breakwater, and over at sandy bottom in Santa
octopus and squid. Giant sea bass are not built for speed,
Monica Bay. Larger juveniles up to 31 pounds have been
and the majority of their prey consists of organisms that
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
210
Status of the Population
live on the bottom. The vacuum produced when the huge
Giant Sea Bass
mouth is rapidly opened draws such organisms into their
T he California population of giant sea bass is well below
mouth. Giant sea bass themselves are eaten by a variety
historical highs. Anecdotal information suggests that
of shes and marine mammals when they are small. In
numbers may be beginning to rebound under current mea-
addition to humans, large sharks prey on adults.
sures. No hard data exist that provide actual or relative
Except for the short period of time they spend as plank-
numbers of giant sea bass.
tonic larvae, giant sea bass live in close association with
the bottom. This way of life may become a problem for
this species. The sediments along the coast of southern
Management Considerations
California carry high loads of toxins. In fact, an area off
the Palos Verdes peninsula is thought to contain higher See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
levels of DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) than any- further information.
where else in the world’s oceans. PCB is another pollutant
that is prevalent along the coast of southern California.
Michael L. Domeier
Many forms of invertebrates live in these sediments,
Peger Institute of Environmental Science
ingesting the pollutants along with the organic material
they feed on to survive. These organisms occupy very
low trophic levels, and the toxins are passed up the food
References
chain in increasing concentrations. Long-lived, top level
predators accumulate the highest levels of toxins. Giant
Domeier, Michael L. and Patrick L. Colin. 1997. Tropical
sea bass caught in southern California have been found to
reef sh spawning aggregations: dened and reviewed.
have high body burdens of DDE and PCB. Fish collected
Bull. Mar. Sci. 60 (3):698-726.
200 miles south of the Mexican border were found to be
Eschmeyer, W.N., E.S. Herald, and H. Hammann. 1983.
free of toxins. Thus, California populations of giant sea
A eld guide to Pacic Coast shes of North America.
bass may suffer from more than just overshing. These
Houghton Mifin Company. Boston, MA. 336 p.
two toxins have been found to affect reproduction in
other species of sh, as well as in amphibians, reptiles, Shane, M. A., W. Watson, and H. G. Moser. 1996. Polypri-
and birds. onidae: giant sea basses and wreckshes. Pages 873-875
In: H. G. Moser (ed.), The early stages of shes in the
It is presumed that giant sea bass migrate to specic sites
California Current Region. Coop. Fish. Invest. Atlas No. 33.
to spawn. This was almost certainly the case prior to
Allen Press Inc., Lawrence, KS. Calif.
the exploitation of the spawning aggregations, but it is
not known how far individuals traveled to participate in
the aggregation, or whether these migrations take place
today. The process of site selection for spawning aggrega-
tions is not well understood, but experimental manipula-
tion of small aggregating reef species suggests that once
a site is selected young sh learn its location from older
sh. In this way, the same traditional spawning aggrega-
tion sites are used by subsequent generations of sh.
Once the learning cycle has been broken it is not known
how a new (or the same) spawning aggregation may form.
The population may have to reach a particular density
before the process of forming annual spawning aggrega-
tions becomes a possibility. Giant sea bass have been
found in groups year round at a few locations in southern
California. Although anglers that come across these areas
and hook several giant sea bass in one day may be led to
believe that this species is thriving, giant sea bass remain
absent from the vast majority of our coast. It is likely that
the sh are gregarious, and after heavy exploitation, the
population has collapsed to a very few focal points where
they can be found in healthy numbers.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 211
Yellowtail
History of the Fishery catch. However, in the 1950s private boaters began taking
a signicant number of sh. During some years, private
S port and commercial sheries for yellowtail (Seriola boaters land more yellowtail than do CPFV anglers.
lalandi) have existed off California since the late 1800s. For instance, during 1997, private boat anglers shing
Commercial or subsistence shing is the older of the two, off California, landed 472,000 sh compared to 163,000
with modern hook-and-line sport shing getting its start recorded by CPFV anglers. The increase in the number
in 1898 at Santa Catalina Island. Prior to 1898, sportsmen of private boat anglers may impact the yellowtail
used handlines, a practice which faded with the advent resource more than continued effort by CPFV anglers or
of hickory rods, functional reels, and linen line. Both the commercial shermen.
sport and commercial sheries in California are conned Major shing areas for CPFV and private boat anglers
to the area south of Point Conception. The shery usually include the Channel Islands, Santa Monica Bay, Dana Point
occurs in nearshore areas, often adjacent to kelp beds. to Oceanside, La Jolla, San Clemente Island, Santa Cata-
During the summer, sh may be found offshore under lina Island, and the Coronado Islands. Long-range CPFVs
oating mats of kelp. sh primarily from Cedros Island south. They often con-
Commercial landings of yellowtail have uctuated greatly centrate on the offshore banks, especially in the Magda-
in the past, ranging from a high of 11.5 million pounds in lena Bay area. The commercial shery is conducted in the
1918 to a low of 9,769 pounds in 1995. Market conditions same areas as the sport shery.
appear to dictate landings more than does the health of
the resource. When market demand for fresh yellowtail
Status of Biological Knowledge
was high or the canneries needed sh because tuna were
unavailable, the price to the sherman was great enough
Y ellowtail are found from British Columbia, Canada to
to encourage trips for the sh.
Mazatlan, Mexico. They are present in the Gulf of Cali-
The commercial shery for yellowtail was restricted to fornia, occurring as far north as the Bay of Los Angeles.
small live bait boats working off southern California or the
Most yellowtail spawn during the summer months, June
Coronado Islands, Baja California, Mexico, until 1933. At
through September. During this period, adults move off-
that time, purse seiners began shing in Mexican waters,
shore and form spawning aggregations. Some two-year-old
as the supply of yellowtail off California had decreased
females may spawn, but all females over three years of
and it was illegal to seine them north of the international
age are capable of spawning. Young sh spawn only once
border. Gillnet boats also started landing yellowtail taken
during the season, while those seven years of age (20
incidentally to white seabass landed commercially in Cal-
pounds) and older are capable of multiple spawnings. A
ifornia. However, nearshore gillnet shing was banned
20-pound sh is capable of producing 940,000 eggs during
beginning in 1994. This greatly reduced the amount of sh
a single season.
landed by commercial shers since only hook-and-line gear
Yellowtail are opportunistic daytime feeders. Off southern
and gillnets shed outside three miles are legal methods
California, yellowtail stomachs contain sardines, ancho-
of take.
vies, jack mackerel, Pacic mackerel, and squid. Fish
Data from commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) logs
taken off Mexico frequently are full of pelagic red crabs.
provide a general indication of the magnitude of the
Age and growth studies conducted on yellowtail indicate
sport shery for yellowtail in southern California. During
the sh are relatively slow growing. They gain approxi-
years when the water was warm, CPFVs have landed
mately three to four pounds a year during most of their
over 450,000 sh. When the water was cold, yellowtail
lives, although very large individuals may gain only one to
catches were sometimes less than 10,000 sh. Prior to the
two pounds per year. Growth can vary considerably from
early 1950s, CPFVs were responsible for most of the sport
year to year and also between and within geographical
areas. The largest recorded individual weighed 80 pounds.
The average sizes at selected ages are: age one, 20 inches
and 3.8 pounds; age two, 25 inches and 7.4 pounds; age
three, 28 inches and 9.9 pounds; age four, 31 inches and
13.2 pounds; age ve, 33 inches and 15.9 pounds; age 10,
44 inches and 35 pounds.
Within southern California and at the Coronado Islands,
sport anglers generally land yellowtail that weigh four to
12 pounds. Long-range CPFV anglers shing off central
Yellowtail, Seriola lalandi
Baja California usually catch 12 to 18 pound sh. Com-
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
212
Yellowtail
14
millions of pounds landed
12
10
Yellowtail
8 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Yellowtail
6
Data Source: DFG Catch
4 Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Yellowtail
2 landings include fish caught in
waters south of the state but
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landed in California.
mercial gillnet shermen generally land 10 to 20 pound
Status of Population
yellowtail because of the selective nature of the nets.
W
Commercial hook-and-line shermen usually land four to hile no population estimate is available for the
12 pound sh, although none can be less than 28 inches northern stock of yellowtail, the resource appears
long, measured in fork length. to be healthy. The stock is probably not as large as it
was in the early 1950s, but it can support signicant
Results of a tagging study conducted by the California
sport and commercial sheries when oceanic conditions
Department of Fish and Game indicate there are two
are favorable.
stocks of yellowtail off Baja and southern California. One
group occurs south of Cedros Island, Baja California, while Data collected during the 1970s and early 1980s indicate
the second group occupies the area from Cedros Island that the northern population has undergone a shift in sh
northward. There is some interchange of sh between size. Two and three year olds now dominate the catch,
the two groups around Cedros Island. Because of limited whereas six to nine year olds made up the majority of the
mixing between the two stocks, the southern California catch in the past. The shift in size could be an indicator of
shery is wholly dependent on sh recruited from the either population stress or good recruitment.
northern population.
Because more of the northern stock is available to
The number of yellowtail available to southern California sport anglers during warm water conditions, CPFV catches
shermen in any given year is dependent on whether during El Niño events provide an indication of the health
warm water conditions exist off northern Baja California. of the resource. The El Niño event of 1997, which proved
Excellent yellowtail catches have occurred during years to be the strongest of many events beginning with 1983,
when water temperatures were at least three to ve pushed many young yellowtail north into southern Califor-
degrees F above normal in the spring. Conversely, periods nia. The 1996 year class dominated the sport shery
of cool water produce low catches. When sh are avail- during the summer of 1997 as one-year-old sh. The 1996
able, they usually are found nearshore in the spring and year class remained off southern California during the
fall but offshore during the summer months. winter of 1998 and again dominated the shery as two-
year-olds. During 1998, the commercial shery harvested
almost a quarter million pounds of yellowtail since most
of the 1996 year class sh reached legal size midway
through the summer. This commercial catch represented
500
a four-fold increase from 1997. With the cooling of ocean
thousands of fish landed
400
waters off southern California in 1999 and 2000, sport
Yellowtail
300
and commercial yellowtail catches dropped. However, the
1996 year class continued to dominate the sport shery
200
during both years. Based on data from the MRFSS, the
100
1996 year class was the strongest in recent history. Over
0
1.0 million yellowtail from the 1996 year class were landed
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
by CPFV and private boat anglers between 1997 and 2000.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Yellowtail
Data Source: DFG, Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel logbooks.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 213
References
The department initiated a minimum size limit on sport
Yellowtail
caught yellowtail during 1998 in an effort to reduce the
Baxter, J.L. 1960. A study of the yellowtail Seriola dorsalis
catch of one-year-old sh. The 10 sh limit was retained,
(Gill). Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 110. 96 p.
but a 28-inch FL size limit was adopted with sport anglers
allowed to retain ve sh less than 28 inches FL. Crooke, S.J. 1983. Yellowtail, Seriola lalandei Valenci-
ennes. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:84-87.
Management Considerations Radovich, J. 1961. Relationship of water temperature to
marine organisms of the northeast Pacic, particularly
during 1957 through 1959. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Bull. 112. 62 p.
further information.
Stephen J. Crooke
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
214
Pacific Bonito
History of the Fishery Pacic bonito is well known for its ghting ability and
Pacific Bonito
quality as a food sh. Bonito can be caught recreationally
T he Pacic bonito (Sarda chiliensis) is an economically with live anchovies and sardines or by casting or trolling
important commercial species from Magdalena Bay with metal lures and feather jigs. Off California, recre-
in southern Baja California, Mexico to Point Conception, ational anglers typically catch bonito year round south
California, and in most years is ranked as one of of Point Conception with the highest catches in summer.
the top 15 species sought by recreational shermen in North of Point Conception, recreational anglers usually
southern California. take bonito during the fall months.
As a result of the expansion of the commercial passenger Bonito are taken commercially by troll gear, gillnets, and
shing vessel (CPFV) industry after World War II, Pacic pole and line gear, but the landings of sh caught by these
bonito catches by CPFVs increased from 36,500 in 1947 methods usually average less then two percent of the total
to over one million sh in 1960. Most of these sh were catch. The primary commercial shing gear for bonito
caught between Malibu Beach and the Coronado Islands. is the purse seine. The purse seine eet consists of
CPFV logbook landings of bonito remained high during the two general groups: the local “wetsh” vessels with sh
1960s, with more than one million sh taken in 1964, load capacities of 30 to 100 tons, and the larger tuna sein-
1968, and 1969. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, CPFV ers capable of carrying 150 to 500 tons. Wetsh boats har-
landings dropped and then stabilized with decadal aver- vest mackerel and sardines, but seasonally target bonito,
ages for the 1970s and 1980s at 313,200 and 372,700 sh, squid, and bluen tuna. Nearly all of these wetsh seiners
respectively. In the 1990s, the number of sh taken by are based in San Pedro and sh in the Santa Barbara
CPFVs dropped again. Logbook landings ranged between and San Pedro Channels. The large tuna seiners, now
2,880 and 263,000 sh with a decadal average of 101,700. all but absent from California, operate primarily in the
The 1999 landings were the lowest annual catch on record tropical waters off Mexico and Central and South Amer-
and the decadal average the lowest since the 1940s. ica. Although the primary target for these seiners is yel-
lown tuna, these vessels take bonito during their return
During the 1980s, more then one-half of the bonito catch
trips to the United States to help compensate for small
was made from private boats as this method of angling
tuna catches.
became increasingly popular. A similar trend was observed
in the 1990s with private boats landing between 33 per- Off California, commercial shing for bonito occurs year
cent and 57 percent of the recreational catch. Private round south of Point Conception with the largest catches
boat landings in the 1990s ranged between 1,200 and in late summer and early fall. North of Point Conception,
128,400 sh with a decadal average of 49,600. This was commercial shing for bonito occurs primarily in the
signicantly lower than the 1980s decadal average of summer and fall.
560,000 sh. Over the last 80 years, commercial landings of bonito
Recreational catches can be impacted by the availability have ranged between 127,600 pounds (1956) and 31.9 mil-
of other desirable species. In the 1980s and 1990s, highly lion pounds (1975). During the rst half of the twentieth
desirable species such as yellown tuna, bluen tuna, century, landings of bonito gradually increased from about
and albacore occasionally were available in large numbers. 500,000 pounds in 1916 to around 10.9 million pounds in
The reductions in recreational landings of bonito can be 1941. Landings briey peaked again after World War II, but
attributed in part to a shift in targeted effort from bonito dropped during the 1950s and early 1960s. Landings then
to these more desirable species. showed a major upward trend from the mid-1960s through
the mid-1970s, increasing more than four-fold between
Changes in regulations can also impact recreational
1965 and 1975. Starting in the late 1970s, this trend
catches. In 1982, a 24-inch size limit was imposed on
reversed with landings dropping in the 1980s to a decadal
bonito. Part of the reduction in sport landings after 1982
was probably due to this size restriction, but the impact
of this regulation was probably limited because of a ve
sh tolerance for undersized bonito that was included
with the size restriction.
The bulk of the recreational catch consists of one-year
bonito approximately 18 inches long. During fall and
spring migrations, larger two-year sh become available to
anglers. About ve to 10 percent of the landings consist of
sh larger then 24 inches.
Pacific Bonito, Sarda chiliensis
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 215
Pacific Bonito
35
millions of pounds landed
30
25
Pacific Bonito 20
15
10
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Pacific Bonito
5
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
average of eight million pounds (compared to 9.7 million bonito is a pulse shery. When bonito become more abun-
pounds for the 1960s and 17.7 million pounds for the dant, either from a gradual increase in the population or
1970s). In the 1990s, landings for this sh ranged between from the recruitment of a strong year class, then some
157,000 and 9.58 million pounds with a decadal average of the commercial shing effort in Mexican waters shifts
of 1.9 million pounds. This average was higher than that to this species. The resource is harvested until the sh
observed in the 1950s (1.8 million pounds) but lower than are no longer abundant. Effort then is redirected to other
those from the previous three decades. species until such time as the bonito resource becomes
abundant again.
In the 1990s, bonito’s ranking among the other commer-
cial species also dropped. By total weight, bonito ranked The availability of other desirable species can have a
among the top 20 species landed by California sheries for profound impact on the landings of bonito. Lower avail-
most of the 1980s. In contrast, during the 1990s, this sh ability of other more desirable species due to environmen-
ranked among the top 20 species only in 1990 and 1998. tal changes or management changes can increase the
amount of bonito landed. For instance, bonito were tar-
The amount of bonito landed is impacted by its avail-
geted during seasonal yellown tuna closures in the 1970s
ability, the availability of other desirable species, market
because an incidental take of the more valuable yellown
demand, and price. Off of California, the availability of
tuna was allowed while shing for bonito. On the other
bonito can vary considerably between seasons and years.
hand, high availability of more desirable species can
Some of this variation can be attributed to the migratory
reduce the amount of bonito landed. This was likely the
movements of these sh and some to oceanic changes. For
case in the 1980s and 1990s when a number of more
instance, during El Niño events, more of the stock may
desirable species including yellown tuna, skipjack tuna,
move northward, becoming more available to California
albacore tuna, and bluen tuna were at times quite abun-
sheries, while during La Niña events, fewer sh may
dant. In 1986, for example, high availability of bluen
move into California waters.
tuna with a value of $1,550 per ton resulted in the
The availability of bonito also can be impacted by shing
wetsh seiners shifting their effort toward that species;
restrictions. During the years from 1943 to 1958 and 1975
as a result, bonito landings in 1986 dropped to a low of
to 1978, at least 50 percent, and often more than 90
533,000 pounds.
percent, of the landed bonito were taken off Baja Califor-
Market demand for bonito has been low over the last
nia, Mexico. During the last two decades, Mexico has
two decades. Commercial bonito landings are primarily
restricted access to foreign vessels shing in its nearshore
purchased by canneries that process bonito for human
waters and California landings originating from Mexico
consumption with the offal utilized for pet food or for
have declined to less than 10 percent of the total landings.
reduction to shmeal. Cannery orders for this sh in
In addition, the availability of bonito in California waters
recent years have been limited. Higher demand exists
can be impacted by the amount of sh taken by the com-
for yellown tuna, skipjack tuna, albacore, and bluen
mercial shery in Mexican waters. Mexican commercial
tuna for human consumption; for Pacic mackerel and
landings of bonito over the last several decades show
jack mackerel as pet food; and for northern anchovy as
sharp periodic increases in the take of this sh. This
shmeal. Bonito also are sold fresh or frozen or are pro-
pattern suggests that the Mexican commercial shery for
cessed by curing or smoking. The market for this product
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
216
is currently small, but is growing due to the changes in observed in an aquarium, females swim with a wobble
Pacific Bonito
California’s demographics. while males use color barring on their bodies to show
their interest and aggressive nature. This aggressive verti-
Prices for bonito have generally showed an upward trend
cal barring coloration in males has also been observed in
over time. Between the 1960s and early 1980s, the price
aquarium-held bonito at feeding time. During courtship,
of bonito increased from $50 to $90 per ton to $550 per
males will follow directly behind the displaying female,
ton. The price then declined to $200 to $300 per ton
jockeying for position. The successful male and female
in the mid-1980s but increased again in the 1990s to an
then pair and synchronize the release of gametes at the
average of $990 per ton. While the 1990s average price is
onset of a tight circle swim. Gametes are broadcast into
the highest reported for bonito, it is still lower than that
the seawater where fertilization takes place.
paid for desirable sh such as bluen tuna which usually
sells for four to ve times the price of bonito. Sexual maturity differs between males and females.
Pacic bonito females begin to mature at two years of age
and are fully mature at 24 inches. Males are more preco-
Status of Biological Knowledge cious. About 44 percent of the one-year males spawn,
and all are mature at two years of age or 20 inches in
P acic bonito is a rapidly growing piscivorous sh. In
length. Spawning begins in January and continues for a
one year this sh can reach roughly 20 inches in fork
ve-month period. Peak spawning occurs off central Baja
length, and weigh about four pounds. At two years of age,
California, but may take place in southern California late
bonito average roughly 25 inches in fork length and weigh
in the season or during El Niño episodes. Some localized
about eight pounds. Their growth slows in the latter half
spawning may also take place near warm-water discharges
of life with the sh reaching 32 to 35 inches and 17 to
from electrical generating stations. Individuals may spawn
22 pounds at six years. The California angling record is a
more than once during a season. A 6.6-pound female
22-pound sh caught off Malibu Beach in 1978, but larger
releases an estimated 0.5 million eggs in one season.
sh are occasionally reported.
Bonito consume prey equaling about six percent of their
Swimming is continuous to maintain orientation and respi-
body weight per day. Northern anchovies are common
ration, and is powered by richly oxygenated red muscle
prey, but market squid, highly vulnerable to predation
tissues near the tail. As the sh grow, the proportion of
while spawning, sometimes become a major part of the
red muscle tissue increases; hence, larger sh become
diet. Pacic sardines may also be a signicant food source.
relatively more powerful swimmers. At a continuous-main-
tenance swimming speed, aquarium-held sh averaging 22
Status of the Population
inches in length swim as much as 43 miles daily.
Bonito is a temperate epipelagic schooling sh with a
W arm water conditions in the 1980s and 1990s may
discontinuous distribution in the eastern Pacic Ocean. It
have provided good conditions for bonito survival,
ranges from Chile to the Gulf of Alaska, but is absent from
but large catches have been sporadic and the trends
the central coast of Mexico south to Panama. The north-
in both commercial and recreational landings continue
ern population typically is centered between southern
downwards. This downward trend may be due in part
California and central Baja California, but this distribution
to a shift in targeted effort from bonito to other more
can shift northward during warm-water years. This species
desirable species and to low market demand. It also may
migrates approximately 600 miles along the United States
be due to changes in the distribution and migration of this
- Mexico coastline, moving southward from southern Cali-
northern population in response to oceanographic changes
fornia in the winter and northward from Baja California
that have taken place over the last two decades. However,
in the summer. This migration probably is a response to
changing sea temperatures since these sh appear to be
impacted by local variations in sea temperature. Individu- 1.4
als tagged and released within warm-water discharges 1.2
millions of fish landed
1.0
from electrical generating stations have been recaptured
Pacific Bonito
0.8
near their release site up to three years later. These
0.6
tagging studies suggest that some bonito do not move
0.4
southward in the winter and instead overwinter in the
0.2
Southern California Bight.
0.0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
There is no external anatomical differences between the
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Pacific Bonito
sexes. However, behavioral and visual cues can be used to
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
distinguish males from females. During courtship of bonito
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 217
References
this downward trend may well be due to a decline in
Pacific Bonito
stock abundance. If this is the case, then current shing
Black, G. 1979. Maturity and spawning of the Pacic
practices may make it difcult for this stock to rebuild.
bonito, Sarda chiliensis lineolata, in the eastern North
Pacic. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
Management Considerations Rept. 41. 60 p.
Campbell, G. and R.A. Collins. 1975. The age and growth
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
of the Pacic bonito, Sarda chiliensis, in the eastern North
further information.
Pacic. Calif. Fish and Game 61:181-200.
Collette, B.B. & C.E. Nauen. 1983. FAO species catalogue
Jeffrey Smiley, Deborah Aseltine-Neilson,
vol. 2: Scombrids of the world. An annotated and illus-
Ken Miller and Marija Vojkovich
trated catalog of tunas, mackerel, bonitos and related
California Department of Fish and Game
species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis (125) Vol
2. 137 p.
Collins, R., D. Huppert, A. MacCall, J. Radovich, and
G. Stauffer. 1980. Pacic bonito management information
document. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
Rept. 44. 94 p.
Goldberg, S. R., and D. Mussiett. 1984. Reproductive cycle
of the Pacic bonito, Sarda chiliensis (Scombridae), from
northern Chile. Pacic Science 38:228-231.
Magnuson, J.J. and J.H. Prescott. 1966. Courtship, loco-
motion, feeding, and miscellaneous behaviour of Pacic
bonito (Sarda chiliensis). Anim. Behav. 14:54-67.
Squire, J.L., Jr. 1982. Catch temperatures for some impor-
tant marine species off California. NOAA Tech. Rept. NMFS
SSRF-759. 27 p.
Yoshida, H.O. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on bonitos
of the genus Sarda. NOAATech. Rept. NMFS Circ. 432. 50 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
218
California Barracuda
History of the Fishery shermen has been low. In 1999, commercial shermen
California Barracuda
received an average price of $0.70 per pound.
T he California barracuda (Sphyraena argentea), also The popularity of California barracuda as a game sh goes
known as the Pacic barracuda, has played a signi- back to at least the mid-1920s, as is evident from photo-
cant role in the growth and development of California’s graphs and newspaper accounts. However, the California
commercial and sport shing industries. Taken primarily Department of Fish and Game (DFG) did not begin collect-
off southern California and northern Baja California, ing records of commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV)
Mexico, barracuda gured prominently in the development sport sh landings until 1936. Records from 1936 through
of the purse seine shery. Additionally, they have long 1940 reveal that CPFV barracuda landings (in numbers
been a major component of the southern California sport of sh) exceeded those of other sport shes, and that
sh catch. they often equaled or exceeded commercial landings (in
Annual records of commercial barracuda landings date weight) for barracuda taken in California waters. Annual
back to 1889, but only nine years of intermittent records landings for these ve years averaged about 630,000 sh.
exist through 1915, and these are not specic as to catch Records were not kept from 1941 through 1946 due to
areas. Commercial landings of barracuda in 1889 were shing restraints during World War II. As interest in marine
0.5 million pounds, and by 1915 they were up to 3.6 mil- sport shing grew in the post-World War II era, the sport
lion pounds. Since 1916, landing records have differenti- take of barracuda greatly exceeded that of the com-
ated barracuda caught in California waters (essentially off mercial eet in California waters. Between 1946 and 1971,
southern California) from those caught in waters south of CPFV barracuda landings ranged from 87,600 to 1.2 million
the international border with Mexico (northern Baja Cali- sh, for an overall annual average of 447,000 sh. In
fornia). By 1916, The southern California purse seine eet 1971, the current 28-inch minimum size limit for all sport-
consisted of at least seven vessels by 1916. Inuenced by caught barracuda became effective, causing an 86 percent
the economic impetus of World War I, the commercial bar- decline in CPFV barracuda landings from the previous year.
racuda shery grew concurrently with the rapid develop- Since 1971, CPFV landings of barracuda have been increasing,
ment of the purse seine eet. ranging between 26,300 and 446,000 sh annually.
Attempts to manage the barracuda shery began in 1915 The Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey has
with a minimum size limit of 18 inches for hook-and-line shown that, on average, 54 percent of the total barracuda
caught barracuda. Since then, many commercial and sport catch is from CPFVs, 45 percent is from private and
regulations on gear, seasons, weight, size, and bag limits rental boats, and one percent is from shore. In the late
have been enacted, modied, or repealed. Today, most 1980s, a DFG study determined that roughly 60 percent of
commercially caught barracuda are taken by gillnets with CPFV-caught barracuda are released (almost all of which
3.5-inch mesh, although some are taken by hook-and-line. are less than 28 inches). The study also indicated Los
The minimum size limit is 28 inches. May and June are Angeles County accounted for 58 percent of the CPFV
usually the peak months of commercial shing activity barracuda landings.
for barracuda. Sport anglers, especially aboard CPFVs, usually use live
Between 1915 and 1970, commercial landings of barracuda anchovies or sardines to sh for barracuda. Anchovies and
harvested from California’s nearshore waters averaged 2.1 sardines are also used to chum and hold barracuda schools
million pounds annually, despite a gradual decline in land- close to the boat. Metal or plastic articial lures in a
ings since 1925. Landings have remained relatively low variety of shapes and colors are also popular. Sport-caught
since 1970, averaging about 113,500 pounds annually. Prior barracuda are taken mainly near the surface. Most shing
to 1926, California barracuda harvested south of the inter- activity occurs from May through September, when surface
national border exceeded those catches made in Califor- water temperatures range between 62° and 70°F.
nia. Barracuda harvest from Mexican waters remained an
integral part of the California shery until 1969, averaging
over one million pounds annually. But over the past 30
years, landings have been insignicant, averaging only 600
pounds annually. The major cause for the decline was the
imposition of increasingly restrictive commercial shing
regulations by Mexico which became increasingly restric-
tive to California shermen over the years.
In general, commercial barracuda prices are a function
of supply and demand. Historically, the price paid to
California Barracuda, Sphyraena argentea
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 219
Status of Biological Knowledge northern anchovy, Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, jack
California Barracuda
mackerel, and Pacic saury. In association with kelp beds
T he California barracuda is a nearshore, epipelagic, or shallow water habitats, they may feed on topsmelt and
schooling sh found from Cabo San Lucas, Baja Cali- California grunion. Opportunistic feeding on market squid
fornia to Kodiak Island, Alaska. Catch origins indicate made vulnerable during their spawning activity is likely.
the population is centered between San Quentin, Baja Previous references to the predators that feed on Califor-
California and Point Conception, California. During warm nia barracuda have listed sea lions, seals, porpoises, and
water oceanic events, such as El Niños, a portion of giant sea bass. Analyses of the gut contents and scat
the population may shift northward into central Califor- from marine mammals have failed to discover barracuda
nia. Frequently seen at the surface, barracuda have been remains. Observations of California sea lions and harbor
taken at depths of 120 feet. seals opportunistically feeding on barracuda injured or
Growth in length is most rapid during the rst year of entrapped by shing gear are common, but these animals
life. Barracuda reach a total length of 14 inches at one more typically feed on the same size prey as adult barra-
year. At two years, they have grown to 20 inches and cuda. Giant sea bass are more likely predators on juveniles
weigh about one pound. However, the maximum growth and adult barracuda.
by weight of nearly one pound per year is achieved by California barracuda have an inshore distribution during
four- and ve-year-old sh. The minimum size limit of their early life history. Fish a few inches long are observed
28 inches, approximately a three-pound sh, is near the in protected bays and marinas. Larger young-of-the-year
average size for a four-year-old. At this age, females are sh school below the canopy of semi-protected kelp-bed
about 0.75 inches larger than males, and the difference habitats. Older juveniles and adults form large schools
increases to about 2.5 inches in sh over six years old. The that disperse widely in the open-water environment.
oldest sh aged was an 11-year-old measuring 41 inches
Movements of California barracuda have been studied by
and weighing about nine pounds. Larger and presumably
tagging. Fish tagged during May 1959 at locations off
older sh include the state angling record of 15 pounds 15
northern Baja California and off southern California were
ounces and a 17-pound sh caught off Carpenteria in 1958
recovered at intermixed locations, indicating a single pop-
that measured 46.5 inches.
ulation. Movements of up to 100 miles north and south
California barracuda produce pelagic eggs and larvae. Fer- occurred during the summer, but a portion of the recover-
tilization takes place externally as the sexes simultane- ies were at the release sites. However, a general migra-
ously release their gametes. At two years, almost all males tion pattern that was distinctly northward during the
and 75 percent of females are sexually mature. All are summer and less distinctly southward during the fall was
mature at three years of age. Full sexual maturity occurs indicated. Movements are presumably a response to sea
in males at a length of 20 inches and in females at temperature, and warm overwintering temperatures off
22 inches. In a single spawning, a two-year-old female southern California reduce the southward return. High
may produce 50,000 eggs, increasing to about 400,000 by catch success during spring and summer off southern Cali-
age six. Individuals may spawn more than once during a fornia has been correlated with warm sea temperatures
spawning season. Off southern California, spawning takes the preceding winter.
place from April to September, peaking in June.
Feeding habits of California barracuda are not well docu-
Status of the Population
mented, but some potential prey species can be men-
tioned. During pelagic schooling movements, barracuda
T he status of the California barracuda population
may feed on other open water schooling shes such as
is unknown, because data concerning catch, shing
effort, and age composition are scarce. Barracuda catches
1.4
off California are variable for many reasons, one of which
1.2
millions of fish landed
California Barracuda
is that barracuda are migratory with a preference for
1.0
warmer waters. During an El Niño event, when warmer
0.8
than normal water masses move up the coast, barracuda
0.6
are caught far north of their normal range and in greater
0.4
than average numbers off southern California, suggesting
0.2
a higher population level. This was apparent during the
0.0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1957-1959 El Niño event, one of the most intense on
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Barracuda record. However, during the similarly intense 1982-1983
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported and 1997-1998 El Niño events, barracuda catches did not
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
220
California Barracuda
9
8
millions of pounds landed
California Barracuda
7
6
5
4
Commercial Landings
3
1916-1999,
2 California Barracuda
1 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
References
increase appreciably. Assuming shing effort and the per-
centage of the population migrating northward were simi-
Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
lar, the difference suggests that the barracuda population
Status of major southern California marine sport sh spe-
was depressed during the latter El Niño periods. Since the
cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
late 1980s, catches have increased but remain well below
ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
those reported prior to 1970. This is due to the fact
commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
sport anglers may no longer keep short barracuda as they
1987. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div., Admin.
were allowed to do prior to 1971. Only during one three-
Rep. 90-2. 376 p.
year period, 1958 though 1960, has the number of bar-
racuda off southern California been estimated by the DFG. Orton, G.L.1955. Early developmental stages of the Califor-
Estimates ranged from 1.6 to 2.9 million sh. nia barracuda, Sphyraena argentea Girard. Calif. Fish and
Game. 41:167-176.
Because of uncontrollable factors such as migration,
water temperature, and Mexico’s management policies, Pinkas, L. 1966. A management study of the California
the DFG’s management policies for this species probably barracuda Sphyraena argentea Girard. Calif. Dept. Fish
have a limited effect on its population level. Nevertheless, and Game, Fish Bull. 134. 58 p.
the regulations are intended to reduce the likelihood of
Schultze, D.L. 1983. California barracuda life history, sh-
overshing this valuable resource.
eries, and management. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest.
Rep. 24:88-96.
Management Considerations Walford, L.A. 1932. The California barracuda Sphyraena
argentea. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 37. 122 p.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
J.R. Raymond Ally and Ken Miller
California Department of Fish and Game
Updated by Stephen P. Wertz
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 221
Kelp Bass
History of the Fishery bag limits for sport caught kelp and sand bass combined.
The new size limit began at 10.5 inches and was increased
K elp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) are popularly referred several times until the 12-inch limit was reached in 1959.
to as calico bass and represent one of the most impor- The kelp bass catch has uctuated greatly since the 1960s.
tant nearshore, recreational species in the waters off The largest CPFV catches occurred during the mid-1980s,
of southern California. This important species has been estimated at over 1,000,000 sh annually. Since 1980,
the target of southern California anglers and commercial the CPFV kelp bass catch has ranged from 273,000 to
shermen since the early 1900s. In the early years of 2,795,000 sh in 1988 and 1986, respectively, and aver-
the shery, catch statistics grouped kelp bass and the aged about 1,000,000 kelp bass per year. CPFV landings of
two other Paralabrax species, barred sand bass and spot- kelp bass typically peak in the late spring and early fall.
ted sand bass, into a single “rock bass” category. Based The recent Federal Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics
on recent information, it is very likely that kelp bass Survey estimated that since 1990 the catch from shore,
comprised most of this catch category early on. The larg- pier, and private boat anglers averages about 900,000
est commercial landings of rock bass occurred during kelp bass per year which exceeds that of CPFV shermen
the 1920s and 1930s; annual landings averaged 500,000 (about 800,000 sh per year). The CPFV landings of kelp
pounds. A sharp decline in shing activity occurred during bass steadily declined each year from 1993 to 1999.
and after World War II and landings never exceeded
The most productive shing areas for kelp bass in recent
150,000 pounds from 1941 through 1953. The general
years have been off the Coronado Islands, Baja California,
decline of the rock bass resource prompted conservation
Mexico; Point Loma and La Jolla in San Diego County;
measures, which in 1953 made commercial shing for rock
Dana Point and Huntington Beach in Orange County; Santa
bass illegal in California waters. Legally sold sh imported
Catalina Island and Horseshoe Kelp in Los Angeles County;
from Mexico dwindled to insignicant levels since the late
and around the Channel Islands in Santa Barbara and
1950s. Sport anglers using light hook-and-line tackle catch
Ventura Counties.
kelp bass while shing from piers, beaches, private boats,
and commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs). Sport
catch records for rock bass taken by CPFVs have been
Status of Biological Knowledge
available since 1935, but only CPFV records since 1975
K
reliably differentiated kelp bass catches from the other elp bass have ranged historically as far north as the
rock bass. Early sport anglers considered the kelp bass a mouth of the Columbia River and south to Bahia Mag-
nuisance when attempting to catch more desirable game- dalena, Baja California, Mexico. However, they are rare
sh. Only the largest “bull bass” were sought. In 1939, north of Point Conception. They are abundant in southern
a limit on sport sh catches in California, 15 total sh California waters including the shores of all the Channel
in an aggregate of several species, was the rst man- Islands. They are typically found in shallow water (surface
agement attempt to prevent depletion of popular sport to 150 feet) being closely associated with high relief struc-
sh populations. ture, including kelp. Kelp bass range throughout the water
column, but seem to concentrate between eight and 70
Intense shing immediately after World War II may have
feet. In general, they live solitary lives but form assem-
caused a progressive decrease in the size of landed bass,
blies to spawn and to feed on small schooling sh. Early
and the popular kelp bass shery was deteriorating. The
tag and release studies showed little movement for the
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) instituted
majority of kelp bass and concluded that if they move at
comprehensive studies in 1950 that resulted in size and
all, it is to nearby rocky reefs or short distances to gather
into breeding assemblages. More recently, tagging studies
in the northern portion of the Southern California Bight
from Point Conception south the northern Channel Islands
indicated the kelp bass were quite mobile with some sh
traveling as far as 50 miles.
Kelp bass have the broad diet of a generalized carnivore
consisting of small shes (including anchovies, sardines,
surfperch, queensh), squids, octopuses, crabs, shrimps,
and amphipods. They forage primarily in the midwater,
but occasionally feed on the bottom. Young kelp bass
feed on small crabs, copepods, and plankton. They
Kelp Bass, Paralabrax clathratus feed lightly in the winter and most heavily during May
Credit: DFG through September.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
222
mid-1970s and early-1980s may be attributed to El Niño
Kelp Bass
700
events that provide anglers with alternative species to
600
thousands of fish landed
catch. Peak landings have followed each El Niño event.
500
Kelp Bass
DFG surveys of the CPFV industry in the 1970s and 1980s
400
indicated a stable spawning population is being main-
300
tained because of the large number of age classes that
200
are caught and kept by anglers. Approximately 85 percent
100
of the kelp bass kept by CPFV anglers measure between
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
11.4 to 15.9 inches, representing up to seven age classes.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Bass
However, the alarming decline of recreational catch from
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
all sources that has occurred in the 1990s is a major cause
by CPFV logbooks. Prior to 1973, Kelp Bass and Barred Sand Bass CPFV catch data
for concern.
were aggregated.
Kelp bass mature between seven and 10.5 inches in length
Management Considerations
and about three to ve years and form breeding aggrega-
tions in deeper water off of kelp heads and rocky head- See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
lands, generally, in depths down to 150 feet. Several further information.
hundred ripe adults may aggregate in a small area during
spawning. During spawning, high-contrast, black and white
Larry G. Allen
individuals with yellow-orange snouts are usually males,
California State University, Northridge
and sh with golden hues and yellow chins and jaws are
usually females. Spawning occurs primarily around the Tim E. Hovey
full moon from April through November peaking in the California Department of Fish and Game
summer months. Kelp bass produce pelagic eggs (0.04
inches in diameter) which enter the plankton in coastal
References
waters. Larvae remain in the plankton for 28 to 30 days at
which time they settle out in shallow water in attached,
Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
as well as drift algae including kelps. Young-of-year kelp
Status of major southern California marine sportsh spe-
bass grow to a length of about two inches in the rst
cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
90 days of life.
ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
Kelp bass are known to grow to 28.5 inches and 14.5 commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
pounds. The oldest known kelp bass was 34 years old 1987. Calif Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin.
and 25 inches long. Juvenile kelp bass can be ve to six Rept. 90-2: May, 1991.
inches after one year and are about 12 inches (legal size)
Cordes, J.F., and L.G. Allen. 1997. Estimates of age,
at ve years. The average 10 year-old kelp bass is about 18
growth, and settlement from otoliths of young-of-the-year
inches in total length. As with most shes, growth is highly
kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus). Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci.
variable with the largest sh not necessarily being the
96:43-60.
oldest. The world record kelp bass (14.5 pounds) caught
Love, M.S., A. Brooks, and J.R.R. Ally. 1996. An analysis of
off Newport Beach in 1995 was 27 years old while a 9.5
commercial passenger shing vessel sheries for kelp bass
pound sh caught at San Clemente Island in 1993 was 34
and barred sand bass in the southern California Bight. Calif
years old.
Dept. Fish and Game 82(3): 105-121.
Love, M.S., A. Brooks, D. Busatto, J.S. Stephens, Jr. and
Status of the Population P.A. Gregory. 1996. Aspects of the life histories of the
kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) and barred sand bass (P.
I n the 1970s and 1980s, the kelp bass was among the top
nebulifer) from the southern California Bight. U.S. Fish.
three species taken by the average angler per hour of
Bull 94: 472-481.
shing (along with barred sand bass and Pacic mackerel).
Young, P.H. 1963. The kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus)
In 1986 and 1989, kelp bass were the most commonly
and its shery, 1947-1958. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
taken species in the CPFV eet. Throughout the 1980s,
Fish. Bull. 122.67 p.
kelp bass have consistently ranked among the top ve
shes caught by CPFV anglers. DFG surveys indicate the
estimated total catches of kelp bass have increased since
the mid-1970s. Low periods of kelp bass landings in the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 223
Barred Sand Bass
History of the Fishery private boat, CPFVs, etc.) ranged as high as 1,940,000 in
1988. The CPFV landings of barred sand bass remained
B arred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer) are commonly stable at around 600,000 sh from 1993 to 1996, but
caught by anglers in California. Since the late 1970s, declined dramatically thereafter. On average, landings of
this species has consistently ranked among the top 10 barred sand bass in the 1990s were about 40 percent
species in the southern California marine sport sh catch. lower than those in the 1980s.
The major barred sand bass shing sites include the Silver
Strand, Del Mar, San Onofre, Huntington Flats area off
Status of Biological Knowledge
Orange County, the inshore portion of northern Santa
Monica Bay off Pacic Palisades and Santa Monica in Los
B arred sand bass range from Santa Cruz south to Bahia
Angeles County, and the Ventura Flats area off northern
Magdalena, Baja California, Mexico. They are rare
Ventura County. Barred sand bass are targeted exclusively
north of Point Conception. Sand bass chiey inhabit the
by sport anglers; the commercial harvest of this species
shallow waters near the southern California mainland, but
has been illegal since 1953. Throughout the 1930s and
have been captured at depths as great as 600 feet, but
early 1940s, sand bass, as well as kelp bass, were not con-
the greatest concentrations are found in depths less than
sidered to be quality angling fare but gained tremendously
90 feet. Young sand bass are abundant in very shallow
in popularity as game shes by the mid-1950s. At that
water (ve to 30 feet). The name “sand bass” is somewhat
time, concern about the resource by sport shermen and
unfortunate since they are usually closely associated with
shery managers resulted in the initiation of life history
sand/rock interfaces of deep reefs and articial structures
studies and the formulation of conservation measures. By
and are rarely found out over sandy expanses.
1959, a 10-sh bag limit and a 12-inch minimum size limit
Barred sand bass feed mainly on small shes (including
had been imposed on all three kelp and sand bass species,
anchovies, sardines, midshipman), and invertebrates such
measures designed to counteract the declining numbers,
as crabs, clams, and squid. The largest barred sand bass
and shrinking size composition of the bass catches. The
on record measured 26 inches in length, and the maxi-
commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) bass shery
mum-recorded weight was 11.1 pounds. Like their sympat-
responded positively to this management regime, and
ric congener the kelp bass, barred sand bass are also
landings of kelp and sand bass increased substantially
relatively slow growing. A juvenile barred sand bass is
through the 1960s and early 1970s. From 1975 through
approximately six inches long after one year, and reaches
1989, the CPFV barred sand bass catch expanded threefold
sexual maturity between seven and 10.5 inches in length
to a peak of 400,000 sh in 1988. Although lacking some
and about three to ve years. The oldest known barred
of the sporting qualities of kelp bass, barred sand bass
sand bass was found to be 24 years old.
are much more susceptible to hook-and-line gear and are
somewhat easier to catch. When CPFV skippers target Barred sand bass form large breeding aggregations over
barred sand bass aggregations, they can usually produce sandy bottoms at depths of 60-120 feet in the summer
substantial catches for their passengers, even for novice months. Spawning occurs in these aggregations from
anglers possessing minimal shing skills. In 1985, 1987 and April through November, usually peaking in July. During
1988, barred sand bass was the leading bass species in the spawning, high-contrast, gray and white individuals with
CPFV catch exceeding kelp bass landings for the rst time large golden-yellow crescents under their eyes are usually
since 1961 when kelp bass and sand bass landings were males. Sand bass produce a large number of small pelagic
rst reported separately. Estimates of annual barred sand eggs that enter the plankton in coastal waters. Young-of-
bass landings from all sport shing activities (shore, pier, the-year sand bass begin appearing in shallow, nearshore
waters in the early fall.
DFG tagging studies have revealed that barred sand bass
are capable of movements of from ve to 40 miles. In the
early 1970s, evidence was presented that tumors, defor-
mities, and other anomalies found in barred sand bass may
have been linked to industrial and domestic wastes dis-
charged into the nearshore environment. Reports of such
abnormalities have decreased in the past two decades.
Barred Sand Bass, Paralabrax nebulifer
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
224
Status of the Population
Barred Sand Bass
700
thousands of fish landed
600
T he barred sand bass catch rose steadily in importance
Barred Sand Bass
500
from 1975 to late 1989, to the point where sand bass 400
are rivaled only by kelp bass in the nearshore recreational 300
catch off southern California. From 1975 to 1978, barred 200
sand bass ranked in the top ten in CPFV catch. By 1986 100
to 1989, barred sand bass consistently ranked in the top 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
three species and was the top ranked species in CPFV
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Barred Sand Bass
catch in 1988. CPFVs and private boats take the majority
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
of sand bass while shing the summer spawning aggrega-
by CPFV logbooks. Prior to 1973, Barred Sand Bass abd Kelp Bass CPFV catch data
tions. Several factors seem to account for the upward
were aggregated.
trend. Most signicantly, CPFVs, which account for the
greatest portion of the barred sand bass catch, have
References
begun to target them more frequently, especially during
the summer spawning period. The sh are concentrated at Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
that time, usually in well-dened areas along the coast. Status of major southern California marine sportsh spe-
Also, new barred sand bass spawning sites have been dis- cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
covered over the last 20 years and are now being exploited ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
by CPFVs and private boats. As shing effort targeting commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
barred sand bass has increased, there has been concern 1987. Calif Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin.
that the stock may become over-exploited. Although, Rept. 90-2: May, 1991.
more information must be collected before the impacts of
Love, M.S., A. Brooks, and J.R.R. Ally. 1996. An analysis of
this intense shing on barred sand bass populations can be
commercial passenger shing vessel sheries for kelp bass
determined, landings have recently begun to decline and
and barred sand bass in the southern California Bight. Calif
there is cause for concern.
Dept. Fish and Game 82(3): 105-121.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Larry G. Allen
California State University, Northridge
Tim E. Hovey
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 225
Spotted Sand Bass
History of the Fishery kayaks, the accessibility to spotted sand bass habitat has
opened up dramatically. This accessibility has generated
T he spotted sand bass (Paralabrax maculatofasciatus) interest in the spotted sand bass as a challenging recre-
has quickly gained popularity with nearshore anglers ational shery.
for its aggressive behavior and ghting ability. Recre- Although the annual catch of spotted sand bass for the
ational angling for the spotted sand bass has seen a record keeping period has been considerably lower than
dramatic increase in the last 10 years, resulting in angling the catches of the kelp bass and the barred sand bass, the
tournaments that target spotted sand bass exclusively. increase in shing pressure and landing numbers is cause
Not considered quality-angling fare in the 1930s and the for concern due to their restricted habitat in southern
early 1940s, the spotted sand bass began to gain in popu- California waters. Early DFG shore surveys revealed that
larity with shore and bay anglers in the mid-1950s. During due to its restricted bay habitat and geographically local-
that period, almost all landings were made from shore or ized populations (San Diego Bay, Mission Bay, Newport
by small skiff anglers shing within the bays of southern Bay, Anaheim Bay), the spotted sand bass shery may have
California. Concern regarding the growing pressure on this been viewed as a less important sport shery by the public.
little-known resource by sport anglers resulted in the However, recent increases in landing numbers, indicate that
formulation of conservation measures for the spotted sand this view may be changing.
bass. These measures include the restriction on com-
mercial exploitation of the genus Paralabrax in 1953, and
Status of Biological Knowledge
in 1959, the adoption of a 10-sh bag-limit and a 12-inch
size-limit on kelp bass and barred sand bass, as well as
T he spotted sand bass has an historic range from Mazat-
the spotted sand bass. Unfortunately, early landing data of
lan, Mexico to Monterey, California. However, this spe-
spotted sand bass were either lumped in with the other
cies is rarely seen north of Santa Monica Bay. Included
Paralabrax landings or not adequately reported. For these
within that range are substantial populations in the Gulf
reasons, accurate landings numbers for this species are
of California. Southern California populations are typically
difcult to obtain and no substantial data were recorded
restricted to sandy or mud bottom habitat within shallow
until the mid-1970s.
bays, harbors and coastal lagoons that contain eelgrass,
Surveys conducted by the Department of Fish and Game surfgrass and rock relief. These areas act as warm-water
on skiff shing estimated that the annual catch of spotted refuges for this generally subtropical species.
sand bass in southern California waters ranged from 12,790
Spotted sand bass grow rapidly during their rst two
to 23,933 sh between 1976 and 1981. Additional estimates
years. Some specimens may reach as much as 8.8 inches
of sport catch, based on data from boat and shore shing,
at the end of their rst year and there is no signicant
indicated that between 53,000 and 170,000 spotted sand
difference in growth rates between males and females.
bass were taken per year from 1980 to 1989. No landing
Spotted sand bass spawn in the warm summer months,
data were recorded from 1990 to 1993; however, from
from late May to early September and the presence of
1994 to 1999 between 37,000 to 347,000 spotted sand bass
multiple sized oocytes in gravid females indicates that this
were landed either by shore or small skiff shermen, a
is a multiple spawning species.
substantial increase from the landings numbers recorded
in the 1980s. This rise in landings can be attributed to During the spawning season, spotted sand bass form
an increased interest in recreational shing in shallow breeding aggregations at or near the entrances of bays in
nearshore waters and consequential increase of angling southern California. Observations on spawning in the wild
pressure on the resource. Additionally, with the introduc- have shown that females initiate the spawn by leaving the
tion of oat-tube technology and the popularity of ocean bottom and entering the water column to release eggs. At
the time of release, multiple males may dart in to fertilize
the eggs. The observed episode was extremely brief and
once completed all participants return to the bottom.
The eggs and larvae are pelagic and enter the plankton in
the coastal waters, settling out of the water column at 25
to 31 days. Juvenile spotted sand bass (greater than two
inches) have several dark stripes running longitudinally
along their sides, making them similar in appearance to
juvenile barred sand bass. Juveniles of this species occupy
eelgrass beds and can share these nursery environments
Spotted Sand Bass, Paralabrax maculatofasciatus
with their sympatric juvenile relatives, the barred sand
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
226
bass and the kelp bass. Adults usually occupy a depth of
Spotted Sand Bass
600
two to 30 feet, however specimens have been taken from
thousands of fish landed
500
waters as deep as 200 feet in the Gulf of California.
Spotted Sand Bass
400
The spotted sand bass appears to have a complex mating 300
system. Individual populations within southern California
200
display varied patterns of reproduction. In San Diego Bay,
100
protogynous hermaphroditism, where individuals start
0
their lives as females and after a period of time change to 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Spotted Sand Bass
males occurs. In Anaheim and Newport Bays, gonochorism,
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; catch data not available for 1989-1992
a pattern where the individuals do not change sex is
found, resulting in an essentially equal distribution of
sporadic recruitment by spotted sand bass, and the future
males and females throughout the age and size class in
of this shery may depend on such a policy.
the population. During the spawning season, male and
What effect ever-increasing development in the attractive
female spotted sand bass exhibit a denite sexual color
bay communities will have on the spotted sand bass popu-
dimorphism. Males will display a whitish chin color and an
lations is unknown. Waterfront development may perma-
overall high-contrast, body coloration, while females will
nently alter nursery habitat, water quality and may nega-
display a yellow chin and a darker body. Male spotted sand
tively impact recruitment, resulting in a negative impact
bass mature at 7.8 inches and about 1.4 years and females
on certain populations.
mature at about 6.7 inches and about one year of age.
The impact of potential sex change, if any, on these values Environmental conditions such as sea surface water tem-
is unknown. peratures may inuence recruitment as well. Spotted sand
bass have been shown to have a substantial increase
In California waters, adult spotted sand bass have a diet
in recruitment success during elevated sea surface tem-
that consists primarily of crabs and clams, with shes
peratures occurring nearshore in southern California just
forming a relatively small component of their overall food
after El Niño episodes. In other years, recruitment has
compliment. The crab component consists of brachyuran
been poor. This sporadic recruitment pattern may have
crabs, and the dominant bivalve in the diet is the jack-
an adverse effect on a population that is subjected to an
knife clam.
increase in angling pressure.
While spotted sand bass can reach 14 years-of-age, most
have a maximum life span of about 10 years. The current
world record spotted sand bass is an individual caught in
Management Recommendations
1995, which measured 23 inches and weighed 6.7 pounds.
This record sh was 10 years old. See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Signicant morphological and genetic differentiation has
occurred among spotted sand bass populations throughout Tim E. Hovey
their geographic range. The Gulf of California populations California Department of Fish and Game
appear to be distinct from those on the Pacic coast.
Larry G. Allen
Those populations in southern California also appear to be
California State University, Northridge
genetically distinct from those in the mid-Baja, Pacic coast.
This subpopulation structure indicates that spotted sand bass
exhibit limited dispersal from their restricted habitats.
References
Allen G. L, T.H. Hovey, M.S. Love and J.T.W. Smith 1995.
Status of the Population The life history of the spotted sand bass (Paralabrax
maculatofasciatus) within the southern California bight.
T he spotted sand bass shery has received a dramatic
CalCOFI 1995: 193-203.
increase in angling pressure in the last 10 years, and
Hovey T.E., and L.G. Allen 2000. Reproductive patterns of
it is unclear how the increased pressure will effect the
six populations of the spotted sand bass, Paralabrax macu-
limited, and genetically distinct, southern California popu-
latofasciatus, from Southern and Baja California. Copeia
lations. Studies indicate that most of the spotted sand
2000(2): 459-468.
bass caught by recreational anglers are released. The
restrictive, limited environment inhabited by spotted sand Miller J.D., R.N. Lea 1972. Guide to the coastal marine
bass tends to amplify the adverse effects of environmen- shes of California. Calif. Dep. Fish and Game Bull. 157,
tal changes and of recreational shing pressure. Factor in 249 pp.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 227
California Corbina
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
T T
he California corbina (Menticirrhus undulatus) is a he California corbina is a slender croaker with a gray
nearshore croaker that is reserved for the recreational to bluish back and a white attened belly. It has a
shery. It has been illegal to take corbina with nets since short, stiff chin barbel and may have wavy oblique lines
1909, and illegal to buy or sell them since 1915. This on its sides. The corbina ranges from Point Conception,
wary species is a challenge to anglers. Sometimes corbina California to the Gulf of California. It is found along sandy
can be seen in small schools, swimming slowly along the beaches and shallow bays to depths of 45 feet, but is most
bottom seeking food. While feeding in this manner, it common in about six feet of water. It is usually found in
seldom takes bait. The corbina is considered one of the small groups of several individuals, with larger sh being
most difcult sh to catch in southern California, although more solitary.
on occasion it takes an angler’s bait without hesitation. Its Corbina can grow to 30 inches and weigh 8.5 pounds; a
temperamental behavior, ne ghting qualities, and tasty veried specimen measuring 28 inches and weighing seven
esh make it a popular sport sh. pounds, four ounces was caught in 1955. Females grow
Corbina can be taken throughout the year, but shing is faster than males, especially after two years, and reach
best in summer and early fall. Most corbina are caught a larger size. A three-year-old female is about 15 inches
along sandy surf-swept beaches, but they are also taken whereas a three-year-old male is about 13 inches. Appar-
from piers and jetties; anglers on private and rental ently, corbina residing in bays grow much faster than
boats, and commercial passenger shing vessels seldom those on the open coast. A 23-inch female corbina caught
take them. A 1965-1966 survey estimated that 30,000 on the open coast was eleven years old, whereas similarly
corbina were taken by southern California shore anglers sized females from the bay were aged at six years. More
along the open coast, making it the third most abundant than 50 percent of females are mature at 12 inches (two
species accounting for 13 percent of the surf-angler’s years) and all are mature at 15 inches (three years). Males
creel. Anglers use conventional, spinning, and y-shing mature at about 10 inches (two years). The spawning
gear. The best baits are soft-shelled sand crabs, mussels, season is from May through September and is heaviest
bloodworms, and clams. from June through August. Spawning apparently takes
place offshore, since running-ripe sh are not often found
The annual number of corbina caught by anglers has
in the surf zone; eggs are pelagic. Small (1.5 to 3 inches)
been quite variable. Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics
corbina have been captured inside the surf zone to 30
Survey annual catch-estimates for 1980 through 1998
feet of water.
ranged between 17,000 and 75,000 sh; the average was
44,600. Annual catch estimates were much lower in the The corbina feeds predominantly on benthic organisms.
1990s than during the 1980s; however, catches-per-unit- Individuals may be seen feeding in the surf, at times in
effort were similar. water so shallow their backs are exposed. They scoop up
mouthfuls of sand and separate out food by pumping sand
through their gill openings. The diet of juveniles consists
of clam siphons and small crustaceans. As they grow, they
consume larger parts of clams and sand crabs.
Limited tagging studies indicate that the corbina does
not move around much; it has no discernible migratory
pattern. The greatest distance traveled was 51 miles.
California Corbina, Menticirrhus undulatus
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
228
Status of the Population References
California Corbina
P opulation size, recruitment, and mortality of California Baxter, J.L. 1966. Inshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
corbina are unknown. Beach seine hauls along the of Fish and Game. 80 p.
open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded slightly lower Carlisle J.G., Jr., J.W. Schott, and N.J. Abramson. 1960.
but similar numbers of corbina to those obtained during a The barred surfperch (Amphistichus argenteus Agassiz) in
similar study from 1953 through 1956. In addition, similar southern California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
angler catch-per-unit efforts during the 1980s and 1990s 109. 79 p.
indicate that the population is sustaining itself under pres-
Joseph, D.C. 1962. Growth characteristics of two south-
ent recreational harvest levels.
ern California surfshes, the California corbina and spotn
croaker, family Sciaenidae. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Management Considerations Fish Bull. 119. 54 p.
O’Brien, J.W. and C.F. Valle. 2000. Food habits of Califor-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for nia corbina in southern California. Calif. Fish and Game,
further information. 86(2):136-148.
Pinkas, L., M.S. Oliphant, and C.W. Haugen. 1968. South-
Charles F. Valle and Malcolm S. Oliphant (retired) ern California marine sport shing survey: private boats,
California Department of Fish and Game 1964; shoreline, 1965-1966. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Fish Bull. 143. 42 p.
Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
(croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 54. 62 p.
Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciaeni-
dae) of California. Calif. Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 229
Spotfin Croaker
History of the Fishery sions and holes near shore. These “croaker holes” are
well known to surf anglers. Spotn croaker aggregate
T he spotn croaker (Roncador stearnsii) is a nearshore in small groups or schools of usually fewer than 50
croaker reserved for the recreational shery. It has sh; however, schools containing several hundred sh are
been illegal to take them with nets since 1909, and illegal occasionally encountered.
to buy or sell them since 1915. Anglers can experience Spotn croaker can grow to 27 inches and weigh 14
good shing when there are croaker “runs” and when pounds. A sh weighing 10.5 pounds was eight or nine
“croaker holes” are found. Most of the spotn croaker years old, and a 26.5-inch long individual was at least 15
catch consists of smaller sh (one to three pounds). years of age. During the breeding season, females develop
Its ghting spirit and delicate taste make it a prized blackish streaks on their bellies, while larger males have
sport sh. golden pectoral and pelvic ns, and are commonly called
Spotn croaker can be taken throughout the year, but golden croaker. Apparently, most males are mature at
shing is best in late summer. Most spotn croaker are nine inches (two years), and most females are mature at
caught from shore on piers and jetties along beaches and 12.5 inches (three years); all are mature at 14.5 inches
in bays; they are occasionally taken by private and rental (four years). Spawning occurs from June to September. It
boats but are rarely taken by commercial passenger shing probably occurs offshore, since few ripe sh have been
vessels. Anglers use conventional and spinning gear. The captured in the surf zone. Small (two- to four-inch) spotn
best baits are marine worms, clams, and mussels. croaker have been captured inside the surf zone to 30
feet of water.
Annual landings of spotn croaker have uctuated greatly.
Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey (MRFSS) The spotn croaker is a bottom feeder. The diet of
annual catch estimates for 1980 through 1998 ranged juveniles consists of small crustaceans and clam siphons.
between 1,000 and 46,000 sh; the average was 14,900. Larger individuals use their strong pharyngeal teeth
Catch-per-unit effort has remained relatively low and to crush shells and consume whole clams, mussels,
stable since 1980, but started to increase in the and polychaetes.
late 1990s. A limited tagging program showed that the spotn croaker
moves around considerably, especially from bay to bay,
without a discernible pattern. Fish tagged in Los Angeles
Status of Biological Knowledge Harbor were later recaptured as far south as Oceanside.
T he spotn croaker is a medium-bodied croaker with a
bluish gray back, brassy sides, and a silver to white
Status of the Population
belly. It has a large, distinctive black spot at the base
of its pectoral n. The spotn croaker ranges from Point
S outhern California is on the northern fringe of the spot-
Conception, California to Mazatlan, Mexico. In California, n croaker population. Their population size, recruit-
it is most common south of Los Angeles Harbor. It lives ment, and mortality are unknown. Modications of bay
along beaches and in bays over sandy to muddy bottoms and nearshore environments, including development, land
at depths from four to 50 feet. Most spotn croaker lls, and dredging, have had an adverse effect on the
are found in 30 feet of water or less, preferring depres- habitats of this species. Beach seine hauls along the
open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded many fewer
spotn croaker than during a similar study from 1953
through 1956. However, catch-per-unit effort estimates
from MRFSS data and gillnet sets inside bays and along the
open coast indicate that spotn croaker populations were
increasing in the late 1990s.
Spotfin Croaker, Roncador stearnsii
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
230
Management Considerations References
Spotfin Croaker
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Baxter, J.L. 1966. Inshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
further information. of Fish and Game, 80 p.
Joseph, D.C. 1962. Growth characteristics of two southern
California surfshes, the California corbina and spotn
Charles F. Valle and Malcolm S. Oliphant (retired)
croaker, family Sciaenidae. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
California Department of Fish and Game
Fish Bull. 119. 54 p.
Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
(croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 54. 62 p.
Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciaeni-
dae) of California. Calif. Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 231
Yellowfin Croaker
History of the Fishery Although very little is known about their basic life history,
it appears that spawning occurs during summer months.
T he yellown croaker (Umbrina roncador) is a nearshore Young-of-the-year have been found near the entrance of
croaker that has been reserved for the recreational embayments during late fall and offshore in 30 feet of
shery since 1915. It is primarily caught by anglers shing water during winter. They have been reported to reach 18
from sandy beaches, piers, jetties, harbors and bays from inches in length and weigh over ve pounds, however sh
Santa Barbara south to the U.S.- Mexico border. This over two pounds are uncommon. The current California
croaker is among the most common sh caught from many state record is three pounds and 14 ounces. Preliminary
of southern California’s piers and sandy beaches during ageing estimates indicate that a 10-inch sh is about
summer months. It is important to many anglers because 4 years old and a 15-inch sh is about 10 years old.
they can be readily caught from shore with minimal invest- Yellown croaker are opportunistic predators that feed
ment in shing gear and time. Yellown croaker are typi- during day and night. Their diet consists of a broad variety
cally caught with light spinning gear using a variety of of prey, however California grunion eggs, mysids, and
popular baits, including live and dead anchovies, mussels, pelecypods are the most important components. Small sh
blood worms, and ghost shrimp. About 80 percent of the feed primarily on mysids, whereas large sh concentrate
catch occurs from May-October. Anglers shing from piers on bivalves. Yellown croaker eggs, larvae, and small
and breakwaters account for 35 percent of the total catch, juveniles are preyed upon by many shes; larger individu-
whereas anglers shing from private skiffs and beaches als are preyed upon by seals, sea lions, halibut and other
account for 35 percent and 25 percent, respectively. The large shes.
commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) eet accounts
for approximately ve percent of the total catch. CPFV
Status of the Population
catches uctuated from a high of over 8,000 sh in 1947
to less than 100 sh in 1958. Catches are relatively low
N o population estimates exist for yellown croaker, and
because the CPFV eet rarely targets shallow (< 25 feet)
stock structure has not been examined. The popula-
sandy areas where yellown croaker are most abundant.
tion appears healthy despite potentially damaging impacts
associated with recreational shing, contaminants from
Status of Biological Knowledge urban run-off, and shoreline habitat modications such as
development, dredging, lling, and erosion control proj-
Y ellown croaker have a series of yellow-brown stripes ects. In fact, the population may be increasing; catch-
on their back, mostly yellow ns, and a pronounced per-unit-effort data from the Marine Recreational Fishery
chin barbel. Yellown croaker range from Point Concep- Statistics Survey have increased during each of the past
tion to the Gulf of California, but are most abundant south ve years. In addition, a shery independent study found
of the Palos Verdes Peninsula. They occur in small schools a much greater abundance of yellown croaker in the
over soft bottom habitats from shore to 125 feet, but mid-1990s than a similar study conducted during the mid-
are most commonly found in waters less than 30 feet. 1950s. Increased sea surface temperatures caused by sev-
Yellown croaker are also common in harbors and bays eral El Niño events during the 1990s have probably ben-
and occasionally frequent kelp beds. eted yellown croaker, since they are a warm temperate
species whose center of abundance is in warmer waters
off Baja California. However, without regular monitoring
of catch and effort data it is difcult to accurately assess
the status of the shery.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
John W. O’Brien and Malcom S. Oliphant (retired)
California Department of Fish and Game
Yellowfin Croaker, Umbrina roncador
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
232
References
Yellowfin Croaker
10
thousands of fish landed
8
Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
Yellowfin Croaker
(croakers) of California. California Department of Fish and
6
Game, Fish Bulletin 54.
4
Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciae-
2
nidae) of California. California Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Yellowfin Croaker
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 233
White Croaker
History of the Fishery late 1940s and early 1950s, averaging about 70,000 sh per
year. Since 1954, however, they have averaged well below
A
30,000 sh per year, with one exceptional peak in 1988 of
lthough not a highly prized species, the white croaker
about 120,000 sh. Landings from 1990 through 1998 have
(Genyonemus lineatus) has been an important con-
averaged about 12,000 sh per year, with approximately
stituent of commercial and sport sheries in California.
96 percent of the landings from southern California.
Before 1980, most of the catch was in southern California.
However, since 1980, the majority of the catch has been in
central California. The changes in shing methodology and
Status of Biological Knowledge
area of greatest landings since 1980 are due primarily
W
to the entrance of Southeast Asian refugees (mainly Viet- hite croaker is one of eight species of drums, from
namese) into this shery. Many of these refugees who the family Sciaenidae, recorded off of California.
settled in California’s coastal areas were gillnet shermen Genyonemus is a combination of two Greek words, genys,
in their homelands and sought to earn their living here meaning lower jaw, and nemus, meaning barbell. The
by that method of shing. The underutilized white croaker species name lineatus is a Latin word meaning striped.
resource (especially in central California) and moderate White croaker are often sold in sh markets under the
start-up costs required for gillnetting (small to medium- name kingsh, and they are often called tomcod, tommy,
size boats and moderate gear costs) offered many of roncador, or ronkie by sportshermen.
them an opportunity to enter the commercial shing busi-
White croakers have subfusiform compressed bodies, infe-
ness. In contrast, most of the sport catch is in southern
rior mouths with a subterminal lower jaw, falcate pectoral
California. Anglers shing from piers, breakwaters, and
ns, thoracic pelvic ns, and a truncate caudal n. They
private boats account for about 90 percent of the catch.
are typically silvery to brassy colored, with a small, but
Prior to 1980, white croaker landings averaged 658,000 prominent black spot at the base of each pectoral n
pounds annually and exceeded one million pounds in sev- and a cluster of minute barbells on the membranes under-
eral years. Peak landings in 1952 (88 percent in southern neath the lower jaw.
California) were probably in response to the total collapse
The white croaker is an abundant, nearshore species in
of the sardine shery that year. From 1980 through 1991,
California, usually found over soft, sandy-mud substrata.
total landings have averaged 1.1 million pounds and were
They range from Vancouver Island, British Columbia to
above one million pounds in all but four years. Since 1991,
Magdalena Bay, Baja California, but are not abundant
landings have averaged 461,000 pounds and have steadily
north of Point Reyes, California. They usually swim in
declined to an all time low of 142,500 pounds in 1998.
schools, and are found from the surf zone to depths
Before 1980, the commercial catch of white croakers was as great as 780 feet and in shallow bays, sloughs, and
primarily by round haul net (mainly lampara), although lagoons. Most of the time, they occupy nearshore areas
some were taken by trawl, gillnet, and hook-and-line. at depths of 10 to 100 feet, but sometimes are fairly
After 1980, most white croakers have been taken by gillnet abundant to a depth of 300 feet.
and hook-and-line. Most of the commercial catch is sold
The maximum recorded length for white croaker is 16.3
in the fresh sh market, although a small amount is used
inches; however, sh larger than about 12 inches rarely
for live bait. “Kingsh” is the most common name seen
occur. Fish up to four pounds have been reported, but
in markets. Also, small quantities of another croaker, the
those weighing over two pounds are extremely rare. White
queensh, are included in the commercial landing records,
croakers live to about 15 years and over 50 percent of both
mostly for southern California.
sexes are sexually mature by one year (about 5 1/2 inches
Landings of white croaker by recreational anglers aboard for males, six inches for females). By three or four years
commercial passenger shing vessels, were highest in the and 7.5 inches, all white croakers are mature.
In southern California, white croakers spawn mainly from
November through April, with peak months being January
through March. In central California, they spawn all year
and may have winter and summer spawning peaks (ovary
weights were found to be highest in January and Septem-
ber and lowest in May). Females may spawn about once
every ve days and about 18 to 24 times each season,
depending upon their size and age. Batches of eggs range
from an estimated 800 eggs in a six-inch female to 37,200
White Croaker, Genyonemus lineatus in a 10-inch female. The fertilized eggs are pelagic and
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
234
White Croaker
4
millions of pounds landed
3
White Croaker
2
Commercial Landings
1
1916-1999, White Croaker
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Status of the Population
occur in depth ranges from about 25 to 120 feet. The
larvae initially are pelagic and most abundant in ocean
T he size of the white croaker population is not known.
depth ranges from about 50 to 75 feet. As the larvae grow,
Although previous catch data indicated that the over-
they descend toward the bottom and migrate towards
all population was healthy and sustaining itself under sh-
shore. Juveniles occur near the bottom where ocean
ing pressure, recent declines in commercial catches imply
depth is about 10 to 20 feet. As they mature, they migrate
that future monitoring may be needed.
to somewhat deeper water.
White croaker are omnivores, their diet including a variety
of worms, shrimps, crabs, squid, octopuses, clams, small
Management Considerations
shes, and other items, living or dead. They feed primar-
ily at night and on the bottom, although some midwater See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
feeding occurs during the day. They are preyed upon by further information.
seals, sea lions, halibut, giant sea bass, bluen tuna, and
other shes.
Shelly L. Moore
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
140
Paul W. Wild
thousands of fish landed
120
White Croaker
California Department of Fish and Game
100
80
References
60
40
Love, M.S., G.E. McGowen, W. Westphal, R.J. Lavenberg,
20
and L. Martin. 1984. Aspects of the life history and shery
0
1980
1947 1950 1960 1970 1990 1999
of the white croaker, Genyonemus lineatus (Sciaenidae),
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, White Croaker off California. Fish. Bull., U.S. 82:179-198.
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
Moore, S.L. 1998. Age and growth of white croaker (Gen-
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
yonemus lineatus (Ayres)) off Palos Verdes and Dana Point,
California. M.S. Thesis. California State University, Long
White croakers that live near marine waste discharges may
Beach. 87 p.
concentrate toxic materials such as pesticides (DDT, DDE,
etc.), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), metals (zinc,
selenium, mercury, etc.), and petroleum products in their
bodies at levels that are considered hazardous for human
consumption. Some white croakers in these areas are dis-
eased and malformed and some show reproductive impair-
ment. Current health guidelines advise against human
consumption of white croakers from southern California
waters in Santa Monica Bay, off the Palos Verdes Penin-
sula, and the Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbor area.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 235
Surfperches
General ment line, and a standard two-hook surf leader with size
six hooks, is ideal for shore based surfperch shing.
T he surfperches, family Embiotocidae, are a small abun- Annual commercial landings of surfperches have also been
dant assemblage of 23 species found predominantly in highly variable. While the market for fresh “perch” llets
temperate eastern North Pacic waters, two which are is relatively small, the total catch for the shery was
found in the Sea of Japan. Nineteen of the 20 species 49,000 pounds in 1999. The California Department of Fish
found in California occur in inshore coastal waters. Tule- and Game did not distinguish between species in their
perch (Hysterocarpus traski) occupies freshwater and estu- statistics until 1987, simply listing the category as surf-
arine habitats. Collectively, the 19 marine species are perch. Currently, there is a large commercial shery for
found in a variety of habitats, including beaches, rocky various surfperches in the southern part of the state
substrate, intertidal and subtidal kelp beds. A few species and a moderate shery focusing on redtail surfperch in
inhabit several of the habitat types. Included in this group northern California.
are the pile perch (Rhacochilus vacca), rubberlip surfperch
Surfperches can be identied by their elliptical, com-
(Rhacochilus toxotes), shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggre-
pressed body form and forked tail. Most are marked with
gata), walleye surfperch (Hyperprosopon argenteum),
bars or stripes. They have a continuous dorsal n with
and the white surfperch (Phanerodon furcatus). The major-
nine to 11 spines and 19-28 soft rays. The anal n has
ity of surfperches occupy only one type of habitat. Spe-
three spines with 15-35 soft rays.
cies most commonly found along beaches include the
The diet of surfperches consists of isopods (e.g., rock
barred surfperch (Amphistichus argenteus), calico surf-
lice) of all sizes, and gastropod mollusks (e.g., snails); vari-
perch (Amphistichus koelzi), redtail surfperch (Amphisti-
ous amphipods (e.g., skeleton shrimp), polychaete worms,
chus rhodoterus), silver surfperch (Hyperprosopon ellipti-
brittle stars, and small crabs, also are included. Surf-
cum), and the spotn surfperch (Hyperprosopon anale).
perches are usually bottom grazers, but apparently will
Black perch (Embiotoca jacksoni), dwarf perch (Microme-
feed midwater when competitors are absent.
trus minimus), kelp perch (Brachyistius frenatus), rainbow
perch (Hypsurus caryi), reef perch (Micrometrus aurora), Surfperch reproduction is viviparous, their young being
sharpnose seaperch (Phanerodon atripes), and striped highly developed and free swimming at birth. Newborn
seaperch (Embiotoca lateralis) tend to be associated with males of a few species are reproductively mature.
rocky substrate and kelp beds. The pink seaperch (Zalem-
Much information is lacking on this group. Although the
bius rosaceus) inhabits deep water and is seldom taken in
taxonomy has been recently rened, life history and habi-
the sport catch.
tat requirements are areas in need of more research.
The surfperch shery in California includes both sport
and commercial components. The sport shery is enjoyed
Barred Surfperch
by anglers of all ages who sh for surfperch from piers,
jetties, sandy beaches, and boats. The recreational catch
of surfperch for 1999 totaled 489,000 sh, with the major-
History of the Fishery
ity being caught in central and northern California. The
The commercial shery for barred surfperch is minor com-
average sport catch for 1993 through 1999 was 864,000
pared to the sport shery. Its popularity as a sport sh
sh with a high of 1,119,000 sh in 1998.
stems from abundant numbers and accessibility. The aver-
Surfperch are easy to catch, which makes them highly
age catch for the 1993-1999 period was 176,000 sh in
sought. They can be caught using light gear and a variety
southern California, and 202,000 sh in the remainder
of baits such as clams, tubeworms, or sand crabs. A spin-
of the state. In the southern California sport shery for
ning or casting outt using 10 to 15 pound test monola-
barred surfperch, 99 percent were caught from beaches
and jetties. Similarly, 99 percent of central and northern
California’s catch also came from shore. The best months
for shing are December, January, and February with the
majority of large individuals being gravid females. Sand
crabs are the best bait for barred surfperch, especially
female sand crabs carrying orange colored eggs. Small jigs
and spinners also work well. Although barred surfperch
are excellent sport sh for the light tackle angler, they are
sometimes considered a pest to anglers pursuing other sh
such as California halibut or corbina.
Barred Surfperch, Amphistichus argenteus
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
236
Status of Biological Knowledge Status of Biological Knowledge
Surfperches
Barred surfperch have eight to 10 rust-colored, irregular The calico surfperch can be identied by its silvery sur-
bars on their sides with spots in between. The background face, which is covered by olive-green mottling and broken
color is usually silver or white, and the back can take bars down each side. The calico reaches a length of 12
on a blue or grayish coloration. Similar species are the inches and rarely weighs more than one pound.
calico surfperch and the redtail surfperch, but the barred The range of the calico surfperch is from north central
surfperch can be distinguished from the redtail and calico Washington to northern Baja California. The primary habi-
because it lacks red coloration in its ns. tat of the calico is sandy beaches, although they can
Barred surfperch are found in small schools along sandy occasionally be found over rocky substrate. The vertical
beaches and near jetties, piers, and other sources of food distribution of the calico includes depths from the surface
and cover. They range from Bodega Bay in northern Cali- down to 30 feet.
fornia to north central Baja California. While the majority
are found in the surf zone, some have been caught in
water as deep as 240 feet. The largest individual ever
taken was a female that weighed 4.5 pounds and was 17
inches in length. Most sh are in the one- to two-pound
range and are highly prized by anglers.
Barred surfperch mate during the fall and winter months,
and young are released during spring and summer. Males
and females both darken considerably during courtship,
and males make “gure-eights” around females before
mating. A female can produce from four to 113 young,
depending on her size. Females undergo a ve-month
gestation period, and juveniles are born at about 1.75 Calico Surfperch, Amphistichus koelzi
Credit: DFG
inches in length. Juveniles are miniature replicas of the
parents and are independent at birth. The young usually Status of the Population
live relatively close to where they were born.
At this time, little information is available on the popula-
tion status of the calico surfperch.
Status of the Population
During the last seven years, the sport shery in southern
Pile Perch
California has yielded up to 306,000 barred surfperch
(1998), while central and northern California together pro-
duced upwards of 252,000 sh annually. No estimates have
History of the Fishery
been made of the size or current status of the barred
Pile perch sustain a limited commercial shery in Del Mar,
surfperch population.
California, and Papalote Bay, Baja California, but do not
contribute substantially to annual commercial landings in
Calico Surfperch the state.
They are of interest as a sport sh throughout the state,
History of the Fishery with an average of 16,000 perch caught between 1993
and 1999. Many are caught from piers, jetties, beaches,
The calico surfperch is of moderate sport value along
or skiffs. Pile perch may be caught year-round on any
the California coast. Due to its striking similarity and fre-
number of popular baits, including clams, sand shrimps,
quent misidentication with the redtail surfperch, calico
and worms.
surfperch, until recently, have been considered of minor
importance in the sport catch. The mean sport catch
Status of Biological Knowledge
from 1993-1999 was 16,000 sh. There is no targeted com-
Pile perch can be identied by the silvery sides with a
mercial catch but small numbers are taken in the directed
dark vertical bar about midbody, and a unique dorsal
redtail surfperch shery. The calico shery has historically
n with the rst few soft dorsal rays longer than any
included shing from piers, sandy beaches, and skiffs.
of the others, giving the n a peaked appearance. They
are equipped with strong, well-developed teeth, enabling
them to feed on hard shelled mollusks, crabs, and other
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 237
spawning season. The sport catch since 1993 has ranged from
Surfperches
a low of 10,000 sh in 1998, to a high of 56,000 in 1994.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Redtail surfperch are distinguished by the nine or ten ver-
tical, orange-to-brassy bars alternating at the lateral line
and the light red pelvic, anal, and caudal ns. The body
is moderately deep and laterally compressed, with a light
green back and silver sides and belly. During the 1990s,
Pile Perch, Rhacochilus vacca
adult female redtail averaged 10.5 inches and weighed 1.1
Credit: DFG
pounds, while the males averaged 9.8 inches and weighed
crustaceans. Their specialized dentation differs enough 0.8 pounds. The largest recorded California redtail was a
from rubberlip surfperch to convince some ichthyologists female that was 16.5 inches long and weighed 3.7 pounds.
to place them in their own genus (Damalichthys). The largest recorded individual was 16.5 inches long and
weighed 3.7 pounds. Females produce eight to 45 young
Pile perch are found between southeastern Alaska and
about one year after fertilization, sometime between May
northern Baja California, including Guadalupe Island. They
and August.
usually live along rocky shores, from the surface down to
150 feet, and grow to around 17.5 inches in length. Redtail surfperch are found from Vancouver Island,
Canada, to Monterey Bay, California, but the shery is
Fecundity increases with age and size of the females.
centered north of the San Francisco Bay area.
Average fecundity at rst reproduction is 11.7 young, and
sometimes exceeds 60 in older females. Adult longevity of
Status of the Population
pile surfperch is seven to 10 years.
There are no estimates of the size of the redtail surfperch
Status of the Population stocks in California coastal waters. The commercial catch
averaged 50,000 pounds during the 1970s, 48,000 pounds
Because accurate landings data for pile perch are lacking,
during the 1980s and 38,000 pounds during the 1990s,
little can be concluded about the current population
which suggests a decreasing population. Another indicator
status in California.
of problems with the population is the decrease in weight
from an average per sh weight of 1.8 pounds during
Redtail Surfperch the late 1950s and early 1960s, to 0.9 pounds during
the 1990s.
History of the Fishery
Redtail surfperch sustain a sport shery from central Cali-
fornia to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They support
a commercial shery only in northern California, espe-
cially in the inshore waters of the Eureka/Crescent City
area where over 99 percent of the catch is taken. These
sh are taken primarily from sandy beaches or the mouths
of rivers and streams entering the sea, but also can be
caught from jetties and piers inside harbors and bays.
Humboldt and Del Norte counties in northern California
are the primary locations of the winter redtail commercial
shery. Fishing is mostly from open beaches using hook-
and-line gear. The best catches are in March and April
when the sh are concentrated for spawning. Commercial Redtail Surfperch, Amphistichus rhodoterus
Credit: DFG
shing is closed from May 1 to July 15. The annual com-
mercial harvest averaged 37,000 pounds over the last 10
years, with a high catch in 1990 in excess of 62,000 pounds
and a low catch of around 27,000 pounds in 1998.
Sport shing for redtails occurs in the same areas where
they are commercially taken. They are taken year-round
by hook-and-line, but are usually targeted during the
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
238
Rubberlip Surfperch comprise a substantial portion of the state’s sport shery.
Surfperches
The mean take of striped seaperch for the last seven years
was 65,000 sh, almost wholly from central and northern
History of the Fishery
California. These perch are easily taken from piers, jet-
The rubberlip surfperch is one of the many important ties, beaches, and skiffs, and are favorites of anglers due
surfperch sport sh along the California coast. It is caught to their beautiful coloration.
along jetties and piers, and also taken by skiff anglers
nearshore or in kelp beds. The sport catch over the last
seven years ranged from 13,000 sh in 1993 to 44,000 sh
in 1997 with an average of 19,000. The commercial shery
is very small with landings of less than 1,000 pounds
annually from southern California.
Status of Biological Knowledge
The large, thick lips of the rubberlip distinguish it from
other surfperches. Its coloration varies from olive-to
brassy-brown on the sides, with one or two dusky bars Striped Seaperch, Embiotoca lateralis
Credit: DFG
on adult sh. The pectoral ns are yellow to orange, and
the pelvic ns are usually black. The maximum length of
Status of Biological Knowledge
rubberlip seaperch is 18.5 inches, making the rubberlip
Striped seaperch can be easily identied by the red, blue,
the largest of the surfperches.
and yellow lines that run laterally along the length of the
Rubberlip surfperch are found from Russian Gulch State
body. Maximum length is 15 inches. These sh are sexually
Beach (Mendocino County), California, to central Baja Cali-
mature in their third year of life and produce about 18
fornia, including Guadalupe Island. These sh range from
young per female. At age seven, the average number
inshore waters to depths of 150 feet.
of young produced per female is 32. The maximum life
Although no data have been collected on age at sexual expectancy for this sh is approximately 10 years.
maturity, gravid rubberlip surfperch have been caught
Striped seaperch are found from southeastern Alaska to
from April to June. Time of birth is estimated to
northern Baja California.
be midsummer.
Status of Population
Population estimates of striped seaperch have not been
made, but recent landing gures indicate that this species
should be able to sustain a healthy sport catch.
Walleye Surfperch
History of the Fishery
Rubberlip Surfperch, Rhacochilus toxotes
Credit: DFG
Sport anglers enjoy shing for walleyes. In 1993, anglers
caught 164,000 individuals, well over 90 percent being
Status of the Population
caught from shore, jetties, and piers. Walleyes can be
No recent estimates have been made of the rubberlip taken on sand crabs and other invertebrates, as well as on
perch population its size is unknown at this time. small spinners and jigs. They are excellent to eat.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Striped Seaperch Walleye surfperch are silver to bluish above, with very
faint pink bars that fade quickly after death. Most notable
History of the Fishery are the large eyes and black tipped pelvic ns. Similar
Striped seaperch is one of the eight to 10 species that species are the spotn surfperch and the silver surfperch.
make up the small commercial “perch” shery. However, However, the spotn has black spots on its dorsal and anal
it is a minor component when compared to such species ns, while the silver lacks any black coloration.
as the barred surfperch. Conversely, striped seaperch do
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 239
Surfperches
400
thousands of pounds landed
300
Surfperch
200
Commercial Landings
100
1916-1999, Surfperches
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
Walleye surfperch are found in large schools along sandy Surfperch habitats have been, and will continue to be,
beaches, jetties, kelp beds, and other habitats with rich areas of conict. As humans develop the shoreline,
invertebrate life. They range from Vancouver Island, Brit- areas inhabited by surfperches may become polluted or
ish Columbia, to central Baja California, including Guadal- destroyed. Although surfperches may adapt to structures
upe Island. They reach a length of 12 inches and are found such as jetties and piers, it should not be assumed that
to depth of 60 feet. they can continue to adapt to all the changes that are
forced upon them.
Walleye surfperch mate from November to December and,
after a ve-month gestation period, give birth in mid- Action is needed if surfperch populations are to
April. Males engage in an aggressive “swooping” courtship be restored.
before mating. Females, depending on size, will have ve
to 12 young that are about 1.5 inches at birth. The young
Ronald A. Fritzsche
are miniature replicas of the parent and mature the fall or
Humboldt State University
winter following their birth.
Patrick Collier
Status of the Population California Department of Fish and Game
The recent sport take has averaged 112,000 sh per year.
However, the total stock size is unknown at this time.
References
Fritzsche, R.A. and T.J. Hassler. 1989. Species proles: life
Surfperch: Discussion histories and environmental requirements of coastal shes
S
and invertebrates (Pacic Southwest) - pile perch, striped
urfperches are important both commercially and as
seaperch, and rubberlip seaperch. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
sport sh. Most of the California coastal species are
Biol. Rep. 82(11.103) U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR
taken in the sport catch and the majority of the catch
EL-82-4. 15pp.
is taken when spawning aggregations are present. Female
surfperches are intentionally targeted by sport anglers Holbrook, Sally J., Russel J. Schmitt, and John S. Ste-
because they are larger than males. Sport anglers also phens, Jr. 1997. Changes in an assemblage of temperate
grade their catch, which probably results in an even reef shes associated with a climate shift. Ecological
greater take of mature females with a resulting decline Applications. 7 (4), pp 1299-1310.
in the shery. The redtail and barred surfperches are
Karpov, K.A., D. P. Albin and W. H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
the most notable in the commercial catch and may be
The marine recreational shery in northern and central
important to local economies. Total commercial surfperch
California. Calif. Fish and Game Bull.176:192 pp.
landings have uctuated over the years, but over the
Tarp, F.H. 1952. A revision of the family Embiotocidae (the
long-term have declined by 25 percent since the 1950s.
surfperches). Calif. Fish and Game Fish Bull. 88:1-99.
Recent research has indicated that some of the decline is
associated with the increases in water temperature.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
240
Opaleye and Halfmoon
History of the Fishery nearshore environment. Larval distributions mirror the
Opaleye and Halfmoon
adults latitudinally, with the larval stages distributed pri-
T he commercial catch of opaleye (Girella nigricans) and marily in the neuston. CalCOFI data indicate that halfmoon
halfmoon (Medialuna californiensis) has been small. larvae are occasionally taken well off shore, while most
Neither of these species is part of a designated shery but opaleye larvae are taken within 70 miles of the coast.
both appear regularly as incidental catch in commercial Young opaleye leave the pelagic environment and enter
and recreational sheries. the intertidal when they are about an inch long. They are
found in relatively high tide pools preferring warm water
During the 40 years prior to 1990, the average catch of
(>75º F), and feed largely on small invertebrates. As they
halfmoon has been 16,714 pounds, with a high of 50,007 in
grow to a size of three to six inches, the young leave
1956. Recently, catches have been well below this mean,
the pools and form small schools in the shallow subtidal,
with a peak in 1989 of 5,204 pounds. The mean catch
eventually changing their diet to include primarily algae.
of opaleye in the 43 recorded years prior to 1990 was
Adults browse in the kelp bed on kelp and other algae,
4,748 pounds with a high of 23,688 pounds in 1973. The
often moving in medium sized schools. Young halfmoon
mean catch for the last 10 years is 2,709, with very small
stay in the shallow subtidal and kelp bed habitat occupy-
catches recorded since 1995. Interestingly, a small number
ing the same position as the adults. Juvenile opaleye
of halfmoon and opaleye are entering the live sh market.
have been reported to clean parasites from other sh on
The 1999 landings of opaleye were largely live sh (616
occasion.
pounds) and the price for the catch is now up to $1.37
per pound. Neither species was recorded in large numbers
in the California Department of Fish and Game’s gill and
Status of the Population
trammel net study, although the opaleye was at one time
a bycatch of nearshore purse seiners.
T he abundance of opaleye and halfmoon, and their
CPFV landings of opaleye are low, averaging 679 sh per status as incidental catch rather than as targeted spe-
year since 1990. By contrast, CPFV catches of halfmoon cies, makes it unlikely that either the sport or commercial
have averaged over 50,000 sh per year. 1998 was an sheries will have an effect on the populations. Data
extremely poor year for catches of these species, yielding gathered in southern California since 1974 at Palos Verdes
only eight percent and 16 percent of the average catch and King Harbor show no population trends and suggest
of opaleye and halfmoon respectively. In the last reported both species are stable with regular recruitment.
survey of pier and jetty shing (1965-1966), both species
were abundant and it is likely they remain an important
John Stephens
part of that shery today.
Occidental College (retired)
Status of Biological Knowledge
A s herbivores, the members of the sea chub family,
Kyphosidae, play an important role in kelp forest com-
munities. They regulate kelp growth, and on occasion may
overgraze, causing damage to newly transplanted or iso-
lated kelp plants or small kelp beds. The opaleye reaches
a length of 26 inches and a weight of 16 pounds, while
the halfmoon reaches 19 inches and 5 pounds. Kyphosids
have small mouths with a single prominent row of blade-
like, incisor teeth that are used for cutting vegetation.
The opaleye is olive green with two light spots under the
mid-dorsal. The halfmoon is blue to blue-gray, sometimes
with a lateral white stripe, and the spinous dorsal n is
much lower than the soft dorsal. Both species range from
central California to Baja California. While the opaleye is
more common north of Point Conception, the halfmoon
extends its range to the south into the Gulf of California.
Both reach a depth of a little over 100 feet.
Larvae of both species are pelagic and are followed by Opaleye, Girella nigricans
Credit: DFG
a pelagic juvenile schooling stage, which appears in the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 241
Opaleye and Halfmoon
25
thousands of pounds landed
20
15
Opaleye
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Opaleye
10
Landings data unavailable prior
to 1930 and for 1941,
5
1945-1946, 1972, 176-1977,
and 1982-1983. Data Source:
DFG Catch Bulletins and 0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
References
Norris, K.S. 1963. The functions of temperature in the
ecology of the percoid sh Girella nigricans (Ayres) Ecol.
Monographs 33:23-62.
Orton, R.D., L.S. Wright, and H. Hess. 1987. Spot
polymorphism in Girella nigricans (Perciformes:
Kyphosidae)-geographic and inter-size class variation.
Copeia(1)1987:198-203.
Stevens, E.G., W. Watson, and H.G.Moser. 1990. Develop-
ment and distribution of larvae and pelagic juveniles of
three kyphosid shes (Girella nigricans, Medialuna cali-
forniensis and Hermasilla azurae) off California and Baja
California. Fish. Bull. U.S. 87:745-768.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
242
Silversides
T here are three species of silversides (family Atherinop- the water. A rapid feeding activity takes place, making it
Silversides
sidae) in California ocean waters, grunion, topsmelt easier to catch sh with hooks or hoop nets.
(Atherinops afnis), and jacksmelt (Atherinopsis californi-
ensis). Information on grunion is presented in a separate
Status of Biological Knowledge
section. Even though “smelt” is included in the common
names of these species, silversides differ in part from true
T opsmelt range from the Straits of Juan de Fuca, British
smelts (family Osmeridae) in having two dorsal ns (one
Columbia, to the Gulf of California. They attain a
with spines), while the true smelts have one dorsal n and
total length of 14.5 inches, but individuals in sport catches
an adipose n near the tail.
are usually six to eight inches in length. There are
seven subspecies of topsmelt, three of which are in Cali-
History of the Fishery fornia. These numerous subspecies demonstrate varied
behavior and reect the different environments occupied
S ilversides are marketed fresh for human consumption by this species: kelp beds, harbor areas, and sandy beach
or bait. The commercial shery for silversides has been areas. They usually form loose schools but will congregate
conducted with gillnets, lampara nets, and round haul when feeding.
nets. Historically, set lines have been used in San Fran- Topsmelt grow about 2.5 to four inches the rst year, gain
cisco Bay for jacksmelt, and during the 1920s beach nets, another two inches the next year, and grow proportionally
pulled ashore by horses, were used at Newport Beach. less each year until they reach maximum size of about 14
Commercial catches of jacksmelt have varied sharply over inches. The largest topsmelt that has been aged was seven
the past 80 years. The high year for this shery was 1945, or eight years old. Some topsmelt spawn by their second
when more than two million pounds were taken. During year but most reach maturity during their third year. The
the 1990s, the catch varied between 40,765 pounds in spawning period is from April through October with a peak
1997 and 2,530 pounds in 1998 and 1999, with most of in May and June. This species attaches its eggs in a mass
the catch being landed in the Los Angeles area. This is an on eelgrass and low growing algae in harbors and bays,
occasional or incidental shery, and uctuations observed and possibly on kelp. The egg mass from each female is
in catch records reect demand, not true abundance. intertwined to the substrate by ne string-like laments
Principal commercial shing areas are usually in harbors attached to each egg. Eggs may be deposited more
and bays such as San Pedro, Monterey, San Francisco, than once in a spawning season. Topsmelt larvae are
Tomales, and Humboldt. Commercial catches of topsmelt particularly abundant in tidal basins and the shallow edges
are not as large as those of jacksmelt because of the of coastal bays. Juvenile topsmelt generally move into the
smaller size and more scattered distribution of topsmelt. open water of estuaries, bays, and coastal kelp beds.
There are no commercial or sport bag and possession
The food of topsmelt consists primarily of plankton spe-
limits on these species.
cies including crustaceans. Intertidal inhabitants eat algae
Jacksmelt and topsmelt make up a signicant portion of and y larvae, as well as crustaceans. Bay forms have
the pier and shore sport catch throughout California, and been observed working along muddy bottoms for food
private boat anglers shing nearshore catch them occa- items. Topsmelt have the ability to withstand a wide range
sionally. From 1958 to 1961, these two species comprised
about 10 percent of the total hook-and-line sport catch by
numbers (272,000 jacksmelt and 43,000 topsmelt) in cen-
tral and northern California. These are among the most
abundant shes available to pier and shore anglers and
represent a very important recreational shery, especially
for children. When taken with light shing gear, they are
easy to catch and excellent ghters.
Jacksmelt are caught by a variety of sport shing meth-
ods. A string of half-a-dozen bright red articial ies or
small hooks baited with shrimp or squid is the most suc-
cessful terminal tackle used by pier anglers. Single baited
hooks are also used from piers and by shore and skiff
anglers. The larger jacksmelt is quite a game sh and
will take a small spinner or lure cast out and retrieved
with a series of quick jerks. Young jacksmelt and topsmelt Jacksmelt, Atherinopsis californiensis
are quickly attracted with breadcrumb chum thrown into Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 243
Silversides
100
thousands of pounds landed
80
Silversides 60
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
40
Silversides
Data Source: DFG Catch
20
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. No commercial
landing are reported for
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
silversides prior to 1976.
of salinity concentrations. They are found in mesohaline The larvae and young are distributed near the surface in
waters and have been known to live in salt ponds with harbors, along sandy beaches, and in the kelp canopy,
salinities as great as 72 parts per thousand – twice that often mixed with the young of topsmelt. Their food habits
of open ocean water. are not well known, but it can be assumed that sh as
fast as jacksmelt, that readily take a moving lure, are
Topsmelt are a very important species in bay and near-
predatory animals. Small sh as well as crustaceans make
shore ecosystems in southern California. Collections of
up part of their diet.
shes by beach seine in bays are almost always numeri-
cally predominated by young topsmelt. Young-of-the-year The species is not desired by some sport anglers because
topsmelt were found to contribute 85 percent of the of the presence of relatively large sized worms in the
total annual sh production in the shallow water areas esh. These are an intermediate stage of a spiny-head
of Upper Newport Bay. Topsmelt have been shown to worm that is thought to be a parasite in sharks and
be the most ubiquitous and numerically abundant sh pelicans. It probably is harmless to man, and denitely is
species in submarine meadows of surfgrasses on the harmless when the esh is cooked.
open coast. They are one of the ve primary species
brought to the breeding colonies of the least tern, an
Status of the Populations
endangered seabird.
S
Jacksmelt form dense and larger schools than topsmelt tock sizes of these two species have not been deter-
and range over much of the inshore area of California. The mined. At present, there are no indications that top-
geographic range is from Yaquina Bay, Oregon to Santa smelt or jacksmelt are being overshed in California. How-
Maria Bay, Baja California. They are usually found in bays ever, as these species occur in inshore waters, they are
and within a few miles of shore in a salinity range from at risk of being affected by pollutants and loss of habitat
seawater to mesohaline. This species attains a length of through development.
22 inches, with 17-inch sh commonly taken. Jacksmelt
are relatively fast growing, reaching 4.5 to ve inches in
the rst year and up to eight inches during the second
year. Jacksmelt mature at two to three years or about
eight inches. The oldest jacksmelt aged, a 16-inch male,
was 11 years old. The spawning season is during winter,
from October to April. Large masses of eggs, about the
size of small BBs, are attached to eelgrass and algae by
means of long laments. Pinkish egg masses have been
observed along with herring eggs during winter months in
Elkhorn Slough and attached to eelgrass in Tomales Bay.
Jacksmelt eggs have been observed to hatch in salinity
as low as ve parts per thousand. Jacksmelt can spawn
several times during a spawning season.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
244
Management Considerations References
Silversides
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Clark, F.N. 1929. The life history of the California jack-
further information. smelt, Atherinopsis californiensis. Calif. Div. Fish and
Game, Fish Bull. 16. 22 p.
Demartini, E.E. 1982. The spring-summer ichthyofauna of
Paul A. Gregory
surfgrass, Phyllospadix, meadows near San Diego, Califor-
California Department of Fish and Game
nia. Bull. South. Calif. Acad. Sci. 80(2):81-90.
Hubbs, C.L. 1918. The sh of the genus Atherinops, their
variation, distribution, relationships and history. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 38(13):409-440.
Quast, J.C. 1968. Observations on the food of kelp-bed
shes. Pages 109-142 in Utilization of kelp-bed resources
in southern California, Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 139.
Wang, Johnson C. S. 1986. Fishes of the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary and Adjacent Waters, California: A Guide
to the Early Life Histories. Tech. Rpt. 9 (FS/B10-4ATR
86-9) Internet address: http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/kopec/
tr9/.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 245
Grunion
History of the Fishery and no holes may be dug in the beach to entrap them.
Anglers sixteen years of age and older must posses a valid
T he commercial use of grunion (Leuresthes tenuis) is sport shing license. Grunion may be taken June 1 through
very limited, this species forming a minor portion March 31. There is no bag limit for grunion.
of the commercial “smelt” catch. Grunion are taken inci-
dentally in bait nets and other round haul nets, and
Status of Biological Knowledge
limited quantities are used as live bait. In recent years, no
commercial landings have been reported. However, since
T he grunion is now classied in the family of New World
grunion usually are taken with other small sh and are not
silversides, Atherinopsidae, along with the jacksmelt
separated out, catch records would not show any landings.
and topsmelt in California. They are small, slender sh
The grunion’s principal value is as the object of a with bluish green backs, silvery sides and bellies. Silver-
unique recreational shery. These sh are famous for their sides differ from true smelts, family Osmeridae, in that
spawning habits, which are so remarkable as to arouse an they lack the trout-like adipose n. They normally occur
“I don’t believe it” response from a person hearing about from Point Conception, California, to Point Abreojos, Baja
them for the rst time. They are the only species of sh California. They are rarely found from San Francisco on
in California to actually leave the water to spawn in wet the north to San Juanico Bay, Baja California, on the
sand on beaches. They are subjects of widespread popular south. They inhabit the nearshore waters from the surf
interest, bringing thousands of people to beaches during to a depth of 60 feet. A description of their essential
night high tides in spring and summer months to catch the habitat would be the surf zone off sandy beaches. Marking
sh or just to observe them. Grunion hunting has become experiments indicate that they are nonmigratory.
one of the famous sports of southern California. As the
Young grunion grow very rapidly and are about ve inches
sh leave the water to deposit their eggs, they may be
long by the time they are one year old and ready to
picked up while they are briey stranded. Racing for sh
spawn. Grunion adults normally range in size from ve to
spotted far down the beach and clutching for the small
six inches with a maximum size recorded at 7.5 inches.
bits of slippery, wriggling energy provide an exhilarating
Average body lengths for males and females respectively
time for young and old alike. The attraction provided by
are 4.5 and 5.0 inches at the end of one year, 5.5 and 5.8
grunion can only be realized when one sees the numbers
inches at the end of two years, and 5.9 to 6.3 inches at the
of people lining the more popular beaches in the Los
end of three years. The normal life span is two or three
Angeles area on the night of a predicted run. Often there
years, but individuals four years old have been found. The
seem to be more people than sh, but at other times,
growth rate slows after the rst spawning and stops com-
everyone catches sh.
pletely during the spawning season. Consequently, adult
In the 1920s, the recreational shery was showing denite sh grow only during the fall and winter. This growth rate
signs of depletion, and a regulation was passed in 1927 variation causes annuli to form on the scales, which have
establishing a closed season of three months, April been used for aging purposes.
through June. The shery improved, and in 1947, the
Grunion spawn at night on the beach, from two to six
closure was shortened to April through May. Grunion may
nights after the full and new moon, beginning a little
be taken by sport shermen using their hands only. No
after high tide and continuing for several hours. As a wave
appliances of any kind may be used to catch grunion,
breaks on the beach, the grunion swim as far up the slope
as possible. The female arches her body, keeping her head
up, and excavates the semi-uid sand with her tail. As her
tail sinks, the female twists her body and digs tail rst
until she is buried up to her pectoral ns. After the female
is in the nest, up to eight males attempt to mate with her
by curving around the female and releasing their milt as
she deposits her eggs about four inches below the surface.
After spawning, the males immediately retreat toward the
ocean. The milt ows down the female’s body until it
reaches the eggs and fertilizes them. The female twists
free and returns to the sea with the next wave. The whole
event can happen in 30 seconds, but some sh remain on
the beach for several minutes.
Grunion, Leuresthes tenuis
Credit: Mike Brock
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
246
Management Considerations
Spawning may continue from March through August,
Grunion
with possibly an occasional extension into February and
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
September. However, peak spawning is from late March
further information.
through early June. Once mature, an individual may spawn
during successive spawning periods at about 15-day inter-
vals. Most females spawn about six times during the
Paul A. Gregory
season. Counts of maturing ova to be laid at one spawning
California Department of Fish and Game
ranged from about 1,600 to about 3,600, with the larger
females producing more eggs.
References
The eggs incubate a few inches deep in the sand above
the level of subsequent waves. They are not immersed in
Clark, F.N. 1925. The life history of Leuresthes tenuis,
seawater, but are kept moist by the residual water in the
an atherine sh with tide controlled spawning habits.
sand. While incubating, they are subject to predation by
Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 10. 51 p.
shore birds and sand-dwelling invertebrates. Under normal
conditions, they do not have an opportunity to hatch until Darken, R. S., K. L. M. Martin, and M. C. Fisher. 1998.
the next tide series high enough to reach them, in 10 or Metabolism during delayed hatching in terrestrial eggs of
more days. Grunion eggs can extend incubation and delay a marine sh, the grunion Leuresthes tenuis. Physiological
hatching if tides do not reach them, for an additional four Zoology 71: 400-406.
weeks after this initial hatching time. Most of the eggs
Dyer, B. S. and B. Chernoff. 1996. Phylogenetic
will hatch in 10 days if provided with the seawater and
relationships among atheriniform shes (Teleostei:
agitation of the rising surf. The mechanical action of the
Atherinomorpha).Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Soci-
waves is the environmental trigger for hatching, and the
ety 117: 1-69.
rapidity of hatch, in less than one minute, indicates that
Griem, J. N. and K. L. M. Martin. 2000. Wave action: The
it is probably not an enzymatic function of softening
environmental trigger for hatching in the California grun-
the chorion, as in some other shes. One can witness
ion, Leuresthes tenuis (Teleostei: Atherinopsidae). Marine
the spectacle of grunion eggs hatching. If you gather a
Biology 137:177-181.
cluster of eggs after a grunion run, keep them in a loosely
covered container of damp sand in a cool spot. After 10 Spratt, Jerome D. 1971. The Amazing Grunion. Marine
to 15 days, place some in a jar of seawater shaken briey, Resources Leaet No. 3. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
and they will hatch before your eyes in a few minutes.
Thompson, W.F. 1919. The spawning of the grunion
Grunion food habits are not known. They have no teeth, (Leuresthes tenuis). Calif. Fish and Game Comm., Fish
and feed on very small organisms, such as plankton. In a Bull. 3. 27 p.
laboratory setting, grunion eat live brine shrimp. Humans,
Walker, B. 1952. A guide to the grunion. California Fish and
larger sh, and other animals prey upon grunion. An
Game 38: 409-420.
isopod, two species of ies, sandworms, and a
beetle have been found preying on the eggs. Some
shorebirds such as egrets and herons prey on grunion
when the sh are on shore during spawning. The
reduction of spawning habitat, due to beach erosion,
harbor construction, and pollution is probably the
most critical problem facing the grunion resource.
Status of the Population
D espite local concentrations, the grunion is not an
abundant species. While the population size is not
known, all research points to a rather restricted resource
that is adequately maintained at current harvest rates
under existing regulations.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 247
Pacific Angel Shark
History of the Fishery shery for these sharks ended and the smaller mesh hali-
but set gillnets again became the standard. Vessels used
D iscarded as a nuisance species by halibut gillnet sh- in the shery are generally in the 25 to 40 foot range,
ermen for several decades, the Pacic angel shark suited for inshore coastal operations. Trawl vessels often
(Squatina californica) became one of the most sought caught a few angel sharks incidentally, but landings were
after commercial shark species in the Santa Barbara insignicant compared to the set gillnet harvest. Trawl
Channel during the 1980s. Changes in consumer accep- landings represented one percent of the total catch in
tance of sharks as high quality food sh and a concen- 1990, rising to 17 percent in 1994.
trated marketing effort by an innovative processor work- There has been little recreational interest in angel shark
ing with local shermen, stimulated development of the as nearshore anglers using hook-and-line catch relatively
angel shark shery in the Santa Barbara Channel area few compared to other more active sharks. One study
in 1976. Two key elements led to the rapid growth of logged only 12 angel sharks compared to over a thousand
this shery: maintenance of quality and freshness of other sharks landed between 1997 and 2000. Nearly all of
the shark by cleaning and dressing (removal of head the angel sharks were caught at night.
and ns) at sea; and development of a method to llet
In 1977, landings of dressed angel shark totaled 328
this irregularly shaped shark to satisfy retail distributors
pounds. By 1981, landings rose to 258 thousand pounds,
and consumers. Market development was linked to the
and by 1984, to 610 thousand pounds. Landings of angel
popular but seasonal thresher shark, which is caught by
shark exceeded one million pounds annually in 1985 and
the drift gillnet eet in the summer and fall. As supplies
1986, replacing the thresher shark as the number one
of thresher shark diminished in the winter, angel shark
species of shark taken for food in California.
was promoted as a viable substitute. Local demand grew
Fishing effort throughout the early development and
rapidly as Santa Barbara and Ventura seafood retailers
expansion phase was concentrated off Santa Barbara
and restaurant owners found ready acceptance among
and Ventura counties and around the northern Channel
consumers. Nearly every part of this shark, with the
Islands, especially Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands.
exception of skin, cartilage, and offal is utilized. The
Landings began to decline in 1987, dropping to 940
head and ns are sold as crab bait, large llets are cut
thousand pounds with an ex-vessel value of $542,000
from the trunk, and portion-controlled pieces from the
and further declining to 248 thousand pounds ($166,000)
tail are used in sh and chips dishes. Small irregular-
in 1990. A minimum size limit adopted by the DFG
shaped pieces are used to make shark jerky. A yield of 50
in 1986 contributed to a decrease in landings in the
percent of the dressed shark is generally expected.
following years.
The development of markets for angel shark was a signi-
A second major decline in landings occurred in 1991 when
cant benet to halibut shermen, providing them with
a voter initiative was passed banning the use of gill and
a supplemental source of income. As demand increased
trammel nets within three miles of the southern California
for angel shark in the early 1980s, innovative shermen
mainland coast and within one mile around the Channel
developed nets to harvest them specically. Because of
Islands. Many gill-netters switched to other sheries and
their selectivity for market-sized angel shark, these nets
a few dropped out entirely or retired. In 1990, a total
caught only a few large California halibut. Nonetheless,
of 144 vessels (including a few trawlers) landed angel
8.5-inch mesh monolament gillnets designed for halibut
shark and by 1994, the number was reduced 50 percent
continued to be used to take both species. After area
to 72. These boats landed 23 thousand pounds, a decline
closures were instituted in 1994, the directed gillnet
of 91 percent from the catch in 1990. Of the 72 vessels
reporting landings, nine boats landed the major share
(61 percent). The closures, in effect, established a large
“no-take” reserve for angel shark in southern California,
since gillnetting, considered to be the most viable shing
method for this species, was eliminated in the primary
nearshore angel shark habitat.
Another factor affecting the shery and contributing to
the decline in landings was the sale of the primary angel
shark processing plant in 1991 and its subsequent closure
in 1992. This led California seafood wholesalers and retail-
ers to search for alternative sources of angel shark, as the
Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
248
Pacific Angel Shark
1.4
thousands of pounds landed
1.2
Pacific Angel Shark
1.0
Commercial Landings
0.8 1916-1999,
Pacific Angel Shark
0.6 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0.4
landings receipts. No
0.2 commercial landing are
reported for Pacific angel shark
0.0 prior to 1977.
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
demand in California remained high, especially for use as Cooperative sheries research began in 1979 to obtain
sh and chips in seafood restaurants. information on angel shark distributions, migrations,
growth rates, and eventually, reproductive rates. Members
Prior to the 1994 shing area closures, a gillnet shery for
of the commercial shing industry helped initiate the
angel sharks began in the upper reaches of the Gulf of
investigations, which, with the participation and coop-
California and a processing plant was established in Puerto
eration of university research and extension personnel,
Peñasco, Mexico. By 1993, imports of angel shark llets
helped sheries managers develop a management plan in
were being used to meet the market demand in California.
1986. Development of regulatory guidelines for this shery
One buyer estimated imported llets increased from 65
is an example of a “co-management” approach involving
thousand pounds in 1994, to approximately 90 thousand
a partnership of managers and resource users. The drop
pounds in 1999. Since 1997, a share of these sharks has
in landings after 1986 was partially attributed to a new
been caught off Ensenada and Cedros Island near Guerrero
size limit, though sheries biologists and shermen agree
Negro. The frozen and glazed imported llets represent a
that management regulations were initiated too late to
weight of approximately one-quarter of the whole shark,
maintain a sustainable yield angel shark shery with the
so the actual landing gure was closer to 360 thousand
harvest levels experienced in the mid-1980s.
pounds in 1999 from Mexican waters.
California landings dwindled to 19 thousand pounds in
Status of Biological Knowledge
1995 and 18 thousand pounds in 1996, but began to
increase again between 1997 (33 thousand pounds) and
T
1999 (53 thousand pounds). Adding the Mexican imports he Pacic angel shark is reported to occur only in
(from two processing operations) to the California land- the eastern Pacic Ocean from southeastern Alaska to
ings provides a better estimate of the California market the Gulf of California and from Ecuador to Chile. A gap
demand and consumption of angel shark, which in 1999 in distribution separating subpopulations of S. californica
totaled over 413 thousand pounds. Mexican imports now occurs between the equator and 20° North latitude. The
provide at least 87 percent of the total market share of southern population was earlier reported as a separate
the state. species, S. armata.
The ex-vessel price for angel shark in 1977 was 15 cents Angel sharks are relatively small, bottom-dwelling elas-
per pound. The price rose to 35 cents per pound in 1982 mobranchs, attaining maximum length of ve feet and
($1.60 to $1.70 per pound at retail markets) as demand a weight of 60 pounds. In the Santa Barbara Channel,
increased for the rm, white-eshed shark. With contin- commercially caught specimens generally range in size
ued market demand and lower landings, ex-vessel prices between three and four feet, although minimum size
in 1991 rose to 75 cents per pound dressed (head off) limits now allow the take of females 42 inches and above
and in 1999 averaged 91 cents per pound. The standard and males 40 inches or more. Angel sharks range in depth
ex-vessel price in 2000 is reported to be over $1 per from three to over 600 feet. Fishermen working the north-
pound. Retail prices have increased to between $4 and $6 ern Channel Islands reported that most of their catches
per pound. were between 30 and 240 feet. After the inshore area
closures were set in 1994, shing shifted to deeper waters
between 100 and 300 feet.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 249
Status of the Population
Pacic angel shark are usually found lying partially buried
Pacific Angel Shark
on at, sandy bottoms and in sand channels between
T he rapid increase in angel shark landings between
rocky reefs during the day, but they may become active at
1983 and 1986 led to concern that stocks were being
night. Tagged specimens near Santa Catalina Island were
over-exploited. Over 79,000 individual angel sharks were
found to move from a few feet to four nautical miles per
reported taken during the 1985-1986 season. Considering
night. However, individual sharks have been observed to
the low fecundity and apparent lack of signicant migra-
remain in the same place with no apparent movement for
tions of angel sharks, the need to develop a management
up to 10 days.
plan became critical. A minimum retention size limit was
Sonic tagging studies conducted at Santa Catalina Island
proposed by DFG in 1987 and became law in 1989. Because
indicated that 11 sharks with transmitter tags remained
these sharks are nearly always retrieved alive, limiting
near the Island for up to 90 days, although movement
retention size is a viable regulation. However, landings
around the island was extensive. Of 30 conventionally
had decreased before the inception of the regulation,
tagged sh all but one angel shark remained in the same
indicating a declining population along the Santa Barbara-
general vicinity in which they were tagged. The lone
Ventura County coastline and around the northern Chan-
exception was a shark tagged on the coast and captured
nel Islands. The minimum size restriction is believed to
three and a half years later at Santa Cruz Island. Without
have been effective in decreasing the numbers of imma-
further evidence from tag and recovery data, resource
ture sharks harvested and also to have decreased harvest
managers assume that isolated stocks may exist near
pressure on exploited stocks. The area closures had a
islands, separated from the mainland and other islands by
much more severe effect on the shing community and led
deep water channels (including San Clemente, San Nicolas,
to the unintended consequence of shifting the shery to
Santa Barbara, and Santa Catalina Islands). A 1997 report
Mexico where, at present, no management of the species
on the genetic variability of angel sharks, from two of
exists. Large numbers of gillnet “pangas” on both sides
the northern Channel Islands (Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz
of the Baja Peninsula now sh angel sharks for Mexican
Islands) and a more southern island (San Clemente Island)
markets and for export to California.
showed that there were signicant allele frequency differ-
No population studies have been conducted on angel shark
ences between sharks from the northern and southern
since the nearshore shery ended in 1994. A comparative
areas. This electrophoretic study provides a strong indica-
research survey of nearshore sh assemblages around
tion that genetically isolated populations of angel sharks
Santa Catalina Island and along the mainland (Santa Bar-
exist in California.
bara to Newport Beach) between 1996 and 1998 indicated
Several techniques have been utilized in an effort to age
that Squatina was a commonly caught species at many of
angel sharks, but to date aging this species has been
the 10 sampling stations. The researchers reported that
unsuccessful. Researchers have observed that angel sharks
the survey showed a greater abundance and proportion-
are born with six to seven bands in their vertebral centra,
ately larger biomass for nearshore sharks than any other
but growth curves based on size and band counts were
southern California study. Further, they note that gillnets
found to be atypical. Both centrum edge histology and
are much more efcient for sampling mobile and elusive
size-frequency analyses have proven inconclusive. Sharks
shes than trawls and diver surveys. In terms of biomass,
grown in the laboratory, along with eld-tagged, tetracy-
angel sharks ranked third at Santa Catalina Island
cline-injected returns, indicated no periodic basis for band
and ninth at the mainland sites. There have been no
deposition in the vertebrae, but indicated that calcied
recent studies of Squatina populations at the northern
band deposition is more related to rapid somatic growth.
Channel Islands.
Sexual maturity in both males and females occurs between
35 and 39 inches total length. Embryos present per female
Management Considerations
range between one and 11, with a mean of six pups
produced annually from March to June. A 10-month gesta-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
tion period was estimated for this species.
further information.
Major prey items of angel shark include queensh and
blacksmith in the summer and market squid in the winter.
Fishermen in the Santa Barbara Channel report that mack- John B. Richards
erel and Pacic sardines are found in angel shark stomachs University of California, Santa Barbara
during the fall and early winter, along with squid, which
predominates during the winter and spring.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
250
References
Pacific Angel Shark
Cailliet, G.M., H.F. Mollet, G. Pittenger, D. Bedford,
and L.J. Natanson. 1992. Growth and demography of
the Pacic angel shark (Squatina californica) based on
tag returns off California. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res.
43:1313-1330.
Natanson, L.J., G.M. Cailliet, and B.A. Weldon. 1984. Age,
growth, and reproduction of the Pacic angel shark (Squa-
tina californica) from Santa Barbara, California. AM. Zool.
24(3):130A.
Natanson, L.J., and G.M. Cailliet 1986. Reproduction
and development of the Pacic angel shark (Squatina
californica) off Santa Barbara, California. Copia 1986.
(4):987-994.
Pondella, Daniel J. II., and L.G. Allen. 2000.The nearshore
sh assemblage of Santa Catalina Island. Pages 394-400.
In: Proceedings of the Fifth California Islands Symposium,
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History: March 29-April
1, 1999. , OCS Study MMS 99-0038. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Minerals Management Service, Camarillo, CA.
Richards, J.B. 1987. Developing a localized shery: the
Pacic angel shark, Pages 147-160. In: Sharks: an inquiry
into biology, behavior, sheries and use. S. Cook (ed.) EM
8330. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis,
OR.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 251
Leopard Shark
History of the Fishery and from shore (41 percent), with a small percent landed
by partyboats (four percent). The commercial catch,
T he leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata) is taken as largely incidental in recent years, is taken mainly by set
both a food and game sh in California, and its distinc- net (53 percent), hook-and-line (30 percent), and trawl
tive markings and hardiness also make it desirable for (13 percent).
public aquarium displays. Although some commercial land- A 36-inch minimum size and a possession limit of three sh
ings may be lumped under a general “shark, unspecied” have been in effect for the sport shery since 1991. This
category, those reported as “leopard shark” have ranged size limit was also extended to the commercial shery in
from 9,270 pounds in 1958, to a high of 101,309 pounds 1994, both for market and aquarium display. Additionally,
in 1983. These landings, while not extensive, increased in the state has general restrictions on usage of certain
the south and decreased in the north during the 1980s. types of commercial gear in the nearshore zone.
Landings in southern California began increasing in 1981,
and in 1985 surpassed landings in northern California for
Status of Biological Knowledge
the rst time since the collection of statistics began
in the 1940s. Since 1991, landings have averaged about
T he leopard shark, also known as “tiger shark” and
31,000 pounds per year, with about 57 percent of the
“cat shark,” ranges from Mazatlan, Mexico, into the
landings occurring south of Point Piedras Blancas. Leg-
northern Gulf of California, and northward to Oregon. It is
islative curtailment of inshore gillnetting in the San
most common in shallow water from the intertidal down
Francisco/Monterey Bay area undoubtedly contributed
to 15 feet, less so down to 300 feet or deeper in ocean
to much of the decline in northern California landings
waters. Favoring muddy bays and sloughs, especially in
after 1986.
northern California, it is known to move out and in with
Judging from estimates made since 1980 by the National
the tides to feed over shallow tidal mudats. It also
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Marine Recreational Fish-
occurs along the open coast and around offshore islands
eries Statistics Survey, the recreational leopard shark
off southern California, where it frequents kelp beds,
catch appears to be greater than the commercial catch,
sandy bottoms near rocky reefs, and the surf zone along
although these estimates are subject to large sampling
sandy beaches.
variability. According to the survey, sport catches in Cali-
The population structure throughout its range is not
fornia between 1980 and 1988 averaged over 52,000 sh
clearly understood, but is thought to consist of regional
per year with a low of 33,000 sh taken in 1980 and a
stocks among which there is relatively little exchange.
high of 59,000 sh taken in 1988. Since 1993, an estimated
Tagging studies in central California have shown there is
average of 45,000 leopard sharks have been taken by
at least some mixing between stocks in San Francisco
anglers, with a low of 34,000 taken in 1993 and again in
Bay and those in central and southern California, but
1994, and a high of 58,000 taken in 1997.
such exchange appears limited. The Gulf of California,
A variety of shing methods and gear types are used in the
Mexico, stock is presumed to be separate from the
sheries for leopard sharks. Most of the recreational catch
California stocks.
is taken angling with baited hooks with some spearshing
The maximum recorded and veried total length is about
by divers. Analysis of tag-recaptures in the central Califor-
six feet long. The oldest validated age that has been
nia area in the 1980s suggests that most angler-caught
determined by reading tetracycline-labeled rings on the
leopard sharks are taken from private boats (55 percent),
vertebrae, is 26 years for a 49-inch female, an average
of 1.8 inches per year. Size at birth is about eight to 10
inches in total length. Longevity is presumed to be around
30 years.
The live-bearing female leopard shark produces from
seven to 36 offspring in an annual reproductive cycle.
Males mature at seven years, and females at 10 years,
when sh reach lengths between 40 and 42 inches total
length. The gestation period is estimated at 10 to 12
months. Birth apparently takes place from March through
July. The only known eye-witness account of leopard
sharks giving birth in the wild is that of a sherman who
observed “pupping” activity at Santa Catalina Island in
Leopard Shark, Triakis semifasciata southern California in the 1940s. Dozens of large females,
Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
252
Leopard Shark
120
thousands of pounds landed
100
Leopard Shark
80
60 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Leopard Shark
40 Commercial landings for
leopard shark were not
20
reported prior to 1977. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
Status of the Population
with backs and dorsal ns breaking the surface of the
water over a shallow mudat in Catalina Harbor, were
T he leopard shark is one of the many species con-
observed releasing their pups in the three to four-foot
sidered, but not now actively regulated, under the
deep water; some of the pups were seen milling around in
Pacic Fishery Management Council’s Groundsh Manage-
water only about a foot deep.
ment Plan. Regulatory actions enacted by the State of
This shark is an opportunistic benthic feeder. Inverte-
California have contributed signicantly toward protecting
brates taken include crabs, ghost shrimp, clam siphons
this species. Even though the commercial catch may be
and sometimes whole clam bodies, polychaete worms,
underestimated because of reporting problems, this spe-
fat innkeeper worms, and octopuses. Fishes in the diet
cies does not appear to be at risk, judging by the com-
include herring, anchovy, topsmelt, croakers, surfperches,
bined landings in relation to previously calculated esti-
gobies, rockshes, midshipman, atshes, and small elas-
mates of shing mortality and exploitation rates and cur-
mobranchs such as smoothhounds, guitarshes, and bat
rent conservation measures which appear to have reduced
rays. Leopard sharks seasonally consume the eggs of her-
these rates. The imposition of a sport and commercial
ring, topsmelt, jacksmelt, and midshipman.
shing size limit and general curtailment of gillnetting
The leopard shark is preyed upon by the white shark and
within this species’ nearshore range appear to have halted
sevengill shark, and presumably other large sharks as well,
the increase if not reduced total shing mortality over
which are known to enter bays. The phenomenon of young
the past decade. Commercial sport shing boat catches of
sharks being preyed on by larger sharks is not uncommon.
leopard shark in California have dropped from an average
These nomadic sharks often occur in schools, sometimes of 6.8 sh per trip between 1980 and 1991 to an average
with smoothhounds, which also belong to the houndshark of 4.0 sh after the size limit was imposed from 1992
family. Numbers of animals may suddenly appear in an to 1995, as more sh were released. Also encouraging is
area, then move on. Although generally timid and wary of evidence that mortality from hooking injuries is quite low.
divers, there is one record of an attack on a skin diver in
The size of the California leopard shark population has
1955 in California.
not been estimated, and the only information on relative
Movements of this species have been studied in central changes in stock abundance is what can be inferred from
California. Tagging in San Francisco Bay has revealed that catch statistics. Because of its rather limited geographical
this stock is mostly resident, although at least 10 percent range with little exchange among regional stocks within
of the population moves out of the bay into the ocean this range, resident stocks near large population centers
during fall and winter. One female at liberty for 20 years may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localized shing
was recaptured in south San Francisco Bay less than ve pressure. A recent re-assessment of the leopard shark’s
miles from where she was originally tagged. Of the longer intrinsic productivity and vulnerability to harvest revealed
distance migrants, one three-foot male tagged in San it to be even more susceptible to over-exploitation than
Francisco Bay was recaptured in Santa Monica Bay a previously reported. Its annual rate of increase under
decade later. maximum sustainable yield exploitation has been calcu-
lated at only about two to three percent per year. And
while the size limit protects juveniles, it does not protect
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 253
References
mature adults in their prime reproductive years in feeding
Leopard Shark
and near shore pupping areas. Nonetheless, it appears
Ackerman, J.T., M.C. Kondratieff, S.A. Matern, and J.J.
that current conservation measures, as long as they are
Cech, Jr. 2000. Tidal inuence on spacial dynmics of leop-
in place, appear to provide adequate protection for the
ard sharks, Triakis semifasciata, in Tomales Bay, California.
sustainability of the California stock of this species at the
Environmental Biology of Fishes 58: 33-43.
present time. Possible future shing mortality increases
within regulatory constraints could be a concern if mature Au, D. W. and S.E. Smith. 1997. A demographic method
females become an increasingly important component of with population density compensation for estimating pro-
the catch, or if inshore sheries develop that are efcient ductivity and yield per recruit of the leopard shark, Triakis
at targeting this species. semifaciata. Canadian J. Fish. Aqua. Sci. 54, 415-20.
Cailliet, G.M. 1992. Demography of the central California
population of the leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata).
Susan E. Smith
Austr. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 43: 183-193.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Kusher, D.I., S.E. Smith, and G.M. Cailliet. 1992. Validated
age and growth of the leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata,
with comments on reproduction. Environmental Biology of
Fishes 35, 187-203.
Russo, R.A. 1975. Observations on the food habits of
leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) and brown smooth-
hounds (Muselus henlei). Calif. Fish Game 61:95-103.
Smith, S.E. and N. Abramson. 1990. Leopard shark Triakis
semifasciata distribution, mortality rate, yield, and stock
replenishment estimates based on a tagging study in San
Francisco Bay. Fish. Bull., U.S. 88(2):371-381.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
254
Soupfin Shark
History of the Fishery nental shelf waters from close inshore, including shallow
Soupfin Shark
bays, often near the bottom, but also offshore waters up
T he soupn shark (Galeorhinus galeus) was the mainstay to 1,500 feet deep. In the eastern North Pacic they range
of the shark shery boom for vitamin oils between from British Columbia to central Baja California.
1936 and 1944 when over 24 million pounds were landed. Coast wide there is a preponderance of adult males in
Prior to that time, soupns were mainly marketed within the northern part of the state and females to the south;
the local Asian communities up and down the Pacic in central California the sex ratio is about one to one.
coast. The meat sold anywhere from $0.10 to $0.20 per Adult males south of Point Conception tend to occur in
pound, but the ns, which are used for soup stock brought deeper water (more than 65 feet) while females occur
as much as $2.50 per pound prior to 1936. The shery for closer inshore (less than 45 feet). Soupns often occur in
this species began in earnest when it was discovered that small schools that segregate by size and sex.
their livers were rich in vitamin oil. The value of each
Soupns are highly migratory, moving to the north during
shark species was based on its high potency vitamin oil
the summer and south during the winter or into deeper
and the soupn was found to have the highest vitamin
waters. They are swift moving and can travel up to 35
oil levels among California’s shark species. Prior to the
miles per day and have been reported to travel at a
development of this shery, cod liver oil was produced in
sustained rate of 10 miles per day for up to 100 days.
Europe and exported to the United States. With the onset
One soupn tagged off Ventura was captured 26 months
of World War II and the curtailment of cod liver oil produc-
later off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Another shark
tion in Europe, these events set the stage for the expan-
tagged in San Francisco Bay was recaptured 12 months
sion of this shery. Shipping cod liver oil from Europe
later in the same location.
became so hazardous that its production and exportation
Soupn sharks are ovoviviparous, with litters of between
eventually declined to nothing. The West Coast soupn
six and 52 young, the average being 35. The litter size
shark population represented a tremendous source of raw
increases in proportion to the female’s size. Mating takes
material. The market for shark liver oils to replace the
place during the spring with a gestation period of about 12
non-available cod liver oil improved rapidly and in a rela-
months. Southern California, south of Point Conception, is
tively short time the huge potential of the Pacic coast
an important nursery ground. Adult females and newborn
soupn supply had been tapped. The shery nally col-
soupns occur in considerable numbers in this area. Pups
lapsed in the mid-1940s from over-exploitation and the
are born during the spring at a size of between 12 and
development of synthetic vitamins. This shery decimated
16 inches. Males mature between 53 and 60 inches, and
the soupn population, particularly nursery areas in San
grow to a maximum size of 70 inches. Females mature
Francisco and Tomales bays, which to this day have never
at about 24 inches, and grow to a maximum size of 77
fully recovered. In the mid-1970s, there was a renewed
inches. Males mature in eight to nine years and females
interest in shark sheries, although this time for their
in about 11 years. The maximum estimated age for these
meat as food for human consumption.
sharks is about 40 years.
While the commercial shery for soupns has been widely
Soupns readily forage on both demersal and pelagic
recounted, less attention has been paid to its recreational
bony sh species, although larger individuals prefer
exploitation. Soupns were one of the more common spe-
cartilaginous shes. Invertebrate prey includes cepha-
cies caught in San Francisco Bay during the late 1940s
lopods, crabs, shrimp, and lobster. Young sharks tend
through the early 1960s by recreational anglers. This sh-
to feed more heavily on invertebrates than do adults.
ery declined somewhat until the Jaws phenomenon of the
Natural predators on soupns, particularly juveniles,
mid-1970s brought about a renewed awareness of sharks.
include the white shark, sevengill shark, and possibly
Sport shing boats in San Francisco Bay and southern
marine mammals.
California began targeting these, among other shark spe-
cies. Unlike the commercial shery, landings data for
recreational caught soupns are sketchy at best and are
under-reported, if reported at all. Soupns are prized by
recreational anglers for their meat.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he soupn shark is one of ve species of houndsharks
(Family Triakidae) found in California waters. Along Soupfin Shark, Galeorhinus galeus
Credit: DFG
the California coast, soupn sharks generally inhabit conti-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 255
Soupfin Shark
300
thousands of pounds landed
250
Soupfin Shark
200
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Soupfin Shark
Data Source: DFG Catch
100
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Commercial
50
landings prior to 1977 were
not available. All shark landings 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
were aggregated until 1977.
Status of the Population References
C alifornia’s soupn shark population has not been stud- Cailliet, G.M., D.B. Holts, and D. Bedford. 1992. A review
ied in over 50 years and its status is unknown. Since of the commercial sheries for sharks on the west coast
1977, the shery has averaged between 150,000 and of the United States. In: Shark Conservation: Proceedings
250,000 pounds dressed weight landed annually. of an International Workshop on the Conservation of Elas-
mobranchs. Eds. J. Pepperell, J. West, and Peter Woon.
Pp. 13-29.
David Ebert
Ebert, D.A. 1986. Observations on the elasmobranch
US Abalone
assemblage of San Francisco Bay. Calif. Fish Game, 72
(4): 244-249.
Ripley, W.E. 1946. The biology of the soupn, Galeorhinus
zyopterus. Calif. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. no. 64, 96 pp.
Roedel, P.M. and W.E. Ripley 1950. California sharks and
rays. Calif. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. no. 75, 88 pp.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
256
Skates and Rays
History of the Fishery from around 228,566 pounds in 1989 to 1,912,695 pounds
Skates and Rays
in 1999. This trend is most notable in the trawl shery
S kates and rays are not specically sought by commer- after 1994.
cial shermen, but are taken incidentally, primarily by Some of the apparent increase may be due to increased
bottom trawlers in central and northern California waters. landings of previously discarded catch. In 1994, the com-
Of the species identied in the commercial catch the most mercial groundsh shery was divided into limited entry
common are the shovelnose guitarsh (Rhinobatos produc- and open access components, each with new regulations
tus), bat ray (Myliobatis californica), big skate (Raja and quotas. Groundsh quotas for both components were
binoculata), and thornback (Platyrhinoidis triseriata). This signicantly reduced in the period from 1994 through
does not represent the true catch composition, however, 1999, leaving more space in the boats’ holds for non-quota
as 98 percent of the landings are listed as “unidentied species. Trawl vessels have supplemented their groundsh
skate.” A few nearshore species, most commonly the bat landings with skate and ray bycatch. There is considerable
ray and shovelnose guitarsh, are the target of small uncertainty whether the total impact on the skate and ray
sport sheries. resource has increased or if more of the catch is being
Only the wings of skates caught in the commercial shery retained and landed.
are marketed. The bodies are either discarded at sea or
occasionally sold as bait for the rock crab shery. Skate
Status of Biological Knowledge
wings are sold fresh and frozen, predominantly in the
Asian fresh sh markets in southern California. Wings are
S kates and rays (batoids) can be distinguished from
also dried or salted and dehydrated for the Asian markets.
sharks by having pectoral ns which extend above and
At times, skates have been processed for shmeal, but
in front of the gills, attaching to the head and forming
most such enterprises experienced economic failure. Sea-
an expanded and attened disc with gill slits located
food restaurants and retail markets have been suspected
completely on the underside. They can be thought of as
of punching out rounds of skate wing to serve as cheap
sharks attened to accommodate a life spent on the sea
substitutes for scallops.
oor. Twenty species of rays and skates have provisionally
Historically, the economic value of the skate shery com- been recorded from California waters.
pared to other seafood sheries was relatively small. From
Rays and skates occur in all marine habitats, from pro-
1958 to 1969 the ex-vessel price for skate wings ranged
tected bays and estuaries to open seas, ranging from
from $.01 to $.02 per pound. Prices increased from $.12
the surface to 9,500 feet deep. While some species are
per pound in the 1970s to $.25 per pound in 1991.
common, others are known from only a few specimens. So
This increase has continued through the 1990s ranging
far as is known, batoids follow the typical elasmobranch
as high as $1 or more and averaging around $.40. In
reproductive strategy in which sexual maturity is attained
1999, the total ex-vessel value of skates and rays was
relatively late in life, brood size is relatively small, and
approximately $340,000.
fecundity is generally low. These characteristics make
Central California (Monterey and San Francisco) shared populations more susceptible to overshing.
the majority of the skate catch from 1948 through 1989,
All batoids have internal fertilization, but two different
accounting for 41 to 100 percent of the annual landings
modes of development exist. The skates are egg layers, or
and more than 70 percent of the total catch during the
oviparous. Following fertilization, the yolk is enclosed in a
period. The northern California areas (Eureka, Crescent
City, and Fort Bragg) have played an increasing role since
about 1975. Over the period from 1989 through 1999,
the northern California catch has increased dramatically,
accounting for nearly 75 percent of the total catch. Areas
south of Monterey remain relatively insignicant in terms
of total landings.
From 1916 to 1990, skate landings, which ranged from
36,247 pounds (1916) to 631,240 pounds (1981), comprised
two to 90 percent of the total elasmobranch catch (11.8
percent average). Like the shark shery, which had peaks
from 1937 to 1948, and more recently from 1976 to 1990,
the skate catch has uctuated widely during the last
half century. In the past 10 years, however, skate and
Longnose Skate, Raja rhina
ray landings have increased nearly ten-fold in California,
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 257
Skates and Rays
3.5
millions of pounds landed
3.0
2.5
Skates 2.0
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Skates
1.5
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial 1.0
landing receipts. Landings data
0.5
are not available prior to 1943,
1945-1947, 1950, 1952, and
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1955-1956.
tough, permeable egg case, which is deposited on the sea of enlarged, hooked thorns along the front edge (malar
oor. The embryo develops within the egg case, feeding thorns) and lateral edge (alar thorns) of the disc. The tail
on nourishment stored in the attached yolk mass. Hatched is slender, with two small dorsal ns located near the tip.
egg cases (commonly known as “mermaid’s purses”) are The caudal n is small or absent, and there are no
washed ashore and frequently found by beachcombers. All stinging spines. Skates have paired electric organs along
other batoids are live bearing, or viviparous. The embryo the sides of their tails, which generate weak, low-voltage
is protected by, and develops within, a portion of the electric currents believed to be used in intra-specic com-
female’s oviduct, which functions as a uterus. The gesta- munication, possibly for mate recognition or to demon-
tion period for skates and rays varies widely; depending strate aggression. These electric currents are not harmful
on the species it may range from two to 18 months. to humans.
Batoids feed on a variety of worms, mollusks, crustaceans, The California skate ranges from the Strait of Juan De
other invertebrates, and shes. Some lie buried on the Fuca to southern Baja California. It is common inshore in
bottom to wait for prey, while others actively forage. As shallow bays at depths of 60 feet or less, but also occurs in
a group they have a large variety of feeding strategies, deeper water to a depth of 2,200 feet. Females and males
ranging from straining plankton (manta), to electric shock both reach sexual maturity at a total length of about 30
(electric ray), to excavation and suction (bat ray). In inches. They feed on shrimp and other invertebrates.
turn, marine mammals, sharks, and other large shes The big skate ranges from the Bering Sea to southern Baja
prey upon batoids. An adult giant sea bass (Stereolepis California, but is relatively rare south of Point Conception.
gigas) was found to have three whole thornbacks in its It occurs at depths from 10 to about 2,600 feet, being
stomach. Batoid predator avoidance adaptations include most common at moderate depths. It is the only known
cryptic (camouage) coloration and burying themselves in Californian skate with more than one embryo per egg
sand or mud. In some species, rows of sharp spines on the case. The big skate grows to a length of up to eight
back and/or tail also serve as protection. Only a few of feet, but usually does not exceed six feet and about 200
the batoid species are dangerous to humans. Electric rays pounds. Females mature at 12 to 13 years and a length
are capable of producing a powerful shock, and stingrays of 51 to 55 inches; males mature at seven to eight years
can inict serious wounds on unwary anglers and bathers. and a length of 39 to 43 inches. It feeds on crustaceans
and shes.
The Skates and Softnose Skates -
The longnose skate also ranges from the Bering Sea to
Families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae
central Baja California, and is usually found on the bottom
The skates are the largest group of batoid shes. Nine spe-
at depths from 80 to 2,250 feet. It attains a maximum
cies in three genera are presently known to occur in Cali-
length of about 4.5 feet. Females mature at eight years
fornia waters. California’s three commercially important
and a length of 28 inches; males mature at ve years and
skates are the California skate (Raja inornata), big skate
a length of 24 inches.
(R. binoculata), and longnose skate (R. rhina).
Other skate species include the sandpaper skate (Bathy-
The skates have a greatly attened, usually rhomboidal
raja interrupta) and starry skate (Raja stellulata) occur-
shaped disc. Most species have enlarged thorns or sharp
ring in moderate depths and the deep-sea skate (B.
spines (denticles) on disc and tail. Adult males have rows
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
258
abyssicola), roughtail skate (B. tachura), and white skate The Pacic electric ray (Torpedo californica) ranges from
Skates and Rays
(B. spinosissima) occurring in deep water up to 9,500 northern British Columbia to central Baja California, at
feet (deep skate). One other species, the broad skate depths from 10 to 1,400 feet. Commonly found over sandy
(Amblyraja badia) is very rare with only two records bottoms, it also occurs in rocky areas and kelp beds.
from California. Females reach a length of over 4.5 feet, while males may
reach three feet. It feeds exclusively on sh, including
The Guitarshes and Thornbacks - anchovies, herring, kelp bass, mackerel, and halibut. One
Families Rhinobatidae and Platyrhinidae four-foot female ray was observed to consume a two-foot
silver salmon. Unlike most predatory sh, however, it does
The guitarshes derive their name from their similarity in
not initially seize its prey with its mouth, but rst immobi-
shape to the musical instrument; head tapered or round,
lizes it with electric discharges. It then manipulates the
attened, and somewhat broader than their sturdy, shark-
prey toward its mouth, using its remarkably dexterous
like tail. Thornbacks share this general body shape, but
disc, before swallowing it.
have rows of spines down the dorsal surface. Guitarshes
and thornbacks are usually found on the bottom and close Sometimes aggressive when approached or provoked by
inshore. All are viviparous, the embryos being nourished divers, it may swim toward them with pectoral ns curled
by nutrients stored in their yolksac. They have small, blunt downward in a challenging manner. While its electric
teeth used for crushing, and feed on invertebrates such as shock may be quite powerful, reaching up to 60 volts in
worms, crustaceans, and mollusks, as well as small shes, larger individuals, it does not extend a great distance
and are generally harmless to humans. Three species are from the ray’s body. The shock is apparently not fatal to
known from California waters. humans, but often snaps the backbone of prey sh.
The shovelnose guitarsh (Rhinobatos productus) has a
The Myliobatidiform Rays (Stingrays) - Families
sharply pointed snout and a tapered, somewhat shovel-
Urolophidae, Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae, Gymnuridae,
shaped disc. It ranges from San Francisco to the Gulf of
and Mobulidae
California, but is rare north of Monterey Bay. It is found
in shallow coastal waters, bays, sloughs and estuaries The stingrays are a large and rather diverse group, most
over sandy or muddy bottoms to a depth of about 50 of which have a greatly attened disc and whiplike
feet. Mating occurs during the summer months in southern tail with one or more serrated stinging spines that are
California and the females give birth to live young the readily replaced when they become old or worn. This
following spring or summer. Newborn guitarsh are six group includes both the smallest and largest batoids. Most
inches long, with up to 28 pups per litter. Females reach a are bottom-dwellers, occurring in shallow inshore waters,
length of 5.5 feet and a weight of about 40 pounds; males bays, estuaries and sloughs, but some are also found
are smaller. The banded guitarsh (Zapteryx exasperata) in deeper waters. At least one species of stingray and
has a more rounded snout and dark banding across the all mantas and mobulas are epipelagic, occurring in the
disc. It inhabits rocky reefs and gravel beds and occurs upper water column of the open ocean.
rarely in southern California. The stingrays bear live young and are unique among the
The thornback (Platyrhinoidis triseriata) is identied by elasmobranchs in their method of nourishing the devel-
three parallel rows of large, curved spines running down oping embryo. A nutritive uid called uterine milk is
the back and base of its tail to just past the rst dorsal secreted from hair like processes called trophonemata,
n. Adults reach a length of 2.5 to three feet. Thornbacks which line the oviduct wall. Adults feed on soft benthic
occur in shallow water to depths of 150 feet resting on invertebrates, mollusks, crustaceans, and benthic, midwa-
sandy bottoms partially or completely buried. Thornbacks ter, and schooling nektonic shes.
are common in the southern part of the state and Baja Rays are usually popular when displayed in public aquaria;
California, becoming more rare to the north. bat rays are especially suited for shallow petting tanks.
Although used by cultures throughout the world for food,
The Electric Rays - Family Torpedinidae
myliobatidiform rays are of little interest to California
Electric rays are found worldwide in all tropical and commercial shermen, who mostly consider them a nui-
warm-temperate seas. They have a greatly expanded sub- sance. Because most species have a stinging spine, care
circular disc that is eshy toward the margins, and spe- should be taken when handling them.
cialized to accommodate the two kidney-shaped electric
The round stingray (Urolophus halleri), our most common
organs. These organs are modied muscles capable of
stingray, has a nearly round disc and short, stout tail
producing a powerful electrical shock. Only one species is
with well-developed caudal n and stinging spine. It
known from California waters.
ranges from northern California to Panama, but is most
abundant south of Point Conception. A benthic species
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 259
with restricted habitat requirements, this ray is limited to reaches a maximum disc width of 32 inches. It is a fre-
Skates and Rays
a relatively shallow coastal zone at depths from three to quent incidental catch of drift longline gear.
100 feet, occurring primarily in water less than 50 feet The California buttery ray (Gymnura marmorata) inhab-
deep. It can be found off beaches and in protected bays, its shallow bays and sandy beaches. It has a very wide
sloughs, channels and inlets, where it inhabits loose sand disc, reaching widths up to ve feet. The buttery ray is
or mud bottoms. found from Point Conception to Peru, including the Gulf
The round stingray’s stinging spine is located far enough of California.
back on its tail to afford a powerful stinging reex. When Found worldwide in tropical seas the Pacic manta (Manta
large numbers of round stingrays congregate off beaches, birostris) is seen on rare occasions in southern California.
injuries to bathers can result. This danger can usually The manta can reach a maximum width of 25 feet.
be avoided, however, by shufing one’s feet or pushing Its close relative, the mobula (Mobula japonica), which
a stick along the bottom. Injuries from the spine may occurs in temperate waters of the Pacic, is also rarely
also result when rays are removed from nets or hooks. seen in southern California. Mobulas are smaller than
While the wounds do not appear to be fatal, they can mantas, reaching a maximum width of four to seven feet.
be severely painful, and can cause vomiting, diarrhea, Mantas and mobulas are unique among the batoids in
sweating, cramps, and difculty breathing. being lter feeders. They pass huge volumes of water
The bat ray (Myliobatis californica) is a common seasonal across complex lter plates at the gills, straining out small
inhabitant of shallow inshore waters from Oregon to the pelagic crustaceans and schooling shes.
Gulf of California. It occurs in muddy or sandy bays and
sloughs as well as rocky areas and in kelp beds from near
Status of the Populations
the surface to depths of 150 feet.
B
Gestation is estimated to take from nine to 12 months, ased on existing data, little can be said about the
with two to 12 young per litter. Size range at birth is 8.7 current or past population levels of California’s skates
to 13.8 inches disc width (wingtip to wingtip). Onset of and rays. While landings are increasing dramatically, this
sexual maturity in males occurs at an age of two to three may or may not reect an actual threat to the resource.
years and a disc width of 17.7 to 24.5 inches; maturity in Fish that were discarded in the past, dead and alive, are
females occurs at ve to seven years and disc width of now being retained and landed. The increase in landings,
35 to 40 inches. however, certainly warrants close monitoring. Although
Female bat rays reach a greater size than males, attaining some skate species may have higher growth rates than
a maximum disc width of 70.9 inches and weight of 210 other elasmobranchs, compared with bony shes they
pounds. The largest reported male is 40 inches wide have slow growth rates, late age at maturity, and
at a weight of 37 pounds. Bat rays grow slowly, reach low fecundity. Other regions have already witnessed
sexual maturity relatively late, have few young, and seem decreases in skate and ray populations. In Japan and the
to be fairly long-lived. A 60-inch disc width female was Irish Sea, landings have decreased and overshing has
estimated to be 24 years old. apparently occurred.
Bat rays feed on clams, abalones, oysters, marine snails, The impact of sport sheries on skates and rays is rela-
worms, shrimps, and crabs. Bat ray predation on oysters tively unknown. Data from 48 shark derbies in Elkhorn
is a major reason for the fencing seen around commercial Slough from 1950 to 1990 show, however, that shovelnose
oyster beds. Pieces of backbone (centra), tooth plates, guitarsh, which in the 1950s and 1960s were the second,
and sting fragments have been identied from coastal and in some years the most abundantly caught elasmo-
shell-mounds, suggesting that bat rays were a regular diet branch, virtually disappeared from the catch in later
item of early California natives. years. In the 1990s, there was a two-thirds decrease in
the catch-per-unit effort for bat rays compared to the
The diamond stingray (Dasyatis brevis) is found in shallow
1950s catch rates in these derbies. Pacic States Marine
waters to a depth of 55 feet. It ranges from southern
Fisheries Commission recreational sheries sampling, how-
California (with a possible record from British Columbia) to
ever, shows continued catches of bat rays, big skates,
Peru inhabiting sand and mud bottoms, often around kelp
shovelnose guitarsh, and thornback. The total numbers
beds. Maximum reported size is 38.5 inches disc width.
caught are hard to determine from the numbers of sam-
A truly open ocean species, the pelagic stingray (Ptero-
pled skates and rays, as sampled catch numbers vary
platytrygon violacea) is commonly found swimming in
widely from year to year.
open water well above the bottom. Found worldwide in
warm-temperate and tropical waters the pelagic stingray
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
260
Management Considerations References
Skates and Rays
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Compagno, L.J.V., 1999. Systematics and body form. ed.:
further information. William C. Hamlett, In: Sharks, skates, and rays: the biol-
ogy of elasmobranch shes. Johns Hopkins University
Press, pp. 1-42.
George D. Zorzi
Ferguson, A., and G. Cailliet. 1990. Sharks and rays of
California Academy of Sciences
the Pacic coast. Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation,
Linda K. Martin
Monterey, Calif. 1-64.
Monterey Bay Aquarium
Love, M. 2000. Probably more than you want to know
Revised by:
about the shes of the Pacic coast. Really Big Press,
John Ugoretz
Santa Barbara, Calif. 381 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game
Martin, L., and G.D. Zorzi. 1993. Status and review of
the California skate shery. In: Conservation Biology of
Elasmobranchs, NOAA Technical Report, NMFS 115:39-52.
McEachran, J.D., and K.A. Dunn. 1998. Phylogenetic
analysis of skates, a morphologically conservative clade
of elasmobranchs (Chondrichthyes: Rajidae). Copeia
2:271-290.
Roedel, P.M., and W.E. Ripley. 1950. California sharks and
rays. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Fish Bull. 75:1-88.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 261
Skates and Rays
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
262
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
California Pacific White Arrowtooth Starry California
Croaker 1 Flounder 2 Flounder 3
Cabezon Barracuda Bonito Halibut Lingcod
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 569 2,687,362 480,406 779,287 ---- 453,916 4,052,173 617,236
1917 434 3,060,323 889,376 835,259 ---- 1,151,876 4,379,312 930,519
1918 167 4,837,284 2,441,714 1,014,820 ---- 818,835 4,624,218 915,836
1919 ---- 5,824,957 3,509,098 609,175 ---- 435,731 4,698,123 1,063,136
1920 ---- 8,201,335 873,648 461,459 ---- 481,581 4,279,582 687,954
1921 ---- 7,625,162 324,737 391,085 ---- 293,656 3,653,861 425,543
1922 ---- 6,250,218 957,942 581,863 ---- 539,220 3,254,505 568,481
1923 ---- 7,200,575 1,115,247 411,564 ---- 508,961 2,229,381 467,347
1924 ---- 7,128,523 1,045,282 384,317 ---- 379,770 2,576,882 400,432
1925 3,352 8,036,449 879,166 536,654 ---- 594,420 2,452,551 683,130
1926 ---- 5,022,464 3,121,604 484,921 ---- 667,711 1,349,031 649,902
1927 752 6,199,739 1,718,008 529,267 ---- 590,064 1,303,559 556,308
1928 2,628 6,452,456 2,107,089 441,758 ---- 399,880 1,187,651 853,537
1929 1,196 5,228,610 2,918,544 476,497 ---- 580,752 1,102,573 1,167,120
1930 1,046 4,763,766 5,164,260 457,167 ---- 391,096 1,097,760 1,288,172
1931 1,115 4,177,538 3,079,673 414,034 ---- 169,806 969,773 1,229,088
1932 4,678 2,926,775 2,862,286 447,531 ---- 543,806 949,702 899,912
1933 4,265 3,072,962 2,252,199 564,274 ---- 457,998 989,649 1,088,955
1934 5,265 2,182,822 3,202,694 634,345 ---- 537,164 1,037,008 857,600
1935 10,537 2,617,824 7,896,484 768,676 ---- 656,113 1,575,863 1,017,455
1936 18,468 2,977,842 7,215,916 652,134 ---- 621,186 1,582,907 758,547
1937 8,189 2,938,490 7,808,070 645,759 ---- 974,770 1,207,235 968,258
1938 5,425 2,529,812 7,839,993 493,209 ---- 542,812 1,078,229 646,004
1939 4,023 4,092,054 9,918,875 542,901 ---- 739,311 991,621 576,972
1940 3,392 3,714,832 5,291,140 412,228 ---- 804,089 948,457 692,243
1941 13,346 4,201,928 10,907,602 325,155 ---- 601,577 706,650 529,772
1942 2,312 3,454,537 1,650,689 284,225 ---- 370,125 750,539 314,334
1943 7,532 3,775,338 2,282,299 396,633 ---- 505,399 1,111,998 719,318
1944 3,906 3,648,308 818,871 367,701 ---- 366,520 1,485,463 746,039
1945 4,417 3,873,257 2,714,181 459,515 ---- 337,543 1,748,821 758,395
1946 7,860 3,107,024 5,625,648 437,023 ---- 509,448 2,457,187 1,156,127
1947 4,526 2,665,745 13,697,183 458,686 ---- 527,072 1,787,901 1,940,747
1948 8,202 2,125,737 9,135,126 643,123 ---- 405,251 1,306,629 2,056,088
1949 16,073 2,457,684 1,829,541 764,429 ---- 356,374 1,256,435 1,656,184
1950 21,679 2,258,415 695,614 750,722 74,309 913,765 1,092,748 1,915,905
1951 23,875 2,106,928 776,803 682,269 59,801 1,128,892 868,201 1,672,114
1952 34,556 2,094,206 2,142,517 3,273,702 112,913 597,477 525,402 1,366,279
1953 13,365 1,438,846 3,102,647 1,201,134 88,367 502526 530,315 952,103
1954 6,262 1,562,739 2,319,060 913,802 550,457 500,550 661,331 947,383
1955 6,944 1,140,959 136,990 819,488 748,249 650,180 509,742 964,926
1956 12,415 752,527 127,614 889,870 1,070,597 375,400 455,659 931,311
1957 13,206 682,666 219,149 535,362 933,715 504,461 376,815 1,639,654
1958 19,612 915,259 5,546,806 770,534 643,880 471,202 267,446 1,599,515
1959 9,508 1,152,601 3,011,616 1,534,382 787,254 1,046,926 354,242 1,406,297
1960 3,067 1,229,668 1,250,544 1,078,119 1,007,679 259,038 376,263 1,307,129
1961 4,952 709,379 8,512,972 889,164 60,659 315,337 654,554 1,439,943
1962 2,474 746,476 2,134,902 687,633 53,326 338,192 863,086 1,112,204
1963 2,811 378,714 4,022,522 551,059 17,345 521,310 1,120,369 1,133,008
1964 5,281 334,140 2,612,269 838,584 9,735 420,986 1,276,105 836,377
1965 7,438 362,058 5,638,340 1,135,566 11,595 378,389 1,243,718 812,690
1966 12,599 319,116 19,148,494 790,997 3,503 380,628 1,011,412 800,303
1967 14,284 313,184 21,219,431 496,378 6,041 870,707 838,058 938,655
1968 20,106 140,500 14,921,929 941,304 13,400 856,157 671,654 1,094,054
1969 25,837 74,593 17,201,847 525,514 9,986 374,840 274,277 1,113,508
1970 10,698 24,588 9,192,304 564,871 6,120 ---- 257,444 1,531,399
1971 4,518 17,264 20,268,984 334,395 2,661 ---- 336,871 2,097,949
1972 5,853 13,915 22,312,627 373,410 163,947 ---- 309,245 3,246,186
1973 4,554 37,605 30,787,731 227,096 236,244 ---- 273,526 3,559,621
1974 14,901 36,498 18,817,766 514,317 210,510 ---- 306,479 3,824,107
1975 7,332 58,597 31,873,688 577,785 70,714 ---- 508,913 3,190,195
1976 19,166 162,091 8,896,859 497,961 185,228 ---- 628,400 3,120,220
1977 12,150 77,119 22,547,605 588,551 222,300 ---- 467,862 1,694,539
1978 28,781 48,437 7,882,396 422,288 206,603 ---- 441,440 2,015,460
1979 50,327 37,327 3,960,071 716,315 238,203 ---- 665,546 3,161,120
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 263
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
California Pacific White Arrowtooth Starry California
Croaker 1 Flounder 2 Flounder 3
Cabezon Barracuda Bonito Halibut Lingcod
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 60,146 66,553 14,242,114 1,064,141 122,820 ---- 726,852 2,810,797
1981 53,460 67,594 16,615,051 978,734 105,550 ---- 1,262,265 2,839,852
1982 62,214 73,394 6,062,617 1,331,801 106,414 2,551 1,214,375 3,036,923
1983 20,515 21,256 8,154,181 783,153 54,405 104,066 1,130,581 1,976,790
1984 14,741 28,660 6,179,690 1,491,487 71,409 468,753 1,107,332 2,095,429
1985 22,506 68,025 6,089,254 1,437,132 83,297 383,797 1,256,375 1,531,569
1986 16,000 56,143 532,778 1,245,317 41,452 276,110 1,184,090 1,153,820
1987 6,884 113,258 11,140,031 912,963 100,182 210,976 1,188,881 1,858,678
1988 12,746 138,067 8,682,920 1,135,763 79,997 217,402 1,114,559 1,958,700
1989 25,012 133,262 2,406,757 1,027,804 62,465 135,945 1,213,193 2,790,853
1990 25,996 169,931 9,577,955 774,869 119,468 80,397 924,448 2,345,841
1991 16,293 341,646 562,060 995,435 345,090 102,938 1,041,167 1,735,834
1992 36,535 81,210 2,337,818 715,950 218,173 78,185 885,346 1,351,434
1993 39,312 109,812 1,047,606 714,249 125,347 41,897 746,559 1,519,828
1994 82,924 300,832 921,160 474,552 161,936 33,244 534,723 1,251,353
1995 193,814 302,790 157,439 565,144 259,994 25,580 771,628 1,185,394
1996 245,230 369,134 980,576 529,272 110,415 49,286 914,236 1,066,023
1997 264,754 145,377 641,598 345,034 104,739 94,591 1,325,175 1,132,160
1998 372,760 131,131 2,495,167 142,441 82,096 100,303 1,185,177 331,705
1999 302,563 202,726 191,269 203,061 94,301 76,462 1,313,150 312,445
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Landings for White Croaker for 1916-1969 include Queen Fish,
2
Arrowtooth flounder were aggregated under unclassified sole prior to 1950. The drop in landings following 1959 reflects the elimination of recording catch utilized.
3
Starry Founder were aggregated under unspecified flounders from 1970 until 1982.
4
Yellowtail landings include fish caught south of the State but landed in California.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
264
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
Monkeyface California Giant California
Prickleback Opaleye Sanddab Scorpionfish Sea Bass Sheephead Silversides
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- 2,228,734 8,014 153,440 3,549 ----
1917 ---- ---- 2,631,862 17,425 158,380 5,906 ----
1918 ---- ---- 1,751,609 28,237 248,795 22,978 ----
1919 ---- ---- 709,738 25,432 185,270 17,972 ----
1920 ---- ---- 721,810 35,674 148,037 14,567 ----
1921 ---- ---- 784,011 58,380 127,431 23,925 ----
1922 ---- ---- 1,170,979 42,121 97,354 18,205 ----
1923 ---- ---- 1,363,911 60,466 226,995 31,628 ----
1924 ---- ---- 1,699,832 109,070 231,404 24,267 ----
1925 ---- ---- 1,952,847 223,104 189,072 48,811 ----
1926 ---- ---- 1,143,935 108,068 377,934 138,927 ----
1927 ---- ---- 892,718 113,457 467,595 159,397 ----
1928 ---- ---- 1,108,764 97,083 382,115 372,677 ----
1929 ---- ---- 1,051,868 107,797 404,386 288,422 ----
1930 ---- ---- 616,349 88,610 394,009 243,689 ----
1931 ---- 17,913 472,805 91,688 502,064 198,347 ----
1932 ---- 15,279 665,345 85,503 473,846 89,591 ----
1933 ---- 4,272 562,994 64,160 453,023 58,609 ----
1934 ---- 3,896 767,025 65,939 861,498 143,552 ----
1935 ---- 1,424 675,597 69,549 631,759 188,022 ----
1936 ---- 1,781 621,675 110,417 398,595 128,577 ----
1937 ---- 1,778 516,195 137,312 715,584 81,466 ----
1938 ---- 100 639,328 155,386 407,826 72,031 ----
1939 ---- 20 821,204 128,628 460,943 71,361 ----
1940 ---- 39 779,078 122,133 366,683 62,352 ----
1941 ---- ---- 442,487 95,287 409,537 49,119 ----
1942 ---- 66 353,540 44,332 378,780 50,258 ----
1943 ---- 17 505,338 42,550 700,855 151,048 ----
1944 ---- 7 551,269 57,270 434,880 168,653 ----
1945 ---- ---- 592,062 94,656 330,168 249,584 ----
1946 ---- ---- 679,072 145,129 432,561 267,125 ----
1947 ---- 1,519 701,413 127,048 244,304 193,489 ----
1948 ---- 564 804,695 155,076 188,011 100,227 ----
1949 ---- 954 722,183 148,367 114,401 63,524 ----
1950 ---- 6,278 690,621 139,523 150,796 66,209 ----
1951 ---- 1,006 543,821 101,437 277,484 61,410 ----
1952 ---- 525 659,874 83,610 313,494 36,231 ----
1953 ---- 392 690,443 119,628 411,979 35,426 ----
1954 ---- 9,164 753,471 134,310 350,276 29,184 ----
1955 ---- 6,117 781,564 108,056 365,487 13,152 ----
1956 ---- 3,433 789,280 100,232 331,318 6,575 ----
1957 ---- 5,198 692,083 73,268 242,353 11,033 ----
1958 ---- 2,351 406,438 64,872 216,027 11,366 ----
1959 ---- 4,866 466,684 37,342 249,909 10,233 ----
1960 ---- 1,208 348,373 29,203 241,690 4,740 ----
1961 ---- 2,337 562,964 26,718 340,363 12,602 ----
1962 ---- 1,674 679,911 57,951 446,209 20,327 ----
1963 ---- 4,378 555,783 75,521 303,579 28,011 ----
1964 ---- 2,001 589,526 94,225 222,715 17,934 ----
1965 ---- 3,149 479,041 82,736 351,750 12,153 ----
1966 ---- 19,432 720,101 108,499 340,967 15,984 ----
1967 ---- 17,298 687,168 82,656 230,604 19,628 ----
1968 ---- 11,173 714,622 125,175 158,421 12,750 ----
1969 ---- 15,929 696,482 115,471 154,761 13,285 ----
1970 ---- 22,452 678,505 154,961 129,541 3,805 ----
1971 ---- 5,281 785,401 131,144 117,258 8,854 ----
1972 ---- ---- 920,822 132,016 95,313 7,084 ----
1973 ---- 23,688 904,001 158,860 90,837 3,072 ----
1974 ---- ---- 975,276 157,833 80,439 3,721 ----
1975 ---- 2,654 1,015,557 173,452 59,291 6,031 ----
1976 ---- ---- 1,293,872 173,675 56,128 8,325 11,256
1977 ---- ---- 809,615 116,734 49,363 6,409 42,766
1978 ---- 3,591 743,206 71,209 66,227 11,144 8,686
1979 ---- 5,335 1,322,739 32,745 40,942 8,819 60,121
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 265
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
Monkeyface California Giant California
Prickleback Opaleye Sanddab Scorpionfish Sea Bass Sheephead Silversides
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 ---- 6,134 1,280,474 59,168 38,623 9,105 33,685
1981 ---- 5,362 942,163 56,284 37,903 12,910 16,683
1982 ---- ---- 1,057,614 62,264 6,999 11,776 88,770
1983 ---- ---- 565,839 31,719 3,740 12,634 87,864
1984 ---- 4,041 553,068 24,984 11,118 25,098 49,881
1985 ---- 4,253 971,417 34,501 11,809 28,500 8,563
1986 ---- 3,583 981,297 15,544 12,953 29,252 4,902
1987 ---- 4,599 1,175,880 28,823 12,037 33,711 1,115
1988 ---- 12,104 1,164,144 29,869 12,337 29,345 9,358
1989 ---- 8,690 1,408,187 17,639 8,760 33,039 5,751
1990 92 6,939 1,433,861 8,407 7,259 123,526 3,590
1991 934 1,278 1,232,085 1,452 11,741 191,774 4,786
1992 13 4,124 623,219 77,323 ---- 258,502 3,660
1993 125 3,777 773,906 58,877 ---- 314,151 5,279
1994 750 6,017 1,499,812 113,123 ---- 259,099 15,188
1995 765 963 1,493,536 90,740 ---- 253,827 6,591
1996 561 986 1,738,110 76,444 ---- 252,266 36,824
1997 179 358 2,046,029 95,880 ---- 366,440 41,029
1998 224 1,717 1,428,411 112,822 ---- 261,498 2,571
1999 170 939 2,069,189 86,675 ---- 129,585 2,562
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Landings for White Croaker for 1916-1969 include Queen Fish,
2
Arrowtooth flounder were aggregated under unclassified sole prior to 1950. The drop in landings following 1959 reflects the elimination of recording catch utilized.
3
Starry Founder were aggregated under unspecified flounders from 1970 until 1982.
4
Yellowtail landings include fish caught south of the State but landed in California.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
266
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
White Pacific Angel Leopard Soupfin
Yellowtail 4
Seabass Surfperch Shark Shark Shark Skates Turbot
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 798,115 221,186 ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,608 1153394
1917 899,997 252,503 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,327 2745995
1918 1,613,520 203,420 ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,664 11515372
1919 2,455,367 192,481 ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,115 5005265
1920 2,628,108 186,381 ---- ---- ---- ---- 855 2704937
1921 2,569,489 253,199 ---- ---- ---- ---- 219 2490796
1922 2,932,051 243,776 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,534 3414423
1923 2,373,847 359,682 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,011 4062608
1924 1,489,589 305,726 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,868 4714149
1925 1,885,109 272,351 ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,926 3179891
1926 2,216,402 208,910 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,365 5023114
1927 2,273,407 262,893 ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,950 4224853
1928 1,300,214 236,974 ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,234 2683514
1929 1,562,232 311,194 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,323 3075264
1930 1,626,422 267,972 ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,345 4770756
1931 1,399,413 223,092 ---- ---- ---- ---- 18,284 2525853
1932 804,796 207,222 ---- ---- ---- ---- 23,422 1796364
1933 1,163,079 214,511 ---- ---- ---- ---- 49,615 3898888
1934 851,197 192,596 ---- ---- ---- ---- 72,548 2347161
1935 1,066,419 241,525 ---- ---- ---- ---- 72,287 8148718
1936 808,093 207,280 ---- ---- ---- ---- 116,275 10092470
1937 599,419 210,309 ---- ---- ---- ---- 75,990 5371475
1938 626,647 155,815 ---- ---- ---- ---- 85,896 6812318
1939 994,396 139,394 ---- ---- ---- ---- 104,585 2866288
1940 915,716 57,977 ---- ---- ---- ---- 62,124 5956804
1941 908,296 25,832 ---- ---- ---- ---- 26,940 9830690
1942 553,855 58,018 ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,571 2726269
1943 500,183 113,018 ---- ---- ---- 81,109 38,047 4934879
1944 393,988 146,546 ---- ---- ---- 50419 72,825 2957171
1945 527,730 217,486 ---- ---- ---- ---- 159,870 3534052
1946 616,476 192,430 ---- ---- ---- ---- 49,847 4561583
1947 1,083,023 289,182 ---- ---- ---- ---- 101,784 9952854
1948 1,114,290 302,087 ---- ---- ---- 119101 114,701 10384694
1949 1,409,599 326,336 ---- ---- ---- 123464 95,605 7317740
1950 1,531,374 242,354 ---- ---- ---- ---- 128,080 3529901
1951 1,533,255 237,331 ---- ---- ---- 84634 110,164 4669736
1952 1,147,103 213,357 ---- ---- ---- ---- 81,895 9446979
1953 873,293 281,998 ---- ---- ---- 415669 69,158 5212383
1954 1,206,111 118,499 ---- ---- ---- 136221 175,918 1656778
1955 914,865 136,554 ---- ---- ---- ---- 100,498 164322
1956 1,081,223 187,681 ---- ---- ---- ---- 83,294 370887
1957 1,507,095 245,699 ---- ---- ---- 171678 96,055 508951
1958 2,849,763 189,679 ---- ---- ---- 176896 72,533 169630
1959 3,423,353 212,853 ---- ---- ---- 240801 129,225 231284
1960 1,236,198 164,273 ---- ---- ---- 146934 62,438 248633
1961 694,224 118,245 ---- ---- ---- 299317 71,367 380769
1962 574,408 165,115 ---- ---- ---- 182178 80,383 188421
1963 891,220 172,884 ---- ---- ---- 216825 96,819 69726
1964 1,391,081 133,115 ---- ---- ---- 222705 93,280 110099
1965 1,428,145 187,736 ---- ---- ---- 153475 78,531 127805
1966 1,337,850 160,381 ---- ---- ---- 154014 83,327 245207
1967 1,222,759 202,513 ---- ---- ---- 196751 72,853 150668
1968 861,880 168,040 ---- ---- ---- 186350 69,504 163177
1969 1,098,708 156,528 ---- ---- ---- 106068 25,033 234155
1970 1,101,445 241,409 ---- ---- ---- 102,982 28,067 184223
1971 823,884 184,938 ---- ---- ---- 61,233 24,882 390520
1972 777,388 272,913 ---- ---- ---- 118,386 18,123 258071
1973 808,905 138,000 ---- ---- ---- 133,433 36,400 235622
1974 752,496 148,086 ---- ---- ---- 86,158 20,681 204957
1975 1,182,410 113,757 ---- ---- ---- 135,291 27,697 210411
1976 1,058,673 142,037 ---- ---- ---- 161,137 29,590 475931
1977 1,199,644 110,233 366 22,267 162,166 161,426 19,985 1814650
1978 1,160,755 174,064 82,383 34,956 176,070 275,057 21,902 460782
1979 1,205,666 201,160 128,295 38,939 276,428 309,521 42,657 427612
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 267
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
White Pacific Angel Leopard Soupfin
Yellowtail 4
Seabass Surfperch Shark Shark Shark Skates Turbot
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 997,412 162,952 112,051 40,085 192,336 155,216 21,238 365176
1981 776,033 182,675 268,640 51,506 264,938 631,420 33,776 347297
1982 70,795 367,704 318,960 70,610 250,504 287,808 47,358 75109
1983 77,964 211,556 360,323 101,309 177,770 185,690 46,803 171956
1984 118,099 182,120 633,273 67,855 278,541 116,293 23,053 132165
1985 125,380 122,078 1,248,487 75,838 277,740 195,837 29,729 259759
1986 106,671 124,983 1,241,130 74,741 212,279 150,125 19,847 57746
1987 116,490 145,751 940,187 55,371 201,489 169,712 42,582 56866
1988 107,619 107,284 491,348 41,737 140,566 127,861 23,810 85131
1989 116,023 118,010 268,252 50,459 165,324 174,659 30,574 28329
1990 133,692 137,745 250,850 41,295 125,726 143,754 20,164 40267
1991 163,803 104,778 181,765 47,742 105,010 113,222 20,574 21560
1992 125,149 129,662 123,554 42,242 95,779 103,468 26,855 15281
1993 100,060 111,261 66,654 52,150 77,452 78,070 17,262 59066
1994 78,932 93,672 23,230 27,559 79,455 93,391 10,055 31992
1995 73,293 89,643 19,711 18,660 63,911 413,278 14,961 9789
1996 96,162 85,279 17,995 13,849 83,868 1,830,094 16,450 29680
1997 58,554 76,512 33,673 20,508 84,933 2,965,344 20,905 73428
1998 156,734 73,731 55,342 26,206 78,446 1,836,803 11,473 244858
1999 247,188 49,396 53,375 25,484 98,326 1,872,076 8,020 66175
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
268
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
California Barred Kelp Kelp and Spotted Giant Sea Pacific
Barracuda Sand Bass Bass Barred Sand Bass Sand Bass Bass Bonito Cabezon
No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 3 No. of Fish1, 3 No. of Fish1, 2, 5 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2
Year
1947 677,449 ---- ---- 682,789 ---- 160 36,496 9,886
1948 384,056 ---- ---- 630,223 ---- 439 14,519 14,590
1949 366,423 ---- ---- 796,959 ---- 212 5,372 14,125
1950 256,367 ---- ---- 619,397 ---- 179 2,359 15,971
1951 269,545 ---- ---- 781,609 ---- 261 14,475 18,029
1952 336,862 ---- ---- 536,075 ---- 92 7,649 10,847
1953 170,550 ---- ---- 711,395 ---- 135 6,321 9,650
1954 282,552 ---- ---- 876,667 ---- 102 70,078 13,132
1955 154,962 ---- ---- 497,343 ---- 162 22,409 12,366
1956 87,603 ---- ---- 470,362 ---- 74 61,404 18,195
1957 577,184 ---- ---- 609,071 ---- 151 258,555 14,479
1958 782,723 ---- ---- 653,671 ---- 203 422,568 9,909
1959 1,195,585 ---- ---- 428,426 ---- 184 776,386 5,329
1960 755,408 ---- ---- 478,656 ---- 228 1,199,919 2,516
1961 391,884 ---- ---- 613,604 ---- 310 849,426 2,639
1962 335,507 ---- ---- 789,149 ---- 390 798,725 4,538
1963 483,699 ---- ---- 1,219,344 ---- 598 775,719 9,726
1964 303,070 ---- ---- 1,103,394 ---- 353 1,298,804 6,491
1965 443,304 ---- ---- 1,230,313 ---- 580 806,322 7,575
1966 892,697 ---- ---- 1,278,939 ---- 548 644,415 10,293
1967 470,480 ---- ---- 1,003,914 ---- 622 349,952 5,419
1968 372,246 ---- ---- 1,317,963 ---- 496 1,102,936 4,349
1969 358,518 ---- ---- 1,246,175 ---- 653 1,130,241 4,583
1970 373,801 ---- ---- 922,260 ---- 487 651,898 6,372
1971 50,474 ---- ---- 948,121 ---- 598 152,795 4,611
1972 38,243 ---- ---- 842,681 ---- 244 418,984 11,452
1973 92,483 35,698 14,609 656,186 ---- 816 472,451 7,551
1974 55,284 178,534 245,683 618,026 ---- 419 141,619 6,964
1975 26,289 106,804 353,463 499,679 ---- 228 80,438 6,433
1976 107,557 156,056 485,280 655,810 ---- 561 197,382 6,445
1977 48,701 118,545 272,705 398,089 ---- 205 161,962 5,620
1978 73,174 110,377 360,277 476,982 ---- 140 315,643 8,887
1979 69,434 169,337 290,448 462,980 ---- 574 538,476 5,469
1980 27,909 229,107 355,950 585,432 149,000 653 560,508 6,208
1981 69,924 237,084 501,927 739,562 201,000 221 654,051 5,830
1982 73,135 273,828 312,891 587,349 138,000 45 218,478 5,247
1983 81,989 158,353 304,645 463,270 231,000 13 348,050 3,758
1984 87,414 136,612 222,771 359,913 297,000 97 377,678 1,759
1985 75,448 299,152 273,299 572,620 310,000 81 120,139 1,760
1986 88,118 265,014 435,516 700,602 537,000 74 340,480 4,386
1987 157,913 408,635 325,685 734,323 255,000 41 517,523 4,773
1988 148,058 451,125 319,629 770,780 423,000 41 250,495 5,418
1989 137,222 421,110 393,892 815,065 ---- 73 339,382 6,353
1990 196,030 423,885 439,701 863,586 ---- 109 263,007 6,713
1991 177,390 495,784 321,926 817,714 ---- 16 116,451 4,555
1992 248,055 363,304 463,673 827,130 ---- 20 115,866 5,199
1993 203,693 313,390 355,088 668,563 367,000 48 139,567 2,812
1994 268,219 286,444 276,087 562,531 273,000 50 106,280 1,866
1995 326,868 350,540 231,687 582,227 319,000 32 39,995 1,810
1996 271,859 604,132 282,673 886,805 298,000 3 72,665 3,003
1997 334,704 490,048 335,127 825,175 347,000 2 102,474 3,133
1998 455,803 377,890 233,591 611,481 219,000 12 57,655 2,579
1999 386,318 435,778 129,475 742,081 189,000 12 2,810 2,905
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 269
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
White Yellowfin Kelp Other California Monkeyface Blk & Yellow
Croaker Croaker Greenling Greenlings Halibut Lingcod Prickleback Rockfish
No. of Fish1, 2, 6 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4
Year
1947 58,034 8,166 ---- ---- 104,436 22,011 ---- ----
1948 89,825 3,667 ---- ---- 143,462 24,406 ---- ----
1949 121,053 3,032 ---- ---- 104,639 26,131 ---- ----
1950 76,765 999 ---- ---- 85,935 23,868 ---- ----
1951 62,945 663 ---- ---- 59,295 24,052 ---- ----
1952 77,948 708 ---- ---- 34,158 17,389 ---- ----
1953 57,606 1,367 ---- ---- 34,292 13,011 ---- ----
1954 66,964 2,411 ---- ---- 59,674 22,940 ---- ----
1955 27,349 595 ---- ---- 35,802 29,113 ---- ----
1956 16,289 1,099 ---- ---- 21,661 37,649 ---- ----
1957 8,648 275 ---- ---- 10,795 38,012 ---- ----
1958 20,000 95 ---- ---- 16,192 39,801 ---- ----
1959 6,895 132 ---- ---- 25,365 31,206 ---- ----
1960 8,633 275 ---- ---- 48,310 28,232 ---- ----
1961 21,782 325 ---- ---- 108,011 23,466 ---- ----
1962 27,256 778 ---- ---- 118,966 25,399 ---- ----
1963 37,225 562 ---- ---- 125,669 27,513 ---- ----
1964 23,269 993 ---- ---- 141,465 25,263 ---- ----
1965 21,448 1,386 ---- ---- 118,213 33,260 ---- ----
1966 17,285 1,619 ---- ---- 88,726 44,676 ---- ----
1967 20,590 645 ---- ---- 63,582 43,559 ---- ----
1968 10,906 211 ---- ---- 54,663 42,449 ---- ----
1969 15,273 1,351 ---- ---- 27,634 32,693 ---- ----
1970 18,519 770 ---- ---- 29,968 61,833 ---- ----
1971 21,112 2,230 ---- ---- 10,598 63,239 ---- ----
1972 38,811 597 ---- ---- 8,140 103,965 ---- ----
1973 29,158 627 ---- ---- 9,622 80,778 ---- ----
1974 27,521 176 ---- ---- 10,292 79,685 ---- ----
1975 27,456 1,390 ---- ---- 9,118 88,976 ---- ----
1976 21,165 278 ---- ---- 10,075 80,863 ---- ----
1977 20,122 139 ---- ---- 6,982 46,521 ---- ----
1978 17,630 285 ---- ---- 5,409 65,869 ---- ----
1979 11,834 199 ---- ---- 6,329 75,826 ---- ----
1980 27,461 123 5,535 582 6,517 89,349 ---- 2,873
1981 9,228 537 47,183 30,739 11,440 65,604 2,503 11,165
1982 10,162 549 90,545 19,275 11,804 49,791 16,910 18,827
1983 7,738 112 61,001 23,777 5,682 30,543 9,874 32,282
1984 4,649 587 62,615 18,653 3,209 23,797 3,269 64,747
1985 3,166 234 63,019 29,649 7,090 20,603 2,026 101,962
1986 11,981 295 74,065 28,783 7,848 25,585 1,516 37,024
1987 3,225 289 131,689 30,861 7,560 42,504 8,179 23,780
1988 121,478 875 85,196 26,413 11,926 66,597 21,244 30,550
1989 15,062 4,274 85,736 19,306 9,116 76,517 8,388 27,415
1990 4,861 661 ---- ---- 6,658 59,845 ---- ----
1991 16,768 1,098 ---- ---- 5,984 49,824 ---- ----
1992 4,824 371 ---- ---- 4,341 43,251 ---- ----
1993 11,449 1,354 61,044 10,585 5,335 38,323 11,375 68,742
1994 6,042 1,544 58,892 21,567 7,549 31,091 1,227 32,901
1995 17,084 2,084 49,636 23,615 19,345 30,542 3,953 25,612
1996 26,323 880 55,389 35,751 19,092 29,734 1,656 9,704
1997 9,960 616 29,901 21,822 15,846 36,218 1,079 8,201
1998 6,917 1,204 20,346 47,183 12,191 20,386 2,110 14,178
1999 10,744 506 16,504 4,080 14,339 26,847 551 15,078
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
270
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
Black Blue Brown Calico China Copper Gopher Grass
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish
No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4
Year
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1963 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1964 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1965 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1966 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1967 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1968 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1969 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1970 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1971 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1972 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1973 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1974 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1975 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1976 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1977 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1978 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1979 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1980 50,951 517,610 74,064 ---- 7,770 189,428 36,771 3,264
1981 350,763 1,514,280 84,474 11,798 14,512 437,077 29,999 44,284
1982 431,844 1,929,444 117,438 2,224 38,413 271,800 22,427 48,854
1983 198,192 1,327,726 137,383 9,384 23,290 102,643 190,248 92,726
1984 474,352 1,400,043 285,695 4,594 22,229 129,170 356,589 72,028
1985 533,936 1,111,013 259,985 22,492 38,656 189,013 449,470 102,049
1986 442,879 733,148 292,393 8,802 62,273 159,723 454,368 60,549
1987 258,788 1,029,206 171,218 3,523 72,216 83,868 378,773 42,010
1988 329,358 911,028 351,357 22,281 56,307 182,081 220,296 65,149
1989 306,667 564,761 145,565 9,084 49,499 109,824 172,187 12,338
1990 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1991 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1992 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1993 421,554 1,643,812 141,836 2,932 48,831 117,518 287,503 26,865
1994 313,817 413,219 47,965 4,958 45,130 73,600 208,224 11,522
1995 255,659 310,691 70,253 9,166 38,337 59,617 87,390 14,047
1996 182,263 383,204 80,335 6,137 29,078 92,907 101,182 11,848
1997 133,483 447,897 78,202 3,360 9,091 30,026 73,816 17,188
1998 77,780 413,373 60,707 3,333 7,985 49,632 83,305 13,697
1999 187,786 461,444 106,390 4,758 23,473 69,736 139,289 10,724
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 271
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
Kelp Olive Quillback California White California
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Scorpionfish Seabass Sheephead Treefish Yellowtail
No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2
Year
1947 ---- ---- ---- 26,062 20,724 13,004 ---- 6,948
1948 ---- ---- ---- 52,554 24,078 17,261 ---- 13,028
1949 ---- ---- ---- 37,030 65,545 15,440 ---- 17,710
1950 ---- ---- ---- 53,419 54,718 14,281 ---- 6,971
1951 ---- ---- ---- 35,721 44,367 20,416 ---- 23,721
1952 ---- ---- ---- 39,068 41,043 16,481 ---- 59,263
1953 ---- ---- ---- 28,952 28,182 17,349 ---- 27,702
1954 ---- ---- ---- 33,462 41,588 21,499 ---- 40,872
1955 ---- ---- ---- 28,613 30,103 14,102 ---- 36,468
1956 ---- ---- ---- 36,558 19,755 14,789 ---- 29,198
1957 ---- ---- ---- 13,473 19,030 15,105 ---- 242,686
1958 ---- ---- ---- 13,743 34,039 18,120 ---- 123,384
1959 ---- ---- ---- 11,477 10,593 17,146 ---- 457,350
1960 ---- ---- ---- 15,111 15,697 11,541 ---- 254,969
1961 ---- ---- ---- 26,672 14,082 15,210 ---- 42,367
1962 ---- ---- ---- 33,314 14,564 13,488 ---- 21,826
1963 ---- ---- ---- 53,896 19,800 18,443 ---- 45,705
1964 ---- ---- ---- 73,844 14,901 26,822 ---- 39,104
1965 ---- ---- ---- 71,888 9,775 41,651 ---- 18,367
1966 ---- ---- ---- 69,851 3,972 52,967 ---- 80,163
1967 ---- ---- ---- 63,280 3,385 42,676 ---- 31,392
1968 ---- ---- ---- 59,863 4,138 33,075 ---- 58,049
1969 ---- ---- ---- 63,011 4,056 49,626 ---- 79,202
1970 ---- ---- ---- 82,522 4,359 39,464 ---- 97,376
1971 ---- ---- ---- 84,913 5,265 38,300 ---- 44,608
1972 ---- ---- ---- 65,886 3,858 33,541 ---- 59,031
1973 ---- ---- ---- 83,475 7,083 46,234 ---- 221,287
1974 ---- ---- ---- 85,956 4,003 30,379 ---- 121,149
1975 ---- ---- ---- 81,438 3,158 30,496 ---- 19,742
1976 ---- ---- ---- 47,524 2,671 32,926 ---- 28,962
1977 ---- ---- ---- 73,214 2,096 28,512 ---- 34,141
1978 ---- ---- ---- 44,114 433 34,409 ---- 38,528
1979 ---- ---- ---- 64,226 1,352 31,995 ---- 71,483
1980 2,690 81,231 361 95,615 1,002 34,368 8,033 44,246
1981 63,346 249,843 3,109 73,362 887 46,479 16,911 88,911
1982 19,380 327,679 2,245 67,339 1,899 37,242 25,849 37,308
1983 55,608 313,474 18,117 50,834 1,003 68,972 31,712 178,688
1984 94,097 299,704 4,190 46,538 973 38,522 24,886 96,018
1985 87,811 217,905 5,106 66,762 1,045 35,934 34,310 45,509
1986 66,766 168,991 7,326 72,675 1,634 36,707 26,974 42,005
1987 27,662 200,751 1,798 59,125 616 21,072 14,954 58,537
1988 31,884 120,961 3,647 132,520 2,383 31,701 13,319 68,020
1989 33,603 94,760 4,531 163,552 1,365 23,612 20,835 61,746
1990 ---- ---- ---- 160,948 2,563 34,374 ---- 69,805
1991 ---- ---- ---- 181,755 1,743 43,150 ---- 14,195
1992 ---- ---- ---- 77,290 698 25,778 ---- 40,834
1993 45,015 206,164 27,216 69,570 1,403 26,910 32,982 35,681
1994 65,578 115,519 4,609 90,665 2,519 19,955 31,000 19,882
1995 50,034 58,382 3,102 94,398 4,266 23,737 51,834 29,445
1996 30,248 50,194 1,777 119,492 1,452 23,455 52,777 66,763
1997 31,058 62,620 3,940 141,354 1,730 25,788 19,745 398,345
1998 12,915 45,207 889 119,620 1,365 18,363 23,101 250,857
1999 19,554 59,489 6,295 225,726 11,517 23,089 40,339 78,466
---- Catch data not available
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
272
Nearshore Marine
Plant Resources: marine ora. Never a case of one-size-ts-all, effective
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview
management of these resources requires consideration of
Overview each species’ cycle of life in each habitat. Is the species
an annual (such as the sea palm, Postelsia) or perennial
(such as the giant kelp, Macrocystis)? How abundant is the
A bounty of marine algae ourishes along the coast
species? When and where does it grow best? What parts
of California, providing habitats and food for inverte-
of the seaweed and how much could be harvested and
brates, shes and marine mammals in nearshore communi-
still sustain a healthy wild population? Where does new
ties rivaling the richness and diversity of coral reefs.
growth occur: is it restricted to meristems at the tips
Our state’s marine ora includes over 700 species and
or is cell division diffuse along the length of the whole
varieties of seaweeds: lamentous and eshy red algae, as
structure? How fast can it recover from being trimmed?
well as animal-like corallines; brown algae, including the
Should specic reproductive structures (such as the sea
distinctive, leathery kelps; delicate green algae and a few
palm’s topknot of blades) be restricted from harvesters?
sea grasses. The undersea vegetation is sustained by our
The seasonal weather patterns and seasonal cycles of
nutrient-rich coastal waters. The diversity of undersea life
growth and reproduction affect plants in the sea, just as
is enhanced by the variety of living conditions, and the
they do on farmlands. But, as with crops on land, it is
range of wave exposures and substrates available from
rarely one sole factor that sets the stage.
protected, muddy inlets to granitic outcrops exposed to
Biological interactions (such as diseases or over-grazing by
crashing, open ocean waves.
sea urchins), pollution, catastrophic storms, and oceano-
California seaweeds have been collected from the wild
graphic conditions, such as El Niño and La Niña cause
since the mid-19th century when they were dried and
changes in the distribution and abundance of seaweeds.
shipped to San Francisco and China. In some cases, inter-
Warmer, nutrient-stressed El Niño conditions can deter
tidal rocks were charred with gasoline torches or
growth of giant kelp and the full development of its
burning wood to clear off herbivores and less desirable
canopy. With less canopy on the sea surface, more sunlight
seaweeds and allow better recruitment and growth of
penetrates to the understory kelps (such as the winged
edible red algae, such as nori (Porphyra). A variety of
kelp Pterygophora) which may grow and persist in spite
species has been collected on a small scale for com-
of lower nutrients. In contrast, the cold, nutrient-rich La
mercial sale or home use: wakame (Alaria), kombu
Niña conditions can lead to exceptional growth of giant
(Laminaria), sea palm (Postelsia), bladderwrack (Fucus),
kelp and an extensive, shady canopy that can inhibit some
bull kelp (Nereocystis), and the green sea lettuce
of the understory seaweeds.
(Ulva.) The giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, an important
There is some evidence that people, even nature lovers,
source of the gelling compound alginate for industrial
can have negative effects on seaweed and animal com-
uses, has been harvested mechanically by commercial
munities. Researchers found that intertidal rocks in less
harvesting ships. The giant kelp has also been hand-har-
accessible coastal sites near Santa Cruz had greater diver-
vested for aquacultural use as abalone food. As phar-
sity and abundance than sites with more human visitors.
maceutical research for new medicines targeted marine
And the state continues to attract additional human visi-
organisms for testing, several varieties of seaweeds were
tors and residents, with a population increase of 571,000
collected for screening as sources of antibiotic and anti-
in 1999 alone. Our three largest cities (Los Angeles, San
cancer compounds.
Diego and San Jose) collectively gained 98,000 additional
The value of nearshore seaweeds in recreational settings
residents that year. As California’s population continues
has more recently gained public attention as a conse-
to increase, the state will harbor an estimated 41 million
quence, in part, of increased participation in ocean sports
residents by 2010. If tourism and coastal recreational
and underwater photography, as well as the successful
activities (such as tidepooling, kayaking, and surng) also
cultivation and display of seaweeds in public aquariums.
increase, the incidence of intertidal trampling and casual
Popular books, magazine articles and television programs
collecting in popular beach locations will heighten. The
on marine topics reinforced the heightened awareness.
undersea vegetation that attracts so much recreational,
And, as coastal residents and visitors have come to appre-
educational and commercial interest warrants thoughtful
ciate seaweeds aesthetically and for their role of providing
management to ensure its continued richness and abun-
food and habitats for invertebrates and shes, conicts
dance along the coast of California.
have developed over the perceived environmental and
aesthetic impacts of harvesting and appropriate uses of
these resources. Judith L. Connor
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Plans for protection of our seaweeds and nearshore habi-
tats are complicated by the very diversity of California’s
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 273
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
274
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 275
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
276
Giant Kelp
History of the Use and Harvest Today, giant kelp is harvested on kelp beds from Imperial
Giant Kelp
Beach, near the U.S.-Mexico border, to Monterey Bay, Cali-
V arious species of kelp, including giant kelp (Macrocys- fornia. Mexican harvesters in Ensenada provide another
tis pyrifera) have been used for hundreds of years in source of kelp from beds off Baja California. Giant kelp is
many parts of the world as food for humans and animals. one of California’s most valuable living marine resources
Kelp has also been used for many years in Asia and and in the mid-1980s supported an industry valued at more
Europe as a fertilizer and as a component of gunpowder. than $40 million a year. The annual harvest has varied
Algin, found in the cell walls of kelp, is valuable as an from a high of 395,000 tons in 1918 to a low of less
efcient thickening, stabilizing, suspending, and gelling than 1,000 tons in the late 1920s. Such uctuations are
agent. Algin is used in a wide range of food and industrial primarily due to climate and natural growth cycles, as well
applications including desserts, gels, milk shake mixes, as market supply and demand. During the 10-year period
dairy products, and canned foods. It is also used in salad 1970 to 1979, the harvest averaged nearly 157,000 tons,
dressings to emulsify and stabilize them, in bakery prod- while from 1980 to 1989 the average harvest was only
ucts to improve texture and retain moisture, in frozen 80,400 tons. The harvest was low in the 1980s because
foods to assure smooth texture and uniform thawing, and the kelp forests were devastated by the 1982-1984 El Niño
in beer to stabilize the foam. In industrial applications, and accompanying storms, and by the 200-year storm that
it is used for paper coating and sizing, textile printing, occurred in January 1988. In most areas, the beds of giant
and welding-rod coatings. In pharmaceutical and cosmetic kelp recovered quickly, with the return of cooler, nutrient
applications, it is used to make tablets, dental impres- rich waters. Harvests in California increased to more than
sions, antacid formulations, and facial creams and lotions. 130,000 tons in 1989 and to more than 150,000 tons in
Giant kelp is harvested in California to supply food to 1990. During the 1990s, increasing international competi-
several aquaculture companies for rearing abalones. It tion from Japan for the “low end,” or less puried end of
is also used for the herring-roe-on-kelp shery in San the sodium alginate market caused ISP Alginates to reduce
Francisco Bay. harvests by about 50 percent. ISP Alginates anticipates
California’s harvest in this decade will be approximately
Giant kelp was rst harvested along the California coast
80,000 tons annually.
during the early 1900s. Many harvesting companies oper-
ated from San Diego to Santa Barbara beginning in 1911. Methods of harvesting are used to suit the harvesters’ pur-
Those companies primarily extracted potash and acetone poses and needs. The ISP Alginates Company uses specially
from kelp for use in manufacturing explosives during designed vessels that have a cutting mechanism on the
World War I. stern and a system to convey the kelp into the harvester
bin. A propeller on the bow slowly pushes the harvester
In the early 1920s, having lost the war demand, kelp
stern-rst through the kelp bed, and the reciprocating
harvesting virtually stopped. In the late 1920s, giant kelp
blades mounted at the base of the conveyor are lowered
was again harvested off California. Philip R. Park, Inc.,
to a depth of three feet into the kelp as harvesting begins.
of San Pedro began harvesting kelp in 1928 to provide
The cut kelp is gathered on the conveyor and deposited in
ingredients for livestock and poultry food. The following
the bin. These vessels can each collect up to 600 tons of
year, Kelco Company of San Diego (now ISP Alginates, Inc.)
kelp in one day and to facilitate its harvesting operations,
began harvesting and processing giant kelp.
the company conduct regular aerial surveys. The survey
Since 1917, kelp harvesting has been managed by the
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) under regu-
lations of the Fish and Game Commission. Although the
surface canopy can be harvested several times each year
without damage to the kelp bed, regulations state that
kelp may be cut no deeper than four feet beneath the
surface. There are 74 designated kelp beds and each is
numbered; a kelp harvesting permit is required. Specic
beds can be leased for 20 years; however, no more than
25 square miles or 50 percent of the total kelp bed
area (whichever is greater) can be exclusively leased by
a company holding a harvesting permit. In addition to
leased beds, there are “open” beds that can be harvested
by any company holding a permit. Permit holders pay an
additional royalty of $1.71 to $1.91 per wet-ton of kelp
Giant Kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera
harvested, depending on the international market price.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 277
Giant Kelp
400
350
thousands of tons landed
300
Giant Kelp 250
Commercial Landings
200
1916-1999, Giant Kelp
Data Source: commercial 150
landing receipts.
100
Kelp landings consist primarily
of giant kelp; commercial kelp 50
harvest data is not available for
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1921 through 1930.
information is used to direct harvesting vessels to mature and low ocean temperatures (50˚ to 60˚ F), fronds can
areas of kelp canopy with sufcient density for harvesting. elongate up to 24 inches a day. Fronds can reach a length
of more than 150 feet, and large plants can have more
The Pacic Kelp Company uses a modied U.S. Navy
than 100 fronds. The fronds eventually mature, die, and
landing craft with a cutting device and conveyor system
break away (slough) naturally, giving way to young fronds.
mounted on the bow to harvest giant kelp off central
Although giant kelp plants can live up to eight years,
California. The Pacic Kelp Company vessel holds approxi-
individual fronds survive for only about six to nine months,
mately 25 tons of kelp. In contrast, for the herring-roe-on-
and individual blades about four months.
kelp shery, kelp is harvested by hand from small skiffs
or other small boats and then transported by truck to San Giant kelp reproduction involves two very different growth
Francisco Bay. forms, the large canopy-forming sporophyte and the
microscopic gametophyte. Specialized reproductive blades
(sporophylls), located just above the holdfast on an adult
Status of Biological Knowledge sporophyte, liberate trillions of microscopic zoospores
each year. The zoospores then settle on the bottom and
F orests of giant kelp occur in the temperate oceans of
develop into microscopic male and female gametophyte
the world. These forests are especially well developed
plants. Fertilization of the female gametophyte produces
along the West Coast of North America from Punta
an embryonic sporophyte. This tiny plant will develop
Abreojos, about midway down Baja California, Mexico,
into a canopy-forming adult within seven to 14 months
to San Mateo County. They create a unique habitat that
if it survives competition with other plants and avoids
provides food, shelter, substrate, and nursery areas for
being eaten by grazers or being destroyed by undesirable
nearly 800 animal and plant species. Many of these ani-
environmental factors.
mals and some plants are of importance to sport and
commercial sheries.
Typically, giant kelp ourishes in wave-exposed areas of
nutrient-rich, cool water that is 20 to 120 feet deep.
By means of a root-like structure called a holdfast, the
kelp attaches to rocky substrate. Along the protected
shoreline of Santa Barbara County, however, giant kelp
also grows on sand substrate. Here, it attaches to exposed
worm tubes or the remains of old holdfasts. Kelp fronds
originate from the holdfast, and eventually grow to the
surface. A frond is composed of a stem-like stipe and
numerous leaf-like blades. A gas-lled bladder (pneumato-
cyst) at the base of the each blade helps buoy the frond
in the water column.
Giant kelp absorbs nutrients from the water through all its
surfaces. Under optimal conditions of high nutrient levels
Giant kelp life cycle.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
278
Status of the Beds out, since both areas are likely to experience the same
Giant Kelp
oceanographic conditions in any year. So the change in
T he density and abundance of a kelp canopy varies relative abundance of kelp between these two areas is of
by location, year, and season. In central California, greater concern. It suggests that factors other than the
sloughing and deterioration occur in late summer and warming trend is responsible for the declines along the
early fall. Canopies virtually disappear during the late mainland coast.
fall and winter, when storms cause frond and plant loss. The health and long term survival of the kelp forests
Canopies usually begin forming again in the spring, becom- are inuenced by a variety of factors, including storms
ing dense in the summer. Off southern California, kelp and climactic events, grazing, competition, sedimenta-
canopies frequently grow throughout the year in the tion, pollution, and disease. These can be divided into
mild weather conditions. Dense canopies often develop natural and human induced causes. Because water of
during the winter, when there are virtually no canopies in the Southern California Bight is warmer than the rest of
central California. the state, uctuations in water temperature may have a
During the last 30 years, the size, distribution, and loca- more profound affect on kelp survival there compared to
tion of the kelp canopy throughout California has uctu- central and northern parts of the state. Human-induced
ated considerably. Fluctuations can be viewed as seasonal impacts, pollution, and coastal development also tend
events and as long-term changes. Decreases in canopy to be greater in southern California where there are
area were due to both natural and man-induced distur- more people.
bances. Increases were due to natural growth and in some The southern California kelp beds, in particular, provide
instances may have beneted from restoration efforts. examples of both. Waters south of Point Arguello, referred
An aerial survey conducted in 1967 showed a total of 70 to as the Southern California Bight, are considerably
square miles of kelp canopy along the entire California warmer than the rest of the state. Accordingly, uctua-
coast. Of that, 53.9 square miles was recorded for south- tions in water temperature tend to have a more profound
ern California. The southern California portion showed affect on kelp survival than in the central and northern
that 33 square miles occurred along the mainland coast parts of the state. Human induced causes also tend to be
and 20.9 square miles around the Channel Islands. A simi- greater in southern California due to the concentration of
lar survey conducted in 1989 reported 40.7 square miles the state’s population within this region, with its associ-
along the entire coast. Of this, 17.5 was recorded for ated pollution and coastal development.
southern California. The Channel Islands accounted for
Excessive wave action from storms and surge can break
9.8 square miles, while the mainland coast of southern
kelp fronds and dislodge entire plants. Dislodged plants
California totaled 7.7 square miles. During the most recent
increase kelp loss by entangling nearby kelp, pulling them
statewide kelp forest survey, conducted in 1999, a total
from their attachment. During the 1980s and 1990s, at
of 17.8 square miles of giant kelp was charted along the
least three major oceanographic events affected kelp
California coast, 11.4 square miles of that recorded off
beds: 1) the 1982-1984 El Niño and a devastating storm;
southern California, including the offshore islands. The
2) the 1992-1994 El Niño and subsequent storms; and
1999 survey shows only 3.7 square miles of the 17.8 total
3) the 1997-1998 El Niño, which was the warmest of the
along the mainland coast, while 7.7 square miles was
three. The warm water and storms associated with the El
recorded in the Channel Islands.
Niño destroyed plants, inhibited kelp growth, and resulted
The methodology used to conduct aerial surveys is sub- in minimal canopy development throughout southern Cal-
ject to a high degree of error. The photographic method ifornia. During the 18 year-period from 1981 to 1998,
utilizes infrared lm to highlight temperature differences sea surface temperatures exceeded the previous 60-year
between kelp canopy at the water’s surface and the back- mean in all but a single year (1988). In 1967, there were
ground water temperature. Kelp immediately below the approximately 18 square miles of kelp canopy near Santa
surface is invisible to this method. So the results can vary Barbara, compared to only six square miles remaining in
due to wind waves and local currents. These errors could 1989. The giant kelp forests on sand substrate near Santa
be greatly reduced by more frequent surveys. Barbara had still not returned in 2000.
This being said, it is still evident that a declining trend is Fishes such as opaleye and halfmoon regularly graze upon
occurring, particularly in southern California. This can be kelp. Large numbers of these shes can damage the kelp
at least partly explained by the warming trend of the past forests, especially when conditions are unfavorable for
twenty years and the frequency of severe El Niños. kelp growth. Crustaceans, such as amphipods, isopods and
However, when the distribution of kelp canopy in southern crabs, can also graze and damage kelp. The historical
California between the Channel Islands and the mainland removal of the southern sea otter from southern Califor-
coast is examined, the warming trend should be factored nia certainly changed the balance of the predator/prey
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 279
relationship in the kelp bed community. But nally, the The discharge of heated and turbid cooling water caused
Giant Kelp
intensive shing for the remaining sea urchin predators the loss of approximately 150 acres of kelp. This single
such as sheephead and spiny lobster, and for sea urchin event was the only time when the damage was so well
competitors such as abalone, tremendously altered the documented that mitigation could be required as compen-
sea urchin population dynamics in the forest. As a result, sation for the loss.
sea urchin populations increased exponentially in some In the 1950s and 1960s, once-productive kelp forests off
areas and overgrazed the kelp, creating areas referred to Point Loma and La Jolla in San Diego County and along
as “urchin barrens.” the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County began
Human-caused disturbances include sedimentation of the to deteriorate. This too was attributed to biological and
rocky bottom, which can retard kelp growth and even physical factors related primarily to human activities. Cur-
bury young plants, preventing development and reproduc- rently, there are several areas where the status of kelp
tion. Pollution can affect kelp forests in a variety of is of concern, including the entire Santa Barbara/Ventura
ways. Industrial and domestic wastewater discharges car- coastline, the Malibu coast, portions of the Palos Verdes
rying toxins, including pesticides and heavy metals, are Peninsula, the coast between Newport and Laguna Beach,
released into coastal waters where they can accumulate San Onofre, south Carlsbad and Point Loma. Other kelp
in the sediments. Such chemicals alter the physical losses have undoubtedly occurred as a direct result of
and chemical environment near the discharge and may human activities along the southern California coastline,
decrease growth and survival of the kelp forests. Thermal but the lack of strong baseline data prevents resource
outfalls from power plants also have localized effects agencies from proving damages and seeking compensa-
on kelp forests. Wastewater and thermal discharges can tion. The development of computerized Geographic Infor-
increase turbidity and redistribute sediments into nearby mation Systems may provide effective tools to document
kelp forests, affecting kelp growth and survival. A variety and analyze such damages in the future.
of pathogens are known to affect kelp but their broad
impacts on kelp forests have not been studied. While
Kelp Restoration
tumors, galls, and lesions have been observed on kelp,
only occasionally have they caused severe damage.
I n 1963, Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Kelco
Short and long-term declines, or in one case a complete began a cooperative project to develop techniques to
disappearance of southern California kelp beds, associated protect and restore kelp forests off San Diego. Work
with human activity have been documented. Prior to the involved sea urchin control, including the use of lime
1920s, an extensive kelp bed, known as Horseshoe Kelp and crushing of individual urchins and kelp transplanting.
existed off the coast of what is now Los Angeles Harbor. Later experimentation between 1991 and 1992 involved
It was reported to have measured a quarter- to a half-mile feeding urchins along a front to discourage feeding on
wide and two miles long. A department Information Bul- attached plants and to increase urchin reproduction, so
letin reported interviews with “old time shermen” who that commercial harvesting might be encouraged. This
recalled the kelp bed beginning to decline during the work appears to have succeeded in restoring kelp to these
1920s and 1930s coinciding with the widening of the main beds. However, this is a labor intensive effort, and there
channel and west basin of Los Angeles Harbor, which are indications that when the work ceases, the urchin
included the dredging removal of an entire island, (Dead- fronts redevelop, calling into question the long term ben-
man’s Island). Some recalled that the Whites Point Sewer ets of any one-time restoration effort, as well as the
Outfall, which began discharging in 1934, was associated economic feasibility of conducting such work as a long
with the disappearance of the last remnants of this bed. term solution and over a broader area.
The Horseshoe Kelp Bed grew in a water depth of 80
Between 1967 and 1980, kelp restoration was conducted
to 90 feet. While kelp at this depth is still common in
along the Palos Verdes Penensula (PVP) by the Institute
the Channel Islands, no kelp grows along the southern
of Marine Resources and the department. This work also
California mainland coast at this depth today.
combined sea urchin control and kelp transplanting. The
Several years’ declines to kelp beds near Salt Creek in objective was to establish several small stands of kelp,
Orange County and Barn Kelp near Las Pulgas Canyon off which would provide seed stock for new and expanding
Camp Pendleton Marine Base in San Diego County were beds. In 1974, the rst naturally expanding kelp stand
associated with extensive grading of land around drain- in 20 years was observed off PVP. By 1980, when restora-
ages adjacent to these beds. tion work was discontinued, nearly 600 acres of kelp had
The most thoroughly documented human induced decline become established. By 1989, aerial surveys revealed over
was associated with the start-up of the San Onofre 1,100 acres of kelp off PVP. Two subsequent El Niño events
Nuclear Generating Station in northern San Diego County. have severely decreased the size of these beds.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
280
Kelp restoration work has also been conducted in storm a persistent kelp bed, the reef will be expanded to a
Giant Kelp
damaged areas off Santa Barbara and along the Orange minimum of 150 acres in ve years.
County coast. Shortly after the 1982-1984 El Niño, Kelco It appears now that the creation of new reef substrate,
began developing techniques for restoring kelp beds in rather than other techniques, may provide a valuable
Santa Barbara County. In 1987, under contract with the mechanism for increasing the capacity for kelp bed expan-
department, Kelco implemented operations for anchoring sion throughout southern California in future years.
giant kelp in the sandy habitat near Santa Barbara. Sev-
eral kelp forest nuclei were established; however, sea
Management Considerations
urchin grazing and unfavorable water conditions impeded
progress. By the early 1990s, it became evident that this
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
restoration attempt had failed.
ther information.
Loss of Orange County kelp forests from Newport Harbor
to San Mateo Point was caused by heavy rainfall and
siltation in 1980, the 1982-1984 El Niño, and the effects of Dennis Bedford
urchin grazing. Under contract with the department, MBC California Department of Fish and Game
Applied Environmental Sciences company established kelp
forest nuclei between Newport Harbor and Laguna Beach.
References
This was done by transplanting adult and juvenile giant
kelp and controlling sea urchins. Those kelp forests south
California State Lands Commission. 1999. Final Program
of Laguna Beach recovered naturally after a few years.
Environmental Impact Report for the Construction and
Those beds north of Laguna Beach, where restoration
Management of an Articial Reef in the Pacic Ocean Near
efforts took place, have not recovered.
San Clemente, California.
In 1992, the department Articial Reef Program built a
McPeak, R.H. and D.A. Glantz. 1984. Harvesting Califor-
10-acre, low relief (three feet or less in height) reef out-
nia’s kelp forests. Oceanus. 27(1)19-26.
side the harbor entrance channel to Mission Bay, San Diego
County. The reef was constructed from broken slabs of North, W.J. 1992. Review of Macrocystis Biology. In I.
concrete provided by the demolition of a nearby roadway. Akatsuka (ed.). Biology of Economic Seaweeds.
By 1993, a kelp bed had naturally established itself on this
Schott, Jack. Dago Bank and its horseshoe kelp bed. Cali-
reef. This bed has persisted through the spring of 2000.
fornia Department of Fish and Game, Marine Resources
During the fall of 1999, the Southern California Edison Information Bulletin, no. 2. 1976.
Company built a 22-acre experimental reef off the city
of San Clemente, aimed at mitigating the damage to kelp
from the San Onofre Nuclear Power Station. It is still too
early to evaluate the success of this project, although
based on a great deal of research, and the success of
the Mission Beach reef, there is great optimism that it
will succeed. If it does succeed in providing substrate for
A kelp cutter operating near Santa Barbara
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 281
Bull Kelp
History of the Use and Harvest 1996, the Fish and Game Commission developed designa-
tion numbers (300 series) for all the kelp beds north
U ntil the late 1980s, there was little targeted harvest of San Francisco and established beds that could be exclu-
of bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) in California, sively leased by interested parties, a program similar to
except as a small component of the localized edible the one in use for giant kelp harvest. Prior to this, there
seaweed industry. In central California, Nereocystis and were no ofcial designations in this area, so any northern
Macrocystis often form mixed beds and it is likely bull kelp bed could be harvested for commercial purposes.
kelp would have been incidentally taken during harvest The Crescent City rm applied for and received exclusive
of those beds, but not recorded separately on harvest lease privileges for bed 312 in 1997. In accordance with
records. Department records indicate about 19 tons of department regulations, they were required to produce
kelp, probably a mixture of Macrocystis and Nereocystis, a kelp bed biomass estimate prior to harvest. They esti-
were harvested from what is presently bed 302 off the mated 205 acres of kelp beds in the approximately ve
Bodega Bay–Tomales Bay area between 1993 and 1999. All miles of coastal area between Pt. St. George and Whaler
of this kelp was used by local abalone culturists. Other Island within bed 312 (an area representing only a fraction
uses of bull kelp include pickling the stipe and marketing of the entire geographic area of bed 312). The November
it as a specialty food product, and using the dried parts 1996 survey yielded a point estimate of 5,475 tons of bull
for arts and crafts. In southern Oregon, bull kelp was kelp within those 205 acres, at 27 tons per acre. Based
harvested from Orford Reef in the mid-1990s as an ingredi- on that survey, their annual harvest would be limited to
ent in liquid fertilizer. The Oregon Division of State Lands 15 percent of that estimate, equivalent to 821 tons. While
has since discontinued permitting that harvest. their harvest up to that time was only 132 tons (in 1996),
Currently, there is only one mariculture rm harvesting or 16 percent of their allowance, their bid application
signicant quantities of bull kelp for abalone food. This projected steady harvest increases through 2001, peaking
business is located in Crescent City, Del Norte County, at a 500-ton projected harvest. Through 1999, their high-
and has been harvesting bull kelp from Point Saint George est harvest in any year has been 149 tons.
to Crescent City harbor since 1988. Because bull kelp
declines in the winter months, they often augment their
Status of Biological Knowledge
supply with giant kelp from central California. From
1990 to 1994, the company and the department worked
B ull kelp is primarily found adjacent to exposed shore-
together to determine the possible effects of small scale
lines along the Pacic coast of North America, ranging
harvesting on Nereocystis populations. The company kept
from Unalaska Island, Alaska to Point Conception, Cal-
detailed records of harvest amount, location, bed condi-
ifornia. Along the central California coast, Macrocystis
tion, and effort in hours. Though not required by regula-
and Nereocystis occur together, forming extensive kelp
tion, they hand-harvest to a depth of about 2.5 feet below
forests in this region. However, from the Monterey Bay
the surface, which allows the take of the upper portion of
area northward to Alaska, Nereocystis becomes the domi-
the stipe, the pnuematocyst and all the fronds, resulting
nant canopy kelp species in coastal waters. Within the
in the loss of the entire plant. During this experimental
nearshore environment, bull kelp, like giant kelp, is asso-
period annual harvest ranged from six to 149 tons, and
ciated with hard substrates at depths of approximately
impact to the local beds was considered to be minimal. In
10 to 70 feet, where it provides habitat and food for
hundreds of species, many of them commercially and
recreationally valuable.
Distribution of marine algae is not only restricted geo-
graphically but also limited by a number of other factors
within the nearshore environment, including water move-
ment, light, temperature, nutrients, pollution, compe-
tition, and predation. The complex trophic interaction
among sea otters, macro-herbivores and kelps has been
documented by a number of researchers. Generally, the
occurrence of sea otters in a kelp forest community
greatly limits the population of invertebrate kelp grazers,
thereby increasing kelp productivity. In northern Cali-
fornia, absent the sea otter, commercial and sport sher-
men have acted to signicantly reduce populations of
Bull Kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana
sea urchins and abalone, two major kelp grazers. While
Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
282
kelp populations have increased, the competition among high light, nutrient and water clarity levels. Bull kelp
Bull Kelp
seaweeds for space and light rules out any generalizations stipe elongation can reach ve inches per day, while blade
regarding specic impacts on bull kelp due to the reduc- growth accelerates to about 3.5 inches per day just prior
tion of these grazer populations. to the plant reaching the surface. At maturity the growth
rate of the holdfast can average about 0.2 inches per day.
The morphology of bull kelp is quite different from that of
giant kelp. The most notable difference is the possession Water temperature plays an important role in the growth
by bull kelp of only one pneumatocyst, situated on the of Nereocystis. Mean sea surface temperatures over the
end of the hollow stipe for otation. Giant kelp has many distributional range of Nereocystis vary from 55° F to 59°
gas bladders running its entire length. While bull kelp F at the southern end to 39° F to 50° F off the Aleutian
is also attached to the substrate by a holdfast, the size Islands. The population of bull kelp in Diablo Cove has
of the holdfast is much smaller than that of giant kelp. been adversely affected by the warm water discharge
The holdfast resembles a small disk with many nger-like from the Diablo Canyon power plant which began in 1985.
haptera. Much like giant kelp, the stipe of a bull kelp Plants in contact with the discharge experienced deterio-
sporophyte is long, reaching lengths of up to 130 feet. The ration of blade tissue, which resulted in early death. This
bull kelp stipe does not have the same tensile strength as observation helps to explain the decline of Nereocystis
giant kelp but is more elastic under stress. Bull kelp is able that occurs during El Niño events.
to stretch more than 38 percent of its length before break- Nereocystis is an opportunistic colonizer that takes advan-
ing. The pneumatocyst gives rise to short dichotomous tage of substrate clearing caused by storms, sand scour-
branches from which up to 64 blades are borne. The ing, or other disturbances. While bull kelp can rapidly
bull kelp canopy provides most of the photosynthetic recruit to a newly cleared location, its longevity as the
and nutrient absorbing surface for energy production. dominant canopy-forming species depends on environmen-
Blade lengths of more than 13 feet have been reported for tal conditions being conducive for its survival and detri-
mature plants, but it is typical to nd a range of blade mental for its major competitors. The biggest factor in
sizes (two to 11 feet) on most plants. The reproductive growth of Nereocystis is the availability and quantity of
structures (sporangia) are located on the blades in aggre- light. Light levels below the surface canopy have been
gations called sori, with mature sori located in patches shown to decrease by almost 100 percent and below the
near the blade tips and immature regions near the base secondary canopy, well below the minimum level neces-
of the blades. sary for growth. Thus, in established kelp communities
Reproduction in bull kelp undergoes a cyclic alternation there can be insufcient light and hard substrate for
of generations similar to that of giant kelp and other recruitment and growth of bull kelp.
laminarians. The large plant commonly referred to as bull
kelp represents the sporophytic phase while the gameto-
Status of the Beds
phytic phase is microscopic. During its sporophytic phase,
spore production usually begins several weeks after the
T he kelp resources of the eastern Pacic coast were
blades reach the surface. Biagellate spores are formed
rst mapped in 1912. The survey extended from the
within the sporangia on the blades. As the spores reach
Gulf of Alaska to Cedros Island, Baja California. Along the
maturation during the summer and fall, the sori are
central coast of California between Point Montara, San
abscised from the blades and the spores released. Upon
Mateo county and Point Conception, subsequent coastwide
settlement, germination begins, and over the course of
surveys have not differentiated between Nereocystis and
several weeks, somatic growth gives rise to the gameto-
Macrocystis. Since the rst survey in 1912, little work has
phyte. After about 11 weeks, motile sperm are released
been done along the north coast of California, primarily
and fertilization of the eggs takes place. The resulting
due to the absence of the commercially valuable Macro-
zygotes grow as sporophytes. Once at the surface, stipe
cystis pyrifera in this region. Current knowledge of the
and blade elongation rates decrease while the plant
population levels of Nereocystis off the north coast is
increases in biomass.
based on 1989 and 1999 surveys of the California coast,
As an annual plant, bull kelp has evolved an optimal repro- and information provided by a kelp harvester about
ductive strategy that involves accelerated stipe growth the resource in the Crescent City area. Population abun-
to reach the ocean surface where it can initiate spore dance estimates resulting from these surveys are usually
production and release. Plants initiated in late March expressed in terms of square miles of surface area.
sometimes have developing sori prior to reaching the
Despite the year-to-year variability in bull kelp coverage,
surface in May and spore release via abscission of the
both the 1912 and the 1989 surveys yielded similar results
sorus begins as early as June. Maximum bull kelp growth
for the northcoast and about 6.5 square miles of canopy.
rates occur under optimal environmental conditions of
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 283
Management Considerations
The 1999 survey, however, indicates about a 42 percent
Bull Kelp
decline in kelp coverage in the Point Montara, San Mateo
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
county to Shelter Cove, Humboldt county area. This
ther information.
decline is contrary to anecdotal observations along the
Mendocino county coast in 1999, which indicated one of
the most extensive kelp canopies in the last decade. The
Peter Kalvass and Mary Larson
apparent decline may be due in part to the timing of the
California Department of Fish and Game
1999 survey, which was conducted after a major storm
had passed through the region, destroying portions of
the kelp beds. Another factor to be considered is the
References:
improved method used to interpret aerial photographs in
1999, which resulted in a more accurate representation Amsler, C.D. and M. Neushul. 1989. Diel periodicity
of kelp beds. This would seem to indicate that previous of spore release from the kelp Nereocystis luetkeana
surveys may have overestimated the true extent of the (Mertens) Postels et ruprecht. J. Exp. Mar. Bio. Ecol.
beds. And nally, kelp beds are subject to high variability 134:117–127.
in coverage and density from year to year.
Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game. 2001. Final Environmental
The 1912 survey estimated that about 32 percent of the Document – Giant and Bull Kelp Commercial and Sport
17.55 square mile kelp canopy in central California was Fishing Regulations - Section 30 and 165, Title 14, Califor-
bull kelp. However, since that survey there has not been nia Code of Regulations. March 2001.
an effort to estimate the proportion of bull kelp in the
Estes, J.A. and D.O. Duggins. 1995. Sea otters and kelp
area. In this region, bull kelp is generally restricted to
forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community
areas unsuitable for giant kelp and the outer edges of
ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65(1):75-100.
giant kelp beds and inshore of Macrocystis within the
Foreman, R.E. 1984. Studies on Nereocystis growth in Brit-
surge zone. However, following winter storms with heavy
ish Columbia, Canada. Hydrobiologia 116/117:325–332.
wave disturbance, bull kelp can become more abundant,
sometimes replacing giant kelp removed by the storms. Foster, M.S. and D.R. Schiel. 1985. The ecology of giant
kelp forests in California: a community prole. Biological
Changes in kelp abundance over time and location are
Report 85(7:2). USFWS. 152 pp.
evident. For example, during the period from 1975 to
1982, biomass at Diablo Cove in San Luis Obispo County Nicholson, N.L. 1970. Field studies of the giant kelp Nereo-
declined from 200 tons per acre to 4.8 tons per acre. At cystis. Journal of Phycology 6:177-182.
Van Damme Bay in Mendocino County, a density of six tons
Vadas, R.L. 1972. Ecological implications of culture studies
per acre was calculated in July 1990. Peak abundances in
on Nereocystis luetkeana. J. Phycol. 8:196–203.
the Crescent City area ranged from 24 to 28 tons per acre
during the period from 1994 to 1996.
Researchers reported that the Fort Bragg, Mendocino
County area kelp beds appeared to increase in size and
density between 1985 and 1988 based on aerial photo-
graphic surveys of the area. The Nereocystis beds were
thought to have reached maximum potential during this
period. The increase was coincident with the removal of
over 32,500 tons of red sea urchins from Mendocino and
Sonoma Counties by commercial divers. In 1992, the same
beds showed delayed and reduced kelp recruitment and
growth. The causes of the poor recruitment in 1992 may
have been associated with the El Niño event of that year.
These examples illustrate the kind of uctuations that
occur in the recruitment of bull kelp along the north coast
and the factors that may play a role in the variability of
this resource.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
284
Sea Palm
Status of Biological Knowledge
Sea Palm
T he sea palm, Postelsia palmaeformis, is a brown alga
rst described by Franz Joseph Ruprecht in 1852 from
specimens collected near Bodega Bay, California. It is
locally abundant in the upper to mid-tidal zones from
Vancouver Island, British Columbia to Morro Bay, California
but is restricted to rocks exposed to heavy surf. Although
it is illegal to harvest this attractive kelp, some people
collect it for souvenirs or to eat its tender blades.
Postelsia is an annual kelp, thriving in dense aggregations
where its dispersal and recruitment are local and
inuenced by seasonal disturbance. Several studies
have documented sea palm’s relationship to its unique
habitat — its tolerance of and dependence on heavy surf
and its common association with the California mussel.
Status of the Beds
A lthough individuals can regenerate blades, they
cannot survive if they are cut near the base of the
stipe. All of these characteristics (restricted habitat, short
life span, local dispersal, and limited powers of regenera-
tion) signify a species that cannot tolerate heavy harvest-
ing pressure. Although many stands of Postelsia are dif-
cult to access, others are in or adjacent to recreational
areas where they are at risk from human disturbance.
Education of the public is the best defense for the conser-
vation of this charismatic and ecologically interesting alga.
Kathy Ann Miller
University of Southern California
References
Blanchette, C. 1996. Seasonal patterns of disturbance
inuence recruitment of the sea palm, Postelsia palmae-
formis. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 197: 1-14.
Dayton, P. 1973. Dispersion, dispersal, and persistance of
the annual intertidal alga, Postelsia palmaeformis Rupre-
cht. Ecology 54: 433-438.
Holbrook, M., M. Denny, & M. Koehl. 1991. Intertidal
“trees”: consequences of aggregation on the mechanical
and photosynthetic properties of sea-palms. J. Exp. Mar.
Biol. Ecol. 146: 39-67.
Kalvass, P. 1994. The effect of different harvest methods
on sea palm sporophyll growth. Calif. Fish and Game
80: 57-67 Paine, R. 1988. Habitat suitability and local
Sea Palm,
population persistence of the sea palm, Postelsia pal- Postelsia
maeformis. Ecology 69:1787-1794. palmaeformis
Credit: CA Sea
Grant Extension
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 285
Agarophytes and
Carrageenophytes Agars of lesser quality are extracted from Gracilaria and
Hypnea species.
The lower quality, and less expensive, types of agar are
History of Use and Harvest used for their gelling and water barrier properties in food
products (frozen foods, bakery icings, meringues, dessert
A gar is a Malay word for the gel, (which is now known
gels, candies and fruit juices). As a gelling agent in foods,
to be a carrageenan) that is part of the cell wall of
agar is used at greater than one per cent concentration.
seaweeds in red algal genus Eucheuma. Its discovery is
For viscosity control and stabilization, lower levels (0.2-0.8
preserved in a folk legend that originated about 1660. A
percent) are used. Agar is not assimilated by the human
Japanese emperor and his Royal Party were lost in the
digestive system and, in fact, serves as a laxative. Indus-
mountains during a snowstorm and arriving at a small
trial applications are paper sizing/coating, adhesives, tex-
inn they were ceremoniously treated by the innkeeper,
tile printing/dyeing, castings, impressions, etc. The mid-
who offered them a seaweed-jelly dish with their dinner.
quality agars are used as the gel substrate in biological
Perhaps the innkeeper prepared too much jelly or the
culture media. Most agar media are made at a 1.0-1.5 per-
taste was not attractive; in any case, some jelly was
cent concentration in water, melt above 185°F and gel at
thrown away. It froze during the night and, after thawing
105°F. They are also important in medical/pharmaceutical
and draining, was reduced to a thin, papery substance.
elds as bulking agents, laxatives, suppositories,
The innkeeper took the residue and, to his surprise, found
capsules, tablets and anticoagulants. The most highly
that by boiling it up with more water, the jelly could
puried and upper market types (the neutral fractions
be reconstituted.
called agarose) are used in molecular biology for sep-
In 1881, the German microbiologist Dr. Robert Koch, rst aration sciences (electrophoresis, immunodiffusion and
established the use of agar in preparing solid culture gel chromatography).
media for bacteriological research. By 1903, there were
Carrageenans are extracted from members of the red
500 factories manufacturing agar in Japan. The California
algal families Hypneaceae, Phyllophoraceae, Solieriaceae,
agar industry was developed initially by Dr. Matsuoka
and Gigartinaceae. Chondrus crispus used to be the sole
in 1921 with U.S. patents for extraction and processing.
source of carrageenan, but species of Gymnogongrus,
Horace Selby (the founder of American Agar and Chemical)
Eucheuma, Ahnfeltia and Iridaea are now used. The
and C.K. Tseng rened methods prior to and during World
market for carrageenan has grown by at least ve percent
War II, when agar was not available from Japan.
per year for the last 25 years. About 25,000 tons of
Carrageenan, another gel, was originally derived from the carrageenan, valued at $200 million, are produced world-
red alga, Chondrus crispus (Irish Moss), and has a 600 wide. Eucheuma and Kappaphycus are important carra-
year folk history in Ireland that includes milk puddings geenan weeds in Hawaii, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malay-
thickened by boiling sweetened milk with dried Chondrus. sia, China and Thailand. In 1996, the Philippines exported
The word carrageenan is derived from the colloquial Irish $94 million worth of carrageenan from farm raised and
name for this seaweed, carrageen, or carraigín; “little natural stands of Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma spino-
rock” (from the Irish place name, probably Carrigeen Head sum. Another principal source is natural populations of
in County Donegal). Since the 1940s, the best-known use Chondrus crispus in the Maritime Provinces of Canada,
of carrageenan has been in products such as chocolate where about 50,000 wet tons are harvested each year.
milk and ice cream, but they are also important in other
Carrageenans are far more widely used than agar as
industrial applications.
emulsiers/stabilizers in numerous foods, especially milk-
About 10,000 tons of agar, valued at $200 million, are based products. It is estimated that the average human
produced worldwide from species in the red algal families consumption of carrageenans in the United States is 250
Gelidiaceae and Gracilariaceae. There is currently a short- milligrams (0.01 ounce) a day. Kappa, iota and lambda
age of exploitable populations of agar-producing sea- carrageenans differ in gelling and milk reactivity and are
weeds; consequently, agar is an expensive product. The the three most widely used types in commercial products.
best quality agar is extracted from species in the genera Kappa carrageenan (extracted chiey from Chondrus cris-
Pterocladia and Gelidium, which are harvested by hand pus and Eucheuma cottonii) forms a rm, brittle gel and
from natural stands in Spain, Portugal, Morocco, the iota (extracted chiey from Eucheuma spinosum) yields
Azores, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Chile, a exible and dry gel. Lambda carrageenan (extracted
Korea and Japan. For Pterocladia species, agar quality chiey from Chondrus crispus and Gigartina species) does
is low in the colder months and high in the summer. not gel. Blending of these in different ratios produces
different products. Kappa and iota carrageenans are espe-
cially important for use in milk products such as chocolate
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
286
milk, ice cream, evaporated milk, infant formulas, pud- export of rened agar. Gelidium robustum is very slow
Agarophytes and Carrageenophytes
dings, whipped cream toppings and eggnog, because of growing in nature and even slower in mariculture, thus
their thickening and suspension properties. For these making it unlikely as a major resource. Several other spe-
uses, concentrations range from about 0.01 to 0.2 percent. cies, including G. coulteri, show much faster growth in
For water-based food products (jellies, jams, salad dress- nature and in tank culture, providing an acceptable quality
ings, syrups, dessert gels, meat products and pet foods), agar. Unfortunately, the cost of these culture systems in
carrageenan concentrations are somewhat higher (0.2-0.5 California is too high for competition with either wild
percent). Industrial products incorporating carrageenans stock harvest or cultivation in other countries. Gracilaria
are air freshener gels, cleaners, etc. Pharmaceutical and and Gracilariopsis species in California and elsewhere
medical applications are similar to those of agar. offer considerable potential, because of their fast growth
and yield of agar. Several species are extensively culti-
vated in Chile, China and Thailand, for example, contribut-
Status of Biological Knowledge ing 50 percent of worldwide agar production; several
countries (e.g., South Africa and New Zealand) are study-
Agar and carrageenan are phycocolloids derived from
ing the possibility of mariculture. The best candidate for
galactan polysaccharides, the major polysaccharide con-
large-scale culture in California is Gracilariopsis lemane-
stituents of the cell walls of most marine red algae. The
formis. Although extensively cultivated in open bays of
types and quantity vary from species to species; this is an
other countries, it is unlikely that such cultivation could
important character in biosystematics. The amount pres-
occur in California, because of government restrictions.
ent also varies with ecological factors such as light, nutri-
T he carrageenan weeds common in California are mem-
ents, wave exposure, and temperature. Polysaccharides
bers of the genera Mazzaella, Mastocarpus, Rhodoglos-
have an important role in the biology of these algae,
sum and Sarcodiotheca. Several California species can be
including protection from wave action, physical support of
grown successfully in mariculture, but the low value of
cells, ion exchange, water binding for protection from des-
carrageenan makes both wild harvest and culture eco-
iccation. The galactans have a common backbone which
nomically unrealistic. Compared to agars, carrageenans
consists of galactose units linked alternately by ∂(1-3)
generally are more plentiful and less costly, because the
and ß(1-4). The alpha (∂) unit is linked to either D- or
carrageenan weeds are widely available from harvest of
L-galactose whereas the beta (ß) unit is always linked to
wild stocks and extensive cultivated stocks in Canada
D-galactose. In agar the ∂-linkages are all with L-galactose
and the tropics. Genetic manipulation and cell culture
and in carrageenan they are all with D-galactose. (For pic-
of Chondrus crispus are being explored to produce novel
tures of these structures, see www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/
carrageenans to stimulate the possibility of mariculture on
biologie/b_online/e26/26d.htm) The chemistry of these
the East Coast of the United States.
polymers is complex.
John West
Status of the Beds University of California, Berkeley
T here are many genera of red algae in California that Revised by:
yield agars and carrageenans. The most common and Kathy Ann Miller
abundant agar weeds in California are species in the University of Southern California
genera Gelidium and Pterocladia (family Gelidiaceae) and
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis (family Gracilariaceae). Of
References
the six species of Gelidium in California, only G. robustum
is available in sufcient wild stocks to warrant limited
Abbott, I.A. & G.J. Hollenberg. 1976. Marine Algae of
harvest for agar production. Before and during World War
California. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
II and until American Agar and Chemical Company in San
Craigie, J.S. 1990. Cell Walls. In K.M. Cole & R.G. Sheath
Diego closed in about 1986, G. robustum was collected
(eds.) Biology of the Red Algae, pp. 221-257. Cambridge
by divers along the southern California coast. Resource
University Press. New York.
management of wild stock of G. robustum was investi-
gated carefully to establish control of season, amount and Lewis, J.G., N.F. Stanley & G.G. Guist. 1988. Commercial
method of harvesting, but it proved difcult to enforce production and application of algal hydrocolloids. In C.A.
regulations. Today, there is no harvest of wild stocks for Lembi & J.R. Waaland (eds.) Algae and human affairs. pp.
commercial agar production in California, but wild stocks 205-236. Cambridge University Press. New York.
are still harvested in Baja California, Mexico, by local
sherman for processing in Ensenada and a subsequent
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 287
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Plants
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Plants
Kelp1
Kelp1 Year Tons
Year Tons
1980 147,636
1916 134,537 1981 73,064
1917 394,974 1982 86,503
1918 395,098 1983 5,271
1919 16,673 1984 46,479
1920 25,464 1985 87,300
1921 ---- 1986 56,832
1922 ---- 1987 93,264
1923 ---- 1988 90,615
1924 ---- 1989 132,761
1925 ---- 1990 151,439
1926 ---- 1991 127,505
1927 ---- 1992 91,247
1928 ---- 1993 92,940
1929 ---- 1994 81,006
1930 ---- 1995 77,753
1931 260 1996 78,461
1932 10,315 1997 73,165
1933 21,622 1998 25,313
1934 15,880 1999 42,211
1935 30,602
1936 49,317 - - - - Landings data not available
1937 43,954
1
1938 47,697 Kelp landings consist primarily of giant kelp.
1939 56,736
1940 59,004
1941 55,717
1942 61,898
1943 47,958
1944 53,030
1945 59,181
1946 91,069
1947 74,237
1948 78,641
1949 83,346
1950 100,602
1951 114,760
1952 110,158
1953 126,649
1954 106,215
1955 124,063
1956 117,815
1957 94,207
1958 114,062
1959 89,599
1960 120,300
1961 129,256
1962 140,233
1963 121,032
1964 127,254
1965 135,129
1966 119,464
1967 131,495
1968 134,853
1969 131,239
1970 127,039
1971 155,559
1972 162,511
1973 153,080
1974 170,181
1975 171,597
1976 158,371
1977 130,597
1978 169,029
1979 171,020
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
288
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 289
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
290
California’s Offshore
Ecosystem marine species like sardines and rocksh for several gen-
California’s Offshore Ecosystem
erations and result in substantial changes in abundance
F
over time.
ar from the coast, California’s offshore ecosystem con-
sists of the open ocean environments over the deeper The offshore ecosystem is home to groundsh species
parts of the continental shelf, the continental slope, (shelf and slope rocksh, atsh, sablesh, and Pacic
and ocean basins. This ecosystem is most often character- whiting); coastal pelagic species (sardines, anchovy,
ized by a deep luminous blue color, due to scattered mackerel, and squid); salmon during the ocean phase of
light encountering fewer particles and dissolved sub- their life-cycle; highly migratory species (tuna, billshes,
stances than are found in rich coastal waters, where sus- and pelagic sharks); marine mammals (such as whales
pended sediment, marine organisms, and other material and dolphins), pelagic seabirds (including albatross and
can absorb light and cause greenish or brownish colors. shearwaters); phytoplankton; and zooplankton (including
euphausids, copepods, salps, and occasionally red crabs).
California’s offshore waters are dominated by the Califor-
These species respond to the environmental variability in
nia Current, a relatively shallow, broad (approximately
the California Current in different ways. The abundance
300 km), and slow moving current. This current generally
and landings of coastal pelagic sh stocks such as sardines
moves from north to south along the West Coast of North
vary considerably due to environmental uctuations, par-
America, transporting cooler water toward the equator.
ticularly temperature. Such highly fecund and fast growing
Along our state, the California Current hugs the coast
species undertake extensive migrations as far north as
north of Point Conception during most of the year, except
British Columbia, when their population is large, to feed
in winter when southeast winds force it farther offshore,
in upwelling areas and they tend to concentrate spawning
producing the Davidson Current that ows north near the
in areas like the Southern California Bight, perhaps to help
coast. In some years, this counter current is stronger than
retain larvae in coastal habitats where they are less likely
normal and is forced as far north as British Columbia,
to be swept offshore by the strong offshore transport con-
Canada. South of Point Conception, in the Southern Cali-
ditions of major upwelling centers. Highly migratory spe-
fornia Bight, the coast bends sharply to the east. There
cies like albacore make long trans-Pacic migrations and
the California Current breaks away from the coast and
actively seek productive areas and avoid unfavorable con-
ows offshore along the continental edge until it
ditions. Long-lived, slow growing and moderately fecund
swings back toward the mainland south of San Diego.
species such as rocksh persist by maintaining many
In the Southern California Bight, the usual surface
reproductive age classes through periods of unfavorable
ow, called the California Countercurrent, moves north
environmental conditions.
along the coast resulting in a counterclockwise gyre
that mixes offshore and nearshore surface waters off The most signicant challenge to effective management of
southern California. sheries for these species is the lack of understanding of
the interactions among environmental variability, recruit-
Off California, prevailing winds, most often from the north
ment uctuations, and shing pressure. The current man-
or northwest, blow surface waters away from the coast
agement strategy for sardines, a species that has recov-
and nutrient laden subsurface waters are drawn up to
ered over the last 20 years from extraordinarily low levels
replace them in a process called upwelling. California
in the 1950s through the 1970s, now takes temperature
is in one of the major coastal upwelling regions of the
into account because of its effect on sardine productivity.
world, with the most intense upwelling occurring during
In the last two years, seven species of groundsh have
the summer near Cape Medocino in northern California.
been designated as overshed and will require many years
Productivity of marine plants is high along coasts with
and special management efforts to recover. In retrospect,
these features, and some of the largest sh populations
this occurred primarily as a result of our poor understand-
are associated with productive coastal upwelling systems.
ing of the relatively low productivity of these species,
Although the offshore environment is generally less vari-
particularly low recruitment for many of these species
able than nearshore and estuarine ecosystems, the Cali-
over the last three decades, and resulting harvest levels
fornia Current is a dynamic system with considerable
that were inadvertently set too high.
inter-annual variation. Relatively short-term, dramatic
Populations of many sh species in the offshore ecosystem
events like El Niño (warmer water) and La Niña (cooler
extend along the entire or a major portion of the west
water) cause larger temperature changes, variation in
coast, and so their sheries cross state and sometimes
productivity, and occurrences of organisms beyond their
national boundaries. To ensure coordination and more
usual ranges. Long-term temperature regimes, periods
effective coast-wide management, coastal pelagic spe-
of slightly warmer or cooler conditions that persist for
cies, groundsh, highly migratory species, and ocean
decades, can affect reproduction and recruitment of
salmon are regulated by the Pacic Fishery Management
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 291
Council, a regional body of states (California, Oregon,
California’s Offshore Ecosystem
Washington, and Idaho), tribal representatives, and fed-
eral agencies that has authority for West Coast sheries in
offshore waters. For those species we share with Mexico
(coastal pelagic species and some highly migratory spe-
cies), no formal bilateral management agreement exists.
Patricia Wolf
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
292
Coastal Pelagic
Species: Overview late 1940s. Biomass estimates for market squid are dif-
Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview
cult, if not impossible, to obtain using normal assess-
ment methods, and future management of the squid
C oastal pelagic resources are small to medium sized, resource will likely depend upon real-time estimates of
schooling species, that migrate in coastal waters often spawning escapement.
near the ocean surface. California’s major coastal pelagic
CPS management has varied widely and prior to the 1970s,
species include Pacic sardine (Sardinops sagax), Pacic
management was minimal. When sardine and Pacic mack-
mackerel (Scomber japonicus), jack mackerel (Trachurus
erel biomasses were declining (in the mid-1960s), the
symmetricus), northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), and
commercial shing industry proposed an anchovy reduc-
market squid (Loligo opalescens). Coastal pelagic species
tion shery. By the late 1960s, this reduction shery was
(CPS) collectively comprise one of the largest marine
authorized by the California Fish and Game Commission,
sheries in California with respect to biomass, landed
complete with quota, season, area, and size restrictions.
volume, and revenue. Historically, commercial utilization
Legislation followed in the early 1970s that established
of each species in this group has, for varying periods
moratoria on the commercial take of Pacic mackerel
of time, been primarily canning for human consumption.
and sardines. The resurgence of Pacic mackerel, and the
Much of the CPS catch is now frozen for bait or export,
transition to federal management (Pacic Fishery Manage-
but some is still canned for human consumption.
ment Council) for anchovy in 1978, were accompanied by
One characteristic common to coastal pelagic species strict management regimes that included requirements for
is the highly dynamic nature of their populations with annual quotas and assessments of anchovy biomass.
respect to movement, biomass, and availability to the
Pacic sardine showed early signs of an abundance resur-
shery. “Boom or bust” population cycles of coastal
gence in the early 1980s, and by the mid-1980s the State
pelagic stocks have been attributed to a number of
of California managed this species as required by Fish
key factors, including relatively short life-cycles, variable
and Game Code with biomass assessments and annual
recruitment, and annual and longer-cycle variation in
quotas. In 1998, the sardine population was declared fully
optimal habitats for spawning, larval survival, recruit-
recovered, with sh once again extending from British
ment, and feeding. Large natural uctuations in coastal
Columbia to the Gulf of California, Mexico. With the
pelagic species abundance have been accentuated in the
coast-wide sardine expansion, the State of California rec-
past by human inuence, as exemplied by the Pacic sar-
ognized that it no longer had sufcient resources to effec-
dine during the 1940s and 1950s. Although there are many
tively manage the sardine resource alone and petitioned
similarities in the life histories of these sh species, there
the Pacic Fishery Management Council to consider fed-
also are differences. They are all open-ocean, relatively
eral management of CPS. In 1998, the Council approved
near-shore, schooling sh for most of their life-cycles,
Amendment 8 to the Northern Anchovy Fishery Manage-
but jack mackerel occur as far as 600 miles offshore,
ment Plan, to place Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, jack
and sardine spawn as far as 300 miles offshore. Each sh
mackerel, and market squid in the management unit with
species matures at a relatively young age of one to three
northern anchovy. Amendment 8 was approved by the
years; and while jack mackerel live to be 35 years old,
Secretary of Commerce and modied the anchovy plan to
relatively few individuals of the other species attain half
conform to the recently revised Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
this age. Market squid live up to only 10 months and
Conservation and Management Act and changed the name
are an average of only six months old when captured
to the Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan.
during spawning activities. The eggs and larvae of all the
Implemented in January 2000, Amendment 8 requires
species are common in coastal areas, but beyond 200
a limited entry permit to commercially harvest coastal
miles offshore only jack mackerel eggs and larvae are
pelagic nsh species south of Point Arena, California,
commonly encountered in scientic collections. Anchovy,
with open shing access north of this latitude. Species
Pacic mackerel, and sardine are known to migrate sea-
managed under authority of the plan are divided into
sonally along the coast. Jack mackerel migrate away from
two categories, actively managed (initially Pacic sardine
nearshore banks and islands at a relatively young age (four
and Pacic mackerel) and monitored (initially northern
to six years) and, while they range from at least off Baja
anchovy, jack mackerel, and squid). Actively managed
California, Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska, little is known
species require annual determination of harvest limits
about their migratory habits as older adults. Estimates of
based on current biomass estimates. Harvest strategies
biomass date back to the 1930s for sardines and Pacic
for actively managed species account for all west-coast
mackerel, and to the late-1940s for anchovy. While there
CPS catches including Mexico, natural variability in the
are no time series estimates of jack mackerel biomass,
stocks, and the importance of CPS as forage for other
age and length composition data are available since the
sh, marine mammals, and birds. Monitored species are
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 293
not subject to mandated harvest limits based on current
Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview
biomass estimates, although other management measures
such as area closures may be employed. The State of Cali-
fornia is developing its own management plan for market
squid, and has already implemented interim measures
which prohibit shing on weekends, restrict the design
and intensity of lights used as attracting devices, and
place a three-year moratorium on new vessels entering
the shery.
The outlook for CPS and their sheries will depend
upon the forces of nature, economics, and the combined
wisdom of resource users and managers. Environmental
factors have inherent cycles that can affect each resource
in short and long time scales. Fishery scientists are just
beginning to understand the mechanisms that determine
success or failure of coastal pelagic populations. Hope-
fully, resource managers will continue to use the growing
knowledge base of how these species respond to the
environment, implementing harvest policies accounting
for this uncertainty. Future utilization of the west coast
CPS will depend not only on resource health and avail-
ability, but also upon basic economics and events in world
export markets. The anchovy shery’s largest historical
commercial utilizations were the reduction sheries in
California and Baja California. These sheries have ceased
to exist, primarily for economic reasons, and yet anchovy
abundance remains high enough to allow continued use
as live bait for the recreational shing industry and as
a fresh-frozen product for human consumption. Pacic
mackerel catches sustained the southern California purse
seine eet throughout the 1980s, with record average
landings; however, recent biomass assessments indicate
that the large population increase documented in the
late 1970s has not been followed by further highly success-
ful recruitment pulses. The decline in availability to the
shery of Pacic and jack mackerel through the 1980s lead
to rapid expansion of the market squid and sardine sher-
ies in southern California during the 1990s. Fish processors
freeze signicant portions of the squid and sardine catch
for export to Europe, Asia, and Australia where it is
utilized for human consumption, bait, or aquaculture feed.
Kevin T. Hill and Richard Klingbeil
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
294
California
Market Squid frozen product begins to accumulate in cold storage facili-
California Market Squid
ties. Consequently, there is often less incentive for sher-
men to sh later in the season, and as a result, declines
History of the Fishery in landings for springtime months may not just reect a
D
reduction in the availability of squid, but also a lack of
istinguished by its volatility, success of the California
effort to sh for it. Additionally, many vessels participat-
market squid (Loligo opalescens) shery uctuates as
ing in summer salmon sheries will return to other ports
a consequence of El Niño conditions and rapid changes in
during spring months.
the export market. With signicant expansion of shing
activity in southern California waters during the 1980s and California markets also play a role in determining the
1990s, the market squid shery has emerged as one of composition of the market squid eet. Although there
the most important in the state. During the 1990s, squid are many California vessels which have historically partici-
ranked as the largest California commercial shery by pated in the shery that are still active, there is an
volume in six years of the decade and ranked three increasing proportion of shery participants from Alaska,
times as the state’s most valuable shery resource in Washington and Oregon, reecting a willingness of the
value of the catch. Among U.S. exports of edible shery markets to employ these vessels. During peak seasons,
products in 1999, market squid ranked sixth by volume approximately 75 round haul vessels have produced about
and sixteenth in value, higher than any other California 95 percent of the California squid catch
commercial shery.
Since 1961, the California squid shery has experienced
The vast majority of squid is frozen for human consump- a major change. Prior to 1961, the shery had been cen-
tion. Much of this is exported to China, Japan and Europe. tered mainly in the Monterey Bay area, while a much
Other uses include fresh and canned squid for human smaller shery existed off southern California. Central and
consumption, and fresh or frozen squid for bait. The role southern California have distinctly different sheries for
of international buyers in the temporal success of the Cali- market squid. Starting in 1961, the southern California
fornia market squid shery is substantial. After decades of squid shery began to expand with a dramatic rise in
generally low catches, volume increased during the 1990s landings in Santa Barbara area ports. Since 1985, the
because of new (primarily Asian and European) markets southern California shery has dominated statewide land-
and higher prices paid for California squid. However, land- ings while shing areas have expanded, particularly in the
ings and ex-vessel revenue declined during the 1997-1998 Channel Islands. In recent years 90 percent of landings
El Niño when squid became harder to catch and as over- have occurred south of Point Conception, in sandy near-
seas markets collapsed due to poor economic conditions shore areas, when spawning activity is predominantly
in Asia. Currently, there has been some recovery of the during winter months. Conversely, squid taken in the cen-
Asian market, although demand is affected greatly by tral California shery, still centered in Monterey Bay, tend
performance of other worldwide sheries, particularly the to aggregate and spawn during summer months.
Falklands Loligo shery. In 1999 and 2000, California squid
Vessels shing squid target schools that are aggregated in
processors generally limited the daily catch from indi-
shallow water areas (from 50 to 150 feet deep) to spawn.
vidual vessels to 30 tons per load, as supply of California
Unlike other squid sheries worldwide, the California eet
squid could have exceeded international demand.
utilizes two vessels in shing operations; a light vessel is
Although the volume of squid produced by California used to locate and concentrate a school of squid using
markets is dependent on the international market, the strong lights to attract squid to the surface. There they
price paid to shermen can inuence both effort exerted are caught using round haul nets deployed by a second
toward shing operations and overall volume of catch. vessel. A small fraction of squid sold commercially is
Additionally, price paid to shermen for their catch caught by light vessels using brail gear. Additionally, a
depends not only on market demand but availability of the small volume of squid is taken by the live bait industry
resource. When volume of catch is low, the price paid per
ton is high, exceeding $500 per ton during some months
of the 1997-1998 El Niño when squid were scarce. When
volume is high, as in the year 2000, the price is driven
down and has been recorded at $100 per ton paid to some
vessels bringing in full loads. Price paid for squid taken by
brail and for squid purchased in low volumes by smaller
local dealers tends to be signicantly higher. Often times,
the price of sh will start high at the beginning of the
using brail, lampara, or drum seine gear. Squid, Loligo opalescens
California Market
southern California season in November and decline as
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 295
California Market Squid
250
millions of pounds landed
200
Market Squid 150
100
Commercial Landings
50
1916-1999, Market Squid
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
While attracting lights have been used in the southern tion on vessels shing commercially for squid, limiting
California shery for many years, in the central California both light boats and round haul vessels shing squid to a
shery a regulation was enacted which prohibited their maximum of 30,000 watts. Additionally, the Commission
use between 1959 and 1988. Fishermen sponsored the ban required these vessels to shield their lights to prevent
for protection from dealers who used lights in conjunction emission of light onto shore.
with dip nets on their piers and on oating unloading Starting in 1989, shermen were allowed to use all types
platforms. In this manner, they had effectively eliminated of round haul gear (purse seine, drum seine, etc.) in
the need for many shing boats. Some shermen also the southern bight of Monterey Bay, which previously had
believed that attracting lights disrupted squid spawning been restricted to lampara nets for squid. By the end of
activity, but no studies to date have addressed that issue. 1990, nearly the entire eet had switched over to purse
In 1988, shermen were allowed to use attracting lights in seine or drum seine gear and the use of lampara nets had
the Monterey Bay area, except in the southern portion of virtually ceased in Monterey Bay.
the bay. The following year, attracting lights were permit-
The market squid shery was an unregulated, open access
ted throughout the area.
shery prior to April 1, 1998. In order to assure sustain-
In 1999, the National Park Service brought to the atten- ability of the resource, new legislation placed a three-
tion of the Department of Fish and Game an apparent year moratorium on the number of vessels in the shery.
increase in nest abandonment and chick predation among This legislation required the purchase of a $2,500 per
shorebirds at the Channel Islands. The park service ques- year permit for three years to land more than two short
tioned whether the abundance of vessels lighting for squid tons per trip or to attract squid by light for commercial
near these islands during the nesting season in 1999 could harvest. In addition, participants must have purchased a
be responsible. As an interim measure, the California Fish permit the previous year. For the 2000-2001 squid shing
and Game Commission placed a statewide wattage restric- season (April 1 to March 31), 197 market squid vessel
permits and 50 light boat permits were sold, down from
originally 248 vessel permits and 54 light boat permits
sold during the rst season of the moratorium. The sale
of market squid permits provided funds for scientic
research and biological assessments of the resource for
development of recommendations for a market squid con-
servation and management plan.
The same legislation provides for two committees, the
Squid Fishery Advisory Committee and the Squid Research
and Scientic Committee, established in 1998. These advi-
sory groups serve to provide recommendations to the
Director on squid research and monitoring, as well as
to provide management recommendations for the shery.
In addition to the lighting restrictions, management mea-
Squid under lights
sures recommended by either of the committees and
Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
296
approved by the Fish and Game Commission during 1999 surveys for relative abundance estimates; 3) culturing
California Market Squid
included mandatory logbooks for squid vessels and light eggs and paralarvae to determine lowest viable tempera-
boats and statewide weekend closures for the shery to ture to resolve spawning range constraints; and 4) analysis
allow for uninterrupted spawning activity. of satellite data to track growth of the market squid
shery since 1992. Preliminary port sample data indicate
that the average squid taken in the commercial shery has
Status of Biological Knowledge a length of 5.2 inches and is approximately 185 days old.
T he California market squid (Loligo opalescens) ranges
Status of the Population
from southeastern Alaska to Bahia Asunción, Baja
California, Mexico. This pelagic mollusk attains a length
L
of 12 inches, including its eight arms and two feeding ittle is known about the present size, structure or
tentacles. Several other squid species occur off the Cal- status of the population, but historical evidence from
ifornia coast, but these are normally associated with research cruises, as well as recent catch data, indicate the
deeper offshore waters. biomass is large. The California eet shes only spawning
populations and in limited geographic areas, mostly in
Spawning market squid tend to congregate in semi-pro-
central and southern California. Other shable concentra-
tected bays, usually over a sand bottom with rocky out-
tions of squid have been found occasionally along the
croppings. Mass spawning starts around April in central
coast from central California to British Columbia and
California waters and ends about November. In southern
southeastern Alaska, and short-term sheries sometimes
California waters, mass spawning starts around October
have developed in these areas.
and ends about April or May. During some years, however,
squid spawning, and landings, may occur throughout most Historically, the squid resource was considered by some
of the year. to be underutilized; recently demand has sometimes
exceeded the catch. Until more objective estimates
During spawning activity, the male transfers a bundle of
of abundance are available, the true status of the popula-
spermatophores with a specialized left ventral arm into
tion will remain unknown. Past work, and work else-
the female’s mantle cavity near the oviduct. The eggs
where, has included acoustic surveys and various collec-
are laid within elongated, cigar-shaped capsules, each of
tion techniques. Acoustical assessment of squid has been
which may contain as many as 300 eggs embedded in
attempted off the central Oregon coast. However, with
a gelatinous matrix. Each female produces from 20 to
the scientic research program initiated in 1998, efforts
30 egg capsules, attaching one end of each capsule to
to model the population began which may eventually give
the sea oor or other suitable site. Females are visually
rise to thorough and detailed stock assessments similar
stimulated to lay their eggs by the presence of other egg
to those undertaken for other coastal pelagic species.
masses, resulting in egg capsule clusters covering vast
It is hoped the preliminary modeling work, shery-inde-
areas, appearing to carpet the sandy substrate. Small
pendent surveys and information from scientic research
red polychaete worms have been observed boring in the
will allow for development of an effective management
capsules’ gelatinous substance, but apparently do not feed
strategy for the resource by the year 2002.
on the developing embryos. Bat stars and sea urchins,
however, prey upon the eggs.
Depending on the ambient water temperature, squid eggs
hatch in two to ve weeks, with newly hatched paralarvae
already resembling miniature adults. Squid feed predomi-
nantly on euphausiids and copepods, as well as other
small crustaceans, gastropods, polychaete worms, small
shes and smaller squid. Squid are an important prey item
for many shes, birds and marine mammals, and studies
indicate the market squid plays an important role in the
food web of many organisms along California’s coast.
Since 1998, research objectives being conducted by the
department for market squid include: 1) collecting shery
and biological data through port sampling efforts; 2)
conducting shery independent surveys (i) utilizing a
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to characterize spawning
habitats and measure egg density and (ii) midwater trawl Hauling a lampara net in Monterey Bay
Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 297
The market squid shery is often subject to extreme uc-
California Market Squid
tuations in availability due to El Niño events or other envi-
ronmental conditions, and demand is largely dependent
on international market forces. However, as typically seen
in short-lived, highly fecund animals, the squid population
seems to have the ability to recover fully in a relatively
short period of time. Consequently, squid can probably be
more intensively harvested than longer-lived marine sh.
Marci Yaremko
California Department of Fish and Game
References
CalCOFI Rep. Vol. 39, 1998. Symposium of the CalCOFI
Conference, 1997. Market Squid: What we know and what
we need to know for effective management. 240 pp.
Cailliet, G.M. and D.L. Vaughan. 1983. A review of
the methods and problems of quantitative assessment
of Loligo opalescens. Biological Oceanography 2:2-3-4
(379-400).
Fields, W.G. 1965. The structure, development, food rela-
tions, and life history of the squid Loligo opalescens Berry.
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 131. 108 p.
Kato, S. and J.E. Hardwick. 1975. The California squid
shery.Pages 107-127 in Expert consultation on shing for
Packing squid in the Monterey Bay area
squid. FAO Fish. Rep. 170, Suppl. 1.
Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
Recksiek, C.W. and H.W. Frey. (eds.) 1978. Biological,
oceanographic, and acoustic aspects of the market squid,
Loligo opalescens Berry. Calif. Dept. Fish. and Game, Fish
Bull. 169. 185 p.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
298
Pacific Sardine
History of the Fishery Most sardines from this source were canned for pet food,
Pacific Sardine
with a lesser amount canned for human consumption. A
A sustained shery for Pacic sardines (Sardinops sagax) small directed shery for sardines limited to 1,000 tons
rst developed in response to the demand for food per year was permitted annually 1986 through 1990. The
during World War I. Demand grew, and shing effort and quota (excluding bait sheries) was increased to 8,150
landings increased from 1916 to 1936, when the catch tons in 1991.
peaked at over 700,000 tons. Pacic sardine supported At the present time, sardines landed in the directed sher-
the largest shery in the Western Hemisphere during the ies in southern and central California are primarily pro-
1930s and 1940s, with landings occurring in British Colum- cessed for human consumption (fresh or canned), pet
bia, Washington, Oregon, and California. The shery col- food, or export. The majority of frozen exports are used
lapsed beginning in the late 1940s and declined, with as animal feed in Australian bluen tuna aquaculture facil-
short-term reversals, to less than 1,000 tons-per-year in ities. Small quantities are harvested for dead bait and
the late 1960s. There was a southward shift in the catch live bait. With the exception of 1,217 tons reported in the
as the shery decreased, with landings ceasing in the PacFIN database for 1996, no reduction of sardines, other
northwest in the 1947-1948 season and in San Francisco in than waste produced from other processing operations, is
1951-1952. Through the 1945-1946 season, most California taking place in California. Total annual landings of sardines
landings were at Monterey and San Francisco, but San have increased, from less than 100 tons in the 1970s, to
Pedro accounted for most subsequent landings. an average of 13,400 tons per year through the 1980s,
Sardines were used primarily for reduction to shmeal and 30,400 tons per year through the 1990s. Total sardine
and oil, and canned for human consumption, with small landings in California in 1999 were 62,600 tons.
quantities taken for live bait. Although most sh landed Landings of sardines in Mexico increased from an annual
north of California were reduced, California processors average of 1,600 tons during the 1980s, to an average
began as canners, and expanded to reduction as a lucra- of nearly 42,000 tons per year through the 1990s. The
tive supplement. Reduction was often more protable, total and average annual harvests by Mexico exceeded
and for many years reduction tonnage exceeded tonnage those for California over the period 1980 through 1999.
canned. An extremely lucrative dead bait market for sar- Mexican landings of Pacic sardines, mackerels and her-
dines developed in central California in the 1960s, and rings, are primarily used for reduction into shmeal, with
was primarily responsible for continued shing on the approximately 20 percent used for human consumption.
depleted resource.
A federal shery management plan (FMP) for coastal
Prior to 1967, management of the sardine resource in pelagic species in U.S. waters off the West Coast, includ-
California was mostly limited to: 1) control of tonnage of ing sardines, was implemented by the Pacic Fishery Man-
whole sh used for reduction; 2) case pack requirements agement Council (PFMC) in January 2000, which trans-
(specied number of cases of canned sh per ton of whole ferred management authority from the California Depart-
sh); and 3) restriction of the shing season. The rst two ment of Fish and Game (DFG) to the National Marine
controls were intended to lower the quantity of sardines Fisheries Service (NMFS) through the PFMC. To calculate
used for reduction, since this was regarded as a less desir- the 2000 harvest guideline, a formula selected by the
able use and demand for reduction products was high. PFMC in the federal management plan was used. Based on
The third control was designed to limit canning to periods the 1999 estimate of total biomass, the 2000 sardine sh-
when sardines were in prime condition and to improve the ery opened January 1, with a harvest guideline of 205,902
market for canned products. The total catch, however,
was not regulated. From 1967 to 1973, California landings
of sardines were limited to an incidental take of 15 per-
cent sardines by weight mixed with other sh. Liberal
provisions for use of incidental catch, and later a 250-ton
dead bait quota still supplied the demand for bait. In 1974,
a moratorium on shing sardines was established, which
restricted landings to the 15 percent incidental limit and
eliminated the use of sardines for dead bait. This legisla-
tion also established the state’s intent to rehabilitate the
resource. Through 1981, sardine landings were less than
50 tons per year.
In the early 1980s, sardines were taken incidentally in
Pacific Sardine, Sardinops sagax
the southern California Pacic and jack mackerel shery.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 299
Pacific Sardine
1.6
1.4
billions of pounds landed
1.2
Pacific Sardine 1.0
0.8
Commercial Landings
0.6
1916-1999, Pacific Sardine
Data Source: DFG Catch
0.4
Bulletins and commercial land-
0.2
ing receipts. Data includes sar-
dines caught for reduction fish- 0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
ery between 1916 and 1969.
tons for the California shery, a 65 percent increase over Historically, the northern subpopulation of sardines made
the 1999 DFG quota. extensive migrations, moving north as far as British
Columbia in the summer months and returning south to
The price of sardines landed incidentally with mackerel
southern California and northern Baja California in the
decreased from about $190 per ton in the mid-1980s to
fall. Northward movement was greater with increased age.
about $150 per ton in 1991. The price for sardines landed
The migration was complex, and the timing and extent
in the directed shery and canned for human consumption
of movement were affected to some degree by oceano-
ranged from $80 to $100 per ton in the late 1990s. Only
graphic conditions. At present, the population is currently
limited markets exist for canned products currently being
expanding, found primarily off central and southern Cali-
produced. It remains to be seen whether new markets
fornia and Baja California, but extends as far north as
will develop to utilize the fully recovered population of
Vancouver, British Columbia. Contraction and expansion
Pacic sardines.
of range and spawning area has been associated with
changes in sardine population size around the world.
Status of Biological Knowledge Estimates of sardine abundance from AD 280 to 1970
have been derived from the deposition of sh scales in
S ardines are small pelagic sh and members of the her-
sediment cores from the Santa Barbara basin. Signicant
ring family, Clupeidae. The genus Sardinops occupies
sardine populations existed throughout the time period
the coastal areas of warm temperate zones of nearly all
and varied widely in size, typically over periods of roughly
ocean basins. The genus is considered monotypic, and
60 years. Population declines and recoveries averaged
Sardinops sagax is the correct scientic name for sardine
about 36 and 30 years, respectively. Scale data indicate
populations in the Alguhas, Benquela, California, Kuroshio,
that sardine populations were much more variable than
and Peru currents, and for populations off New Zealand
anchovy populations. Studies of deposits of otoliths have
and Australia. In the northeast Pacic Ocean, as in most
shown that, while the anchovy has been present for a
other areas, the Pacic sardine occurs with anchovy, hake,
million years or more, no trace of sardines has been found
and mackerel. It is generally accepted that the Pacic
that is more than seven thousand years old. The tendency
sardine population consists of three subpopulations or
for tremendous variations in sardine biomass may be a
stocks: a Gulf of California subpopulation, a southern sub-
characteristic of a species that has only recently occupied
population off Baja California, and the principal northern
its habitat.
subpopulation ranging from northern Baja California to
Pacic sardines reach about 16 inches and live as long as
Alaska. These stocks were distinguished on the basis of
13 years but are usually less than 12 inches and eight years
serological techniques. A fourth, far northern subpopula-
old. Most sardines in the historical and recent commercial
tion was also postulated. Recent electrophoretic studies
catch were ve years and younger. There is a good deal
and examination of morphological variation showed no
of regional variation in growth rate, with average size
genetic variation among sardines from central and south-
attained at a given age increasing from south to north.
ern California, the Pacic coast of Baja California and the
Sardine size and age at maturity may decline with a
Gulf of California.
decrease in sardine biomass, although latitudinal and tem-
perature effects may also play a part. At low biomass
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
300
levels, sardines appear to be fully mature at age two, eggs, larvae, and juvenile stages of copepods, as well as
Pacific Sardine
while at high biomass levels, only some of the two-year- other zooplankton and phytoplankton.
olds are mature. Through all life stages, sardines are eaten by a variety
Sardines age three and older were nearly fully vulnerable of predators. Eggs and larvae are consumed by an
to the historical shery until 1953, but two and three year assortment of invertebrate and vertebrate planktivores.
old sh became less available as the population declined Although it has not been demonstrated in the eld,
and fewer southern sh moved northward. Recent catch anchovy predation on sardine eggs and larvae has been
data indicate sardines begin to become available to the postulated as a possible mechanism for increased larval
shery at age zero, and are fully vulnerable by age three. sardine mortality during the 1950s and 1960s. Juvenile
Sardines probably become vulnerable to the live bait sh- and adult sardines are consumed by other sh, including
ery, which is located close to shore, at a younger age. yellowtail, barracuda, bonito, tunas, marlin, mackerel,
hake, and sharks; sea birds, such as pelicans, gulls, and
Spawning occurs in loosely aggregated schools in the
cormorants; and marine mammals, including sea lions,
upper 165 feet of the water column, probably year-round,
seals, porpoises, and whales. It is likely that sardines
with peaks from April to August from Point Conception
will become more important as prey for numerous spe-
to Magdalena Bay, and from January to April in the Gulf
cies, including species such as the state and federally
of California. The main spawning area for the northern
listed California brown pelican, as the sardine resource
subpopulation is between San Francisco and San Diego,
continues to increase.
out to about 150 miles offshore, with evidence of spawn-
ing as far as 350 miles offshore. Sporadic occurrences The Pacic sardine and other closely related species
of spawning have been observed off Oregon and British undergo similar interannual changes in abundance in sev-
Columbia in recent years. eral other temperate coastal regions of the world. Scien-
tists in several countries have conducted joint studies of
Most spawning occurs between 55° and 63° F, with an
recruitment and biomass of these coastal pelagic stocks
apparent optimum between 59° and 61° F, and a minimum
under the Sardine-Anchovy Recruitment Program. Knowl-
threshold temperature of 55° F. The spatial and temporal
edge of the population dynamics and variability of these
distribution of spawning is inuenced by temperature; the
clupeoid shes may eventually contribute to the detection
center of sardine spawning shifts northward and continues
of the oceanographic effects of global climate change.
over a longer period of time during warm water condi-
tions. Pacic sardines are serial spawners and spawn sev-
eral times each season, although the number of spawnings
Status of the Population
is not known. Eggs and larvae are found near the surface.
S
The eggs are spheroid, have a distinct, large perivitelline pawning biomass of the Pacic sardine averaged
space, and require about three days to hatch at 59° F. 3,881,000 tons from 1932 to 1934, and uctuated from
Recruitment of Pacic sardines is highly variable. Analyses 3,136,000 to 1,324,000 tons from 1935 to 1944. The popu-
of the stock-recruitment relationship have been incon- lation then declined steeply over the next two decades,
clusive and controversial, with some studies showing a with some short reversals following periods of particularly
density-dependent relationship and others nding no rela- successful recruitment, to less than 100,000 tons in the
tionship whatsoever. From 1932 to 1965, mean recruitment early 1960s. During the 1970s, spawning biomass levels
only slightly exceeded potential replacement of spawners were thought to be as low as 5,000 tons. Since the early
at all levels of abundance, indicating little resilience to 1980s, the sardine population has increased, and the total
shing. Recruitment occurs in strings, with several years age-one-plus biomass was estimated to be greater than 1.7
of successful recruitment followed by similar periods of million tons in 1998 and 1999.
poor recruitment. The timing and duration of these strings Maximum sustained yield of Pacic sardine in the histori-
has a large effect on population growth. cal northern subpopulation was estimated to be 250,000
A signicant relationship exists among sardine reproduc- tons or about 22 percent per year, far less than the catch
tive success, spawning biomass and average sea surface of sardines during the height of the shery. Although
temperature (SST). Recruitment, as well as predicted combined landings in the U.S. and Mexico are still well
equilibrium biomass and maximum sustainable yield (MSY) below this level, landings have increased substantially in
are lower when temperatures are cooler. recent years. In the absence of a bilateral management
agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, combined U.S.
Sardines are lter feeders and prey on crustaceans, mostly
and Mexican catches of Pacic sardine have the potential
copepods, and other plankton, including sh larvae and
for accelerating the next population decline.
phytoplankton. Larval sardines feed extensively on the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 301
References
Disagreement over whether the decrease in the sardine
Pacific Sardine
population was due to overshing or to natural changes
Ahlstrom, E.H. and J. Radovich. 1970. Management of the
in the environment has persisted for many years. It is
Pacic sardine. In: A century of sheries in North America,
now apparent that both factors are important. Following
N.G. Benson, ed. Special Publication No. 7, American Fish-
the cessation of shing and with the development of favor-
eries Society, Wash. D.C., pp. 183-193.
able environmental conditions, the sardine resource is
now recovered. Barnes, J.T., L.D. Jacobson, A.D. MacCall, and P. Wolf.
1992. Recent population trends and abundance estimates
for the Pacic sardine (Sardinops sagax). Calif. Coop. Oce-
Patricia Wolf
anic Fish. Invest. Rep. 33:60-72.
California Department of Fish and Game
Baumgarter, T., A. Soutar, and V. Ferreira-Bartrina. 1992.
Paul E. Smith
Reconstruction of the history of Pacic sardine and north-
National Marine Fisheries Service
ern anchovy populations over the past two millennia from
Revised by:
sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California. Calif.
Darrin R. Bergen
Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 33:24-40.
California Department of Fish and Game
Hill, K.T., N.C.H. Lo, and D.R. Bergen. 2000. In prep. Stock
assessment and management recommendations for Pacic
sardine (Sardinops sagax). Calif. Dept. Fish. Game Marine
Region Admin Rept. 00-XX. In prep.
MacCall, A.D. 1979. Population estimates for the waning
years of the Pacic sardine shery. Calif. Coop. Oceanic
Fish. Invest. Rep. 20:72-82.
Murphy, G.I. 1966. Population biology of the Pacic sar-
dine (Sardinops caerulea). Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. Fourth
Series 34(1):1084.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1998. Amendment
8 (To the Northern Anchovy Fishery Management Plan)
incorporating a name change to: The Coastal Pelagic
Species Fishery Management Plan.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
302
Northern Anchovy
History of the Fishery fornia Code of Regulations, currently provides a process
Northern Anchovy
for the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG)
T hree separate sheries in both California and Mexico to issue permits for reduction shing, decreased prices
exploit northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax). Anchovy of shmeal and the low prices offered to shermen have
landed by the reduction shery are converted to meal, deterred any signicant reduction shing in recent years.
oil, and soluble protein. These products are sold mainly The non-reduction live-bait eet in recent years has con-
as protein supplements for poultry food, and also as feed sisted of about 18 boats that are distributed mostly along
for farmed sh and other animals. Meal obtained from the southern California coast to serve the principal sport
anchovy is about 65 percent protein compared to about shing markets. Live bait boats sh for a variety of spe-
50-55 percent for meal from other shes. cies, but anchovies comprised approximately 85 percent
Anchovy harvested by the live bait shery are not landed of the catch prior to 1991. Pacic sardines became avail-
but kept alive for sale to anglers as bait. Transactions able to the live bait shery again in 1992, and the compo-
between buyers and sellers of live bait take place at sition of live bait catches shifted from primarily anchovy
sea or at bait wells tied up at docks. Live bait dealers to primarily sardine. From 1996 through 1999, sardines
generally supply bait to commercial passenger shing ves- constituted approximately 72 percent of the live bait
sels (CPFVs) on a contract basis and receive a percentage catch. Historically, the anchovy live bait catch ranged
of the fees paid by passengers. Bait is also sold by the from 4,000 to 8,000 tons per year and averaged approxi-
“scoop” to anglers in private vessels. Anchovy landed by mately 4,500 tons annually between 1974 and 1991. This
the non-reduction (other than live bait) shery are used average dropped to slightly over 2,500 tons between 1992
as dead frozen bait, fresh sh for human consumption, and 1994. Current estimates of the live bait catch are
canned sh for human consumption, animal food, and available from the DFG Pelagic Fisheries Assessment Unit
anchovy paste. in La Jolla, California. Non-reduction (other than for live
bait) landings averaged slightly over 2,200 tons per year
Reliable records of California landings of northern anchovy
from 1965 to 1994, and increased to an average of about
date from 1916. Landings were small until the scarcity of
4,122 tons per year between 1995 and 1999.
Pacic sardines caused processors to begin canning ancho-
vies in quantity during 1947, when landings increased to Anchovy landed in Mexico, other than a small amount used
9,464 tons in 1947 from 960 tons in 1946. To limit the for bait, have been used primarily for reduction. Mexico’s
quantity of anchovies being reduced to shmeal, the Cali- harvesting and processing capacity increased signicantly
fornia Fish and Game Commission required each processor in the late 1970s when several large seiners were added
to can a large proportion of the harvest (40-60 percent to the shing eet and a large reduction plant was con-
depending on can size). Anchovy landings declined with structed in Ensenada. Mexican anchovy landings averaged
the temporary resurgence of sardine landings around 1951. approximately 85,500 tons from 1962 to 1989, with a high
Following the collapse of the sardine shery in 1952, of over 285,000 tons in 1981. Northern anchovy catch
anchovy landings increased to nearly 43,000 tons in 1953, decreased sharply in 1990, and despite landing 19,600 tons
but subsequently declined due to low consumer demand in 1995, average annual Mexican landings from 1990 to
for canned anchovy and increased sardine landings. Land- 1999 were only 3.600 tons.
ings remained low through 1964. During the early years The U.S. northern anchovy central subpopulation sheries
(1916 through 1964), anchovy were harvested almost have been managed by the Pacic Fishery Management
exclusively by California shermen. Mexico did not begin Council since 1978, and the central and northern subpopu-
harvesting anchovy until 1962.
Beginning in 1965, the California Fish and Game Commis-
sion managed anchovy on the basis of a reduction quota.
This quota had been taken by a eet of approximately 40
small purse seine vessels operating off southern California
known collectively as the “wetsh” eet, which shes for
other species in addition to anchovy. In 1965, only 171 tons
of anchovy were landed for reduction, which increased to
an average of over 64,000 tons per year between 1965 and
1982. After 1982, reduction landings decreased dramati-
cally to an average of only 923 tons per year from 1983
to 1991, and fell to zero in 1992 through 1994. During
lations since 1998. The shery management plan has been
the period 1995 to 1999, only four tons were reported as
Northern Anchovy, Engraulis mordax
reduction landings. Although Section 147 of Title 14, Cali-
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 303
Status of Biological Knowledge
amended to include all four species of nsh collectively
Northern Anchovy
known as coastal pelagic species (CPS); Pacic sardine,
N orthern anchovy are distributed from the Queen Char-
Pacic mackerel, jack mackerel, in addition to northern
lotte Islands, British Columbia to Magdalena Bay, Baja
anchovy, and has been renamed as the Coastal Pelagic
California. The population is divided into northern, cen-
Species Fishery Management Plan. Regulations described
tral, and southern subpopulations or stocks. The central
in the shery management plan designate the northern
subpopulation ranges from approximately San Francisco,
anchovy shery as not actively managed due to low shery
California to Punta Baja, Baja California, with the bulk
demand and high stock size. If conditions change, and
being located in the Southern California Bight.
active management is required, then provisions in the
shery management plan require calculation of an Allow- Northern anchovies are small, short-lived sh typically
able Biological Catch (ABC) for northern anchovy sheries found in schools near the surface. They rarely exceed
in U.S. waters. As of May 31, 2000, there were 63 vessels four years of age and seven inches total length, although
licensed to sh CPS nsh under the NMFS limited entry individuals as old as seven years and nine inches have
program, which is in effect south of 39° N. latitude (Pt. been recorded. There is a great deal of regional variation
Arena, California). North of this area, there is open access in age composition (number of sh in each age group)
to the shery. and size at age with older sh and larger sh found at
relatively offshore and northerly locations. In warm years,
Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for northern anchovy in
relatively old and large sh are found farther north than
the central subpopulation is estimated to be 135,600 tons
during cool years. These patterns are probably due to
per year at a total biomass level of about 808,000 tons.
northern and offshore migration of large sh, regional dif-
At present, northern anchovy are not actively managed,
ferences in growth rate, and water temperatures. North-
but a recommended default MSY control rule gives an ABC
ern anchovies in the central subpopulation are typically
for the entire stock equal to 25 percent of the MSY catch,
found in waters that range from 54° to 71° F.
or just over 34,000 tons. An estimated 82 percent of
the stock is resident in U.S. waters. ABC in U.S. waters Information about changes in anchovy abundance during
is, therefor, 82 percent of 34,000 tons or 27,600 tons. 1780 to 1970 is available from scales counted in sediment
Under federal management, there is no longer a separate cores from the Santa Barbara basin. These data indicate
quota for reduction landings of anchovy. Although sher- signicant anchovy populations existed throughout the
ies in Mexican as well as U.S. waters harvest the northern time period and that biomass levels during the late 1960s
anchovy, there is no bilateral management agreement were modest relative to those during most of the 19th and
with Mexico. The Mexican shery is managed indepen- early 20th centuries.
dently and is not restricted by a quota.
The age at which northern anchovy become vulnerable
Economics explain a great deal about the current dynam- to California sheries depends on the location of the
ics of anchovy sheries in California, because the sheries shery and type of shery. Fish become vulnerable to
are more limited by prices and markets than by biological the inshore live bait shery at an earlier age than they
constraints. The price paid to sherman for anchovy become vulnerable to the reduction shery. However,
landed as live bait in southern California was about $440 substantial numbers of zero and one-year-old sh are
per ton in 1999, slightly less than the $480 per ton paid for taken by both sheries in most years.
sardines as live bait. Although prices and revenues for live
Anchovy are all sexually mature at age two. The fraction
bait tend to be surprisingly high, annual catches have been
of one-year-olds that is sexually mature in a given year
modest due to market limitations.
depends on water temperature and has been observed to
During 1981 to 1999, the price paid for anchovy landed range from 47 to 100 percent. They spawn during every
for non-reduction purposes other than live bait averaged month of the year, but spawning increases during late
about $330 per ton. As with live bait, market limitations winter and early spring and peaks during February to
have resulted in modest annual catches despite relatively April. Spawning has been observed over a temperature
high prices paid to shermen. range of 54° to 71° F. Individual females spawn batches
of eggs throughout the spawning season at intervals as
The average price for anchovy landed by the U.S. reduc-
short as seven to 10 days. The eggs are found near the
tion shery during 1981 to 1999 was about $80 per ton,
surface, and require two to four days to hatch, depending
but the price paid during 1997 was only $40 per ton.
on water temperatures. Eggs and larvae are both found
Low prices, as well as market problems have prevented a
near the surface.
signicant U.S. reduction shery in recent years.
Northern anchovy are subject to intense predation
throughout all life stages. Anchovy eggs and larvae fall
prey to an assortment of invertebrate and vertebrate
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
304
Northern Anchovy
350
millions of pounds landed
300
Northern Anchovy
250
200
150
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
100
Northern Anchovy
50 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Total anchovy harvests and exploitation rates since 1983
14
have been below the theoretical levels for maximum sus-
millions of pounds landed
12
Anchovy Bait Catch
tained yield, and stock biomass estimates are unavailable
10
for recent years but, based on abundance index data, the
8
stock is thought to be stable at a modest biomass level.
6
The size of the anchovy resource is now being determined
4
mostly by natural inuences, such as ocean temperature.
2
0 1974 1979 1985 1989 1994
Live Bait landings of anchovy in CA, 1974-1994 Darrin R. Bergen
Data source: DFG Database California Department of Fish and Game
Lawrence D. Jacobson
planktivores. As juveniles in nearshore areas, anchovies
National Marine Fisheries Service
are vulnerable to a variety of predators, including birds
and some recreationally and commercially important spe-
cies of sh. As adults offshore, anchovies are fed upon by
References
numerous marine shes (some of which have recreational
and commercial value), mammals, and birds, including Conrad, J. M. 1991. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
the state and federally listed California brown pelican. A 1998. Amendment 8 (To the Northern Anchovy Fishery
link between brown pelican breeding success and anchovy Management Plan) incorporating a name change to: The
abundance has been documented. Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan.
Northern anchovy eat plankton either by lter feeding or Jacobson, L.D., N.C.H. Lo, J.T. Barnes. 1994. A biomass
biting, depending on size of the food. Adult anchovy are based assessment model for northern anchovy, Engraulis
known to lter anchovy eggs and it is possible that this mordax. Fish. Bull. 92:711-724.
type of cannibalism is an important factor in regulating
Methot, R.D. 1989. Synthetic estimates of historical abun-
population size.
dance and mortality for northern anchovy. In: E. Vetter
and B. Megrey (eds.). Mathematical analysis of sh stock
dynamics: reviews, evaluations and current applications.
Status of the Population Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. Series No. 6. Am. Fish. Soc., Beth-
E
hesda, MD.
stimates of the biomass of northern anchovy in the
central subpopulation averaged 359,000 tons from 1963 Parrish, R.H., D.L. Mallicoate, and K.F. Mais. 1985.
through 1972, increased rapidly to over 1.7 million tons Regional variations in the growth and age composition
in 1974 and then declined to 359,000 tons in 1978. of northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax. Fish. Bull.
Since 1978, biomass levels have tended to decline slowly, 83:483-495.
falling to an average of 289,000 tons from 1986 through
1994. Anchovy biomass during 1994 was estimated to be
432,000 tons.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 305
Pacific Mackerel
History of the Fishery recovery, the market for canned mackerel has uctuated
due to availability and economic conditions. At present,
P acic mackerel (Scomber japonicus), also called chub most Pacic mackerel is used for human consumption,
mackerel or blue mackerel, are harvested by three canned, or used for pet food, with a small but increasing
separate sheries – the California commercial shery, a amount sold as fresh sh. Minor amounts of Pacic mack-
sport shery based primarily in southern California, and erel are used by anglers for live and dead bait. Mackerel
the Mexican commercial shery. In the commercial sher- prices increased from $45 per ton in 1956 to $315 in
ies, Pacic mackerel are landed by the same boats that 1981, but have declined to $120 per ton in 1999. Domestic
catch jack mackerel, Pacic sardine, and market squid. demand for canned Pacic mackerel appears to have
decreased in recent years. During the early shery, Pacic
Pacic mackerel supported one of California’s major sh-
mackerel were taken by lampara boats, which were
eries during the 1930s and 1940s and again in the 1980s.
replaced in the 1930s by the same purse seine eet that
The canning of Pacic mackerel began in the late 1920s
shed for sardines. The purse seiners shed for Pacic
and increased as greater processing capacities and more
mackerel until the moratorium in 1970, and were able
marketable packs were developed. Landings decreased in
to sh for jack mackerel, northern anchovy, and other
the early 1930s, due to the economic depression and a
species until the shery reopened in 1977. Fishing orig-
decline in demand, and then rose to a peak of 73,214 tons
inally occurred near port, but by the late 1930s it
in 1935. During this period, Pacic mackerel was second
extended along the entire coast from San Diego to Santa
only to Pacic sardine in annual landings. The mackerel
Barbara, and included the Channel Islands. Beginning in
shery then experienced a long, uctuating decline. A
the 1952-1953 season, shing extended to Tanner and
moratorium was placed on the shery in 1970 after the
Cortez Banks.
stock had collapsed.
Until the mid-1950s, there was a seasonal pattern to the
In 1972, legislation was enacted which imposed a landing
shery. Pacic mackerel were mostly unavailable from
quota based on the age one-plus biomass. A series of suc-
January through May, then increased in availability until
cessful year classes in the late 1970s initiated a recovery,
late fall. Most of the catch was taken by purse seiners
and the shery was reopened under a quota system in
until September, when the sardine shery began. During
1977. During the recovery period from 1977 to 1985, vari-
the declining years of the shery, catches became more
ous adjustments were made to quotas for directed take
sporadic, with no apparent seasonal patterns.
of Pacic mackerel and to incidental catch limits. These
measures were intended to lessen the impact of the At present the purse seine eet shes the Southern Cali-
recovering population on the jack mackerel shery, and fornia Bight, including the Channel Islands and offshore
to accommodate the development of the Pacic mackerel banks. A small portion of the catch (approximately 10
shery as the population increased. From 1990 through percent in recent years) is taken in the Monterey Bay
1999, Pacic mackerel accounted for 87 percent of total area. The purse seine eet shes year-round. Landings are
mackerel landings in California. Pacic mackerel ranked typically slow during April and May, increase beginning
third in volume of California nsh landings throughout in June, peak during the third quarter of the year, and
the 1990s. decrease after September. As of June 2000, 63 purse sein-
ers hold permits to participate in the NMFS limited entry
Before 1928, when canning began, Pacic mackerel were
shery for coastal pelagic species, which is in effect
landed incidentally in the sardine shery and used primar-
south of 39° N. latitude (Pt. Arena, California). North
ily as fresh sh. For many years, demand for canned
of this area, there is open access to the shery. These
mackerel was steady and exceeded supply. Following the
vessels participate not only in the Pacic mackerel shery,
but also take jack mackerel, Pacic sardine, northern
anchovy, and market squid. Other types of gear take
Pacic mackerel incidentally.
Pacic mackerel sheries in California were managed
by the state through 1999, and a shery management
plan (FMP) for coastal pelagic species, including Pacic
mackerel, was implemented by the Pacic Fishery Man-
agement Council (PFMC) in January 2000. State regula-
tions, enacted in 1985, had imposed a moratorium on
directed shing when the total biomass was less than
20,000 tons, and limited the incidental catch of Pacic
Pacific Mackerel, Scomber japonicus
mackerel to 18 percent during a moratorium. The shing
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
306
season for Pacic mackerel was set to extend from July 1 mackerel usually occur within 20 miles of shore, but have
Pacific Mackerel
to June 30 of the following year. A seasonal quota, equal been taken as far offshore as 250 miles.
to 30 percent of the total biomass in excess of 20,000 Adults are found in water temperatures ranging from 50.0°
tons had been allowed when the biomass was between to 72.0° F and larvae in 57.2° to 70.0° F. Adults occur
20,000 and 150,000 tons, and there was no quota when from the surface to 1,000 feet deep. Sub-adult and adult
the total biomass was 150,000 tons or greater. From Pacic mackerel in the northeastern Pacic move north-
1985 to 1991, the biomass exceeded 150,000 tons and no ward along the coast during the summer. The most north-
quota restrictions were in effect. The quotas from the erly records occur during El Niño events. There is an
period 1992 through 2000 averaged 24,445 tons, with a inshore-offshore migration off California, with increased
high at 47,200 tons set by the PFMC for the 1999-2000 abundance inshore from July to November and increased
shing season. abundance offshore from March to May. Pacic mackerel
Pacic mackerel have ranked among the top 11 most are typically found near shallow banks, and juveniles are
important sportsh caught in southern California waters, commonly found off sandy beaches, around kelp beds, and
primarily because they are abundant rather than desir- in open bays.
able. The recreational catch of Pacic mackerel averaged The largest recorded Pacic mackerel was 24.8 inches
1,500 tons per year from 1977 through 1991, and 700 and weighed 6.4 pounds, although commercially harvested
tons per year from 1993 through 1999. During the com- Pacic mackerel seldom exceed 16 inches and two pounds.
mercial shing moratorium, the sport shery became the Growth is believed to be density-dependent, as sh reach
largest exploiter of Pacic mackerel in California. The rec- much higher weights-at-age when the population size is
reational catch increased during the late 1970s and early small. The oldest recorded age, determined by otolith
1980s, with more than one million sh per year caught reading, was 12 years, but most Pacic mackerel in the
from 1979 through 1981. Recent estimates of annual recre- commercial catch are less than four years old. Some
ational catches indicate a steady decline since 1981 to Pacic mackerel mature as one-year olds, although most
about 200 tons of Pacic mackerel in southern California are not sexually mature until age two or three. Pacic
in 1999. The catches from commercial passenger shing mackerel become available to the commercial shery in
vessels (CPFVs) have declined from a peak in 1980 of their rst year of life and are not fully recruited to the
over 1.31 million Pacic mackerel, and an average of over shery until age four. However, substantial numbers of
700,000 sh per year during the 1980s, to an average of younger sh are taken by the commercial shery and
slightly over 330,000 sh per year through the 1990s. The make up the bulk of the catch.
reported CPFV catch in 1998 totaled only 136,614 sh.
Recruitment of Pacic mackerel is variable and loosely
Demand for Pacic mackerel in Baja California, Mexico linked to the size of the spawning biomass. Reproductive
increased after World War II. Mexican landings remained success is somewhat cyclical, with periods of roughly
stable for several years, rose to 8,000 tons in 1963, then three to seven years. The annual rate of natural mortality
declined to a low of 100 tons in 1968. Catches remained is thought to be approximately 40 percent in the absence
insignicant until the mid-1970s. During the period 1990 of shing.
to 1999, annual landings of Pacic mackerel in Ensenada
There are three spawning stocks in the northeastern
peaked twice, rst in 1990 at 39,426 tons, and again
Pacic – one in the Gulf of California, one near Cape San
in 1998 at 55,916 tons. The average for Baja California
Lucas, and one along the Pacic coast north of Punta
annual landings during the 1990s was 20,108 tons per year.
Abreojos, Baja California. Spawning occurs from Eureka,
Mexican landings of Pacic and jack mackerels, Pacic sar-
California to Cape San Lucas, two to 200 miles offshore,
dines, northern anchovy, and round herrings, are primarily
and in the Gulf of California.
used for reduction into shmeal, and approximately 20
Off California, spawning occurs from late April to July at
percent used for human consumption.
depths to 300 feet. Individual sh may spawn eight times
or more per year and release at least 68,000 eggs per
Status of Biological Knowledge spawning. Off Baja California, spawning occurs from June
through October.
P acic mackerel occur worldwide in temperate and
Pacic mackerel larvae eat copepods and each other.
subtropical coastal waters. In the eastern Pacic, they
Larvae normally begin to feed within 50 hours of hatching.
range from Chile to the Gulf of Alaska, including the
Juvenile and adult Pacic mackerel feed primarily on
Gulf of California. They are common from Monterey Bay,
small shes, sh larvae, squid, and pelagic crustaceans
California to Cape San Lucas, Baja California, but are most
such as euphausiids.
abundant south of Point Conception, California. Pacic
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 307
Pacific Mackerel
160
millions of pounds landed
140
120
Pacific Mackerel 100
80
Commercial Landings
60
1916-1999, Pacific Mackerel
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
40
and commercial landing receipts.
20
Pacific mackerel were
aggregated as unclassified
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
mackerel prior to 1926.
Pacic mackerel larvae are subject to predation from was an unusual event that might be expected to occur
a number of invertebrate and vertebrate planktivores. about once every 60 years.
Juvenile and adults are eaten by larger shes, marine It is estimated that the maximum long-term yield of
mammals, and seabirds. Pacic mackerel school as a Pacic mackerel might be 29,000 to 32,000 tons under
defense against predation, often with other pelagic spe- management systems similar to that in current use. It is
cies, including jack mackerel and Pacic sardine. Principal difcult to assess the effects on the catch of recent warm
predators include porpoises, California sea lions, brown temperatures, possible changes in availability of young
pelicans, striped marlin, black marlin, sailsh, bluen sh, and the deteriorating markets. However, it is unlikely
tuna, white seabass, yellowtail, giant sea bass, and that the recent high harvest levels can be sustained.
various sharks.
Eddy S. Konno and Patricia Wolf
California Department of Fish and Game
Revised by:
1.4
Darrin R. Bergen
1.2
millions of fish landed
Pacific Mackerel
California Department of Fish and Game
1.0
0.8
0.6
References
0.4
0.2
Fitch, J.E. 1952. The decline of the Pacic mackerel sh-
0.0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
ery. Calif. Fish and Game. 38:381-389.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Pacific Mackerel
Hill, K.T., M. Yaremko, and L.D. Jacobson. 1999. Status of
Data source: DFG commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) logbooks
the pacic mackerel resource and shery in 1998. Calif.
Status of the Population Dept. Fish and Game Marine Region Admin. Rep. 99-3. 57p.
H
Hill, K.T. and D. R. Bergen. 2000. Stock assessment
istorical estimates of Pacic mackerel biomass along
and management recommendations for Pacic mackerel
the Pacic Coast indicate a decline in total biomass
(Scomber japonicus) in 2000. Calif. Dept. Fish. Game
from 1932 until 1952. After a brief resurgence, the popu-
Marine Region Admin. Rept. 00-XX. In prep.
lation reached a peak in 1962, then declined to less
than 10,000 tons by 1966, and remained low until the Klingbeil, R.A. 1983. Pacic mackerel: a resurgent
late 1970s. resource and shery of the California Current. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:35-45.
A series of successful year classes beginning in 1976
brought about a resurgence, and the age one-plus biomass MacCall. A.D., R.A. Klingbeil, and R.D. Methot. 1985.
peaked in 1982, at over one million tons. Since then, it has Recent increased abundance and potential productivity of
precipitously declined. Recent stock assessments indicate Pacic mackerel (Scomber japonicus). Calif. Coop. Oceanic
that biomass in the late 1990s was approximately 120,000 Fish. Invest. Rep. 26:119-129.
tons. Information derived from deposits of Pacic mack-
Parrish, R.H. and A.D. MacCall. 1978. Climate variation
erel scales on the sea oor indicates that the prolonged
and exploitation in the Pacic mackerel shery. Calif.
period of high biomass during the late 1970s and 1980s
Dept. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 167. 110 p.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
308
Jack Mackerel
History of the Fishery 1983 to 1990 for the shery which occurs north of 39°
Jack Mackerel
latitude (Point Arena). The shery south of 39° is not
T he jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), originally regulated. In 1991, the ABC was raised to 57,990 tons and
known as horse mackerel, was reported in the com- the quota to 51,530 tons where it remained throughout
mercial catch as early as 1888, and was a minor compo- the 1990s.
nent of the coastal pelagic species (CPS) shery until Since much of the trawl-caught jack mackerel is discarded
1947. The CPS shery uses encircling nets (purse and at sea, total catch is not available. Estimates of jack
drum seine, and lampara nets) to target market squid, mackerel caught by Pacic whiting trawlers has ranged
Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, northern anchovy, and from less than 500 tons to over 2,000 tons in the 1970s
jack mackerel in the waters off California. Much of the and 1980s. After a US-USSR survey of jack mackerel con-
catch between 1926 and 1946 was taken incidentally with ducted in 1991, an experimental shery was attempted off
sardine and Pacic mackerel and was sold at fresh sh California. Large factory trawlers from Alaska came south
markets where it did not spoil as quickly as Pacic mack- searching for jack mackerel, but found few sh and the
erel. Landings were low, varying between 200 and 15,000 shery never developed.
tons annually and comprising less than three percent of
In the early 1990s, southern California shermen and pro-
the CPS landings each year.
cessors became concerned over the possible expansion
In 1947, jack mackerel landings increased almost tenfold of the jack mackerel shery and lobbied heavily for Fed-
to 65,000 tons as the canning industry turned to jack eral management of the CPS shery. In 1999, the Coastal
mackerel in the face of the collapsing sardine shery. The Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPS FMP) was
U.S. Food and Drug Administration authorized changing adopted by the PFMC and jack mackerel was included
the common name from horse mackerel to jack mackerel in the plan as a monitored species and dropped from
in 1947 to increase consumer appeal. Between 1947 and the Pacic Coast Groundsh FMP. The CPS FMP sets the
1979, jack mackerel landings ranged from 800 to 73,000 ABC at 52,910 tons with a quota of 34,170 tons based on
tons, comprising six percent to 65 percent of the annual the portion (65 percent) of the population in US waters.
CPS landings. Should the jack mackerel catch exceed the quota for
The recovery of the Pacic mackerel population in the two consecutive years, the PFMC would have to decide
late 1970s shifted effort away from jack mackerel. The whether to change the shery to active status, resulting
CPS eet prefers Pacic mackerel, because jack mackerel in a need for an annual biomass estimate and subsequent
occur farther from port and tend to aggregate over rocky harvest guideline.
bottom where there is increased chance of damage to the In addition to the whiting trawl shery, a few adult
encircling nets. The recovery of the Pacic sardine and jack mackerel are also taken in the northern California
increased demand for squid worldwide have also contrib- salmon troll shery. Landings from the salmon shery are
uted to the decline in jack mackerel landings in California. a small portion (less than one percent) of the total jack
Since 1991, jack mackerel has been caught primarily mackerel landings.
from December through April, with landings low during Large jack mackerel have occasionally contributed to the
the remainder of the year. Landings have averaged commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV or partyboat)
less than 2,000 tons each year, comprising only two per- sport shery. In 1953, a run of large sh was encountered
cent of the CPS landings. Most of the catch occurs in in southern California, which contributed 13 percent of
southern California. the CPFV catch in southern California and 8.6 percent
The CPS eet catches jack mackerel only when the young
sh, less than six-years-old form schools near the surface.
As jack mackerel grow older, their behavior changes, and
they inhabit deeper waters farther offshore. The unpre-
dictable availability of jack mackerel also plays a part in
the erratic catches, since there are times when the eet
cannot nd jack mackerel schools for several months.
Large, adult jack mackerel were taken incidentally in
the Pacic whiting (hake) trawl shery off California in
the 1970s and 1980s. Because of this, jack mackerel was
included in the Pacic Fisheries Management Council’s
(PFMC) Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Management Plan
(FMP). The allowable biological catch (ABC) and equiva- Jack Mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus
Credit: DFG
lent quota for jack mackerel was set at 13,230 tons from
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 309
statewide. That was an exceptional year and, since then, (number of eggs per spawning event) changes over time
Jack Mackerel
jack mackerel have been of minor importance in the CPFV with females producing almost 104,000 eggs during the
catch. Smaller jack mackerel are caught at times from rst spawning event and 73,000 during subsequent events.
shing piers in southern and central California. Since 1980, Most (70 percent) female jack mackerel from the southern
recreational landings have been highly variable, ranging California shery become mature around their rst birth-
from an estimated 5,000 sh to over 350,000, based on day. By their second birthday, 90 percent of the females
data collected by Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commis- are spawning. Most of the eggs are spawned in 57° to 61°
sion samplers. These data are expanded from direct obser- F water. Eggs are about 0.04 inches in diameter and oat
vations and information collected from anglers. For minor free in the ocean for three to ve days before hatching,
recreational species, such as jack mackerel, these expan- depending on the water temperature.
sions may greatly over-estimate the catch. Live bait land- Larval jack mackerel feed primarily on copepods. Juvenile
ings of jack mackerel in the 1990s have been negligible jack mackerel seem to prefer copepods, pteropods, and
due to a preference for Pacic sardine and northern euphausiids, although at times they feed almost exclu-
anchovy as bait by sport anglers. sively on juvenile squid and anchovies. Food habits of
the older, offshore sh are unknown. Jack mackerel are
preyed upon by large sh like tuna and billsh. Smaller sh
Status of Biological Knowledge and marine birds are unlikely to feed on jack mackerel,
J
except young-of-the-year and yearlings, because they are
ack mackerel are actually members of the jack family,
too large to be eaten. A study of the diet of the California
Carangidae, and are not true mackerel. They are
sea lion in the northern Channel Islands from 1981 to
widely distributed throughout the northeastern Pacic
1995 found that jack mackerel ranked as the fourth
Ocean, where young sh (up to six years and 12 inches
most frequently occurring species. The importance of jack
fork length) are found schooling over shallow rocky reefs,
mackerel in the diet of other marine mammals is not
generally less than 200 feet deep, and along rocky shore-
well known.
lines of the coast and islands off southern California and
Baja California. Large sh (16 years and older and 20
inches fork length) are found offshore and farther north,
Status of the Population
east of a line that goes from Cabo San Lucas to the
T
eastern Aleutian Islands, and includes the Gulf of Alaska. he most recent estimate of total biomass was made-
The offshore segment of the population does not form the more than 17 years ago, in 1983. Total biomass was
dense, shallow-water schools observed in young sh. The estimated at 1.63 to 1.99 million tons with spawning bio-
distribution of jack mackerel between six and 15 years is mass accounting for 1.50 million tons. These estimates
not well known. The movement of the larger sh into the must be viewed as tentative approximations of the popu-
Gulf of Alaska appears to be related to summer warming lation because of two factors. First, at the time, the
of the surface waters. Not all of the large sh migrate spawning frequency of jack mackerel was not known, and
north, since some large jack mackerel are caught off estimates were based on the spawning frequencies of
southern California and Baja California waters throughout northern anchovy (15 percent of females spawn each day
the year. during the peak spawning months) which has similar gonad
Jack mackerel spawn in the offshore waters (60 - 300 morphology and a protracted spawning season like jack
miles) between Punta Eugenia and Point Conception from mackerel. Second, estimates were derived from plankton
March through July. The center of offshore spawning activ- surveys for eggs and larvae in the Southern California
ity moves north as the season progresses. There is little Bight, which did not cover the entire range of the spawn-
production in the inshore waters (up to 80 miles) of the ing population, and assumptions were made for the contri-
Southern California Bight until July, presumably when the bution of older jack mackerel outside the survey area. A
young sh begin to spawn. Little is known about the sea- recent study estimated the spawning frequency for jack
sonal and geographic limits of the offshore and northern mackerel at 20 percent of the spawning population. Using
spawning areas. A 1955 survey found jack mackerel eggs a spawning frequency of 20 percent would have yielded
and larvae offshore (100 - 1,000 miles) off Oregon and a lower biomass estimate in 1983. Although we now have
Washington in August. A second survey in October 1972 an estimate of spawning frequency, no other biomass
found an area of spawning jack mackerel 200 to 600 miles estimates have been produced since 1983.
off Washington. There has been a decrease in the percentage of older sh
Like anchovy and Pacic mackerel, jack mackerel appear (three to six years) in the catch since the 1960s, which has
to be multiple spawners, with females spawning on aver- caused some concern. It is unclear whether this change
age every ve days and 25 times per year. Batch fecundity
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
310
Jack Mackerel
160
millions of pounds landed
140
120
Jack Mackerel
100
80 Commercial Landings
60 1916-1999, Jack Mackerel
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
40
and commercial landing receipts.
20 Jack mackerel were aggregated
as unclassified
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 mackerel prior to 1926.
References
is due to a decrease in the number of older sh or to a
change in the distribution of these sh.
Blunt, C. E., Jr. 1969. The jack mackerel (Trachurus sym-
metricus) resource of the eastern North Pacic. Calif.
Management Considerations Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 13:45-52.
MacCall, A. D., H.W. Frey, D.D Huppert, E.H. Knaggs,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
J.A. McMillan, and G.D. Stauffer. 1980. Biology and eco-
further information.
nomics of the shery for jack mackerel in the northeast-
ern Pacic. NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-4.
Jan Mason
MacCall, A. D., and G.D. Stauffer. 1983. Biology and shery
National Marine Fisheries Service
potential of jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). Calif.
Revised by: Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:46-56.
Traci Bishop
Macewicz, B.J., and D.N. Abramenkoff. 1993. Collection of
California Department of Fish and Game
jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus, during 1991 coop-
erative US-USSR cruise. NOAA Admin. Rep. NOAA-NMFS-
SWFSC-LJ-93-07.
MacGregor, J.S. 1966. Synopsis on the biology of the jack
mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). U. S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Fish. 526 1-16.
Mason, J.E. 1991. Variations in the catch of jack mackerel
in the southern California purse seine shery. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 32:143-151.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1998. Draft amend-
ment 8 of the coastal pelagic species shery management
plan. 306 p.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1999. Amendment
11 to the Pacic coast groundsh shery management
plan, including nal environmental assessment/regulatory
impact review. October 1998.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 311
Commercial Landings -
Coastal Pelagics
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
Anchovy Jack Pacific Unclassified
Sardine1
Market Squid Anchovy Live Bait Mackerel Mackerel Mackerel
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 275,620 531,209 ---- ---- ---- 1,113,998 15,648,839
1917 439,438 528,753 ---- ---- ---- 3,345,563 104,103,331
1918 361,714 868,161 ---- ---- ---- 4,005,906 157,652,811
1919 3,698,242 1,609,548 ---- ---- ---- 2,654,596 153,877,179
1920 508,199 569,774 ---- ---- ---- 2,997,308 118,520,914
1921 432,559 1,946,881 ---- ---- ---- 2,914,613 59,332,305
1922 209,641 652,516 ---- ---- ---- 2,466,762 93,399,900
1923 1,180,446 307,074 ---- ---- ---- 3,553,954 158,159,356
1924 6,831,029 346,951 ---- ---- ---- 3,227,300 242,685,958
1925 1,891,220 93,071 ---- ---- ---- 3,506,103 315,294,986
1926 3,135,561 60,157 ---- 235,151 3,610,098 ---- 286,741,250
1927 6,014,113 368,201 ---- 462,539 4,728,903 ---- 342,275,289
1928 1,351,992 357,470 ---- 538,446 35,251,298 ---- 420,269,665
1929 4,660,572 382,445 ---- 698,290 57,973,952 ---- 651,771,904
1930 10,969,462 319,561 ---- 368,828 16,531,364 ---- 502,062,747
1931 1,738,621 307,494 ---- 563,108 14,254,081 ---- 364,351,801
1932 4,229,743 299,217 ---- 536,409 12,473,746 ---- 422,609,716
1933 824,543 317,292 ---- 1,010,850 69,613,680 ---- 626,397,481
1934 1,530,450 257,505 ---- 1,581,274 113,848,585 ---- 1,119,931,099
1935 815,944 178,970 ---- 9,983,924 146,427,202 ---- 1,095,758,548
1936 945,439 195,122 ---- 4,599,382 100,542,214 ---- 1,463,543,700
1937 501,662 226,229 ---- 6,541,026 60,936,701 ---- 1,071,490,525
1938 1,599,319 735,144 ---- 4,133,918 79,848,015 ---- 1,023,389,489
1939 1,162,056 2,147,901 ---- 3,760,155 80,909,374 ---- 1,160,793,581
1940 1,800,632 6,317,797 ---- 1,432,637 120,504,412 ---- 905,973,403
1941 1,431,136 4,105,382 ---- 2,068,685 78,167,200 ---- 1,262,480,393
1942 943,783 1,694,290 ---- 5,348,501 52,553,663 ---- 969,747,099
1943 9,164,361 1,570,803 ---- 12,698,974 75,214,799 ---- 972,269,915
1944 10,936,595 3,891,029 ---- 12,777,077 83,656,900 ---- 1,147,207,882
1945 15,225,664 1,616,880 ---- 9,032,987 53,716,765 ---- 845,062,774
1946 38,024,528 1,921,627 ---- 15,093,321 53,875,327 ---- 510,759,173
1947 14,542,649 18,940,521 ---- 129,048,507 46,478,362 ---- 255,513,948
1948 19,255,687 10,835,930 ---- 72,898,335 39,385,801 ---- 362,037,087
1949 6,859,129 3,322,273 ---- 51,250,088 49,771,273 ---- 633,379,791
1950 5,996,335 4,878,687 ---- 133,255,752 32,649,969 ---- 714,522,761
1951 12,382,869 6,954,852 ---- 89,838,095 33,518,520 ---- 328,900,731
1952 3,670,923 55,782,870 ---- 146,521,673 20,604,761 ---- 14,330,420
1953 8,917,114 85,835,478 ---- 55,750,855 7,502,181 ---- 9,468,892
1954 8,155,105 42,410,364 ---- 17,333,581 25,392,604 ---- 136,504,017
1955 14,271,968 44,691,582 ---- 35,754,707 23,310,302 ---- 145,607,749
1956 19,483,984 56,920,585 ---- 75,762,110 50,013,009 ---- 69,554,345
1957 12,449,121 40,547,526 ---- 82,011,785 62,043,775 ---- 45,862,106
1958 7,457,418 11,602,724 ---- 22,065,801 27,648,485 ---- 207,445,837
1959 19,653,013 7,173,739 ---- 37,507,227 37,602,134 ---- 74,366,856
1960 2,561,520 5,058,603 ---- 74,945,453 36,808,690 ---- 57,532,719
1961 10,285,791 7,711,573 ---- 97,606,304 44,110,194 ---- 43,169,064
1962 9,368,149 2,764,003 ---- 89,978,933 48,578,820 ---- 15,362,952
1963 11,560,854 4,570,380 ---- 95,442,284 40,242,676 ---- 7,131,221
1964 16,433,624 4,975,089 ---- 89,692,911 26,827,881 ---- 13,137,483
1965 18,619,893 5,733,024 ---- 66,666,380 7,050,059 ---- 1,924,219
1966 19,025,879 62,280,236 ---- 40,862,409 4,629,504 ---- 878,359
1967 19,601,922 69,609,377 ---- 38,180,547 1,166,607 ---- 148,766
1968 24,932,713 31,076,116 ---- 55,667,682 3,133,446 ---- 124,088
1969 20,779,382 135,277,718 ---- 51,921,162 2,357,194 ---- 105,273
1970 24,590,865 192,485,074 ---- 47,746,509 621,919 ---- 442,319
1971 31,517,408 89,705,068 ---- 59,882,985 155,847 ---- 297,886
1972 20,159,312 138,201,573 ---- 51,117,573 108,078 ---- 372,230
1973 12,061,632 265,271,871 ---- 20,615,827 56,848 ---- 151,599
1974 28,904,678 165,433,480 7,813,185 25,457,593 133,446 ---- 14,050
1975 23,621,984 317,021,422 7,242,187 36,779,231 287,121 ---- 5,300
1976 20,306,005 249,838,707 9,451,220 44,893,081 353,729 ---- 16,190
1977 28,243,779 219,368,803 9,078,638 98,711,993 11,757,254 ---- 11,023
1978 37,798,628 24,808,622 11,468,450 67,803,179 24,676,345 ---- 8,818
1979 43,407,642 106,029,137 5,132,363 36,012,516 59,961,335 ---- 35,274
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
312
Commercial Landings -
Coastal Pelagics, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
Anchovy Jack Pacific Unclassified
Sardine1
Market Squid Anchovy Live Bait Mackerel Mackerel Mackerel
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 33,917,646 93,156,343 9,594,520 44,134,347 64,240,508 ---- 74,957
1981 51,829,718 113,463,125 10,544,713 30,842,675 84,445,878 ---- 61,729
1982 35,953,265 91,238,321 8,428,274 57,284,923 61,544,255 ---- 284,396
1983 4,020,353 9,327,760 8,558,347 39,892,652 70,609,664 ---- 762,800
1984 1,243,458 6,411,044 8,950,770 23,157,360 91,566,810 ---- 509,268
1985 22,652,461 3,527,397 9,310,124 20,304,577 75,074,026 ---- 1,285,295
1986 46,908,622 4,142,487 7,963,099 24,025,981 89,542,966 ---- 2,524,293
1987 44,056,904 3,139,383 7,879,323 25,690,471 90,303,561 ---- 4,543,728
1988 82,080,486 3,183,476 9,235,167 22,392,355 93,035,089 ---- 8,210,016
1989 90,152,660 5,313,141 10,128,039 42,939,441 78,369,937 ---- 8,476,775
1990 62,714,437 6,957,790 10,674,786 10,745,332 80,944,937 ---- 6,106,806
1991 82,426,950 9,224,142 10,718,878 3,675,106 67,150,611 ---- 16,810,250
1992 28,902,795 2,477,996 5,670,291 12,958,774 40,939,848 ---- 39,564,164
1993 94,185,070 4,307,833 5,557,855 3,558,261 27,317,483 ---- 30,518,596
1994 122,345,905 8,113,013 4,239,490 4,746,553 22,134,415 ---- 29,586,040
1995 159,480,780 4,146,896 ---- 5,820,205 19,107,467 ---- 95,790,868
1996 177,255,664 9,742,229 ---- 4,376,177 22,676,752 ---- 71,767,091
1997 155,174,427 12,606,034 ---- 2,559,567 45,448,302 ---- 101,844,762
1998 6,381,504 3,212,136 ---- 2,138,484 44,253,397 ---- 90,513,000
1999 201,762,132 11,417,742 ---- 2,123,052 21,003,443 ---- 125,105,739
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
1916 - 1969 sardine data include reduction fishery.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 313
Recreational Landings -
Coastal Pelagics
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
Pacific
Mackerel
No. of Fish1
Year
1947 148,041
1948 203,012
1949 95,158
1950 66,969
1951 47,188
1952 76,568
1953 61,467
1954 315,037
1955 151,018
1956 121,136
1957 151,960
1958 136,607
1959 88,952
1960 79,370
1961 113,988
1962 116,738
1963 146,560
1964 101,219
1965 151,896
1966 205,090
1967 108,366
1968 78,933
1969 120,036
1970 129,770
1971 224,223
1972 245,882
1973 199,104
1974 102,619
1975 129,944
1976 51,441
1977 484,722
1978 940,204
1979 1,272,038
1980 1,315,971
1981 1,007,198
1982 914,238
1983 630,006
1984 604,324
1985 695,708
1986 605,716
1987 517,166
1988 412,924
1989 363,700
1990 472,006
1991 438,979
1992 327,747
1993 417,640
1994 336,655
1995 271,150
1996 335,240
1997 240,977
1998 129,747
1999 83,634
All data based on CPFV logbooks.
1
All data presented in number of fish.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
314
Highly Migratory
Species: Overview reduce the catch of marine mammals. The state has fol-
Highly Migratory Species: Overview
lowed the recommendation of the team and implemented
regulations covering gear, area and seasonal closures to
H ighly migratory species include the tunas, billshes, assure few marine mammals are taken. The drift gillnet
pelagic sharks, and dolphinsh. As a group, they con- shery also operates under a December 2000 NMFS bio-
tribute to some of the most valuable commercial sheries logical opinion which closes central California from August
and are also very important in the sport shery, especially 15 through October 31 to protect leatherback turtles, and
in southern California. Currently, the harvest of highly southern California during August and January of El Niño
migratory species is regulated by the state. However, years to protect loggerhead turtles.
beginning in 2001, the Pacic Fishery Management Council
The nal gear type is pelagic longline. While the state
has proposed adopting a shery management plan regulat-
does not allow longline vessels to sh in the exclusive eco-
ing the take of highly migratory species within and outside
nomic zone, they may le for offshore shing declarations,
the Exclusive Economic Zone. Upon completion of the
sh outside 200 miles and return to the state with their
shery management plan process, which may take more
catch. Offshore longline vessels usually target swordsh
than two years, jurisdiction over the harvest of these
but will sh for tunas during times of local abundance.
species will pass to the federal government.
Currently there are no longlining restrictions except shing
Currently, ve distinctive gear types are used to take is not allowed within 200 miles of shore.
highly migratory species commercially. The oldest and
Recreational anglers using hook and line gear target highly
most common is hook and line gear. The gear may be used
migratory species whenever the opportunity arises. Com-
to take any highly migratory species but, traditionally,
mercial passenger shing vessel and private boat anglers
most of the shing has been for tunas. The majority of
pursue these species in U.S. waters and territorial seas of
albacore are taken by trolling vessels with a small portion
Mexico. Oceanic regimes play a major role in determining
of sh landed by pole-and-line shing using live bait.
availability and which species will be harvested. During
Albacore are taken along the West Coast of the U.S. and
1999, highly migratory species accounted for over 9.5
Canada, as well as on the high seas of the north and south
percent of all sh landed by California anglers. During
Pacic Oceans. A very small eet of bait boats continues
eight of the past 10 years, tropical species such as yel-
to target the tropical tunas, yellown and skipjack tuna,
lown tuna, skipjack tuna, and dolphinsh have dominated
off Mexico and Central America. Southern California has
the catch. Temperate tunas (albacore and bluen tuna)
a small harpoon eet (< 50 vessels) pursuing swordsh
have only contributed signicant catches in the years fol-
during the summer months. This is in contrast to the more
lowing a major El Niño event. Catches of sharks and billsh
than 200 vessels shing during the 1950s and 1960s. They
are important to anglers of the state, but constitute a
generally operate within the Channel Islands but occasion-
minor portion of the overall catch. When the highly migra-
ally may venture as far north as Morro Bay. The third type
tory species shery developed at the turn of the century,
gear used to take highly migratory species is the purse
shing activity was conned to southern California with
seine. Two distinct eets exist; a small remnant high seas
most of the effort at Santa Catalina Island. As shing
eet that shes for tropical tunas in the eastern Pacic
vessels developed the capability to go further, sport
and 40 wetsh vessels that occasionally land tuna when
anglers followed the sh to the offshore islands and banks.
they are locally available. The high-sea purse seine eet
San Clemente, Santa Barbara, San Nicholas, the Channel
shes in an area regulated by the Inter-American Tropical
Islands, plus associated banks started to play a greater
Tuna Commission and is subject only to state licensing and
role in the shery. Sport shing for albacore started
landing taxes on sh landed in the state. The wetsh eet
in northern California following World War II but never
targets bluen tuna during the summer but also takes
reached the magnitude of the southern California shery
yellown and skipjack tuna. Occasionally, in some years,
because of the lack of anglers and sh. Trips from San
they may catch signicant amounts of albacore.
Diego to northern Mexico originated in early 1930s, and
California currently allows drift gillnet vessels shing with expanded to the offshore islands and southern Baja Cali-
large mesh nets to take swordsh, tunas and sharks. They fornia in the late 1940s. Extended long-range trips off
generally sh off southern California in the summer and Mexico, greater than 800 miles, started in the late-1950s
move north with the sh in the fall. Access is limited and and continue to be popular today with both party boat
the vessels are restricted by seasonal and area closures. In and private boat anglers.
addition, the shery must be in compliance with federal
Currently, the stocks of all highly migratory species are
regulations governing the take of marine mammals and
considered to be healthy although common thresher shark
protected species. To this end, the National Marine Fisher-
may face some reductions in take under the Council’s
ies Service has established a Take Reduction Team to
shery management plan because they were overshed
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 315
in the 1980s. Most of the controversy surrounding the
Highly Migratory Species: Overview
take of highly migratory species centers around user
conicts, take of state and federally protected species,
longlining inside 200 miles, and bycatch. User conicts
exist between commercial gear types (harpoon vs. drift
gillnets, drift gillnets vs. longline) but a more controver-
sial issue is the conict between commercial shers and
sport anglers. Area and time closures have helped to
eliminate some of the conicts between drift gillnets
and sport marlin anglers and prohibiting longlines inside
200 miles has also helped to reduce the conict. Some
conicts arise over the take of tuna when sport anglers
encounter purse seiners shing in areas they are shing.
Finally, the environmental community is concerned over
the take of marine mammals, protected species, and
bycatch in the commercial shery. Their concerns have
been alleviated to some extent by implementation of
recommendations from the take reduction team for the
drift gillnet shery and the recent Biological Opinion on
the take of sea turtles in the shery. Bycatch will con-
tinue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline sher-
ies until effective measures are developed which reduce
the catch to close to zero. This is especially true for
shark bycatch.
Steve Crooke
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
316
Albacore
History of the Fishery gears, such as longlines, purse seines, and drift gillnets
Albacore
have also been used by California shermen, but trolling
A lbacore (Thunnus alalunga) is a highly migratory spe- operations have dominated since the early 1980s and
cies that has been targeted by California’s recreational now contribute over 90 percent of the annual catch of
anglers and commercial shermen for more than 100 albacore. Generally speaking, troll, pole-and-line, purse
years. Currently, it ranks among the state’s most impor- seines, and drift gillnet vessels operate in surface sheries
tant marine sh resources, in terms of both economic that target two to ve-year-old sh (juvenile albacore)
value and sport-related benets. Commercial landings of in the upper portions of the water column, and longline
albacore at California ports have increased from $4 million vessels operate in subsurface sheries that harvest ve
to $10 million (ex-vessel dollars) on an annual basis since to ten year-old sh (adult albacore) from deeper waters.
1996. In recent times, the recreational shery for albacore California-based troll vessels, or jig boats, can be broadly
has contributed at least $25 million per year to California’s classied into two groups – relatively small boats (30-50
economy through angling-related expenditures. feet in length) that typically carry a crew of two or
three shermen, spend one to three weeks at sea, and
The commercial sheries for albacore developed rapidly
target albacore in inshore waters; and larger boats (50-90
following the rst canning operations of this species in
feet in length) that commonly operate with three to ve
1903 in San Pedro Bay, California. The vast majority of
shermen, spend one to two months at sea, and sh
albacore commercially harvested by California shermen
both inshore and offshore waters. Historically, commercial
is processed as canned “white meat” tuna that generally
shing effort for albacore has uctuated over the past
commands premium prices in the marketplace. Through
100 years, based primarily on market and oceanic condi-
the rst quarter of the 20th century, the tuna-canning
tions. For example, from 1916 to 1925, about 300 vessels
industry and its related sheries endeavored to meet
equipped for one-day trips participated in the shery,
increasing demands for seafood, particularly packed prod-
operating exclusively in coastal waters. The commercial
ucts that had a long shelf life. The commercial sheries
eet that shed the central Pacic Ocean, as well as
for albacore continued to expand through the mid-1940s,
inshore waters, grew steadily over the next 25 years,
extending northward to coastal waters off northern Cali-
reaching 3,000 boats in 1950. The number of vessels
fornia, Oregon, and Washington, and westward to the cen-
declined during the 1950s, and by 1960, 1,000 boats were
tral Pacic Ocean, several hundred miles off the California
involved in the shery. During the 1970s, the commercial
coast. The geographic expansion of the sheries slowed
eet began to increase once again to over 2,000 vessels,
during the 1950s through the mid-1960s, but the our-
but by the late 1980s and through the 1990s, fewer than
ishing market continued, with record landings during
500 boats typically landed their commercial catches at
this period that averaged roughly 30 million pounds annu-
California ports.
ally. During the mid-1970s, the commercial shing eet
extended farther into the central Pacic Ocean, with Albacore are harvested commercially by countries other
some vessels shing north and west of the Hawaiian than the United States, including Japan, Taiwan and South
Islands, as far as the International Date Line. Since the and North Korea in the western Pacic Ocean, and
1980s, the albacore sheries of California have typically Canada and Mexico in the eastern Pacic Ocean. Cur-
operated within roughly 900 miles of the U.S. Pacic rently, the California troll shery accounts for roughly
coast; the distance largely dependent on the stock’s 10 percent of the total commercial landings of North
migratory route in any given year. California’s commercial Pacic albacore, with Japan (75 percent) contributing the
shery for albacore has generally concentrated on the largest amount, followed by Oregon/Washington, Taiwan,
North Pacic albacore stock during the summer and fall and Canada (about ve percent each). In a typical year,
seasons as the sh move through waters of the northeast- during the late spring and summer, the Japanese pole-
ern Pacic Ocean during their annual migration. However, and-line eet will target the juvenile albacore as they
in recent years during the winter months, some vessels
have also targeted the South Pacic albacore stock that
inhabits waters off New Zealand’s east coast between the
International Date Line and 110˚W longitude. Commercial
landings of albacore in California have varied over the last
decade, ranging from a high of 12.3 million pounds in 1999
to a low of 1.8 million pounds in 1995.
During the early years of California’s commercial sheries
for albacore, pole-and-line (live bait shing) and troll
(articial-jig shing) gears were used extensively. Other Albacore, Thunnus alalunga
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 317
Albacore
100
millions of pounds landed
80
60
Albacore
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Albacore
40
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial land-
20
ing receipts. Data includes ship-
ments and landings from areas
north and south of the state 0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
between 1916 and 1969.
form identiable schools and begin their annual migration nia, where less than 200 albacore were landed on CPFV-
in waters off the east coast of Japan to the central related trips. In 1999, the stock took a more southerly
Pacic Ocean (Emperor Seamount). In the summer and route as it neared the U.S. Pacic Coast and spent much
into the fall, the U.S. and Canada troll eets will follow of the summer and fall in inshore waters off southern
the albacore as they continue their migration to the east- California and northern Mexico, where anglers on CPFVs
ern Pacic Ocean and coastal waters off the U.S. Pacic landed a total of 258,448 sh – the highest total on
Coast. record. The long tradition of albacore sport shing in
California is not only due to the CPFV industry, but also
Recreational shing for albacore developed during the
an increasing number of anglers that sh from privately-
early 1900s, when vessel owners in southern California
owned boats. Both represent an enthusiastic sport shery
rst realized that the angling community was very willing
that anxiously awaits the arrival of the rst pulse of
to charter their boats for shing. As the popularity of
albacore to California’s inshore waters each summer. Sport
albacore increased, as a food and sport sh, so did the
shing in California typically peaks during the mid-summer
partyboat (commercial passenger-carrying shing vessels
months (July and August) as the bulk of the stock travels
or CPFV) industry. In the very early years of the sport
to inshore waters off the U.S. Pacic Coast. However,
shery, only a few CPFV trips were made, concentrating
arrival and departure times associated with the stock’s
in waters around the Channel Islands; however, by the
migration through U.S. owned shing grounds have varied
mid 1950s, more than 100 CPFVs carried anglers to other
substantially over the years, with spring arrivals and
inshore waters in pursuit of the stock as it conducted its
winter departures frequently observed.
annual migration. The CPFV industry continued to grow
during the 1960s, with increases in shing capacity and The actual operations of most sheries, including those
range, which allowed boats to carry more anglers and associated with albacore, are essentially dened in accor-
venture further from port in years when the albacore dance with the biological characteristics and ecological
remained farther offshore. Over the last 10 years, from relations exhibited by the species. This is particularly true
40 to 60 large CPFVs, that typically accommodate from for albacore and its related sheries, given that the migra-
15 to 60 anglers for one-to three-day trips, have shed tion and distribution patterns of this species are highly
for albacore in California waters, mostly based in southern inuenced by the prevailing oceanographic conditions.
California, with several operations further north in Morro
Bay and San Francisco. Additionally, from 60 to 90 smaller
Status of Biological Knowledge
CPFVs have routinely operated in California since the early
1990s, with these vessels usually carrying six to 10 anglers
A lbacore are members of the Scombridae family, which
on one-day shing excursions. Catches of albacore on
includes 40 to 50 species of tuna and mackerel, 23
CPFV trips have been highly variable over the years, based
of which are found, for at least a part of their life, in
largely on the migratory behavior of the stock in any given
North American waters. Albacore, as well as other species
year. For example, in 1994, as the stock approached the
of tuna, have unique biological characteristics that enable
coast of North America, the bulk of the population trav-
them to swim continuously at very high speeds and cover
eled north to waters off Oregon and Washington, resulting
vast areas during annual migrations. Albacore are literally
in a poor shing season for recreational anglers in Califor-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
318
built for speed, with torpedo-shaped (fusiform) bodies, ing sh are typically bounded by these thermal gradients
Albacore
smooth skin, and streamlined ns, and can reach speeds as they conduct their round-trip travel across the Pacic
of more than 50 miles per hour for short periods of time. Ocean. Although the bulk of the migrating stock is typi-
Albacore are metallic dark blue along the back, with cally observed within this SST range, telemetry studies
dusky to silvery white coloration along the sides and on have shown that this species will spend brief periods
the belly. The pectoral ns are exceptionally long, extend- of time in much colder water (49˚F). Upwelling, where
ing to nearly half the length of the body, and albacore nutrient-rich waters from the ocean depths rise to the sur-
are commonly referred to as longn tuna. In addition to face, is another important phenomenon associated with
these morphological adaptations, albacore possess highly oceanic fronts and ultimately, an event that highly inu-
specialized physiological functions that allow for rapid ences the distribution of the migrating albacore. It is likely
movement and sustained endurance. First and foremost, that the albacore are attracted to upwelling fronts, given
many tuna, including albacore, have a highly evolved cir- these areas are very productive and contain much forage
culatory system that includes countercurrent exchangers for predatory sh such as albacore. Although scientists are
that act to reduce the loss of heat generated by increased quite certain that oceanic fronts dene albacore distribu-
muscular activity, allowing them to regulate their body tion and thus, vulnerability to sheries, they feel other
temperature and ultimately, increase the efciency of oceanographic parameters also inuence the migratory
their muscles. Additionally, albacore have higher blood behavior of the stock, including salinity, ocean color and
pressure and volume than most of the other species of sh. clarity, and vertical thermal/density structure. In general,
catches from the commercial sheries indicate that alba-
Albacore are widely distributed throughout the world’s
core are most abundant along the warm side of upwelling
oceans in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate zones. The
fronts in clear blue oceanic waters that are associated
North Pacic albacore stock, the population targeted by
with salinity gradients between 33 and 35 parts per thou-
both the commercial and recreational sheries of Califor-
sand and well dened thermoclines. Recent research indi-
nia, is centered around 35° N latitude in the Pacic Ocean.
cates that the sh adjust their behavior to very different
This stock’s distribution extends from the central (west)
oceanic conditions when passing through at least four dis-
coast of Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska in the eastern Pacic
tinct physical regimes (geographical strata) of the North
Ocean, and from the equator to the north (east) coast of
Pacic Ocean. Thus, determining what are the most inu-
Japan in the western Pacic Ocean. The actual boundaries
ential environmental parameters depends on where in the
of the stock’s range depend largely on the season of the
ocean and what time of year the assessment is conducted.
year and oceanic conditions. Currently, shery researchers
are uncertain whether the population of albacore inhab- Albacore are top carnivores in the ocean ecosystem and
iting the North Pacic Ocean is strictly a single stock opportunistically prey on schooling stocks, such as sardine,
or possibly, composed of two (or more) stocks. Results anchovy, and squid. Albacore are preyed upon by man,
from some tagging experiments indicate that substocks as well as the larger species of billsh, tuna, and sharks.
of albacore may exist in the North Pacic Ocean, based Similar size albacore travel together in school groups that
on differences in migratory routes, growth and mortality contain small aggregations of sh, which collectively, can
rates, and size distributions of the commercial catches. be up to 19 miles wide. At the onset of the migration,
However, more information concerning albacore biology during the spring and summer months in the western
and genetics is needed before denitive conclusions can Pacic Ocean, the young albacore form relatively small,
be drawn regarding the stock structure of the North loose, and broadly scattered groups. As the seasons prog-
Pacic population of albacore. ress, the groups become more compact and contain
greater numbers of schools. The more sedentary, older
As stated previously, the North Pacic albacore stock, par-
albacore typically form more compact schools. Generally
ticularly juveniles, typically complete an expansive annual
migration that begins in the spring and early summer off
Japan, continues throughout the late summer into inshore
300
waters off the U.S. Pacic Coast, and ends late in the
year in the western Pacic Ocean. It is generally believed 250
thousands of fish landed
that oceanic conditions strongly inuence both the timing
Albacore Tuna
200
and geographical extent of the albacore’s migration in any 150
given year. Migrating albacore concentrate along thermal 100
discontinuities (oceanic fronts) associated with waters of 50
the Transition Zone in the North Pacic Ocean. The vast 0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
majority of albacore are caught in waters with sea-surface
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Albacore Tuna
temperatures (SSTs) that range from 59˚-67˚F. The migrat-
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 319
Status of the Population
speaking, albacore schools are not as large or as dense
Albacore
as those of some of the larger schooling tunas, such as
F ishery researchers generally agree that the North
yellown and skipjack. Bluen, yellown, and skipjack
Pacic albacore population is currently a relatively
tunas are occasionally caught along with albacore by the
healthy stock that has responded favorably to rates of
surface sheries off the U.S. Pacic Coast. Although alba-
exploitation over the last decade or so. Recent assess-
core spend much of their time in the surface waters of
ments of the entire stock indicated that sustainable
the ocean, they will also explore deeper waters of the
yields, on a global basis, likely range between 176.4 and
thermocline in search of prey.
220.5 million pounds, roughly the level of total annual
North Pacic albacore mature at roughly ve to six years
catch observed during the latter part of the 1990s. For
of age (approximately 33 inches in length). Peak spawning
example, the combined commercial and recreational land-
of albacore in the Pacic Ocean is generally believed to
ings in 1999 (U.S. and foreign) was approximately 209.5
occur in subtropical waters centered around 20˚N and 20˚S
million pounds. Catches and shing effort associated with
latitude. It is assumed that the North Pacic albacore
U.S. sheries for albacore, both commercial and recre-
stock spawns from March through July on grounds located
ational, were considerably higher in the latter part of
in the western and central Pacic Ocean. There is some
the 1990s than during the early and mid 1990s, which is
information, albeit limited, that albacore may spawn mul-
baseline information that generally indicates the popula-
tiple times in a year. Albacore are believed to be pelagic
tion has responded relatively well to recent levels of
spawners that broadcast their gametes in open water,
exploitation. Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) data from the
often near the surface, with fertilization being external.
U.S. troll shery, a shing statistic often used as an index
Estimates of female fecundity (number of eggs) range
of population size, has been relatively constant over the
from 0.8 to 2.6 million eggs per spawning. The early life
last 10 years (30 to 60 sh per day), with the exception of
history of albacore is not clearly understood, but very
1996 and 1998, when shing success peaked at roughly 100
young albacore (larvae and juveniles in their rst year of
sh per day. The CPUE statistics from the pole-and-line
life) are believed to remain relatively close to the spawn-
shery of Japan, which harvests juvenile albacore similar
ing grounds and eventually, congregate in waters south
to the U.S. troll eet, have been generally consistent
and east of Japan prior to beginning their rst migration.
since the early 1990s as well, with the trend increasing
Approximate growth rates for North Pacic albacore are as
noticeably during the late 1990s. The CPUE time series
follows: age-one sh are 14.2 inches and 2.2 pounds; age-
associated with the Japan longline shery, which targets
two sh are 20.5 inches and 6.5 pounds; age-three sh are
adult albacore and larger juveniles, indicates a productive
25.6 inches and 12.7 pounds; age-four sh are 30
stock that has been increasing in size since the early
inches and 20.3 pounds; age-ve sh are 33.5 inches
1990s. It is more difcult to assess the status of the
and 28.3 pounds, and age 10-12 sh can reach up to
overall population using CPUE data from the recreational
55.0 inches and over 100 pounds. Albacore are believed
sheries, given the inuence of oceanic factors on alba-
to reach a maximum age of roughly 11-12 years, although
core’s migratory behavior. It is likely that catch and shing
interpretations of age for older sh are typically subject
effort associated with the North Pacic albacore stock
to increased uncertainty and thus, longevity cannot be
will remain at or slightly above current levels into the
strictly dened at this time. The sex ratio of juvenile
near future, given favorable oceanographic and market
albacore is approximately one to one, but males appear
conditions.
to outnumber females as the sh age, e.g., the sex ratio
Although shing pressure is likely an important factor
of the catches from the longline sheries, which target
that inuences albacore abundance in the North Pacic
adult sh, is generally skewed towards higher numbers of
Ocean, it must necessarily be interpreted in the context
males than females.
of the overall condition of the stock’s environment. That
is, albacore abundance in the North Pacic Ocean has
uctuated considerably over the last several decades,
with strong and weak periods occurring intermittently, based
largely on the ocean’s carrying capacity in any given year.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
320
Management Considerations References
Albacore
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Bartoo, N., and T.J. Foreman. 1994. A review of the
further information. biology and sheries for North Pacic albacore (Thunnus
alalunga). Pages 173-187 in Interactions of Pacic tuna
sheries, Volume 2: papers on biology and sheries, R.S.
P. R. Crone
Shomura, J. Majkowski, and S. Langi (editors). FAO Fisher-
National Marine Fisheries Service
ies Technical Paper No. 336/2. Rome, FAO.
Clemens, H.B. 1961. The migration, age, and growth of
Pacic albacore (Thunnus alalunga), 1951-1958. California
Department of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 115. 128 p.
Clemens, H.B., and W.L. Craig. 1965. An analysis of Califor-
nia’s albacore shery. California Department of Fish and
Game, Fish Bulletin 128. 301 p.
Foreman, T.J. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the
albacore tuna, Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788), in
the Pacic Ocean. Pages 17-70 in Synopses of biological
data on eight species of scombrids, W.H. Bayliff (editor).
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, Special Report
No. 2. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla,
CA.
Laurs, R.M., and R.J. Lynn. 1977. Seasonal migration
of North Pacic albacore (Thunnus alalunga) into North
American coastal waters: Distribution, relative abun-
dance, and association with Transition Zone waters. U.S.
Fishery Bulletin 75(4):795-822.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 321
Swordfish
History of the Fishery ing takes of sh swimming just below the surface and not
visible from the vessel. Most harpoon vessels sell their
S wordsh (Xiphias gladius) is an important resource sup- catch fresh daily and achieve a premium price above that
porting major sheries in all oceans of the world. The for longline and drift net-caught sh.
quality of swordsh esh is excellent and is marketed both The harpoon shery remained the only legal gear until the
frozen and fresh. Major Pacic shing areas include the late 1970s when a few drift gillnet vessels began targeting
waters off Japan, the North Pacic Transition Zone north common thresher sharks. This rapidly developed into the
of Hawaii, the west coasts of the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador, successful drift net shery for swordsh and thresher
Peru, Chile, and off Australia and New Zealand. Much sharks, which proved more cost effective in terms of fuel
of the Pacic catch is taken incidentally in longline sh- economy and yielded greater catches than was possible
eries targeting tunas. Reported annual Pacic-wide land- with harpoon gear.
ings averaged 26 million pounds per year between 1950
Annual landings of drift net caught swordsh increased
and 1986. Recent landings peaked in 1992 at 75 million
rapidly peaking in 1984 at 5.2 million pounds valued at
pounds and now average around 65 million pounds annu-
10.3 million dollars. These vessels use nets up to 6,000
ally. Japan, Taiwan and the U.S. account for about 70 per-
feet in length with mesh sizes ranging between 14 to
cent of current reported production, with Mexico, Ecuador
22 inches. The netting is attached to a oatline and a
and Chile providing the remainder. In the eastern Pacic,
weighted leadline at the bottom allows the webbing to
swordsh are primarily harvested using longlines, drift
hang as a loose curtain in which the swordsh become
nets and hand-held harpoons.
entangled. Drift nets are set at sunset and hauled at sun-
Early coastal and island middens of American Indians rise. Regulations enacted in 1985 were designed to reduce
provide the rst evidence of swordsh being utilized shing effort and landings, limit the number of permits
as a food source. The California harpoon shery dates to 150, restrict the season of operation and provide for
back to the early 1900s and the Tuna Club of Avalon several time-area closures aimed at reducing bycatch and
reported the rst record of a recreationally caught sword- interactions with recreational anglers. Drift net vessels,
sh in 1909 that weighed 339 pounds. In 1931, the State which numbered 220 in 1985, have decreased due to those
Legislature required commercial shing licenses and regulations and now number about 120 vessels, of which
allowed only harpoons for the commercial take of only about 100 are fully active. These shermen ply the
swordsh. Recreational anglers were allowed to harpoon waters from the Mexican border to Oregon and offshore
swordsh until 1935. Participation in the harpoon shery to 200 miles. Approximately two-thirds of the landings and
peaked in 1978 with 309 vessels landing 2.6 million pounds earnings occur in southern California, while one-third are
before being largely displaced by the more efcient drift landed in northern California, less than two percent of
net shery. A small number of harpoon vessels continue to the landings occur in Oregon and Washington. This shery
sh swordsh off southern California from May to Decem- is in a period of steady production with annual yields of
ber. Primary shing areas are from San Diego to Point 2.6 million pounds worth an estimated $5 million dollars.
Conception during the early season although these sher- This level of production, along with imports from Mexico,
men operate as far north as Oregon during periods of has been known to saturate local markets, driving down
warm water. Harpooners require calm waters to see the ex-vessel prices.
swordsh nning, or basking, at the surface. When a n-
Hawaii’s longline shery began targeting swordsh in 1988
ning swordsh is spotted, the sherman guides his vessel
and landings expanded to 13.2 million pounds worth 21
over the sh and throws the harpoon from the bow plank
million dollars by 1998. These long-range vessels operate
extending far beyond the vessel bow. Harpooned sh are
over a vast area of the north central Pacic accounting for
recovered using an attached line, buoys and marker ag.
as much a 36 percent of U.S. production in the Pacic.
Use of spotter aircraft greatly improved catches by allow-
A small California-based, high seas longline shery, operat-
ing beyond the EEZ, developed in 1991. These vessels
were joined by other vessels from the Gulf Of Mexico in
1993 and numbered 31 by 1994. Most of these vessels
returned home by 1995. Judicial ruling in Hawaii closed
a vast area north of Hawaii to longline shing in 2000.
This resulted in nearly 20 longline vessels departing their
Hawaiian base of operations to operate out of southern
California ports.
In 1983, Mexico restricted the use of longlines along their
Swordfish, Xiphias gladius
coast by limiting the catch of billsh within 50 miles of
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
322
Swordfish
6
millions of pounds landed
5
4
Swordfish
3
2
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Swordfish
1
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
their coast. A small eet of drift net vessels, based in north of Hawaii toward the U.S. West Coast. Catch records
Ensenada began shing swordsh in 1986. They operated from Japanese longliners suggest greatest catches from
from Ensenada moving south along the Baja peninsula and Baja California, Mexico in the spring and summer, while
generally within 100 miles of the coast. They averaged catch data from the California drift net shery show
nearly one million pounds of swordsh between 1986 and swordsh moving through coastal waters from August to
1993. Concerns over bycatch of sport and protected species, January. Acoustic tracking indicates some diel movement
prompted the Mexican government to issue permits in 2000 from deeper depths during the daytime and moving into
allowing these drift net vessels to convert to longline gear. the mixed surface water at night. At times, they appear to
follow the deep scattering layer, and small prey, as they
undertake these vertical movements.
Status of Biological Knowledge It is generally believed that females grow larger than
B
males, as males over 300 pounds are rare. Females mature
roadbill swordsh, is the single species within its own
at four to ve years of age in northwest Pacic and males
family Xiphidae. It is characterized by a long, at
mature rst at about three to four years although there is
bill in contrast to the smooth, round bill of the marlins.
some controversy as to size at rst maturity in different
Swordsh are elongate, round bodied, and lack teeth
areas. In the North Pacic, batch spawning occurs in water
and scales as adults. They have a tall, non-retractable
warmer than 75° F from March to July and year round in
dorsal n, and pelvic ns are lacking. They reach a maxi-
the equatorial Pacic. Reproductive material from nearly
mum size of 14 feet and 1,190 pounds. The International
500 female swordsh, of mature sizes, examined from the
Game Fish Association’s all tackle angling record is for a
California drift net shery contained no mature oocytes
1,182-pound sh taken off Chile in 1953.
indicating swordsh were not reproductively active while
Swordsh are found in all tropical, subtropical, and tem-
vulnerable to that shery.
perate waters, sometimes entering sub-temperate water
Adult swordsh forage from surface waters to the bottom
as well. In the western Pacic, it ranges from 50º N to
in coastal areas and are reported to 1,600 feet in the open
45º S whereas in the eastern Pacic, from 50º N to 35º S.
ocean. Prey includes pelagic sh including small tuna,
Swordsh tend to concentrate where major ocean currents
dorado, barracuda, ying sh, mackerel as well as benthic
meet, and along temperature fronts. They are epi- and
species of hake and rocksh. Squid are also important
meso-pelagic, inhabiting the mixed surface waters where
when available. Swordsh likely have few predators as
temperatures are greater than 55º F but also can move
adults although juveniles are vulnerable to predation by
into water as cool as 41º F for short periods aided by
large pelagic sh.
specially adapted brain and eye heat exchange organs.
Areas of high apparent abundance in the North Pacic are
north of Hawaii along the North Pacic transition zone,
along the west coasts of the U.S. and Mexico and in the
western Pacic, east of Japan. Migration patterns have not
been described although tag release and recapture data
indicate an eastward movement from the central Pacic
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 323
Status of the Population Management Considerations
Swordfish
T he condition of the swordsh stocks in the Pacic See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Ocean is unclear. Results of assessment studies so further information.
far have a large margin of uncertainty, owing in part
to uncertainty in the stock structure of the population.
David Holts
Recent genetic studies suggest swordsh off the western
National Marine Fisheries Service
coast of the Americas mix with swordsh from the central
and western North Pacic. This result tends to support
the hypothesis of a single stock in the Pacic with an
References
uneven distribution that results in areas of high and low
abundance. Studies of catch rates, on the other hand, sug- Coan, A.L., M. Vojkovich, and D. Prescott. 1998. The
gest three or more stocks as demonstrated by high catch California harpoon shery for swordsh, Xiphias gladius.
rates persisting in distinct areas that are separated by Barrett, I., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, and N. Bartoo (eds) Interna-
areas of low to zero catch rates in between. Also, genetic tional Symposium of Pacic swordsh, Ensenada, Mexico,
studies in the western Pacic found signicant differences 11-14, December 1994. U.S Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
between southern and northern swordsh, indicating little Rep. NMFS 142. 276 pp.
mixing. Stock assessment studies using both hypotheses
Fulsom, W.B, D.M. Crory, and K. Brewster-Geisz. 1997.
have concluded that the stocks appear to be in good
North America Swordsh Fishing. World Swordsh Fish-
condition and with exploitation at or below estimated
eries: An analysis of swordsh shing operations. Past-
MSY levels. These studies, however, have not included
Present-Future. Vol. IV. Ofce of Science and Technology
shery statistics from recent years when some sheries
NMFS, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD,
expanded signicantly, nor have they taken into account
1997.
the complex biology, such as sexual dimorphism and diur-
Hanan, D.A., D.B. Holts and A.L. Coan. 1993. The Califor-
nal behavior, of swordsh indicating a need for more cur-
nia drift gillnet shery for sharks and swordsh, 1981-82
rent stock assessment.
through 1990-91. Fish Bulletin 175. 95 pp.
With recent expansion of the sheries and indications that
Holts, D.B. and O. Sosa-Nishizaki. 1998. Swordsh, Xiphias
the expansion will continue, an up-to-date and accurate
gladius, sheries of the eastern North Pacic Ocean. Bar-
stock assessment is critically needed. Without such an
rett, I., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, and N. Bartoo (eds) Interna-
assessment, it is difcult to rationally evaluate shery
tional Symposium of Pacic swordsh, Ensenada, Mexico,
management options for conservation and for implement-
11-14, December 1994. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
ing the precautionary approach.
Rep. NMFS 142. 276 pp.
In September 2000, major shing nations in the Pacic
agreed to an international convention on the Conservation
and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks of the
western and central Pacic Ocean. This convention pro-
vides a mechanism for comprehensive monitoring and
collection of data from swordsh sheries, international
cooperation in performing an up-to-date swordsh stock
assessment, and implementation of conservation mea-
sures by all major shing nations. In addition, swordsh
will soon be covered in the shery management plan for
the West Coast highly migratory species being developed
for the Pacic Fishery Management Council. Although
swordsh is not a species of immediate concern to this
convention, the convention provides a mechanism for
comprehensive monitoring and collection of data from
the swordsh sheries, international cooperation in per-
forming an up-to-date swordsh stock assessment, and
implementation by all major shing nations of conservation
measures, including the use of the precautionary approach.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
324
Pacific Northern
Bluefin Tuna discovered off Isla Guadalupe, Baja California, and about
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
40 percent of the catch was made in that area. From
1930 through 1947, shing was conducted off California
and Baja California, but in most years the majority of
History of the Fishery the catch came from off California. From 1948 to the
F
present, however, most of the catch has been made off
ishing for Pacic northern bluen tuna (Thunnus orien-
Baja California. The average annual catches made off
talis) began in California as a sport in 1898. Prior
California during the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s have
to World War I, many large sh were taken, particularly
been considerably less than the average annual catches
by vessels based at Santa Catalina Island. The largest of
made in the same area from 1918 to 1929.
these sh weighed 251 pounds. More recently, the average
size of the sport-caught sh has been roughly 50 pounds, From January through April, there are typically only light
although large sh are still taken. A large portion of the and sporadic catches. Most of these are made off the
sport-caught sh is taken by shermen who are directing coast of Baja California between 24° N and 26° N and
their efforts primarily toward albacore. in the vicinity of Isla Guadalupe. In May and June, the
catches increase, and most of them are made between 24°
The commercial shery for Pacic northern bluen began
N and 27° N. In July, the shing area expands to the north
in 1918. Since bluen are rarely caught by the troll, bait
and is at its broadest distribution of the year; most of the
boat, or gillnet sheries, the catches by purse seiners
catch is made between 25° N and 33° N. In August, there
have far exceeded those by any other type of gear. From
are usually only light catches at the southern end of the
1918 until about 1960, most of the vessels were relatively
shing area, most of the catch is being made between 28°
small, with sh-carrying capacities less than about 200
N and 33° N. In September, most of the catch is made in
short tons. None of them shed exclusively for bluen.
the same area as in August, but the amount of catch is
The smaller ones, sometimes referred to as wetsh ves-
usually considerably less. In October, the catches continue
sels, shed chiey for sardines, mackerel, and pelagic
to decline, and most of them are made north of 30° N.
sh other than tropical tunas, and the larger ones shed
In November and December, as in the rst months of the
mostly for yellown and skipjack. During 1959 and 1960,
year, the catches are light and sporadic.
most of the larger tuna bait boats were converted to purse
seiners and, during the ensuing years, many new purse Small amounts of Pacic northern bluen are caught off
seiners were built. During the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and the California coast by drift gillnets and further offshore
1990s, many of the smaller, older vessels sank or dropped by longline vessels. Extremely large bluen are caught
out of the shery, and the new vessels that replaced them in some years off southern California, principally during
tended to be larger. As a result, there are now more large November and December. Nearly 1,000 such sh were
purse seiners and fewer small ones than there were during caught during the period between October 31, l988, and
the early 1960s. January 3, 1989. Most of these were own to Japan, where
they brought high prices.
Bluen are now taken by vessels of all sizes, but the
smaller ones (capacities less than about 400 tons) account The total annual catches of Pacic northern bluen by
for a proportionally larger share of the catch. The propor- commercial and sport vessels in the eastern Pacic Ocean,
tion of the bluen catch made by the wetsh eet is prior to 1918, were negligible. The data for 1918 through
less now than it was during the early years of the shery 1960 include only the catches landed in California, but
because there are now fewer wetsh vessels and because it is believed that the catches landed elsewhere, prior
many of the sh are intercepted by larger vessels shing
off Baja California before they reach the area where
these vessels normally sh. Most of the sh caught by
purse seiners weigh less than 50 pounds, but larger ones
have sometimes been caught, including one weighing
1,009 pounds.
Most of the information regarding distribution of the
catches of Pacic northern bluen by tuna purse seiners
has been obtained from the logbook records of these
vessels. Bluen are rarely encountered south of Cabo San
Lucas, Baja California, or north of Point Conception, Cali-
fornia. Within this area, a considerable change has taken
place during the 20th century. Until 1930, shing was con-
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna, Thunnus orientalis
ducted only off California. During that year, bluen were Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 325
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
40
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
35
millions of pounds landed
30
25
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
20
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
15
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
and commercial landing receipts.
10
Data includes shipments and
5
landings from areas north and
south of the state between 1916
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and 1969.
to 1961, were inconsequential. The catches tended to be Most of the sh caught are in their second or third year
greater during the 1960s and 1970s than during the previ- of life, but some older, larger sh are also taken. After a
ous period, probably because of the conversion during sojourn in the eastern Pacic, which may or may not be
1959 and 1960 of most of the tuna bait boats to purse interrupted by temporary visits to the central or western
seiners, and the addition of many new purse seiners to Pacic, the survivors return to the western Pacic, where
the eet. they eventually spawn. Spawning probably rst occurs at
about ve or six years of age.
The approximate lengths and weights attained by Pacic
Status of Biological Knowledge northern bluen at various ages are: age one, 23 inches
S
and 10 pounds; age two, 33 inches and 28 pounds; age
pawning of Pacic northern bluen occurs between
three, 43 inches and 60 pounds; age four, 53 inches and
Japan and the Philippines in April, May, and June,
109 pounds; and age ve, 63 inches and 177 pounds.
off southern Honshu in July, and in the Sea of Japan in
August. The larvae, postlarvae, and juveniles produced Pacic northern bluen consume many species of sh and
south of Japan are carried northward by the Kuroshio invertebrates in the eastern Pacic, including anchovies,
Current toward Japan. Fish in their rst year of life, about red crabs, sauries, squid, and hake. Red crabs are a
six to 24 inches in length, are caught in the vicinity of signicant part of the diet only south of 29° N. “Boiling”
Japan during the summer, fall, and winter. The results of and jumping schools of sh are much more common north
tagging experiments indicate that some of these remain of that latitude, where sh are the principal item of the
in the western Pacic Ocean and others depart for the diet. The differences in behavior in the two areas could
eastern Pacic during the fall or winter of their rst year be due to differences in the food, i.e., lter feeding
of life or the summer, fall, or winter of their second might be employed for feeding on red crabs, while pursuit
year of life. The journey from the western to the eastern of individual sh would be required for feeding on sh.
Pacic takes as little as two months, or perhaps even less. Japanese scientists have reported that bluen are heavily
dependent upon sardines for food in the western Pacic.
The sh that migrate from the western to the eastern
Albacore, yellowtail, barracuda, and mackerel compete
Pacic form the basis for the shery in the eastern Pacic.
with bluen for food in the eastern Pacic.
40
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
35
thousands of fish landed
Status of the Population
30
25
T
20 he catches of Pacic northern bluen in the eastern
15
Pacic have been less, on average, during the 1980s
10
and 1990s than during the 1960s and 1970s. Catch data,
5
length-frequency data, and data on sh tagged in the
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
western Pacic and recaptured in the eastern Pacic sug-
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna gest that this decline is due to a decrease in the avail-
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
326
ability of bluen in the eastern Pacic (i.e., a decrease
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
in the proportion of the population which has migrated to
the eastern Pacic) and a decrease in the number of boats
which direct their effort at bluen.
William H. Bayliff
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
References
Bayliff, William H. 1993. Growth and age composition
of northern bluen tuna, Thunnus thynnus, caught in the
eastern Pacic Ocean, as estimated from length-frequency
data, with comments on trans-Pacic migrations. Inter-
Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Bull., 20 (9): 501-540.
Bayliff, William H. 1994. A review of the biology and sher-
ies for northern bluen tuna, Thunnus thynnus, in the
Pacic Ocean. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., 336 (2): 244-295.
Bayliff, William H., Yoshio Ishizuka, and Richard B. Deriso.
1991. Growth, movement, and attrition of northern bluen
tuna, Thunnus thynnus, in the Pacic Ocean, as deter-
mined by tagging. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Bull.,
20 (1): 1-94.
Calkins, Thomas P. 1982. Observations on the purse seine
shery for northern bluen tuna (Thunnus thynnus) in
the eastern Pacic Ocean. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm.,
Bull., 18 (2): 121-225.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 327
Skipjack Tuna
History of the Fishery sheries. Some sh are also caught in troll, gillnet, and
longline sheries.
S kipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) have been har- Before the 1960s, bait boats supplied the majority of
vested in the eastern Pacic by commercial bait boats the commercial skipjack tuna landings in California. The
since the early 1900s, and later by commercial purse rst bait boats operated in coastal waters off southern
seine, gillnet, troll sheries and recreational sheries. California and Mexico. They could only make short trips
Skipjack tuna mixed with yellown tuna are frequently because they used ice to preserve catches and relied
caught by these sheries. Skipjack tuna are highly migra- on catching bait close to the coast and offshore islands.
tory and have been shed by many different countries In the 1930s, with the development of new refrigeration
such as the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador, France, and Spain. techniques and construction of larger vessels, the shery
Landings from these countries are marketed throughout expanded to areas farther south and offshore. Bait boats
the Pacic Rim, Puerto Rico, and the European Commu- ranged from 30 to 200 tons of carrying capacity. The U.S.
nity. Fisheries landing skipjack tuna in California operate eet that operated in the eastern Pacic decreased from
between 150°W longitude and the coast of the Americas 75 vessels in 1976 to one in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, bait
and between 40°N and 20°S latitude. California landings boat landings averaged 12 percent of the total skipjack
of skipjack tuna are important to both commercial and tuna landings in California.
recreational sheries.
Purse seiners started to replace bait boats in the late
Commercial landings of skipjack tuna in California started 1950s and by 1961 supplied the majority of the commercial
in 1918, and mainly supplied canneries where skipjack skipjack tuna landings in California. Purse seiners usually
tuna were processed as light meat tuna. Small quantities catch skipjack tuna in sets on free-swimming schools or in
of skipjack tuna were also sold to local markets. Com- sets on schools associated with oating objects. Skipjack
mercial landings of skipjack tuna in California increased tuna are usually caught mixed with yellown and bigeye
from three million pounds in 1918 to 156 million pounds tunas. The carrying capacity of purse seiners ranged from
in 1954. The landings, while uctuating considerably, then 150 tons to 2000 tons. The U.S. eet operating in the
decreased to a low of 30 million pounds in 1973 before eastern Pacic decreased from 141 vessels in 1976 to
peaking again at its highest level (174 million pounds) nine in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, purse seine landings
in 1980. Since 1976, skipjack tuna landings in California of skipjack tuna accounted for 80 percent of the total
declined to average 10 million pounds from 1985 to 1999. commercial skipjack tuna landings in California.
The decline in commercial landings in California can be
From 1991 to 1999, other commercial sheries, troll,
attributed to the relocation of cannery operations to
longline, and gillnet, landed less than one percent of
American Samoa and Puerto Rico and the re-agging of
the annual skipjack tuna landings in California. These
some vessels. Currently, only one cannery is operating in
sheries catch skipjack tuna incidentally while targeting
California. Prices paid by the canneries for skipjack tuna
other tunas, sharks or swordsh.
are based on sh size and market conditions and from
California recreational sheries for skipjack tuna typically
1990 to 1994 varied from $200 to $1,000 per ton. Based
operate in waters off southern California and Mexico. The
on a cannery price of $900 per ton, the 1999 California
duration of trips is usually one to seven days. The eet
landings of skipjack tuna was worth approximately $4 mil-
consists mainly of commercial passenger-carrying shing
lion. The majority of the commercial skipjack tuna land-
vessels (CPFV) and some private shing vessels. Recre-
ings in California are from the purse seine and bait boat
ational anglers use rod and reel shing gear. Skipjack tuna
landings from the CPFV shery reached highs of 103,000
sh in 1983, and 52,000 sh in 1990. Since 1990, skipjack
tuna recreational landings have generally decreased to
14,000 sh in 1998.
U.S. commercial vessels that sh for skipjack tuna in the
eastern Pacic must comply with all state and federal reg-
ulations and regulations proposed by the Inter-American
Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and any other interna-
tional regulatory agency to which the U.S. is a member.
These include compliance with the Marine Mammal Pro-
tection Act and a mandatory logbook program under the
High Seas Fishing Compliance Act of 1995 that requires a
license and submission of the IATTC logbook.
Skipjack Tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
328
Recreational shermen must carry California state shing 20 to 22 inches. Egg production is estimated between 0.1
Skipjack Tuna
licenses, comply with state regulations, and purchase Mex- to 2.0 million eggs per spawning.
ican shing licenses while shing in the Exclusive Eco- Skipjack tuna can grow to approximately 42.5 inches or 77
nomic Zone (EEZ) of Mexico. Currently, California limits pounds. They have dark purplish-blue backs and, silvery
the recreational take of skipjack tuna to 10 sh per day. sides with four to six longitudinal dark bands. They have
a strong keel on each side of the caudal n base between
two smaller keels. Skipjack tuna enter surface sheries
Status of Biological Knowledge at approximately 10 inches (0.5 pound) and commonly
S
reach lengths up to 31.5 inches (26 pounds). Some longline
kipjack tuna occur throughout the tropical, subtropical
sheries also catch large skipjack tuna. Skipjack tuna
waters and warm temperate waters of all oceans.
growth is rapid and approximate sizes at age are: one
There are two stock structures hypothesized for Pacic
year, 12 inches, 1.1 pound; two years, 20 inches, six
skipjack tuna, a single stock with isolated subgroups
pounds; three years, 25 inches, 12.8 pounds; four years,
or two or more different stocks. This description
20 inches, 19 pounds. Maximum age is probably around
considers skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic east of
seven years.
150° W longitude.
Skipjack tuna feeding is opportunistic on sh, crustaceans
In the eastern Pacic, skipjack tuna are generally dis-
and cephalopods. Stomach samples of skipjack tuna in
tributed between 40°N and 40°S latitude and between
the eastern Pacic contained 59 percent pelagic crabs, 37
150°W longitude and the coastlines of the U.S., Mexico,
percent sh, and three percent squids. A high percentage
Central and South America. During El Niño events skipjack
of stomach samples were empty. Larger sh tended to
tuna may be found as far north as 50°N along the
have higher percentages of crustaceans and lower percent-
U.S. West Coast. Fishing concentrations are located in
ages of sh in their stomachs. Predators of skipjack tuna
the northeastern Pacic near Baja California, the Revil-
include billsh, sharks and other large tunas, including
lagigedo Islands, and Clipperton Island, and in the south-
skipjack tuna.
eastern Pacic near Central America, northern South
America, Cocos Island-Brito Bank, and the Galapagos
Islands and offshore south of 10°N. Skipjack tuna migrate
Status of the Population
from the equatorial spawning grounds in the eastern
I
Pacic in two migrating groups, one migrates to the Baja n general, the population of skipjack tuna in the eastern
California shing grounds and the other to the Central and Pacic is underutilized by sheries operating in the area
South American shing grounds. The groups remain on the and is well above levels that are needed to produce
shing grounds for several months before returning to the maximum sustainable yield (MSY). The apparent abun-
equatorial spawning grounds dance of skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic is highly
Skipjack tuna typically prefer sea surface temperatures variable. This variability is apparently caused more by
between 59º F and 86° F. Aggregations of skipjack tuna effects of environmental conditions than by the effects
tend to be associated with convergence zones, boundaries of the shery. The simplest estimate of abundance can
between cold and warm water masses (i.e., the polar be obtained from trends in catches. Catches peaked at
front), up welling zones, and other hydro-graphical discon- 186,800 tons in 1978, and decreased to 54,500 tons in
tinuities. Skipjack tuna are found in surface waters and to 1985. During the period from 1986 to 1994, catches varied
depths of 850 feet during the day, but seem to stay closer between 69,000 and 100,000 tons before increasing to
to the surface at night than during the day. Skipjack tuna 266,000 tons in 1999. Other abundance estimates for skip-
are most frequently found in surface schools aggregated jack tuna, standardized catch per days shing (CPDF),
around oating objects in the eastern Pacic. The larger have been developed by the IATTC. However, these esti-
sh are found in free-swimming unassociated schools. mates are not considered satisfactory and indicate that
Smaller yellown and bigeye tunas (less than 40 inches) further studies are needed. In general, the estimates show
are frequently found in schools mixed with skipjack tuna. CPDF in the 1960s, between nine and 15 tons per days
shing, and uctuating between two and seven tons per
Skipjack tuna spawn throughout the year in equatorial
day shed from 1972 to 1996.
waters of the eastern Pacic, and from spring to early fall
in subtropical waters. The spawning season is abbreviated The status of skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic is
as distance from the equator increases. Females mature at monitored annually by the IATTC. They are reasonably
about 16 inches. However, in some areas of the eastern certain that skipjack tuna stocks in the eastern Pacic
Pacic, the minimum size at maturity has been noted at are under shed. Traditional age-based analyses and pro-
duction models cannot be used to verify this conclusion
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 329
Skipjack Tuna
200
millions of pounds landed
150
Skipjack Tuna
Commercial Landings
100
1916-1999, Skipjack Tuna
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
50
landing receipts. Data includes
shipments and landings from
areas south of the state between 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1916 and 1969.
References
due to the violation of the unit stock concept. However,
skipjack tuna catches in the western Pacic are near one
Forsbergh, Eric 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the
million tons, and tagging studies there have shown that
skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758), in
catches could easily double without adversely affecting
the Pacic Ocean. In: Synopsis of biological data on
the stock. Based on this, it seems that further increases in
eight species of scombrids, William Bayliff editor. Inter-
the eastern Pacic skipjack tuna catch could be attained.
American Tropical Tuna Commission specialreport No.2.
However, caution should be exercised until the exchange
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA. p.
between the eastern and western Pacic is fully under-
295-360.
stood. The IATTC also notes that its assessment of skipjack
tuna in the eastern Pacic could change and studies to IATTC 1999. Annual report of the Inter-American Tropical
learn more about this species and its relationships to the Tuna Commission 1997. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com-
environment are needed. mission, La Jolla, CA. 310 p.
Wild, Alex and J. Hampton 1994. A review of the biology
Management Considerations and sheries for skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis, in the
Pacic Ocean. In: Interactions of Pacic tuna sheries,
Shomura, Majkowski, Langi editors. FAO Fisheries Techni-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
cal Paper 336/Vol. 2. p 51-107.
further information.
Wild, Alex 1992. Yellown and skipjack tunas. In: Califor-
nia’s living marine resources and their utilization, Leet,
Atilio L. Coan, Jr.
Dewees, Haugen editors. California Sea Grant Extension
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pub. UCSGEP-92-12. p. 140-143.
120
100
thousands of fish landed
Skipjack Tuna
80
60
40
20
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Skipjack Tuna
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
330
Yellowfin Tuna
History of the Fishery shery, catches and effort from this shery gave way to
Yellowfin Tuna
the more efcient purse seine method.
Y ellown tuna (Thunnus albacares) have been har- Purse seiners started to replace bait boats in the late
vested, in the eastern Pacic, by commercial bait boat 1950s, and by 1961, supplied the majority of the com-
sheries since the early 1900s, and later by commercial mercial yellown tuna landings in California. Purse seine
purse seine, longline, gillnet, troll and recreational sher- carrying capacity ranged from 150 tons to 2,000 tons.
ies. Yellown tuna, frequently caught in schools mixed Purse seiners, because of their size and ability to stay
with skipjack and bigeye tuna, are highly migratory and at sea for long-periods of time, expanded the shery to
have been shed in the eastern Pacic by many different areas between southern California and Peru and out to
countries. U.S. sheries that land yellown tuna in Cali- 150°W longitude. Historically, three types of sets have
fornia operate between 150° W longitude and the coast been used to catch yellown tuna: sets on sh associated
of the Americas and between 40° N and 20° S latitude. with schools of dolphins, sets on sh in free-swimming
California landings of yellown tuna are important to both schools and sets on sh associated with oating objects.
commercial and recreational sheries. Until the 1990s, U.S. purse seiners in the eastern Pacic
California landings of commercially caught yellown tuna primarily caught yellown tuna in sets associated with
date back to 1919. These landings supplied canneries schools of dolphins. Purse seiners employed a standard
mainly in California, where yellown tuna were processed purse seine with the exception of a porpoise panel that
as light meat tuna. In recent years, some commercial, yel- was used to reduce entanglement of dolphins. The purse
lown tuna landings were also purchased by local markets seines were deployed with a seine skiff and, when shing
and restaurants. Cannery prices paid for yellown tuna dolphin schools, speedboats were used to herd the dol-
depend on sh size and canned tuna market conditions. phins into a compact school so that the net could be
During the early 1990s, prices ranged from $200 to $1,100 set around them. Once the schools of tuna and dolphins
per ton. Commercial landings of yellown tuna in Califor- were surrounded, the net was pursed and a backdown
nia, while uctuating, generally increased from 350,000 procedure was used to free the trapped dolphins. In
pounds in 1919 to 280 million pounds in 1976. Since 1976, the mid 1970s, marine mammal regulations were enacted
yellown tuna landings declined steadily to three million to reduce dolphin mortality associated with purse seine
pounds in 1999. Assuming a cannery price of $1,000 per shing and in the 1990s canneries stopped buying yel-
ton, the estimated value of the 1999 California commer- lown tuna caught on dolphins. The canneries “dolphin
cial yellown tuna landings was $1.5 million. The decline safe” policy drove many U.S. purse seiners to the western
in commercial landings in California can be attributed to Pacic and as a result, the U.S. eet that operated in the
the relocation of cannery operations to American Samoa eastern Pacic decreased from 141 purse seiners in 1976
and Puerto Rico and the re-agging of some U.S. vessels. to nine in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, purse seine landings
Currently, only one cannery is operating in California. averaged 86 percent of the total yellown tuna landings
Purse seine and bait boat sheries supply the bulk of in California.
the California commercial yellown tuna landings. Some Longliners, based in California, started shing in the east-
commercial landings are also supplied by longline, troll, ern Pacic in 1991. These vessels usually targeted bigeye
and gillnet sheries. tuna or swordsh outside the California 200-mile Exclusive
Before the 1960s, bait boats supplied the majority of the Economic Zone (EEZ) and yellown tuna are an incidental
commercial yellown tuna catch. Initially, bait boats oper- catch in this shery. Longliners usually sh between 30°N
ated in coastal waters of southern California and Mexico.
The vessels could only make short trips because they used
ice to preserve catches and relied on catching bait close
to the coast and offshore islands. In the 1930s, improve-
ments in refrigeration methods and construction of larger
vessels enabled the shery to expand farther south and
offshore. From 1984 to 1999, California bait boat landings
averaged 11 percent of the total landings of yellown tuna
in California. Bait boat carrying capacity ranged from 30
to 200 tons carrying capacity. The U.S. eet that operated
in the eastern Pacic ranged from 75 bait boats in 1976 to
one in 1999. While bait boat sheries dominated landings
in the early days of the eastern Pacic yellown tuna
Yellowfin Tuna, Thunnus albacares
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 331
Yellowfin Tuna
300
millions of pounds landed
250
Yellowfin Tuna
200
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Yellowfin Tuna
Data Source: DFG Catch
100
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Data includes 50
shipments and landings from
areas south of the state between 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1916 and 1969.
and 40°N latitude between Hawaii and the U.S. West Coast 120
EEZ. The U.S. longline eet uses standard longline gear 100
thousands of fish landed
with oats and branch lines. The gear is deployed at Yellowfin Tuna 80
various depths, depending on the target species sought, 60
and light sticks are used to attract sh. From 1991 to 1999,
40
longline-caught yellown tuna were less than one percent
20
of the total yellown tuna landed in California.
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
From 1984 to 1999, commercial troll and gillnet shing
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Yellowfin Tuna
gears supplied less than three percent of the annual yel-
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
lown tuna landings in California. These gears incidentally
catch yellown tuna inside the EEZ south of San Francisco. High Seas Fishing Compliance Act of 1995, which requires
Gillnet sheries usually target swordsh and sharks, while a license and submission of the IATTC logbook. U.S.
troll sheries typically target albacore. purse seiners shing for yellown tuna associated with
California recreational sheries for yellown tuna typically dolphins in the eastern Pacic must also abide by dolphin
operate in waters off southern California and Mexico. quotas stipulated in the Marine Mammal Protection Act,
The duration of trips is usually from one to seven days. and all large purse seiners (greater than 400 tons) must
The eet consists mainly of commercial passenger-carry- carry observers.
ing shing vessels (CPFV) and some private shing vessels.
Recreational anglers use rod and reel shing gear. Yel-
Status of Biological Knowledge
lown tuna landings from the CPFV shery, reached a
record high of 120,000 sh in 1983, decreased to 4,000
Y ellown tuna in the eastern Pacic are distributed
sh in 1985, and averaged 81,000 sh from 1995 to 1998.
throughout areas between 40°N and 40°S latitude and
Since the recreational catch cannot be sold, the value of
between 150°W longitude and the coastlines of the U.S.,
the recreational shery is difcult to determine, but must
Mexico, Central, and South America. The eastern Pacic
reach millions of dollars and extend to many sectors of
stock is generally considered a separate population that
the business community. Anglers buy equipment, y in
is not believed to interact appreciably with stocks in
from various locations and stay in local hotels. Vessel
the central and western Pacic. Yellown tuna are typi-
operators collect fares that are based on trip length but
cally found in sea surface temperatures between 65°F and
also collect fees for food and equipment rentals. Anglers
88°F and are usually conned to the upper 330 feet of the
may catch yellown tuna, but they also catch bluen,
water column, or between the surface and the thermo-
skipjack, bigeye and albacore tuna, and other sh.
cline. Seasonal migrations are primarily along the coast.
U.S. commercial vessels that sh for yellown tuna in the Surface schools of small yellown tuna in the eastern
eastern Pacic must abide by all federal and state regu- Pacic can be found aggregated around oating objects
lations, including those proposed by the Inter-American or in free-swimming unassociated schools, while larger
Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), and any other interna- yellown tuna are usually found in schools associated
tional regulatory agency in which the U.S. is a member. with dolphins. Small yellown tuna (less than 40 inches)
These include a mandatory logbook program under the
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
332
are frequently found in schools mixed with skipjack and since then have remained fairly constant at slightly lower
Yellowfin Tuna
bigeye tuna, whereas larger yellown tuna usually do not levels than in 1986.
mix with other tunas. Stock assessments for yellown tuna in the eastern Pacic
Yellown tuna spawn throughout the year and across their are conducted annually by the IATTC. The latest assess-
entire range. However, 75°F is probably the lower tem- ment indicated that the eastern Pacic yellown tuna
perature limit for yellown tuna spawning. Off Mexico shery could continue to harvest approximately 297,000
and Central America, spawning can occur throughout the tons annually without further lowering the stock size. In
year, with peak spawning occurring at different times in accordance with these ndings, the IATTC set the annual
different areas. Spawning is likely abbreviated and more 1998 yellown quota at 231,000 tons, with 16,500 ton
sporadic in coastal areas than in offshore northern equa- increments added at the discretion of the IATTC. Closure of
torial areas. Most females mature at sizes above 36 inches the shery based on this quota in 1988 was in November.
and produce from two to seven million eggs per spawn.
Yellown tuna can grow to approximately 83 inches. The
Management Considerations
larger sh have very large anal and second dorsal ns
that may extend to over 20 percent of the fork length. See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Approximately 20 broken, nearly vertical lines cross the further information.
sides of the sh and a yellow coloration are present on the
sides, dorsal and anal ns and nlets. Yellown tuna enter
Atilio L. Coan, Jr.
surface sheries at approximately 10 inches and commonly
National Marine Fisheries Service
reach lengths up to 60 inches. Growth is rapid at these
approximate sizes at and ages: one year, 19 inches; two
years, 34 inches; three years, 50 inches; four years, 59
References
inches; ve years, 68 inches. Maximum age is probably
around 10 years.
Cole, Jon S. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the yel-
Yellown tuna are opportunistic feeders and therefore lown tuna, Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788), in the
have a very diverse diet; however, a few sh, cephalopods Pacic Ocean. In: Synopsis of biological data on eight spe-
and crustaceans are dominant in stomach samples from cies of scombrids, William Bayliff editor. Inter-American
sh in the eastern Pacic. The most dominant are bullet Tropical Tuna Commission special report No.2. Inter-Amer-
tuna and pelagic crabs. Other organisms include sh com- ican Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA. p. 71-150.
monly found around otsam such as skipjack tuna, black
IATTC 1999. Annual report of the Inter-American Tropical
skipjack, ying sh, light sh, and squid. Predators of
Tuna Commission 1997. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com-
yellown tuna include sharks, billshes and other large
mission, La Jolla, CA. 310 p.
tuna, including yellown tuna.
Wild, Alex 1994. A review of the biology and sheries for
yellown tuna, Thunnus albacares, in the eastern Pacic
Status of the Population Ocean. In: Interactions of Pacic tuna sheries, Shomura,
Majkowski, Langi editors. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper
I n general, the population of yellown tuna in the east- 336/Vol. 2. p 51-107.
ern Pacic is being fully utilized by sheries operating in
the area and is at levels that will produce the maximum
sustainable yield (MSY). The IATTC has recommended an
annual yellown tuna catch quota in the eastern Pacic
since 1966 to maintain the stock at MSY. Catches peaked
at 277,300 tons in 1976, decreased to 111,500 tons in 1983,
peaked again in 1989 at 337,000 tons, and then decreased
to 301,400 tons in 1997. Because of management-imposed
measures, it is difcult to use strictly catch as an indica-
tor of overall population abundance. However, four abun-
dance indices, one based on estimates of standardized
catch-per-days shing, two based on age models, and one
based on a searching-time method, have been developed
and indicate that abundance dropped steeply from the
late 1960s to historically low levels in the early 1980s.
Abundance estimates rebounded substantially in 1986 and
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 333
Striped Marlin
History of the Fishery In Mexican waters, striped marlin are taken for local mar-
kets and export to other countries. These sheries include
S triped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) support important both artisan, using hand-hauled gillnets and longlines, and
commercial and recreational sheries in the central larger drift net vessels targeting swordsh and sharks.
and eastern Pacic and in the Indian oceans. They were The water off the southern tip of the Baja California
directly targeted by high seas sheries in the 1960s and peninsula to Manzanillo, Mexico, is an area of high striped
1970s, although today most are taken as incidental catch marlin abundance, which supports a large recreational
in tuna longline sheries. Pacic-wide landings currently shery. Mexican tourist enterprises aggressively advertise
average near 26.5 million pounds per year and represent to attract billsh anglers to the area. The striped marlin
about 86 percent of world landings. catch rate is greatly improved off Baja where anglers aver-
age 0.3 to 0.65 striped marlin per day of shing. Estimated
Striped marlin are seasonal visitors to southern California
recreational catches of striped marlin off Los Cabos, Baja
waters providing recreational billsh anglers an oppor-
California Sur, averaged 12,000 sh annually between
tunity to sh for local large gamesh during summer
1992 and 1996, but only averaged 260 sh off Mazatlan.
and fall. Recreational and commercial shing for striped
The estimated incidental catch from the longline shark
marlin began off southern California in the early-1900s
shery in Mazatlan averaged 680 striped marlin over the
using hand-held harpoons or rod-and-reel. The California
same period.
Legislature banned the use of harpoons to take striped
marlin in 1935 and further curtailed the sale and Interest in angler-based tagging and survey programs have
import of striped marlin in 1937 thus preserving the south- intensied greatly in recent years. The trend toward
ern California shery entirely for recreational anglers. catch and release and tagging of striped marlin has also
Currently, most striped marlin shing is from privately increased as anglers became more aware of perceived
owned boats based in local southern California marinas. conservation needs. Current estimates of striped marlin
Generally, sh begin arriving in the coastal and insular released off southern California have exceeded 80 percent
waters off southern California in June and remain until of those captured. Annual marlin tournaments now award
at least October. The number of sh moving into the points to anglers for releasing sh and the rst all-tag
Southern California Bight during any particular year is and release marlin tournament was held in San Diego in
associated with water temperatures. Warmer water gener- September 2000.
ally means more sh, better catches and higher catch
rates. The colder water north of Point Conception usually
Status of Biological Knowledge
limits their northward distribution, although during El
Niño years they commonly range north to San Francisco
T he striped marlin (family Istiophoridae) is a large,
and persist for extended periods. A 31-year-long angler
oceanic sh with a long, round bill, small teeth and
survey indicates fairly low, but steady, catch rate averag-
tall dorsal n which decreases in height ending just
ing 0.10 sh per anger shing day but ranging to 1.0 or
before the second dorsal n. The species is widely distrib-
greater during El Niño periods. The southern California
uted throughout most tropical, sub-tropical and temper-
catch of striped marlin taken by the commercial passenger
ate waters of the Pacic and Indian oceans but does
shing vessel (CPFV) eet averages six striped marlin per
not occur in the Atlantic except for occasional strays
year. Commercial landings in Oregon and Washington are
off western South Africa. Japanese longline data indicate
legal but rare.
a horseshoe-shaped distribution across the central North
and South Pacic with a continuous distribution along the
west coast of Central America. It is apparently more abun-
dant in eastern and north central Pacic than elsewhere.
Movements tend to be diffusive, as this species does not
under take annual migrations as seen in some tunas.
Striped marlin do not form dense schools but rather occur
singularly or in groups of several sh, usually segregated
by size. Adult sh are found in the north and south central
Pacic where spawning occurs. Larvae are recorded from
North Pacic west of 150° W, in the South Pacic and
more recently have been found off central Mexico. Sub-
adult sh move east toward the coast of Mexico where
they are found in high abundance around the tip of the
Striped Marlin, Tetrapturus audax
Baja peninsula. Tag-recapture data indicate movement
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
334
Status of the Population
Striped Marlin
400
350
T
number of fish landed
he Pacic striped marlin resource appears healthy
300
Striped Marlin
regardless of whether a single Pacic-wide stock or
250
200
two separate north and southern stocks are assumed.
150
The relationship between catch and shing effort in the
100
Japanese longline sheries show sustained catches over a
50
wide range of shing intensities, suggesting Pacic-wide
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
catches are below the estimated maximum sustainable
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Striped Marlin
yield of 53 million pounds. Catches are fairly stable
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
at around 25 to 30 million pounds. Angler catch and
effort surveys indicate CPUE off California and Mexico has
from southern California to Baja California Sur but show changed little since 1985.
little or no movement in the reverse direction. Also, tag-
recapture data reveal movements from off Mexico and
Management Considerations
southern California to near Hawaii, Peru, and the South
Pacic near the Marquises Islands. Striped marlin are
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
epipelagic, and are commonly bounded by 68° to
further information.
78° F temperature regime during all stages of their life-
cycle. Acoustic telemetry studies indicate they spend
86 percent of their time in the mixed layer above
David Holts
the thermocline and avoid temperature changes greater
National Marine Fisheries Service
than 14° F.
Stock structure in the Pacic is unclear. Current evidence
References
indicates striped marlin are probably a single Pacic-wide
stock because of the continuous distribution throughout
Hunter, John R. and David B. Holts, (eds.) 1999. Pacic
the Pacic, spawning in the south and northwest Pacic
Federal Afliation for Billsh - a NOAA Workshop Report
and eastern Pacic off Mexico, and from tag-recapture
and Research Plan. SWFSC Admin. Rep., LJ-99-11, 34 pp.
studies. The possibility of separate North and South Pacic
stocks does exist and is based on catch-per-unit effort Squire, J. and D. Au. 1990. Management of striped marlin
(CPUE) analysis, temporal and geographically separate resources in the northeast Pacic; A case for local deple-
spawning areas, and morphological differences. Genetic tion and core area management, p67-80. In: Stroud, R.S.
data further indicate some population structuring in the (ed.) 1989. Planning the future of billshes. Research and
Pacic which implies discrete spawning areas for sh from management in the 1990s and beyond. Proceedings of
Hawaii, Australia, and the eastern tropical Pacic. the second International Billsh Symposium, Kailua-Kona,
Hawaii, August 1-5, 1988. Parts 1 and 2.
Striped marlin mature between 55 and 63 inches eye-to-
fork length (EFL) and reach a maximum size of nearly
12 feet and more than 450 pounds. The International
Gamesh Association all-tackle record is for a 494-pound
sh caught near New Zealand in 1986. Most striped marlin
caught in the southern California sport shery are three to
six years old, and weigh 120 to 200 pounds. Examination of
gonad material from the recreational and drift net sher-
ies indicates that striped marlin off southern California are
not reproductively active while in residence.
Striped marlin are opportunistic feeders primarily on epi-
pelagic shes including mackerel, sardine, anchovy, and
will take invertebrates including squid and red crab when
available. Off southern California, they are often seen
feeding at the surface on these small coastal sh. Preda-
tion on adult marlin has not been documented but may
occur from large pelagic sharks or toothed whales.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 335
Shortfin Mako Shark
History of the Fishery the California Fish and Game Commission established an
experimental shark shery for mako and blue sharks using
S ince the late 1970s, the shortn mako (Isurus oxyrin- drift longlines. This gear proved much more efcient than
chus) has been taken incidentally in the commercial drift gillnets. By 1990, stringent regulations were imple-
drift gillnet sheries for thresher shark and swordsh. mented that included an annual quota, time-area clo-
Up until 1987, there were no sheries that specically sures, and a requirement to reduce the bycatch and waste
sought mako. of blue sharks by establishing a market. In 1992, the
commission did not renew the longline permits and the
There are several reasons why mako sharks took so long
experimental shery ended. This was due to the inability
to become a primary target of a commercial shery.
of the shermen to establish a market for the bycatch
Although readily marketable, shortn makos off southern
of blue sharks and a well organized opposition by the
California averaged only 34 pounds dressed, while thresh-
sport shing industry to a directed commercial shery for
ers had an average dressed weight of about 150 pounds.
mako sharks.
As long as threshers were plentiful, shermen paid little
attention to mako sharks. This situation might have Currently, mako sharks are taken by drift gillnets and
changed during the mid-1980s when the thresher popula- hook-and-line. Most mako sharks, however, are taken in
tion began to show signs of decline, but the drift gillnet the drift gillnet shery for thresher sharks and swordsh.
eet, which pursued the thresher, also took a more valu- Annual landings have uctuated from over 600,000 pounds
able species – swordsh. Swordsh had a commercial value in 1987 to less than 100,000 pounds in 1999.
of $4 per pound, compared to $1 per pound for most The shortn mako shark is also taken by the high seas
sharks, and they averaged nearly 200 pounds dressed. As shark and swordsh drift longline shery, which developed
a result, the drift gillnet eet gave little regard to the between 1991 and 1994. This shery operates outside
mako shark resource. the 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in interna-
It took the application of an entirely different shing gear tional waters. A small portion of the catch is landed in
to create commercial interest in the mako. During 1988, California ports with annual landings ranging from 128,116
to 9,523 pounds between 1991 and 1999.
Makos have long been esteemed as prized game sh along
the East Coast of the U.S. During the early-1980s, the
mako captured the attention of the southern California
sport shing public. In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates
of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew
ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually. The principal
target of these trips was the shortn mako shark. After
the increase during the 1980s, the sport shery for mako
sharks has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual
landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308
pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both
cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following
the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger shing vessels
run shing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in
southern California.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he shortn mako shark is distributed in temperate and
tropical seas worldwide. In the eastern Pacic, it is
distributed from Chile to the Columbia River and can be
found off the U.S. West Coast from southern California
northward to Washington. However, it is most common
off southern California and is seldom caught north of
the Mendocino Escarpment. It is considered an oceanic
species, occurring from the surface to at least 500 feet
Shortfin Mako Shark, Isurus oxyrinchus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
336
Shortfin Mako Shark
700
thousands of pounds landed
600
Shortfin Mako Shark
500
400
Commercial Landings
300
1916-1999,
Shortfin Mako Shark
200
Data Source: DFG Catch
100 Bulletins and commercial land-
ing receipts. All shark landings
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 were aggregated until 1977.
in depth, and is rarely found in areas where the water other eggs. It is estimated that females have from four to
temperature falls below 61° F. 30 pups. The gestation period is estimated to last from
12 to 19 months. At birth, pups are approximately 2.0 to
Evidence from size and mark-recapture data suggest that
2.5 feet TL.
the Southern California Bight, which extends from Point
Conception to the Mexican border, is an important pup- The shortn mako is a top carnivore in the ocean food
ping and nursery area for the shortn mako shark. High chain. It is known to prey upon many species of sh
recapture rates for tagged juveniles show that newly born such as mackerel, sardine, anchovy, tuna, other sharks,
makos remain in these waters for about two years, after and squid. Other items in the adult diet probably include
which they appear to move offshore or to the south. Many several marine mammals. The mako, however, is an oppor-
sh tagged in the Southern California Bight have been tunistic feeder like many of its oceanic relatives. It may
recaptured locally, but others have been caught as far eat whatever is abundant in its surroundings.
north as Point Arena, northern California; as far south as
Acapulco, Mexico; and as far west as Hawaii in the central
Status of the Population
Pacic. Although some of the tagging data have not been
subjected to formal analyses and no migratory pattern has
T he present status of the shortn mako shark in state
become obvious, these documented movements suggest
and federal waters off California is not known but is
that the California-Mexico stock is wide-ranging and is not
of concern. Adult mako sharks do not frequent California’s
an isolated population.
coastal waters; therefore, they are not subject to local
There is an ongoing disagreement surrounding the proper sheries. The real threat to the mako population off
aging of shortn mako sharks, particularly in large size California and in the eastern Pacic lies in the potential
classes. Results differ among age-growth studies, which for over-development of sheries within the coastal nurs-
may be due to stock differences, different aging inter- ery. This threat is particularly insidious, as the effect of
pretations of the periodic deposition of vertebral rings, overshing would not become apparent until the missing
and the difculty of interpreting growth rings, especially juveniles were of an age to become the spawning stock.
in older specimens. Young makos appear to grow fairly Since a sudden population collapse could follow, efforts to
rapidly, reaching nearly ve feet in total length (TL) by monitor the shortn mako shark are needed.
the age of two. After two years, however, growth rate is
less dened. Males reportedly mature at six feet TL and
Management Considerations
as early as four years old, while females reach maturity
at nine feet TL and not before seven or eight years old.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Females either mature at a much later age than males, or
further information.
the sexes grow at greatly differing rates. The maximum
size of a mako shark is reported to be approximately 13
feet and possibly as old as 40 years.
Valerie B. Taylor and Dennis W. Bedford
Like the thresher shark, shortn makos are ovoviviparous. California Department of Fish and Game
The embryos have no umbilical attachment to the mother
and receive all their intrauterine nourishment by eating
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 337
References
Shortfin Mako Shark
Bedford, D. 1992. Mako shark. In W.S.Leet, C.M. Dewees,
and C.W. Haugen, eds, California’s living marine resources
and their utilization. pp. 51-53. California Sea Grant Publi-
cation UCSGEP-92-12.
California Department of Fish and Game. 1999. Ocean
sport shing regulations concerning mako shark. State of
California Natural Resources Agency. 2:1-11.
California Department of Fish and Game. Shark Tagging
News. California Department of Fish and Game, Long
Beach, California. (newsletter series).
Calliet, G.M. and D.W. Bedford. 1983. The biology of three
pelagic sharks from California waters, and their emerging
sheries: a review. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisher-
ies Investigations Reports. 24:57-69
Camhi, M. 1999. Sharks on the line II: An analysis of Pacic
state shark sheries. National Audubon Society, Living
Oceans Program, Islip, N.Y. pp. 52
Mollet, H.F., G. Cliff, H.L. Pratt, Jr., and J.D. Stevens.
In press 1999. Reproductive parameters of female
shortn mako Isurus oxyrinchu (Ranesque 1809). Fish
Bulletin, U.S.
Pratt, H.L. and J.G. Casey. 1983. Age and growth
of the shortn mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, using four
methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sci-
ences. 40:1944-1957.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
338
Thresher Shark
History of the Fishery to central Oregon in waters up to 200 miles offshore
Thresher Shark
in depths from 30 to 2,000 fathoms over banks, escarp-
T he common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is the ments and canyons. Up until recently, because of various
leading commercial shark in California, although land- time/area closures and seasonal availability of swordsh,
ings are much less than they were during the rst decade most of the annual shing effort occurred between
of the drift gillnet shery. In the early years, from 1977 mid-August through January outside of state waters to
through 1989, annual commercial landings averaged 1.1 about 150 miles offshore. In addition to various existing
million pounds dressed weight (dw) per year, ranging from time/area closures, beginning August 15, 2001, the area
0.1 million pounds in 1977 to a peak of 2.3 million pounds between Point Conception and 45 degrees north latitude
in 1982. More recently, catches from 1990 through 1998 will be closed to drift gillnet shing through October 31 to
have averaged about 0.4 million pounds with a low of 0.3 reduce interactions with leatherback sea turtles. If an El
million in 1995 and a high of 0.8 million pounds in 1991, Niño condition is predicted, or is occurring, the area south
remaining at 0.4 million pounds over the past three years. of Point Conception will be closed to drift gillnet shing
In 1998, the average ex-vessel price was $1.36 per pound. from August 15 to August 31, and during the month of
Fish are taken primarily by drift gillnets (78 percent) January, to reduce loggerhead sea turtle impacts through
followed by set gillnets (18 percent), and other assorted recreational angling for thresher sharks, especially from
gears (4 percent). Two other species of thresher shark, private boats and skiffs, which have become increasingly
the pelagic (A. pelagicus) and the bigeye thresher (A. popular in recent decades in coastal waters between San
superciliosus) also occur off California, but these species Diego and Santa Barbara, California. Currently, there are
are much less common, averaging only about one and nine about eight shark shing tournaments held annually in
percent, respectively, of the total drift net thresher catch southern California. Party boat catches, which are thought
in the 1990s. to represent a relatively small portion of the total sport
catch, have averaged about 55 sh per year, with a peak
The early thresher shark drift net shery began in south-
of 163 sh taken in the 1993 El Niño year. Title 14 of the
ern California and expanded rapidly, reaching a peak in
California Fish and Game Code limits the take of thresher
1982 when 225 vessels were permitted in the shery. Fish-
sharks to two per day, but sport anglers may possess more
ing then expanded northward rst to Morro Bay and then
than this limit depending on the length of the shing trip.
to Monterey and San Francisco. By 1987, experimental sh-
A one-inch square of skin must be left on each llet, if
ing was being conducted off Oregon and Washington. The
lleted at sea.
drift net shery was initially developed to target common
thresher, but emphasis later shifted to broadbill swordsh,
with thresher and shortn mako shark being secondary
Status of Biological Knowledge
market species. Also, catches of threshers off California
soon began to decline, and some of the most heavily
T he common thresher shark is a large pelagic shark
exploited size classes were observed to disappear from with a long scythe-like tail, which makes up nearly
the catches after the mid-1980s. These size/age classes half of its total body length. Its body is white below and
were thought at the time to be all immature sh approxi- blue-gray to gray above with a slight wash of bronze. It
mately three to six years old, but more recent maturity is generally distinguished from other species of thresher
data suggest that many may also have been mature indi- sharks by the white of the abdomen that extends in a
viduals four to seven years old. Regulatory measures in splotchy pattern above the base of the pectoral ns;
California, particularly area and season closures imposed
after the mid-1980s, were instituted to address swordsh
user conicts (gill-netters versus harpooners versus rec-
reational anglers), to protect marine mammals, and to
protect thresher shark. In 1990, a California state voter
initiative banned gillnetting within three miles and com-
pletely prohibited drift net shing on threshers during
peak seasons and in nearshore areas. Since January 1996,
the landing of shark ns detached from any carcass
has been prohibited, except for threshers, which can be
landed with the ns and tails removed providing that a
corresponding carcass is also landed.
Currently, the shery is under a non-transferable permit
system and takes place from the Mexican border north Thresher Shark, Alopias vulpinus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 339
Thresher Shark
3.0
millions of pounds landed
2.5
Thresher Shark
2.0
1.5
Commercial Landings
1.0
1916-1999, Thresher Shark
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0.5
and commercial landing receipts.
All shark landings were
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
aggregated until 1977.
unlike the bigeye and pelagic thresher, which are uni- and Oregon and Washington. This migration hypothesis
formly pigmented blue-gray to gray above the pectoral is derived from patterns of early catches in the drift
ns. The common thresher also does not possess the large gillnet shery prior to seasonal and area restrictions, and
eyes distinctive of the bigeye thresher or the deep lateral the incidence in the 1980s of thresher sharks taken off
grooves on the sides of the head. California carrying Japanese longline hooks, indicating an
origin outside the U.S. EEZ. It has been proposed that
The distribution of the common thresher shark is circum-
large adult common thresher sharks pass through southern
global. In the eastern Pacic, it occurs from Goose Bay,
California waters in early spring of the year, remaining
British Columbia south to off Baja California, and off
in offshore waters from one to two months during which
Panama and Chile. Abundance in the Pacic Ocean is
time pupping occurs. Pups are then thought to move into
thought to decrease rapidly beyond 40 miles from the
shallow coastal waters. The adults then continue to follow
coast, although catches off California and Oregon do occur
warming water and perhaps schools of bait northward, and
as far as 100 miles offshore and sometimes beyond. It
by late summer, arrive off Oregon and Washington. Sub-
is found in temperate and warm oceans penetrating into
adult individuals appear to arrive in southern California
tropical waters, seeming to prefer areas characterized
waters in early summer, and as summer progresses they
by high biological productivity, the presence of strong
move up the coast as far north as San Francisco. In fall,
frontal zones separating regions of upwelling and adjacent
these sub-adults are thought to move south again. Little
waters, and strong horizontal and vertical mixing of sur-
is known about the presumed southward migration of the
face and subsurface waters. Such habitats are conducive
large adults, which do not appear along the coast until
to production and maintenance of schooling pelagic prey
the following spring. Recent satellite pop-up tagging by
upon which it feeds. Adults, juveniles, and post-partum
NMFS has conrmed active transboundary migration in this
pups occur within California waters.
species. Two common thresher sharks tagged in June off
After parturition and during their rst few years of life,
Laguna Beach and Santa Monica Bay, California, were relo-
the young occur close to shore off beaches and in shallow
cated off Baja California, Mexico, and 540 miles southwest
bays, often near the surface of the water. During most
of La Paz, Mexico, within 120 and 210 days of tagging.
years, concentrations of young threshers may be found
Recent genetic analyses of tissue biopsies collected
within two to three miles off the beaches from Santa
off the U.S. West Coast and Mexico (with samples
Monica Bay into Santa Barbara County, and as far north as
from off Oregon-Washington grouped together and com-
Monterey Bay and San Francisco Bay during warm water
pared to samples collected off California and Baja Cali-
years. One young thresher was tracked in Morro Bay for
fornia, Mexico) showed no signicant differences in haplo-
18 hours where it spent 70 percent of the time in shallow
typic frequencies, indicating a single homogenous West
water over mudats, increasing its activity at the onset
Coast population.
of darkness and during high tide periods. Larger mature
Reproduction is ovoviviparous; normal brood size appears
individuals over 10 feet in total length tend to show a
to be two to four fetuses. Brood sizes of up to seven
greater range of habitat and more offshore distribution.
fetuses have been recorded off Spain, indicating there
Some anecdotal evidence and patterns of observed
may be some plasticity in this trait. The developing
catches suggest seasonal north-south migration of this
fetuses are oophagous. Mating presumably takes place in
species between San Diego and Baja California, Mexico,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
340
midsummer along U.S. West Coast EEZ with a gestation size of sh and in catch-per-unit of effort has been noted
Thresher Shark
period of about nine months. Parturition is thought to in the thresher shark catch off Point Conception – an area
occur in the spring months off California, judging from the that historically has had the most consistent and highest
number of post-partum-sized pups that have been taken in thresher catches. It is not known, however, to what extent
the catch at this time. environmental changes and shifts in distribution might
inuence these observations, since this area is but a
Maximum size reported is 20 feet total length, but off
small portion of the total coastal range of the species.
California the largest ever recorded was 18 feet long. Size
The potential annual rate of population increase for the
at rst maturity has been variously estimated and inter-
common thresher shark at the maximum sustainable yield
preted. A re-examination of male and female maturity
population level has been estimated at four to seven
data suggests that off the U.S. West Coast, size and age
percent per year.
at rst maturity is about 10 feet in total length and about
ve years old.
Size at birth varies considerably, ranging from 45 to 61 Susan E. Smith
inches long, with only slight variation among geographical National Marine Fisheries Service
regions around the world. The species has been variously Debbie Aseltine-Neilson
estimated to reach a maximum age of from 19 to 50 years. California Department of Fish and Game
Feeding is primarily on small to medium-sized schooling
shes and pelagic invertebrates. Prey items include
References
anchovy, Pacic sardine, herring, mackerel, Pacic hake,
lancetsh, lanternsh, Pacic salmon, squid, octopus,
Bedford, D. 1987. Shark management: A case history – the
pelagic red crab, and shrimp. A recent study of the
California pelagic shark and swordsh shery. In S. Cook,
diet of sh taken in the drift gillnet shery found in addi-
ed Sharks-An Inquiry into biology, behavior, sheries, and
tion, Pacic and jack mackerel, shortbelly rocksh, louvar,
use, p. 161-171. Oregon State Univ. Extension Pub. EM
grunion, white croaker, queensh, and Pacic sanddab.
8330.
Thresher sharks have been observed to use their long
Cailliet, G. M., and Bedford, D. W. 1983. The biology of
caudal n to bunch up, disorient and stun prey at or near
three pelagic sharks from California waters, and their
the surface and are often caught tail-hooked by longlines.
emerging sheries: a review. California Cooperative Oce-
Predation on this species, other than by man, has not
anic Fisheries Investigations Reports XXIV, 57-69.
been documented.
Camhi, M. 1999. Sharks on the line II: An analysis of
Pacic state shark sheries. National Audubon Society,
Status of the Population Living Oceans Program, Islip, N.Y. 116 p.
I
Hanan, D.A., Holts D.B., Coan A.L., Jr. 1993. The Califor-
n 1990, this species came under the oversight of
nia drift gillnet shery for sharks and swordsh, 1981-1982
the Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, which
through 1990-91. Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 175,
has provided a general forum for coordinating thresher
95 p.
shark management among the states of California, Oregon
and Washington, guided by an interjurisdictional shery Holts, D.B., A.Julian, O. Sosa-Nishizaki and N.W. Bartoo.
management plan for thresher shark. No quotas were 1998. Pelagic shark sheries along the West Coast of the
ever established, but the three states did agree to an United States and Baja California, Mexico. Fish. Res. 39(2):
annual coastwide landings guideline of 750,000 pounds 115-125.
dressed weight of thresher shark, which since 1991 has
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission (PSMFC). 1990.
never been approached. A stock assessment of this spe-
Interjurisdictional Fishery Management Plan for thresher
cies is currently underway, and it has been included as
shark off the coasts of California, Oregon and Washington
a management unit species within the Pacic Fisheries
(Stick,K., G. Fleming, A. Millikan, L. Hreha, and D. Hanson,
Management Council’s shery management plan for highly
eds). Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, Portland
migratory species, currently being drafted.
Oregon, 28 pp.
There are indications that management actions taken
after the mid-1980s and resulting reduction in shing pres-
sure may have contributed to a rebuilding in the stock
over the last decade. In the early-1990s, some mid-sized
sh were beginning to reappear in wholesale market sam-
ples in California. More recently, an increase in average
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 341
Blue Shark
History of the Fishery out the 1990s, blue shark harvest continually declined.
This may be due to the fact that most blue sharks
B lue sharks (Prionace glauca) are not a major target of are released alive. Shark shing trips aboard commercial
California’s recreational or commercial sheries. Urea passenger shing vessels (CPFVs) are offered from most
stored in their blood system quickly turns to ammonia southern California sport shing landings from two to
when the shark dies, thus rendering the meat unpalatable. seven nights per week during the summer.
Development of a quality meat product has been the The greatest source of shing mortality for southern Cali-
limiting factor in creating commercial interest. Only two fornia blue sharks in the past three decades probably
serious attempts at developing a quality food product in occurred as a result of their incidental capture during the
California have occurred. The rst took place in 1979 and developing years of the drift gillnet shery for swordsh
1980 when one vessel shed blue sharks experimentally and thresher sharks. Annual estimated bycatch in the
with longline gear. Product quality was judged to be good late 1970s and early 1980s was between 15,000 and
enough to establish blue shark as a viable alternate sh- 20,000 blue sharks. Changes in season length, eet size,
ery, and 150,000 pounds dressed meat were sold at about time-area closures and the use of large mesh nets substan-
$0.25 per pound. Although market interest developed in tially reduced blue shark mortality, although there are no
several western states, a steady demand could not be reported estimates of current mortality in this shery.
assured and the shery was discontinued.
The second attempt at developing a food product began
Status of Biological Knowledge
in 1988 with an experimental longline shery directed at
shortn mako and blue shark. Participants in the shery
T he blue shark is an oceanic-epipelagic and fringe lit-
were required to develop a market for human consump-
toral species with a circumglobal distribution. It is
tion with the bycatch of blue sharks, which were not
found in all temperate and tropical oceans and is thought
released alive. In 1989 and 1990, a total of 54,000 pounds
to be the most wide-ranging shark species. Although this
of blue shark was sold for making jerky and “sh and
species can be found in oceanic waters between 43˚F
chips.” It was clear from these attempts, however, that
and 82˚F, it is most commonly found in cooler water
a quality food product and related market had not been
temperatures between 45 F and 61˚F. In tropical waters,
achieved. Participants in the shery substantially reduced
blue sharks show submergence and are typically found
the incidental mortality of blue sharks by developing a
at greater depths. In temperate waters, blue sharks
hook removal tool, which allowed up to 88 percent of the
are caught within the mixed layer and generally range
blue shark catch to be released alive. As a result, the
between the surface and the top of the thermocline,
requirement to develop a wholesale market for blue sharks
but have been documented as deep as 2,145 feet. In the
was dropped in 1991. Between 1991 and 1999, the com-
Pacic, blue sharks are most predominant between 35˚N
mercial harvest of blue sharks dropped to 37,500 pounds.
and 45˚N.
The recreational catch of blue sharks grew tremendously
Age and growth studies of blue sharks indicate that they
throughout the 1980s. Estimated annual catch increased
may reach maturity in six to seven years, although there
ten-fold between 1981 and 1988 with over 400,000 angler-
may be regional differences in growth. They are thought
trips on private boats, which had “sharks” (including
to be opportunistic feeders at all life stages and prey
mako sharks) as the primary or secondary target species.
primary on small pelagic shes, crustaceans, and ceph-
Although angler effort for “sharks” remained high through-
alopods. Blue sharks off southern California have also
been shown to exhibit seasonal dietary shifts when
prey such as squid become abundant during their mass
spawning events.
The blue shark is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta.
Litter size is quite variable ranging from four to 135 pups
and may be dependent on the size of the female. In
the Pacic, it is thought that mating occurs during the
summer months in the equatorial region from May through
August. Gestation period is thought to range from nine
to 12 months and may vary depending on location. Off
California, mating occurs in late spring to early winter.
The Southern California Bight is a major birthing area and
is generally considered a nursery area for immature blue
Blue Shark, Prionace glauca
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
342
Blue Shark
250
thousands of pounds landed
200
Blue Shark
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Blue Shark
Data Source: DFG Catch
100 Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. All shark
landings were aggregated
50
under the market category
“unspecified shark” until
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1977.
sharks. Female blue sharks have been shown to exhibit Most of the larger catches of blue sharks have been made
sperm storage, which may also explain variability in gesta- in or just south of this zone.
tion period estimates. Late-term pregnant females are Diel movements of blue sharks acoustically tracked off
found in the northern Pacic in summer months where southern California and in the North Atlantic indicate that
they give birth to large, well-developed pups averaging 14 adult blue sharks increase their activity at night and make
inches. This suggests that mature females in the Pacic shallower dives than during the day. Sharks tracked off
may only reproduce every other year. southern California ventured inshore at night, presumably
Seasonal migrations are thought to occur in the Atlantic, to feed on seasonally available spawning squid. The cycli-
Pacic, and Indian Ocean populations with seasonal peri- cal diving behavior is thought to serve as a hunting,
ods of sexual segregation. A shark tagging program orientation, and/or thermoregulatory function.
recently initiated by the department may further elu- Although adult blue sharks are opportunistic feeders and
cidate the migratory movements of blue sharks in the prey mainly on small pelagic shes, cephalopods, and
eastern Pacic. However, because no blue shark-tag and crustacean, they have also been observed scavenging on
recapture programs have been initiated in the central marine mammal carcasses at sea. Unfortunately, there are
Pacic, the extent of blue shark migration in the central few data on the diet composition of blue sharks in the
Pacic is still unconrmed. central Pacic.
Blue sharks appear to aggregate in loose schools and are
generally caught more frequently over depths greater than
Status of the Population
3,300 feet. They exhibit daily diving behavior similar to
that of other pelagic shes and sharks and appear to
T he size of California’s blue shark stock is unknown.
show a fair degree of niche overlap with swordsh. Blue
Local abundance undergoes major seasonal uctua-
sharks are incidentally caught in pelagic longline tuna
tions with juveniles to three year olds most abundant
and swordsh sheries in the Pacic and can seasonally
in the coastal waters from early spring to early winter.
comprise the largest percentage of the catch in these
Mature adults are uncommon in coastal waters.
sheries. In recent years, there has been an increase in
Fishery-dependent data needed for determining abun-
the number of blue sharks taken in the tuna and swordsh
dance, mortality, etc. are lacking because blue sharks
longline shery in Hawaii, where sharks are “nned” at
are usually discarded at sea and the catch often goes
sea, and the ns are then sold to Asian markets. The
undocumented. Local abundance depends on recruitment
meat is seldom landed and sold at market due its low
of juveniles and immigration of individuals from Mexico
commercial value.
and offshore into California waters. Although there are no
Based on spatial and temporal changes in blue shark
abundance estimates (local or Pacic-wide), some sher-
abundance in the Pacic, it is suspected that the north-
men and eld biologists speculate that there are fewer
south difference in catch rates of blue sharks is mediated
blue sharks than there were 10 to 20 years ago. The
by the transition zone. This is the area of water between
combined mortality from recreational anglers, commercial
the cooler Aleutian Current and the warmer water from
set net and drift net sheries, Mexican sheries and for-
the North Pacic Current. This transition zone shifts from
eign high seas sheries undoubtedly has the potential
31° N and 36° N in the winter to 41° N and 36° N in the fall.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 343
References
to impact the population and the local blue shark stock
Blue Shark
to an unknown extent. Currently though, all research
Cailliet G.M. and D.W. Bedford. 1983. The biology of three
and statistics indicate that blue shark populations within
pelagic sharks from California waters and their emerging
California waters remain within healthy levels.
sheries: A review. Cal. COFI Rep. 24:57-60.
Carey, F.G. and J.A. Scharold. 1990. Movements of blue
David B. Holts
sharks in depth and course. Marine Biology, 109: 329-342.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Harvey, J.T., 1989. Food habits, seasonal abundance, size,
Carrie Wilson
and sex of the blue shark, Prionace glauca, in Monterey
California Dept. of Fish and Game
Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 75(1):33-44.
Christopher G. Lowe
Nakano, H. 1994. Age, reproduction and migration of blue
Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State University
shark in the North Pacic Ocean. Bull. Nat. Res. Inst. Far
Long Beach
Seas Fish. 31:141-256.
Pratt, H.L. 1979. Reproduction in the blue shark, Prionace
glauca.. Fish. Bull. US. 77(2): 445-470.
West Coast Fishery Development Foundation. 1981. A
report on the development of the Pacic blue shark
as a commercial shery. NMFS, S-K Contract No:
80-ABH-00052. 255 p.
Strasburg, D.W. 1958. The distribution, abundance, and
habits of blue sharks in the central Pacic Ocean. Bulletin,
Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, 58: 331-365.
Tricas, T.A. 1979. Relationships of the blue shark, Prionace
glauca, to its prey species near Santa Catalina Island.
Fishery Bulletin, 77:175-182.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
344
Other Mackerel
Sharks Basking sharks are presumed to be ovoviviparous, but
Other Mackerel Sharks
whether they have intrauterine cannibalism like other
lamnoids is uncertain. Gravid females have never been
History of the Fishery observed in this species. Males mature at about 13 to 16
feet, and females at about 27 to 29 feet. The maximum
T he mackerel sharks (Order Lamniformes) are a small, size for this species is 36 feet. The smallest recorded
but diverse group containing seven families, six of free-living basking shark measured 5.6 feet, but size at
which occur along the California coast. In addition to birth is unknown. Maturity has been estimated at six to
mako and thresher sharks, there are three additional seven years, although the aging technique has never been
mackerel shark species that are caught or have been veried for this species and may underestimate the age
shed along the coast, the basking shark (Cetorhinus by one-half. These sharks may live for 30 to 50 years or
maximus), white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), and
salmon shark (Lamna ditropis).
The basking shark was the object of a localized harpoon
shery off the central California coast, but the shery was
sporadic due to periodic declines in the stocks. As with
most shark species, the basking shark is slow growing,
long-lived and probably produces relatively few young.
The California basking shark shery began in the 1930s,
and peaked during the 1940s and 1950s. They were shed
for their oil-rich livers, which were used for tanning
leather and as a base for paints and cosmetics. In addi-
tion, they were utilized for food for human consumption, Basking Shark, Cetorhinus maximus
Credit: DFG
and their ns were used as soup stock. Presently, there is
no shery for these sharks in state coastal waters.
Since they are not abundant enough to be of commercial
importance, there has never been a directed shery for
white sharks off California. They are often taken inciden-
tally in commercial catches and by sport anglers. The
meat is of good quality, the ns may be used as soup
stock, and the teeth and jaws as decorations or jewelry.
Although they have not been targeted in California, the
state nevertheless imposed a ban on white shark shing
in 1993. This followed similar bans in Australia and South
Africa where local artisan sheries for this species had
taken place.
Salmon sharks are not very abundant off California and
are mainly taken as a bycatch to other species. The meat
White Sharks circling research boat, Carcharodon carcharias
is of high quality and is readily sold along with the ns, Credit: DFG
which are used for soup stock. Fishermen often consider
salmon sharks an annoyance because they destroy shing
gear used in more commercially important sheries such
as those for salmon.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he basking shark is a coastal pelagic species usually
found in areas where the water temperature is
between 46° and 57° F. They are found close inshore to
well offshore at depths of over 330 feet, but usually over
the continental shelf. A common species from the Gulf of
Salmon Shark, Lamna ditropis
Alaska to the Gulf of California, although they appear to Credit: DFG
be less abundant south of Point Conception.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 345
Other Mackerel Sharks
10
millions of pounds landed
8
Unspecified Shark 6
Commercial Landings
4
1916-1999,
Unspecified Shark
2
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial land-
ing receipts. All shark landings 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
were aggregated until 1977.
more. Basking sharks grow at an estimated rate of about ern California, while intermediate sized animals are more
16 inches per year, but with the onset of maturity this rate common in northern California waters.
slows considerably. White sharks are oviphagous, with litters of between three
The basking shark is one of three gigantic lter-feeding and 14 young. The low frequency with which pregnant
species of shark and feeds almost exclusively on small females have been captured suggests that they may segre-
planktonic organisms that it traps in its gill rakers. The gate away from the main population and that only a
prey items include small copepods, barnacles, crusta- small proportion of the population may be gravid at any
ceans, and sh eggs and larvae. Approximately one-half one time. The Channel Islands off southern California
ton of food material may be present in the stomach of seem to be an area where large females and small white
an individual shark. It has been estimated that an adult sharks are occasionally captured, leading to speculation
basking shark cruising at a constant speed of two knots that females may give birth there. Size at maturity is
passes approximately 2,000 tons of water over its gills per somewhat problematic for females since few pregnant
hour. Adult basking sharks probably have few predators due individuals have been captured and accurately measured,
to their enormous size, young specimens though are preyed but 15 to 16.5 feet appears to be a close approximation.
upon by white sharks, sperm whales, and killer whales. Males mature at about 12 feet and grow to about 18 feet.
The largest reliably measured white shark from California
Basking sharks are highly migratory, appearing and then
waters measured 18.8 feet; however, there is an uncon-
disappearing seasonally at specic localities. These sharks
rmed record of one individual that measured 33 feet.
are especially abundant between October and April off
The size at birth is four to ve feet. The growth rate of
the California coast but move northward to Washington
white sharks has been estimated to be around 12 inches
and British Columbia during late spring and summer. Bask-
per year, and they may live to a maximum age of 30 years
ing sharks are very social animals and are often observed
or more.
in small groups of three to 10, but at times number up to
500 or more individuals. The white shark is perhaps the most formidable of large
marine predators. It has a broad spectrum of prey species
The white shark has a worldwide distribution from cold
that includes bony shes, other sharks, rays, and marine
temperate to tropical waters, though it is most common
mammals. Sharks over 10 feet long tend to feed on marine
in temperate waters between 53° and 68° F. In the east-
mammals while those less than 6.5 feet feed more on bony
ern North Pacic the white shark occurs from the Gulf
and cartilaginous shes. White sharks tend to congregate
of Alaska to the Gulf of California. It is fairly common
around seal rookeries, especially when these mammals are
off central California and around the offshore islands of
breeding. Sub-adult and young non-breeding adult seals
southern California.
appear to be most susceptible to predation.
The white shark occurs along the nearshore waters of
The salmon shark range in the eastern Pacic Ocean is
the California coast, including bays and estuaries, but
from the Bering Sea to central Baja California. It is a
sometimes may be oceanic since individuals are common
coastal and oceanic shark of subarctic and temperate
around the offshore islands. There seems to be some
waters, most often found in temperatures of less then 64 °
spatial segregation by size, as young white sharks under
F and depths less than 1,200 feet. The salmon shark is
eight and older ones over 16 feet are common off south-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
346
References
common on continental offshore waters to close inshore,
Other Mackerel Sharks
but also ranges far from land, over deep oceanic waters.
Ainley, D.G., R.H. Henderson, H.R. Huber, R.J. Boekel-
Salmon sharks are oviphagous with litters of two to
heide, S.G. Allen, and T.L. McElroy. 1985. Dynamics of
ve young. Birth usually occurs in the spring between
white shark/pinniped interactions in the Gulf of the Faral-
March and May after a 12-month gestation. Males mature
lones. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Mem. 9: 109-122.
between six and eight feet, and females at 6.25 to 8.25
Cailliet, G.M., L.J. Natanson, B.A. Welden, & D.A. Ebert.
feet. The maximum reported size is 10 feet. Size at birth
1985. Preliminary studies on the age and growth of
is 25.5 to 31.5 inches. Estimated age at maturity is ve
the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, using vertebral
years for males and nine or 10 years for females, with a
bands. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Mem. 9: 49-60.
maximum age of between 20 and 30 years.
Parker, H.W. and F.C. Stott. 1965. Age, size, and vertebral
The salmon shark feeds mostly on bony shes. They may
calcication in the basking shark, Cetorhinus maximus.
follow their main prey, salmon, as they migrate around
Zool Meded., 40(34): 305-319.
the North Pacic Ocean basin. Salmon sharks are known
to forage in groups of 30 to 40 individuals using social Paust, B.C. and R. Smith. 1986. Salmon shark manuel.
facilitation to hunt salmon and other schooling species. The development of a commercial salmon shark, Lamna
When attacking a school of salmon these sharks usually ditropis, shery in the North Pacic. Uni. Alaska, Alaska
initiate the attack from below and catch their prey by Sea Grant Rept. 86-01, May 1986: 1-430.
running it down in a high-speed chase rather than
ambushing it.
Status of the Populations
T he basking shark has not been commercially shed for
more than 30 years, and no recent stock assessment
has been made.
Although no demographic studies exist to estimate the
white shark’s population in our area, circumstantial evi-
dence suggests that their numbers may be increasing in
response to the burgeoning marine mammal population.
With California’s increasing human population this may
inevitably lead to more human-shark interactions. One
researcher has estimated that between 10 and 20 white
sharks are caught per year along the California coast.
Unfortunately, more accurate data are unavailable.
There is virtually no information on the salmon shark’s
abundance and stock structure in the eastern North Pacic.
David Ebert
US Abalone
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 347
Opah
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
O O
pah (Lampris guttatus) are taken commercially as ne of two living species known within the Lampridae
an incidental catch in the drift gillnet shery (94 family, this species is most commonly referred to by
percent), but are also captured in the high seas longline its West African name, opah; however, it may also be
shery (three percent) beyond the U.S. Exclusive Eco- called African pompano, giant pompano, Hawaiian moon-
nomic Zone (200 mile limit) off California. Prior to 1976, sh, moonsh, mariposa or Jerusalem haddock. The genus
they were also recorded as incidental catch in the Pacic Lampris is derived from the Greek lampros meaning radi-
halibut, sardine, salmon, and albacore sheries. ant, while the species guttatus is likely derived from
the Latin word for spot, guttat. The opah’s laterally com-
Between 1976 and 1989, only 1,660,856 pounds of opah
pressed, oval body is an iridescent, silvery-blue with
were landed in California, with no landings in some years,
round to oval white spots. The snout, lips and ns are a
and the largest landings following the 1982-1983 El Niño
brilliant red. The bones of the small, toothless mouth are
(516,126 pounds in 1984). Between 1990 and 1999, approx-
capable of protruding forward, forming an unusual upper
imately 1,470,653 pounds of opah were landed in Califor-
jaw mechanism employed during feeding. The forked
nia, with annual landings ranging from 81,669 to 246,530
caudal n and lateral red musculature likely function in
pounds. The highest landings of the decade occurred in
low-speed swimming, the caudal n and lateral white
1998; once again associated with a warm water event (the
musculature in acceleration and the moderately long pec-
1997-1998 El Niño). Although the majority of opah landed
toral ns in maintaining normal cruising speeds. The
in California since 1990 were landed from San Luis Obispo
modes of locomotion associated with the opah’s muscula-
County south (about 50 percent from San Diego County
ture are well-suited to its pelagic lifestyle. Many pelagic
alone), landings were reported as far north as Crescent City.
shes undergo periods of sustained swimming with inter-
Sport shermen targeting albacore from British Columbia
mittent bursts of speed used during activities such as
to Baja California occasionally catch opah. Within Califor-
feeding. The opah maintains neutral buoyancy by means
nia, many sport caught opah are taken from the northern
of a functional air bladder and a skeletal structure of
Channel Islands south to the Coronado Islands, just below
oil-lled, porous bones.
the U.S.-Mexico border. Anglers state that opah hit live
Opah occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas. In
bait or articial lures with considerable fury.
the eastern Pacic, they occur from Chile to the Gulf of
Opah esh is tasty, can be prepared in a variety of ways,
Alaska. All life stages of this species are pelagic and oce-
and is excellent when smoked. The salmon-colored esh,
anic, occurring from the sea surface to a depth of 1,680
darker over the pectoral n, is very fatty just below the
feet. Seasonal movements are not known in the northeast-
skin but is otherwise rich, dry, rm and delicate.
ern Pacic, but in the northeastern Atlantic opah catch
has been reported in the North Sea and waters off Iceland
solely during the summer.
Little is known about opah reproduction. Spawning loca-
tions and seasons are unknown; however, a mature female
was taken in the spring off California. Neither reproduc-
tive capacity nor the size of eggs is known. Very small
opah, nearly one-half inch long, resemble miniature adults
in body form, and have a complete set of n rays. Fish up
to eight inches in length are referred to as juveniles while
those greater than 41 inches are called adults, although
the exact size and age at maturity is unknown. Opah
are known to grow to at least 54 inches in length, but
have been reported to reach 72 inches. They are known
to reach a weight of at least 160 pounds and have been
reported to reach 500 to 600 pounds. The maximum age
of opah is unknown.
The diet of larvae and juveniles is undetermined. As
adults, opah are midwater predators that eat cephalo-
pods, crustaceans and bony shes such as anchovy, lan-
cetsh, and cutlasssh. Aside from humans, predators of
Opah, Lampris guttatus
Credit: J.B. Philips opah have not been documented.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
348
Opah
600
thousands of pounds landed
500
400
Opah
300 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Opah
200
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
100
landing receipts. Commercial
landing data not available for
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 Opah prior to 1976.
Status of the Population References
T he size of the opah population, worldwide or off the Freeman, K. 1984. Opah the moonsh. Pacic Fishing.
coast of California is not known. Opah are probably August: 25-27.
solitary sh as few are encountered at any one time. It Herald, E. S. 1939. The opah (Lampris regius) and its
is not known whether local subpopulations exist or how occurrence off the California coast. Calif. Fish Game 25(3):
far individual opah travel. Based upon trends over the 228-232.
last two decades, opah landings in California are likely to
Olney, J.E., G.D. Johnson, and C.C. Baldwin. 1993. Phylog-
increase after El Niño events.
eny of lampridiform shes. Bulletin of Marine Science
52(1): 137-169.
Management Considerations Parin, N. V., and N. S. Kukuyev. 1983. Reestablishment
of the validity of Lampris immaculata Gilchrist and the
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for geographical distribution of the Lampridae. J. Ichthyol.
further information. 23(1): 1-12.
Sarah D. MacWilliams
California Department of Fish and Game
M. James Allen
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 349
Louvar
History of the Fishery year but overall have remained relatively stable, with an
average of 10,923 pounds (1986-1989), and 9,584 pounds
O ff California, louvar (Luvarus imperialis) tend to be (1990-1999).
seasonal transients associated with warm water cur- Landings off California from 1990 through 1999 had a total
rents late in the year. When present, they are considered ex-vessel value of $297,500 with an average of $29,750
a desirable, but incidental catch species primarily in the per year. The ex-vessel price per pound ranged from
shark and swordsh drift gillnet shery. Although primar- $2.48 in 1992 to $3.71 in 1998, with a mean value of $3.20.
ily taken in this shery, landings from other gear types Although landing amounts have remained relatively con-
such as set gillnet, hook-and-line, harpoon, trawl, and stant, the average price paid for louvar has increased over
round haul nets have been recorded. The majority of three-fold since 1986. Louvar esh is delicate and white
catches occur off the Southern California Bight, with suc- with a mild avor, and is considered by many shermen to
cess being highest in the area encompassing Point Loma, be among the most delicious of shes. This admiration has
San Clemente Island, and Cortez Bank. In the drift gillnet been carried over to the markets where the fresh sh are
shery, sh tend to be caught at depths of 18 to 78 feet. sold to the better restaurants.
Inasmuch as louvar are strongly associated with warmer
water currents, catches of this species typically increase
Status of Biological Knowledge
during the late summer through fall and show a dramatic
rise during strong El Niño events. Louvar occasionally are
L uvarus imperialis, meaning “silver emperor,” is the
found stranded on the beach or drifting dead at the sea
only member of the family Luvaridae. This streamlined
surface. There is not a signicant recreational shery
sh has a strongly compressed body and a blunt head with
for louvar.
a small, terminal, toothless mouth and a horizontal groove
From 1990 through 1999, a total of 95,844 pounds were
above each eye. The caudal n is lunate with a keel on the
landed in California; annual landings ranged from 5,190
caudal peduncle. Males have long laments in front of the
pounds in 1994 to 17,498 pounds in 1992. Annual landings
soft dorsal and anal ns. Adults have frothy pink bodies
since the mid-1980s have shown uctuations from year-to-
covered with dark spots and crimson ns, although after
death the body turns silvery. Except for the blunt head,
louvar are adapted for rapid swimming, with their lunate
caudal n and keeled caudal peduncle. When swimming
slowly, louvar presumably scull with their caudal n.
Louvar occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas.
In the eastern Pacic they are found from central Wash-
ington to Chile. Although generally uncommon, they are
relatively abundant in southern California. All life stages
of this species are pelagic and oceanic. Adults occur from
the sea surface to a depth of 1,970 feet, but most are
found at depths below 660 feet. The larvae have been
taken at temperatures of 70.9-82.2° F. Spawning occurs
in temperate waters between 40° N and 40° S latitude,
from late spring to summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
A ripe individual was taken off Morro Bay, California in
May. Louvar fecundity is very high, which is typical of non-
schooling, oceanic shes; a female 66.9 inches (5.6 feet)
long had a fecundity of 47.5 million eggs.
Larvae range from 0.14 to 0.42 inches in length. The
larvae and small juveniles look sufciently different from
the adult that they were once thought to be different
species. They have strong, serrated dorsal and anal spines
and a short body. The smallest juveniles have long, deep
ns and dark spots on the body. Larger juveniles (four
to eight inches) are similar to the adult but have longer
dorsal and anal ns.
Louvar, Luvarus imperialis
Credit: Charles Cranford
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
350
Louvar
20
thousands of pounds landed
16
12
Louvar
8 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Louvar
4 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
and commercial landing receipts.
Commercial landing data are not
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 available prior to 1984.
Management Considerations
The size and age of louvar at rst maturity is not known;
however, a 295-pound female was mature. Louvar grow to
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
at least 74 inches and 305 pounds. Because the otoliths
further information.
are tiny and not useful for aging, the maximum age
is unknown.
As midwater browsers, they feed primarily on gelatinous Michael Dege
zooplankton such as jellysh, ctenophores, and free- California Department of Fish and Game
swimming tunicates (salps and pyrosomes), but occasion-
M. James Allen
ally eat small sh. Only about 20 percent of the louvar
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
taken have had food in their stomachs.
The louvar stomach is lined with numerous papillae and
References
the coiled intestine is extremely long. The intestine of
adults is about eight to nine times as long as the sh.
Decamps, P. 1986. Luvaridae. Pages 998-999 In: P. J. P.
These features presumably are adaptations for feeding
Whitehead, M.-L. Bauchot, J-C. Hureau, J. Nielson, and E.
on jellysh.
Tortonese (eds.), Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and
An eight-inch louvar was found in the stomach of a wahoo.
the Mediterranean, Vol. 2. UNESCO, Paris, Fr.
Otherwise, predators other than man are not known. The
Fitch, J.E., and R. J. Lavenberg. 1968. Deep-water Fishes of
gastrointestinal areas of louvar are often parasitized by
California. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, CA. 155 p.
digenean trematodes.
Gotshall, D. W., and J. E. Fitch. 1968. The louvar Luvarus
imperialis in the eastern Pacic, with notes on its life
Status of the Population history. Copeia 1968(1):181-183.
T
Nishikawa, Y. 1987. Larval morphology and occurrence of
he size of the louvar population worldwide or off
the louvar, Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae). Jpn. J. Ichthyol.
California is not known. Louvar are solitary sh and
34(2):215-221.
few are taken at any one time. Because the population is
worldwide in tropical and temperate seas, the California Tyler, J. C., G. D. Johnson, I. Nakamura, and B. B. Collette.
shery probably has little impact on the species as a 1989. Morphology of Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae), with a
whole. It is not known whether local subpopulations exist phylogenetic analysis of the Acanthuroidei (Pisces). Smith-
or how far individual louvar travel. Using recent landings son. Contrib. Zool. No. 485. 78 p.
as an indicator, the local availability of the species is likely
to become more abundant off California following warm
water periods or El Niño events. Although commercial
landings of louvar are recorded by the California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, the louvar is not presently a
target species and the shery is not actively managed.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 351
Dolphin
History of the Fishery is also a species that commonly associates with surface
oating objects, and thus may have evolved avoidance
T he dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus), also known as mahi capabilities that prevent it from becoming entangled in
mahi, or more commonly in California, as dorado, drifting materials.
occurs in the California recreational catch primarily during
warm water years. Most catches occur in the Southern
Status of Biological Knowledge
California Bight, especially south of Los Angeles. Before
1972, the annual California commercial passenger shing
G rowth in dolphin is extremely rapid. Fish reach matu-
vessel (CPFV) catches during the July through October
rity in less than a year (at about 14 inches or seven
shing season seldom exceeded a few hundred sh. There-
months old) and only rarely live beyond three to four
after over 1,000 were taken in 23 of the next 25 seasons.
years. Actual growth rates vary among regions and are
A major shift occurred in 1990 when the catch exceeded
sensitive to prevailing water temperatures. In captivity,
31,000 sh, and averaged 15,602 sh per year between
dolphin grow about 0.05 inches per day at 64˚F, 0.13
1990 and 1997 (range: 1,000 to 31,548).
inches per day at 77˚F, and 0.23 inches per day at 84˚F.
In commercial sheries, an estimated average of 1,084 Length/age data from sh taken in the wild show dolphin
dolphin have been landed and 324 released per year by have an average growth of about a 0.09 inches per day.
the high seas longline shery landing in California during In the western Pacic, dolphin reach a length of 15 inches
the period August 1,1995, through December 31, 1999. It the rst year, 27 inches the second year, 35 inches the
is occasionally taken by albacore bait and troll boats and third year, and 43 inches the fourth year.
tuna purse seine vessels. It is rare in the drift gillnet
Larval dolphin feed mainly on crustaceans, particularly
catch, possibly because its surface-swimming habits take
pontellid copepods, with sh larvae appearing in the diet
it above the reach of the top of these nets. Judging from
of young juveniles greater than eight inches. Adult dolphin
the length of net extenders deployed, observed sets have
are mainly piscivorous, with ying sh being the most
averaged about 35 feet below the surface over the past
important in volume and occurrence. Jacks, mackerels,
decade. During the summer of 1996, when over 21,000
rabbitshes, squids and portunid crabs are also taken in
dorado were taken by the CPFV eet, the >68˚ F layer
various parts of their range. Adults can swim faster than
was observed to be less than 33 feet deep, indicating
33 feet per second, and can feed at low light levels.
a very shallow suitable habitat zone for dolphin. This
All life stages of dolphin serve as prey for other oceanic
shes, particularly marlin, epipelagic sharks, swordsh,
sailsh, and other dolphin.
There is little information about Pacic Ocean migrations,
but dolphin are thought to migrate relatively long dis-
tances in the western Atlantic and Mediterranean. In the
eastern Pacic, temperature seems to be an important
factor in dening the range and possibly the movements of
this species, the northern barrier being the California Cur-
rent, and in the south, the Peru Current. Various authors
report seasonal patterns in catches, possibly relating to
spawning migrations or seasonal intrusion of preferred
warm water temperatures. Norton noted the dramatic
increase in recreational catches of dolphin off southern
California and northern Mexico over the past 30 years
(especially during the last decade). He suggested that
the habitat of dolphin has been expanding northward
in response to an oceanic and atmospheric regime shift
that has brought periods of warmer water and enhanced
northward current ow to California. It has also brought
less cold water upwelling off northern Mexico, which had
formerly inhibited northward dispersal.
Dolphin are oviparous with pelagic eggs and larvae; fertil-
ization is external. Spawning is thought to occur year
round in waters above 75˚ F, although there may be
Dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus
Credit: NMFS
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
352
Dolphin
90
thousands of pounds landed
80
70
60
Dolphin
50
Commercial Landings
40
1916-1999, Dolphin
30 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
20 and commercial landing
10 receipts. No commercial land-
ings are reported for dolphin
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 prior to 1977.
Status of the Population
reproductive peaks with eggs released in batches within
a given reproductive pulse. Fecundity increases sharply
T he status of the population is unknown. Since Califor-
with size, and assuming three spawns a year, estimated
nia is on the northern range of dolphin, our sheries
total egg production varies from about 240,000 to almost
may be subject to a great deal of variation due to changes
3 million eggs per year for sh. Certain times of the year
in oceanographic patterns and even moderate variations
may be more conducive to larval survival, e.g., in Hawaii
in stock size.
the strongest cohorts are spawned in July. Spawning of
the California-Mexico dolphin population evidently takes
place in waters south of the U.S. West Coast EEZ. In
Management Considerations
CalCOFI larval sh surveys, larvae have been collected
off central and southern Baja California, Mexico, and only
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
occasionally in warm water years, off southern California,
further information.
with peak abundance in August and September. Age at
Susan Smith
female maturity is 0.6 years with maximum reproductive
National Marine Fisheries Service
age at four.
Stephen J. Crooke
Little is known of stock structure in the Pacic. Because of
California Department of Fish and Game
the dolphin’s brief life-cycle and seasonal catch patterns,
it seems unlikely that the U.S.-Mexico stock is shared
with Hawaii or shing nations in the central and western
References
Pacic, however, stock mixing cannot be ruled out. The
relationship of the Mexico stock to stocks occurring fur-
Lasso, J. and L. Zapata. 1999. Fisheries and biology
ther south along the Pacic coast of Central and South
of Coryphaena hippurus (Pisces: Coryphaenidae) in the
American is not known. Because seasonal migrations in
Pacic Coast of Columbia and Panama. Scientia Marina 63
the North Pacic show a reverse tendency to that in the
(3-4): 387-399.
Southern Hemisphere, there may be at least two stocks in
Massutí, E. and B. Morales-Nin (eds.) 1999. Biology and
the Pacic Ocean separated by the equator.
Fishery of Dorado and Related Species. Scientia Marina
63(3-4):261-266.
35
Norton, J.G. 1999. Apparent habitat extensions of dorado
30
thousands of fish landed
(Coryphaena hippurus) in response to climate transients in
25
Dolphin
the California Current. Scientia Marina 63(3-4):239-260.
20
15
Palko, B.J., G.L. Beardsley, and W.J. Richards. 1982. Syn-
10
opsis of the biological data on dolphin-shes, Coryphaena
5
hippurus Linnaeus and Coryphaena equiselis Linnaeus. FAO
0 1947
Fisheries Synopsis No.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Dolphin
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 353
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Tunas Sharks
Albacore Bluefin Skipjack Yellowfin Blue Shortfin Thresher Unspecified
Tuna1 Tuna1 Tuna 2 Tuna 2 Shark3 Mako Shark3 Shark3 Shark3
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 22,899,309 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 36,247
1917 30,556,242 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 287,872
1918 7,265,422 ---- 3,022,964 ---- ---- ---- ---- 403,093
1919 13,630,899 14,990,860 6,892,427 348,081 ---- ---- ---- 612,683
1920 18,876,647 10,530,272 7,957,277 1,965,024 ---- ---- ---- 811,349
1921 15,276,727 1,971,813 1,134,993 1,297,451 ---- ---- ---- 539,333
1922 13,231,823 2,811,283 11,857,833 7,405,279 ---- ---- ---- 282,018
1923 12,514,833 3,218,090 11,462,522 10,836,925 ---- ---- ---- 360,363
1924 17,695,362 3,241,110 3,774,058 3,063,398 ---- ---- ---- 392,634
1925 22,206,923 3,803,677 14,222,453 13,237,898 ---- ---- ---- 372,332
1926 2,469,921 6,526,533 20,951,348 12,564,986 ---- ---- ---- 506,723
1927 4,656,959 4,898,465 33,805,960 25,933,966 ---- ---- ---- 325,653
1928 4,065,729 13,700,870 15,946,910 32,253,206 ---- ---- ---- 623,816
1929 6,110,330 7,526,857 27,066,588 37,444,924 ---- ---- ---- 833,985
1930 7,288,685 21,921,282 20,485,587 56,657,768 ---- ---- ---- 647,297
1931 6,976,401 3,534,030 16,506,761 36,581,376 ---- ---- ---- 596,134
1932 3,087,215 2,125,001 21,636,577 36,923,410 ---- ---- ---- 850,888
1933 2,794,452 1,449,828 17,093,041 51,075,630 ---- ---- ---- 471,030
1934 4,287,296 18,357,828 16,409,439 61,137,102 ---- ---- ---- 526,280
1935 5,678,793 25,319,614 19,803,954 72,294,127 ---- ---- ---- 555,256
1936 2,456,004 19,669,935 29,271,030 78,361,272 ---- ---- ---- 471,861
1937 4,743,709 13,217,984 54,698,995 92,406,606 ---- ---- ---- 914,205
1938 13,574,635 17,732,359 26,152,974 78,363,005 ---- ---- ---- 7,504,329
1939 16,423,234 11,835,715 31,186,950 110,417,801 ---- ---- ---- 9,227,750
1940 7,078,334 19,970,268 56,910,522 113,898,209 ---- ---- ---- 7,860,030
1941 4,314,508 9,519,012 25,707,064 76,701,820 ---- ---- ---- 7,617,334
1942 11,091,866 12,844,564 38,735,228 41,466,614 ---- ---- ---- 3,551,566
1943 21,384,864 10,178,768 28,893,784 49,261,328 ---- ---- ---- 3,729,334
1944 20,989,479 20,343,550 30,037,236 63,143,891 ---- ---- ---- 2,613,431
1945 21,333,779 20,594,309 33,347,896 87,331,440 ---- ---- ---- 2,438,096
1946 18,077,899 22,031,802 41,087,994 127,246,675 ---- ---- ---- 1,608,846
1947 13,427,281 20,837,673 52,460,168 150,459,384 ---- ---- ---- 2,637,926
1948 37,609,789 6,696,987 58,771,706 191,723,981 ---- ---- ---- 2,480,555
1949 44,290,320 4,389,471 78,574,657 185,612,094 ---- ---- ---- 1,550,992
1950 66,123,624 2,846,841 128,041,078 190,446,466 ---- ---- ---- 717,247
1951 48,436,233 3,864,530 118,637,672 173,668,653 ---- ---- ---- 842,324
1952 72,328,772 4,576,685 88,891,667 185,517,690 ---- ---- ---- 623,238
1953 80,022,721 9,835,062 130,653,919 140,544,952 ---- ---- ---- 449,753
1954 64,573,673 21,795,967 169,463,946 149,103,693 ---- ---- ---- 770,337
1955 73,846,973 13,952,523 120,524,989 162,818,007 ---- ---- ---- 576,201
1956 57,377,986 12,788,843 135,995,434 203,885,507 ---- ---- ---- 1,085,314
1957 83,089,272 20,637,570 111,436,303 182,041,635 ---- ---- ---- 728,900
1958 54,673,098 31,477,208 148,158,256 218,075,149 ---- ---- ---- 491,713
1959 62,482,446 15,797,703 146,194,191 210,992,058 ---- ---- ---- 602,191
1960 71,452,175 13,416,411 74,798,635 272,648,098 ---- ---- ---- 694,191
1961 59,414,251 22,155,190 86,747,632 262,310,262 ---- ---- ---- 623,972
1962 73,354,129 33,119,729 99,059,469 218,148,910 ---- ---- ---- 753,177
1963 65,804,803 32,701,801 106,284,833 162,326,222 ---- ---- ---- 665,367
1964 74,720,964 26,831,939 72,554,280 202,855,729 ---- ---- ---- 646,569
1965 68,025,134 16,734,506 89,919,213 196,435,355 ---- ---- ---- 648,265
1966 73,908,838 37,939,210 65,225,532 189,844,772 ---- ---- ---- 653,790
1967 71,747,685 13,735,595 114,958,800 167,251,535 ---- ---- ---- 596,898
1968 76,099,731 13,016,373 60,673,827 212,238,450 ---- ---- ---- 499,947
1969 71,055,426 15,607,319 48,680,081 240,746,510 ---- ---- ---- 478,235
1970 29,931,714 8,655,295 76,480,634 231,956,638 ---- ---- ---- 420,318
1971 36,116,734 17,250,966 101,377,638 150,941,111 ---- ---- ---- 421,335
1972 21,001,214 24,877,721 35,944,884 241,704,982 ---- ---- ---- 400,769
1973 8,640,852 20,187,207 29,809,281 232,793,961 ---- ---- ---- 418,694
1974 11,806,150 11,605,792 59,975,341 246,110,479 ---- ---- ---- 497,359
1975 15,412,778 16,360,774 73,810,130 234,252,185 ---- ---- ---- 533,954
1976 27,759,376 18,789,445 122,694,052 276,064,610 ---- ---- ---- 862,204
1977 15,904,840 6,939,994 81,620,289 195,596,189 ---- 19,911 129,522 1,070,685
1978 21,549,428 9,561,343 137,185,991 191,100,304 ---- ---- 302,073 1,184,411
1979 8,442,098 13,273,516 94,796,032 165,845,675 ---- 35,334 735,743 1,157,227
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
354
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Tunas Sharks
Albacore Bluefin Skipjack Yellowfin Blue Shortfin Thresher Unspecified
Tuna1 Tuna1 Tuna 2 Tuna 2 Shark3 Mako Shark3 Shark3 Shark3
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 11,958,760 5,371,000 174,406,052 190,185,117 192,130 155,336 1,806,007 1,423,633
1981 20,584,321 1,912,748 127,578,862 167,751,112 203,074 277,345 1,974,037 909,596
1982 9,436,938 5,301,256 92,381,839 136,176,299 57,838 533,839 2,397,171 449,024
1983 16,545,410 1,682,296 99,196,795 122,885,366 13,983 330,260 1,726,646 433,410
1984 26,126,747 1,400,998 68,896,983 77,299,186 3,864 242,837 1,659,104 314,251
1985 14,197,002 7,173,299 6,562,190 33,123,315 2,385 226,695 1,540,799 277,951
1986 7,248,173 10,431,044 3,000,340 47,436,173 3,316 473,684 606,595 201,201
1987 3,511,503 1,814,041 12,619,100 51,149,000 3,410 612,020 525,104 167,867
1988 2,669,538 1,771,706 19,539,462 43,033,185 7,147 489,217 536,711 44,236
1989 1,918,914 2,246,118 9,932,415 38,834,297 13,521 388,322 649,984 22,775
1990 1,902,318 2,040,073 4,472,810 18,759,062 43,675 577,128 461,606 18,111
1991 1,493,811 228,896 7,511,801 9,209,749 1,200 322,097 758,266 10,704
1992 2,772,642 2,396,650 5,700,648 7,384,579 2,880 215,876 394,192 6,966
1993 4,027,882 1,163,581 10,006,587 8,254,649 522 185,254 356,059 9,773
1994 6,989,093 2,012,277 4,653,967 11,141,997 24,828 193,782 427,513 12,422
1995 1,833,340 1,567,454 15,428,051 6,685,493 7,360 145,278 342,335 25,076
1996 11,332,004 10,327,599 12,024,568 7,376,529 320 142,013 405,042 9,618
1997 7,398,111 4,958,129 13,381,560 10,524,823 236 210,518 411,487 12,919
1998 5,311,746 4,281,798 12,614,505 12,736,163 1,070 148,331 413,775 11,867
1999 12,294,268 364,508 8,286,038 2,981,179 116 94,646 328,415 13,354
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Data includes shipments and landings from areas north and south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
2
Data includes shipments and landings from areas south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
3
All shark landings were aggregated until 1977.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 355
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Dolphin Fish Louvar Opah Swordfish Dolphin Fish Louvar Opah Swordfish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1980 4,507 ---- ---- 1,197,187
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1981 8,344 ---- 2,989 1,142,897
1918 ---- ---- ---- 18,442 1982 2,424 ---- 69,347 1,691,161
1919 ---- ---- ---- 18,252 1983 1,183 ---- 179,914 2,675,218
1920 ---- ---- ---- 12,513 1984 7,774 18,009 516,126 4,393,278
1921 ---- ---- ---- 14,803 1985 424 ---- 394,873 5,196,685
1922 ---- ---- ---- 23,256 1986 3,453 ---- 218,769 3,845,932
1923 ---- ---- ---- 11,691 1987 714 11,674 92,493 2,741,015
1924 ---- ---- ---- 31,833 1988 377 10,917 67,868 2,484,428
1925 ---- ---- ---- 27,045 1989 828 8,196 116,966 2,861,277
1926 ---- ---- ---- 45,543 1990 1,510 14,105 103,606 1,871,535
1927 ---- ---- ---- 130,288 1991 713 6,147 81,678 1,564,946
1928 ---- ---- ---- 426,001 1992 7,123 17,498 112,785 2,354,831
1929 ---- ---- ---- 693,081 1993 37,250 15,020 123,614 2,684,569
1930 ---- ---- ---- 562,729 1994 82,211 5,191 155,811 2,574,758
1931 ---- ---- ---- 340,769 1995 10,915 5,300 143,473 1,764,736
1932 ---- ---- ---- 661,470 1996 19,502 9,512 180,340 1,768,544
1933 ---- ---- ---- 850,699 1997 10,318 6,343 178,147 2,205,694
1934 ---- ---- ---- 263,958 1998 6,970 10,951 247,586 2,054,089
1935 ---- ---- ---- 669,283 1999 35,795 8,509 144,947 3,054,630
1936 ---- ---- ---- 577,402
1937 ---- ---- ---- 625,307 - - - - Landings data not available.
1
1938 ---- ---- ---- 722,478 Data includes shipments and landings from areas north and south of the State between 1916
1939 ---- ---- ---- 594,360 and 1969.
2
1940 ---- ---- ---- 887,168 Data includes shipments and landings from areas south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
3
1941 ---- ---- ---- 916,739 All shark landings were aggregated until 1977.
1942 ---- ---- ---- 445,908
1943 ---- ---- ---- 336,386
1944 ---- ---- ---- 751,596
1945 ---- ---- ---- 363,093
1946 ---- ---- ---- 863,494
1947 ---- ---- ---- 1,009,957
1948 ---- ---- ---- 1,113,808
1949 ---- ---- ---- 198,361
1950 ---- ---- ---- 26,494
1951 ---- ---- ---- 228,034
1952 ---- ---- ---- 265,690
1953 ---- ---- ---- 142,831
1954 ---- ---- ---- 23,055
1955 ---- ---- ---- 134,659
1956 ---- ---- ---- 275,174
1957 ---- ---- ---- 375,986
1958 ---- ---- ---- 471,775
1959 ---- ---- ---- 448,220
1960 ---- ---- ---- 324,754
1961 ---- ---- ---- 368,855
1962 ---- ---- ---- 39,057
1963 ---- ---- ---- 98,074
1964 ---- ---- ---- 183,023
1965 ---- ---- ---- 327,174
1966 ---- ---- ---- 468,772
1967 ---- ---- ---- 305,067
1968 ---- ---- ---- 199,398
1969 ---- ---- ---- 1,031,583
1970 ---- ---- ---- 944,745
1971 ---- ---- ---- 154,418
1972 ---- ---- ---- 265,982
1973 ---- ---- ---- 613,544
1974 ---- ---- ---- 649,502
1975 ---- ---- ---- 865,536
1976 ---- ---- 2,458 83,623
1977 10,646 ---- ---- 511,388
1978 159 ---- ---- 2,604,233
1979 694 ---- ---- 586,529
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
356
Recreational Catch -
Highly Migratory Finfish
Recreational Catch - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Albacore Bluefin Skipjack Yellowfin Striped
Tuna Tuna Tuna Tuna Marlin Dolphin Fish
No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1
Year No. of Fish
1947 11,445 2,194 698 137 37 15
1948 15,414 104 460 18 58 ----
1949 22,692 1,941 9 11 28 ----
1950 118,087 27 31 6 115 1
1951 75,924 7,142 132 56 58 ----
1952 187,267 145 38 34 57 2
1953 23,363 4,276 279 ---- 4 ----
1954 20,098 966 50 ---- 9 12
1955 78,688 8,179 10 1 6 ----
1956 65,814 34,187 13 78 32 2
1957 41,540 6,428 6,453 325 22 2,805
1958 6,482 884 491 13 84 ----
1959 39 1,330 514 4 349 4
1960 76,075 97 378 2,124 9 1
1961 184,891 2,268 11 21 8 3
1962 229,314 2,453 40 3 2 ----
1963 158,372 737 8,149 80 37 139
1964 112,358 693 3,961 103 48 4
1965 99,771 92 2,142 101 46 341
1966 74,680 1,998 1,012 241 40 48
1967 96,497 3,166 1,656 10,801 81 198
1968 129,710 1,231 4,250 8,499 60 929
1969 48,887 1,470 9,998 4,210 66 170
1970 112,106 1,833 15,561 3,840 52 103
1971 160,361 749 62 6,622 32 188
1972 86,890 1,470 281 849 12 206
1973 9,858 5,347 855 1,783 34 5,941
1974 12,814 5,765 1,345 2,524 29 1,967
1975 81,562 3,348 455 2,556 5 604
1976 84,973 2,040 5,400 4,437 10 6,509
1977 70,274 1,838 21,423 7,689 33 4,300
1978 92,646 479 10,520 6,708 13 2,330
1979 10,196 1,087 487 4,042 34 9,184
1980 21,309 729 3,891 11,217 58 8,840
1981 26,648 542 435 4,559 67 1,281
1982 36,690 665 32 2,035 33 1,099
1983 17,161 1,912 103,040 116,298 65 4,992
1984 211,285 2,834 30,357 8,648 287 6,532
1985 172,493 4,980 238 3,898 68 1,307
1986 27,322 693 2,249 5,505 43 1,866
1987 7,046 1,859 8,181 14,794 168 3,518
1988 559 321 1,898 20,065 134 3,349
1989 29,728 6,519 19,736 19,076 40 2,341
1990 3,816 3,756 16,305 49,118 105 31,548
1991 1,009 5,289 6,319 11,453 11 1,301
1992 380 8,586 52,302 73,739 25 22,727
1993 393 10,535 23,823 37,142 30 8,952
1994 171 2,309 15,327 46,831 42 5,318
1995 1,296 14,648 43,048 87,347 35 5,022
1996 1,873 2,478 6,356 72,449 17 21,939
1997 88,133 7,974 19,170 89,097 24 28,606
1998 155,985 18,985 13,735 75,367 16 6,485
1999 254,983 36,390 2,707 21,215 2 3,633
- - - - Landings data not available.
All data based on CPFV logbooks.
1
All data presented in number of fish.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 357
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
358
Groundfish:
Overview improved information about rocksh life history (such
Groundfish: Overview
as age, growth, and reproduction), better stock assess-
ments and environmental conditions that generally have
M ore than 80 species of marine sh are included not been favorable to rocksh reproduction or survival for
under the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Manage- many years. As a result, rocksh cannot support harvest
ment Plan (FMP) that was adopted by the Pacic Fishery rates as high as previously thought. Management is further
Management Council (PFMC) in 1982. In general, the FMP complicated because the habitats and ranges of many
provides for management of bottom dwelling nsh spe- rocksh species overlap, so that it is difcult to catch one
cies (including all rocksh and whiting) that are found in species without catching other species at the same time.
U.S. EEZ waters off Washington, Oregon and California. Fishing must be reduced for an entire group of rocksh
Of these, fewer than 20 of the commercially and recre- in order to realize lower catches that are necessary to
ationally most important have ever been comprehensively rebuild overshed stocks. For example, although a few
assessed. Each year, stock assessments are conducted on shelf rocksh species such as chilipepper and yellowtail
ve to 10 species, typically as part of a three-year rota- appear to be comparatively healthy, their allowable har-
tion. Only Pacic whiting is assessed each year. Species vest has been set at levels below the potential yield to
and species groups that are actively managed under the protect the weaker species of shelf rocksh that tend to
FMP are: “Minor rocksh” (which includes most rocksh); be caught with them, such as bocaccio and canary.
Pacic Ocean perch; sablesh; thornyheads; Dover sole;
Prior to 2000, the allowable catch of all rocksh in the
whiting; canary rocksh; widow rocksh; yellowtail rock-
PFMC’s southern management area for rocksh (most of
sh; bocaccio; chilipepper rocksh; cowcod; darkblotched
California) was combined into a single quota. To better
rocksh; splitnose rocksh; and lingcod.
align shing opportunities with the resources that support
Groundsh management is complicated and demanding them, shery managers have grouped rocksh into three
because sheries for many of the species are inter- new categories – nearshore, shelf, and slope. In addition,
related, but the various stocks have responded differently management has been rened by setting individual quotas
to shing pressure. For example, atsh populations such for a few species, which reduces the aggregate quota
as Dover, Petrale, and English soles have been subjected for other remaining rocksh species. While this approach
to signicant commercial sheries for decades, yet have lowers the harvest of overshed rocksh species, such as
not shown the magnitude of declines that have occurred bocaccio, it also reduces the opportunities for nearshore
in some of the rocksh populations. species that are no longer grouped with certain deepwater
species that are typically under-harvested.
The current status of many rocksh and lingcod off the
west coast is poor, and signicant changes in the ground- No individual sector is responsible for creating the current
sh shery have been necessary to address this situation. situation. For example, since 1982 commercial landings
There are over 60 different species of rocksh in Califor- accounted for about 56 percent of all lingcod and about
nia. Formal assessments of these sh populations are 81 percent of all rocksh catches in California, while the
challenging, due to the number of species and the large recreational shery took the remainder. In order to return
commitment of time and effort to conduct the necessary depressed rocksh and lingcod stocks to a healthy condi-
research and analysis. To date, 15 rocksh species have tion, everyone has been asked to share in the conserva-
been formally assessed, and the results are not encourag- tion measures needed for recovery. For the recreational
ing. Nearly all of these species are currently below opti- shery, bag limits have been reduced, gear restrictions
mal abundance levels. Lingcod and six rocksh species, imposed, seasons closed, and minimum size limits estab-
including four that are important to California anglers and lished. In the commercial shery, the aggregate rocksh
commercial shermen (bocaccio, canary rocksh, widow quota for 2001 was reduced by about 57 percent com-
rocksh and cowcod), are at such low levels (estimated pared to 1997, and the allowable commercial lingcod land-
at or below 25 percent of the pristine population of each ings were reduced by about 83 percent during the same
species) that they have been declared overshed by the period. Rocksh rebuilding plans call for decades of ongo-
PFMC. Federal law requires that steps be taken to rebuild ing special efforts to allow the overshed species to
overshed stocks under strict guidelines that place an recover, while lingcod is more prolic and is expected to
emphasis on a reasonable likelihood of achieving success be restored much more quickly, by 2009. Although the
within specied time periods for each species. lingcod stock seems to be responding favorably to the
initial stages of the rebuilding plan, it will be important
Several factors affect the abundance of rocksh and ling-
to coordinate lingcod and rocksh management because
cod and the ability to manage them effectively. Recent
they are found on the same shing grounds and are often
analyses have shown that rocksh stocks are not as pro-
caught together.
ductive as previously thought. This is due in part to
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 359
A total of about 1,900 businesses in California are directly recent history. Groundsh production exhibited a long-
Groundfish: Overview
affected by commercial groundsh catch regulations. Most term downward trend in landings during the 1990s, with
of the affected businesses are shing vessels. There are annual landings reduced by roughly 60 percent during
approximately 1,580 commercial shing vessels in Califor- the decade. For the rst time, rocksh became the most
nia that catch and sell groundsh as part of their opera- signicant element of the groundsh shery during 1998,
tions. That eet is comprised of two main elements -- the when they comprised over 50 percent of the value and
limited entry eet and the open access eet. nearly 37 percent of the tons landed. Another tradition-
ally important component was the “DTS Complex” (Dover
Vessels in the limited entry eet have a federal permit
sole, thornyheads, sablesh), which accounted for most
that gives greater rights concerning the harvest of ground-
of the remainder of the landings. The number of federal
sh. Consequently, vessels with limited entry permits gen-
limited entry groundsh permits registered to shermen
erally rely heavily on groundsh as a major source of
in California continued a slow decline during 1999 for
income. There are 288 limited entry vessels in California.
all three gear types; at mid-season there were 162
Vessels that land groundsh under open access provisions
vessels with trawl permits, 113 longline permits, and 13
may or may not depend on groundsh as a major source
trap permits.
of income. Many vessels that predominately sh for other
In response to the sharp decline in groundsh landings
species also may inadvertently catch and land groundsh.
and the generally poor condition of West Coast groundsh
Although 1,295 open access vessels landed groundsh
stocks, the secretary of commerce formally announced a
in California during 1997, most landed less than 1,000
disaster determination for the shery in January 2000.
pounds. A total of 525 open access vessels each landed
The intent of the declaration was to minimize economic
more than 1,000 pounds of groundsh during the calendar
and social impacts on shing communities while protecting
year. In addition to the commercial shing eet, there
and rebuilding groundsh stocks. Although, the declara-
are approximately 325 wholesale sh buying businesses
tion did not include relief funding, it was the rst step
in California that purchase groundsh from commercial
in the process of securing funds from Congress to assist
shing vessels.
affected shermen.
The 1999 California commercial groundsh harvest was
approximately 34.0 million pounds, with an ex-vessel
value of $19.7 million. This was a 12-percent decline in J. Thomas Barnes
value from 1998 ($22.3 million), and the lowest total in California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
360
Bocaccio
History of the Fishery The number of developing eggs increases from 20,000
Bocaccio
in a 15-inch sh to about 2.3 million in a sh 30.5
B ocaccio (Sebastes paucispinis), sometimes called red inches long.
snapper, rockcod, grouper, salmon grouper, or tomcod Off central and northern California, larval release occurs
(as juveniles), was the dominant rocksh in California’s from January through May, peaking in February. In south-
early longline shery. It was the most abundant rocksh ern California spawning takes place from October through
in the bottom trawl shery from Morro Bay to Fort Bragg July, peaking in January. In central California, most larvae
until the mid-1980s. In the late 1980s, two-thirds of the that survive to the juvenile stage are born in January and
bocaccio landed were taken by trawl, with the remainder February, but months of successful reproduction can shift
being taken by set net, longline, and the recreational substantially from year to year. In southern California,
shery. Before 1970, estimated landings by all sheries some females produce as many as three broods in a
averaged approximately six million pounds per year. Fol- season, but multiple brooding is uncommon farther north.
lowing 1970, combined landings increased, peaking in 1983
Larval bocaccio are initially pelagic and are most common
at over 15 million pounds. Landings have declined steadily
within 100 feet of the sea surface, where they feed on
since then, and fell below 0.5 million pounds in 1998. In
plankton. Larval bocaccio have been captured in plankton
1978, nearly 40 percent of the sampled trawl landings
nets as far as 300 miles from shore. By late May or
contained half or more bocaccio by weight, but this value
early June, they settle to the bottom at lengths of 1.5
has declined to a very small percentage of landings in
to 2.5 inches, often in kelp beds. Before completing their
recent years.
rst year of life, these fast growing young-of-the-year
Recreational catches of bocaccio are generally made on start eating the young of other rockshes, surfperch,
rocky reefs by party boat shermen at depths of 250 to jack mackerel, and various small inshore shes. Adults
750 feet. In some years, however, juveniles concentrate are found from depths of 60 to 1550 feet. They feed
in shallow sandy areas near piers off central and southern on smaller rockshes, sablesh, anchovies, lanternsh,
California, where they are easily taken on small baited and squid.
hooks. Estimated catches for the recreational shery are
available from 1980 onward and averaged 15 percent of
Status of the Population
the total landings in recent years. Recreational catches
since 1984 have shown the same decline as the trawl shery.
D uring the past two decades bocaccio landings have
been dominated by the 1977, 1984, and 1986 year
Status of Biological Knowledge classes. A long string of recruitment failures occurred
from 1989 to 1998, which under intense shing led to a
B ocaccio range from central Baja California to Kodiak severely depleted population. By 1999, abundance had
Island, Alaska, and are common from northern Baja fallen to about three percent of the level seen in 1969,
California to the Washington-British Columbia border. and the Pacic Fishery Management Council declared the
Genetic studies indicate partial separation between the population as “overshed.” Evidence from entrainment of
bocaccio population off the Pacic Northwest and that off young sh at the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station
California. indicates that the 1999 year class is large.
Among rockshes, bocaccio are noted for their relatively
rapid growth, large adult size, and high variation in year-
class strength. They are known to attain a length of 36
inches, a weight of 15 pounds, and a maximum age of
about 50 years. Some fast growing individuals are caught
with trawl gear at age one, and substantial numbers are
landed by age two at lengths of about 16 inches.
Bocaccio are live-bearing sh. At extrusion (release),
larvae are about 0.25 inch in length and absorb yolk from
the egg stage during the rst eight to 12 days. They grow
rapidly to about seven inches by the end of their rst
year. A few mature when they are three years old, about
14 inches long and one pound. Fifty percent are mature
at 16.5 inches and four years. Males mature at a slightly
smaller size than females. By the time they are 10 years Bocaccio, Sebastes paucispinis
Credit: DFG
old, they average over 24 inches and weigh ve pounds.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 361
Commercial Landings
Bocaccio
14
1916-1999,
Bocaccio Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
12
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Bocaccio Rockfish
10
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
eries Information Network (PacFin),
8
National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
6
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data
4
are derived from DFG commercial
landing receipts with expansions
2
based on port samples collected by
PacFin samplers. Expansion data not
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
available for years prior to 1978.
Management Considerations References
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for MacCall, A. D., S. Ralston, D. Pearson and E. Williams.
further information. 1999. Status of bocaccio off California in 1999 and outlook
for the next millennium. In Status of the Pacic Coast
groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended accept-
David H. Thomas
able biological catches for 2000. Pacic Fishery Manage-
California Department of Fish and Game
ment Council, 2130 SW Fifth Ave., Suite 224, Portland, OR
Revised by: 97201.
Alec D. MacCall
Moser, H.G. 1967. Reproduction and development of
National Marine Fisheries Service
Sebastodes paucispinis and comparison with other rock-
shes off southern California. Copeia. 1967:773-797.
Wilkins, M.E. 1980. Size composition, age composition, and
growth of chilipepper, Sebastes goodei, and bocaccio, S.
paucispinis, from the 1977 rocksh survey. Mar. Fish. Rev.
42:48-58.
Historic photo of a catch of boccaccio and chilipepper being unloaded from a trawler.
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
362
Cowcod
History of the Fishery such as Sebastes were sought in order to maintain
Cowcod
angler satisfaction.
C owcod (Sebastes levis) are important to commercial Although highly sought in recent decades, cowcod have
and recreational sheries in California. Estimated total consistently composed a very small fraction of the rec-
catch peaked in 1976 at 213 tons, and then trended down- reational rocksh catch. Cowcod were estimated to com-
ward to 14 tons in 1999. Recreational catch of cowcod prise greater than one percent of the CPFV rocksh catch
exceeded commercial landings between 1959 and 1980 in 1961, 0.4 percent of total rocksh during the 1970s,
but commercial catch has been larger since. Recreational and only 0.3 percent from 1985 through 1987. Cowcod
landings peaked in 1976 at 154 tons, and then declined to seasonal catch in the sport shery tends to peak in late
less than two tons from 1997 through 1999. Commercial autumn through early spring, which is the time of year when
landings reached a record 155 tons in 1984. Fishing southern California CPFVs normally target bottom shes.
grounds nearest to major ports have been progressively
Historically, commercial landings were highest in the
exploited. Most of the remaining productive cowcod sh-
Southern California Bight but landings in the Monterey
ing grounds in the Southern California Bight are found well
area have been larger during most recent years. Hook-
offshore, out-of-range for many private skiffs.
and-line and set net gear shed in deep water on rocky
Cowcod reach the largest size of any rocksh in central bottom accounts for the bulk of historical landings in
and southern California, and are a highly prized trophy the commercial shery. Set net catches declined after
in the recreational shery. The ofcial California record 1989, but hook-and-line has remained important. Trawling
for sport caught cowcod is 21 pounds 14 ounces, but the accounts for most cowcod landings in northern areas.
recreational shery has produced conrmed specimens as Trawls tend to take cowcod that are smaller and more
large as 34 pounds in recent years. often immature than sh taken by hook-and-line. Prior to
Cowcod are caught along with other species of rocksh 2000, discard of cowcod in commercial and recreational
by the recreational shery. Recreational effort is directed sheries was probably insignicant. Beginning in 2000,
at cowcod from private shing boats and commercial pas- new regulations limited commercial landings to one sh
senger shing vessels (CPFVs). CPFVs include both charter per trip, which may have resulted in increased discards.
boats (carrying a prearranged or closed group of anglers), Fourteen species of rocksh have been landed in the
and party boats (generally open to the general public, cowcod market category; of these, the bronzespotted
without prior reservation). The CPFV industry began in rocksh is the most common. Species associated with
southern California around 1919, and by 1939 the eet con- cowcod vary by gear type. In the trawl shery, which
sisted of over 200 boats. CPFV operators targeted numer- is primarily in the Monterey management area, the main
ous species prior to 1950, such as tuna, giant sea bass, species taken with cowcod are chilipepper, bocaccio, and
marlin, swordsh, mackerel, California halibut, kelp and widow rocksh. In the hook-and-line and set net shery,
sand bass, bonito, barracuda, and yellowtail. However, which is primarily in the Conception management area,
early reports do not list rocksh as a CPFV target group bronzespotted rocksh, bocaccio, and vermilion rocksh
during the rst half of the century. are most important.
Following World War II, there was a notable expansion of Cowcod are valuable in the commercial shery. Fishermen
the CPFV eet, and in 1953 it totaled about 590 boats. received $1.37 per pound for cowcod in 1998, more than
By 1963, the statewide CPFV eet had declined to 476
vessels, 450 of which operated out of central and southern
California ports. The majority of the 1963 CPFV eet (256
vessels) was based in the Southern California Bight. Spe-
cies of preference for the southern California CPFV eet
in 1963 did not include Sebastes, although rocksh were
listed as an important part of the catch. As recently as
1969, there were reports that “some [CPFV] shermen
would rather sh for yellowtail, and catch little or noth-
ing, than to take home a sack of rocksh. Those who
prefer rocksh to yellowtail are in a minority.” However,
by 1974 attitudes of the typical CPFV sherman had
changed, and there was increased effort directed toward
rocksh. With the decline in availability of “traditional”
double the price for unspecied rocksh. In general,
sportsh in the 1960-1970s, less lively “food” sh
Cowcod, Sebastes levis
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 363
Commercial Landings
Cowcod
400
1916-1999, Cowcod
thousands of pounds landed
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative 350
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
300
eries Information Network (PacFin),
250
National Marine Fishery Service
Cowcod
(NMFS), and California Department
200
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
150
derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based 100
on port samples collected by PacFin
50
samplers. Cowcod landings expansion
0
data not available for 1979 and years
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
prior to 1978.
cowcod landed by hook-and-line command higher prices with some larvae present from November through August.
than those landed by set net or by trawl. Larvae spend about 100 days in the plankton and settle
to the bottom as juveniles at about two to 2.4 inches in
Prior to 2000, the Pacic Fishery Management Council
length. In Monterey Bay, juveniles recruit to ne sand and
managed cowcod under regulations established annually
clay sediments at depths of 130 to 330 feet during the
for commercial groundsh, the Sebastes complex and
months of March through September. Adults are found at
remaining rocksh. Remaining rocksh were managed as
depths of 300 to 1,680 feet usually on high relief rocky
a group without specic allowable biological catch or
bottom. Cowcod reach 37 inches FL and 33 pounds.
optimum yield levels for individual species. During those
years, Sebastes complex cumulative trip limits were high Cowcod have been aged by counting annuli in sectioned
relative to landings of cowcod, and it is unlikely that the and polished otoliths. Although age determinations have
regulations had affected commercial shing for cowcod. not been validated, there was good agreement among
Specic regulations to limit the commercial and recre- independent readers. Based on a sample of 259 specimens
ational take of cowcod were rst established in 2000. collected in the 1970s and 1980s, the youngest sh in
In order to achieve an optimum yield of 5.5 tons for the landings was age seven, and the oldest was age 55.
recreational and commercial landings combined, the rec- Cowcod are thought to become fully recruited to recre-
reational bag limit in 2000 was reduced to one cowcod ational and commercial sheries at age 17, which is similar
(with a maximum of two cowcod per boat), and com- to the age at which all females become mature.
mercial regulations allowed only one cowcod to be landed The approximate length (inches) and age of rst, 50 per-
per shing trip. cent and 100 percent maturity is as follows:
Status of Biological Knowledge Male Female
Maturity Length (in) Age Length (in) Age
C owcod range from central Oregon to central Baja Cali-
First 13.5 8 16.5 11
fornia, and offshore to Guadalupe Island. The geo-
graphic center of distribution is the southern California 50% 17.5 12 17 11
Bight. They are uncommon off Oregon and northern Cali-
100% 19 14 20 16
fornia. Adult cowcod habitat is primarily rocky reefs from
165 to 1,000 feet, most of which are found in the vicinity
of offshore banks and islands in the Southern California
Bight. Smaller sh generally occur at the shallower end of
the depth range.
Status of the Population
As with other species of Sebastes, fertilization is internal
and females give birth to rst-feeding stage planktonic
C owcod were reported to be abundant off southern
larvae during the winter. Gonad-somatic indices of
California in the 1890s. However, the rst formal stock
females are highest from November through April. Peak
assessment of cowcod was in 1999. Results of the assess-
abundance of cowcod larvae is January through April,
ment suggest that spawning biomass in 1916 was near the
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
364
References
virgin level and it remained stable through a rather long
Cowcod
historical period (1916-1950). Biomass began to decline
Butler, J. L., L. D. Jacobson, J.T. Barnes, H.G. Moser and
slowly in the 1950s and accelerated through the 1970s.
R. Collins. 1999. Stock assessment of cowcod. In: Pacic
Recruitment declined dramatically and biomass continued
Fishery Management Council. 1999. Appendix: Status
to decline after the early 1980s. The best estimate of
of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery through 1999 and
cowcod spawning biomass in the Southern California Bight
recommended biological catches for 2000: Stock assess-
during 1998 is 262 tons, which is about seven percent of
ment and shery evaluation.
the estimated unshed stock size.
Karpov, K.A., D.P.Albin and W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995. The
Based on the results of the 1999 stock assessment,
marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
cowcod were formally declared overshed by the National
fornia; A historical comparison (1958-86), a status of the
Marine Fisheries Service in 2000. A rebuilding plan will
stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
be adopted to provide assurance that abundance will be
current. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.(176): 192 p.
restored to 40 percent of the unshed stock size in a
minimal length of time. However, due to the unproductive Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle, and W. V. Buskirk. 1998. A
nature of the stock, it is likely that rebuilding will require severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
many decades. rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the Southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Rep. 39: 180-195.
Young, P.H. 1969. The California partyboat shery
J. Thomas Barnes
1947-1967. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
California Department of Fish and Game
145. 91 p.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 365
Chilipepper
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
T C
he chilipepper (Sebastes goodei) is one of California’s hilipepper range from Queen Charlotte Sound, British
most important rocksh species; it is a major con- Columbia to Magdalena Bay, Baja California. Adults are
tributor to commercial and sport landings. In fact, from found on deep rocky reefs, as well as on sand and mud
1996 through 1998 chilipepper was ranked rst in state- bottoms, from 150 to 1,400 feet; juveniles school and are
wide commercial rocksh landings, with an annual aver- frequently found in shallow nearshore waters, particularly
age of over 3.8 million pounds. Important ports of landing in kelp beds. Spawning occurs from September to April
are throughout central and much of northern California, with a peak occurring in December and January. About
including Fort Bragg, Bodega Bay, San Francisco, Princ- 50 percent of female chilipepper are sexually mature at
eton, Monterey, Moss Landing, and Morro Bay. Chilipepper four years when they are between 11 and 12 inches, while
also contribute to southern California rocksh landings, males mature at two years and between eight and nine
although not so heavily. inches. Chilipepper attain a maximum age of 35 years
and a size of up to 23 inches, with females growing
In the late 1800s, chilipepper and most other rocksh
substantially larger than males.
were caught by Portuguese longline shermen who shed
Monterey Bay from small two or three-person vessels. Adults feed on krill and other small crustaceans, squid,
Longlines provided most, if not all, rocksh landings until and a variety of small shes. Probable predators of chili-
the mid-1940s. Improvements in otter trawl technology pepper include marine birds and mammals, king salmon,
subsequently led to trawl gear replacing longlines as the lingcod, Pacic hake, sablesh, and other rocksh.
primary gear used to catch rocksh. Trawl gear enabled
shermen to make much larger landings with larger ves-
Status of the Population
sels. Trawlers have since accounted for the great majority
of chilipepper landings, followed by set gill net and hook-
T he last stock assessment of chilipepper, conducted in
and-line gears. During the 1990s, gill net landings have
1998, indicated that unlike most other rocksh popula-
declined to very low levels, whereas hook-and-line gears
tions, the stock was in quite good condition. At that time,
have comprised a relatively higher portion of the catch.
the population size was determined to be 35,000 tons,
Historically, chilipepper was not considered an important which is about 50 percent of the unexploited level. The
component of the party boat angler’s catch in central healthy status of the chilipepper stock has been due to
and northern California due to its deep offshore distribu- a very strong 1984 year-class that supported the shery
tion. In the early 1980s, Monterey and Santa Cruz party throughout the 1990s, although recent recruitments have
boat skippers began shing chilipepper schools in the been lower and the stock is slowly but steadily declining.
vicinity of the Monterey underwater canyon in late spring Based on the assessment, the Pacic Fishery Management
through summer. In contrast, southern California chilipep- Council set the acceptable biological catch at 4,100 tons,
per partyboat landings peak during the winter months. although the Council lowered the total allowable catch
Chilipepper was ranked third among rockshes taken (TAC) to 2,000 tons out of concern for bocaccio bycatch in
off central and northern California in 1989-1990, but its chilipepper sheries. Even with the lower TAC, the various
relative importance in the recreational shery has dwin- sheries have not been catching the quota.
dled throughout the 1990s. Since 1995, sport landings
have comprised less than two percent of the total
Stephen Ralston
chilipepper catch.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Kenneth T. Oda
California Department of Fish and Game
Chilipepper, Sebastes goodei
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
366
Chilipepper
7
millions of pounds landed
6
Chilipepper Rockfish
5
Commercial Landings
4 1916-1999,
Chilipepper Rockfish
3
Data Source: CalCom Database
2 utilizing DFG commercial land-
ing receipts. Expansions of port
1 samples are conducted by Pacific
States Fishery Management
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 Council with input from DFG.
12
Bocaccio/Chilipepper Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
10
Commercial Landings
8 1916-1999,
Bocaccio/Chilipepper
6 Rockfish
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
4
and commercial landing receipts.
The market category Bocaccio/
2
Chilipeper Rockfish were aggre-
gated within the market
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
category Rockfish prior to 1979.
References
Lenarz, W. H. 1987. A history of California rocksh sher- S. paucispinis, from the 1977 rocksh survey. Mar. Fish.
ies, pp. 35-41. In: B. R. Melteff (ed.), Proceedings of the Rev. (Mar-Apr): 48-53.
International Rocksh Symposium, University of Alaska, Wyllie-Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of Califor-
Alaska Sea Grant Report No. 87-2. nia rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990. Fish. Bull. (U. S.) 85: 229-250.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California Bight. NOAA Tech.
Rept. NMFS 87. 38 p.
Phillips, J. B. 1964. Life history studies on ten species of
rocksh (Genus Sebastodes). Calif. Dept. Fish and game,
Fish Bull. 126. 70 p.
Ralston, S., D. E. Pearson, and J. A. Reynolds. 1998. Status
of the chilipepper rocksh stock in 1998. In: Appendix to
the Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through
1998 and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for
1999, Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 99 p.
Wilkins, M. E. 1980. Size composition, age composition,
and growth of chilipepper, Sebastes goodei, and bocaccio,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 367
Blackgill Rockfish
History of the Fishery 2,520 feet, usually deeper than 660 feet, and are most
abundant from 825 to 1,980 feet. Juveniles live in the
U ntil the 1970s, the relative abundance of shallow- shallower part of the depth range.
water rockshes precluded substantial commercial Pelagic juveniles settle out of the plankton at a minimum
exploitation of blackgill rocksh (Sebastes melanostomus). of about one inch long, generally in waters greater than
Beginning in the mid-1970s, a shery developed in deep about 660 feet. Small immature individuals are taken
waters off southern California and spread northward. Most in bottom trawls on at substrates, but seldom over
blackgills are taken in central and southern California. rocks. They are also found on shell mounds of some
The shery was rst conducted with vertical longlines deeper-water oil platforms. Adults live on deep high relief
and then with longlines and gill nets. Currently, most rock outcrops in areas with extensive caves and crevices.
blackgills in southern California are taken with horizontal Although they are often seen hiding in crevices or closely
setlines, while trawls take the majority of sh further associated with rocky substrates, shermen have reported
north. Statewide landings increased dramatically, peaking taken them in midwater above reefs.
in 1983, then declined to about one-third in the late
Blackgills live to at least 87 years, although the largest
1990s. From a recent stock analysis, it appears that the
specimens have not been aged. However, no age valida-
blackgill population has been substantially reduced on
tion has been done on this species. Females reach a
particular reefs. Blackgills are a very important rocksh
larger size and probably live longer. By the middle of their
species in the Asian sh markets of southern California.
life span, females tend to be larger at any given age.
In 1998, the California commercial catch of about 336,000
Males reach maximum lengths earlier than females. Off
pounds was worth $231,000. In recent years, as the rock-
northern and central California, males appear to mature
sh recreational shery moved to deep banks, blackgills
at a smaller length than females; this is not the case off
have become an occasional catch in southern California.
southern California. Based on two California studies, the
smallest mature sh are 12 inches, 50 percent are mature
Status of Biological Knowledge at 14 inches and all are mature at 16 inches. Off Oregon,
50 percent maturity for males is 15 inches and for females
T his is a spiny and heavy-bodied species. Juveniles are is 16 inches. Blackgills appear to mature at a very late
reddish with distinct brown saddles and a dark blotch age. One percent of females is mature at about 13 years,
on the gill cover. Adults are dark red or dark pink with or 50 percent at 20 years, and 99 percent at about 26 years.
without dark saddles and have a black edge on the rear of Similarly, one percent of males is mature at about 13
the gill cover. Blackgills reach two feet in length. years, 50 percent at about 19 years, and 95 percent at
about 24 years. Off southern California, females release
Blackgills are found from at least central Vancouver Island
larvae from January to June, off northern and central
(British Columbia), and perhaps to northern Vancouver
California from February to April (both with February
Island, to Isla Cedros, (central Baja California). Pelagic
peaks) and off Oregon in April. Females produce between
juveniles have been taken as far south as Punta Abreojos
about 152,000 and 769,000 eggs per season in one brood.
(southern Baja California), strongly implying that adults
Blackgills feed primarily on shes, including lanternshes.
live in southern Baja California. Blackgills are relatively
uncommon from Oregon northward. It appears that some
records from north of Washington probably refer to rough-
Status of the Population
eye and shortraker rockshes. Adults are found in 288 to
T he rst stock assessment of this species, completed
in 1998, estimated that the current shable/mature
biomass was at between 40 and 54 percent of the
virgin level.
Milton Love
University of California, Santa Barbara
John Butler
National Marine Fisheries Service
Blackgill Rockfish, Sebastes melanostomus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
368
Commercial Landings
Blackgill Rockfish
3.5 1916-1999,
Blackgill Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
3.0 Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Blackgill Rockfish
2.5 survey with input from Pacific Fish-
eries Information Network (PacFin),
2.0 National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
1.5
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
1.0 derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based
0.5 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
References
Barss, W. H. 1989. Maturity and reproductive cycle for 35
species from the family Scorpaenidae found off Oregon.
Butler, J. L., L. D. Jacobson and J. T. Barnes. 1998.
Stock assessment for blackgill rocksh. Appendix to the
Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery through 1998
and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for 1999.
Pacic Fishery Management Council.
Moser, H. G. and E. H. Ahlstrom. 1978. Larvae and pelagic
juveniles of blackgill rocksh, Sebastes melanostomus,
taken in midwater trawls off southern California and Baja
California. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 35(7):981-996.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California Bight. NOAA Tech.
Rep. NMFS 87, 38 p.
Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: Maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish.
Bull. 85:229.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 369
Widow Rockfish
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
W W
idow rocksh (Sebastes entomelas) is one of the top idow rocksh are found from Todos Santos Bay, Baja
three rocksh species in California commercial land- California, to Kodiak Island, Alaska. Peak abundance
ings, although it is a minor constituent in the recreational is off northern Oregon and southern Washington, with sig-
shery. During the 1970s, there were occasional reports of nicant aggregations occurring south to central California.
large trawl catches of “brownies” made incidental to the While many commercial catches occur at bottom depths
harvest of other rocksh, but commercial landings were between 450 and 750 feet, young sh occur near the sur-
small until markets improved in 1979 and the midwater face in shallow waters, and adults have been caught over
trawl shery exploded. At that time, shermen began bottom depths to 1,200 feet. Widow rocksh often form
targeting widow rocksh and annual California landings midwater schools, usually at night, over bottom features
exceeded 10,000 tons by 1982. Since 1983, however, such as ridges or large mounds near the shelf break. The
strict regulations have limited the commercial harvest and schooling behavior of widow rocksh is quite dynamic and
recent landings in California have been in the vicinity of probably related to feeding and oceanographic conditions.
1,000 tons. Along the entire U. S. Pacic Coast, annual There appears to be some seasonal movement of sh
landings are restrained by a quota imposed by the Pacic among adjacent grounds, and there is evidence that sh
Fishery Management Council that applies to the sheries move from area to area as they age, with sh of the same
of California, Oregon and Washington. Trip landings and size tending to stay together.
frequency are adjusted in order to maintain a year-round The maximum recorded age for widow rocksh is 59 years,
shing season. but sh older than 20 years are now uncommon. Most are
Over 50 percent of the widow rocksh commercial catch less than 21 inches long, corresponding to a weight of
is landed in the most northern portion of the state (i.e., just under ve pounds. The maximum size is 24 inches or
Eureka and Crescent City), while San Francisco and Bodega about 7.3 pounds. At rst, growth is fairly rapid and by age
Bay have also been historically important, accounting for ve widow rocksh average 13.5 inches. By age 15, growth
about 30 percent of all landings. Although a small amount slows greatly, when the average size is about 19 inches for
of catch is landed at Fort Bragg and Monterey, very little females and 17.5 inches for males. Widow rocksh do not
appears further south. When processed, widow rocksh become reproductive until years after birth. For example,
are typically lleted and marketed as Pacic red snapper only 50 percent are mature by age ve, but almost all
or rockcod, with the ex-vessel landed value generally are mature by age eight when they are 16.5 inches long.
in the vicinity of $1,000,000 annually. Widow rocksh Off California, fecundity ranged from 55,600 eggs for a
are almost exclusively caught by trawlers, which have 12.8-inch female to 915,200 eggs for an 18.8-inch sh.
accounted for over 80 percent of the catch each year. The release of larvae by widow rocksh peaks in January-
Before the advent of restrictive trip landing limits, most February and appears to occur in the same areas where
of the sh were caught with very large midwater trawls, they are caught during that season. The larvae are about
and during the early days of the shery, it was often 0.2 inch when released. The young sh lead a pelagic
difcult to avoid capturing more widow rocksh in one existence until they are about ve months old. During the
tow with a midwater trawl than trip limits allowed. As a latter part of the pelagic stage, the two-inch sh feed
consequence, many vessels now use less efcient bottom mostly on copepods and small stages of euphausiids. Adult
trawls. Widow rocksh are also taken in the gill net and widow rocksh feed on midwater prey such as lantern sh,
longline sheries, although the gill net catch has declined small Pacic whiting euphausiids, sergestid (deep-water)
from its peak in 1987, when it accounted for 21 percent shrimp, and salps. Juvenile rocksh, including widow rock-
of landings. sh, are important prey items for sea birds and chinook
salmon in May and June. Little is known about predation
of adult widow rocksh.
Widow Rockfish, Sebastes entomelas
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
370
Commercial Landings
Widow Rockfish
30 1916-1999,
Widow Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
25 Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Widow Rockfish
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
20 eries Information Network (PacFin),
National Marine Fishery Service
15 (NMFS), and California Department
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
10 derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based
5 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
Status of the Population References
T he population was virtually unshed prior to 1979. Boehlert, G. W., W. H. Barss, and P. B. Lamberson. 1982.
By 1982, it became obvious that the population was Fecundity of the widow rocksh, Sebastes entomelas, off
being rapidly depleted and would soon be overshed, the coast of Oregon. Fish. Bull., U. S. 80:881-884.
if catches were not restricted. The shery was placed Gunderson, D. R. 1984. The great widow rocksh hunt of
under stringent regulations in 1983. Even so, the stock 1980-82. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 4:465-468.
was recently declared overshed by the Pacic Fishery
Lenarz, W. H., and D. R. Gunderson (editors). 1987. Widow
Management Council because spawning potential was
rocksh: Proceedings of a workshop, Tiburon, California,
reduced to below 25 percent of the unshed condition.
December 10-11, 1980. U. S. Dept. Commer., NOAA Tech.
In response, a rebuilding plan for the stock will be imple-
Rep. NMFS 48.
mented in 2002 that will reduce catches to less than 1,000
Ralston, S., and D. Pearson. 1997. Status of the widow
tons per year. With a harvest rate of less than three
rocksh stock in 1997. In: Appendix to the Status of the
percent the stock should rebuild in about 35 to 40 years
Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 1997 and Recom-
to the productive shery it once was, with yields in excess
mended Acceptable Biological Catches for 1998; Stock
of 3,000 tons per year.
Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 54 p.
Williams, E., A.D. MacCall, S.V. Ralston, and D.E. Pearson.
Management Considerations 2000. Status of the widow rocksh resource in Y2K. In:
Appendix to the Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Fishery Through 2000 and Recommended Acceptable Bio-
further information.
logical Catches for 2001; Stock Assessment and Fishery
Evaluation. 122 p.
Stephen Ralston
National Marine Fisheries Service
William H. Lenarz
College of Marin, Kenteld
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 371
Yellowtail Rockfish
History of the Fishery 86 percent of the catch has come from northern California
waters. There are, however, differences in the types of
Y ellowtail rocksh (Sebastes avidus), frequently called commercial shing conducted at each port. For example,
“greenies” by commercial shermen, are a major com- from Fort Bragg north, trawling has been the primary
ponent of the groundsh shery. Over the period from method of harvesting yellowtail. In contrast, commercial
1983 to 1998, yellowtail rocksh accounted for 13 percent sheries in San Francisco, Bodega Bay, and Monterey have
of all rocksh landed on the U.S. West Coast and six relied more heavily on hook-and-line and setnet xed
percent of all groundsh, exclusive of Pacic whiting. gear to capture this species. In recent years, the setnet
Among the rocksh/rockcod, only widow rocksh have shery has declined to negligible quantities, but from 1983
supported a greater West Coast harvest. The center of to1986 large quantities of yellowtail rocksh were taken in
yellowtail rocksh population abundance is off the states the gill net shery that operated between Monterey and
of Oregon and Washington, with lower abundance off San Francisco.
California. Even so, from 1980 to 1998, the total combined
landings among all yellowtail rocksh sheries in the state
Status of Biological Knowledge
have ranged from 370 to 2,460 tons per year, with an
average catch over that period of 1,080 tons per year.
Y ellowtail rocksh are found from Kodiak Island, Alaska
Catches exceeded 2,200 tons per year during 1982 and
to San Diego, although they are rare south of Point
1983, declined to 550 tons per year through 1988, rose to
Conception. They are wide-ranging and are reported to
levels above 1,100 tons per year from 1989 through 1992,
occur from the surface to 1,800 feet and are known to
and then declined to about 550 tons per year thereafter.
form large schools, either alone or in association with
After bocaccio and blue rocksh, yellowtail rocksh was
other rocksh, including widow rocksh, canary rocksh,
the third most abundant rocksh taken in the California
redstripe rocksh, and silvergray rocksh. They are pri-
recreational shery for several years.
marily distributed over deep reefs on the continental
Over the last two decades, the recreational shery has shelf, especially near the shelf break, where they feed on
been responsible for a substantial portion of the yel- krill and other micronekton.
lowtail rocksh catch in California, accounting for over
There is some controversy about the existence of distinct
one-third of all landings. Among the commercial sheries,
stocks of this species. Some allozyme and parasitological
trawl shing has produced the greatest catch (28 percent
evidence supports the view that multiple stocks exist,
of total landings), but hook-and-line and setnet sheries
whereas other genetic data indicate one single coastal
have also been important, accounting for 24 percent and
stock. Within U.S. waters, the species is currently man-
13 percent, respectively. Thus, yellowtail rocksh have
aged as two stocks, with a separation at Cape Mendocino,
been harvested in signicant quantities by all groundsh
although that boundary is purely based on human consid-
sheries in the state, perhaps more so than any other
erations, including differences in shing patterns and data
species, with the exception of bocaccio.
availability.
The northern distribution of the yellowtail rocksh stock
Like many other species of rocksh, yellowtail are long-
is distinctly evident in the commercial landings statistics
lived. The age distribution of sh sampled in commercial
compiled from each port of landing within the state. Of
sheries off Oregon and Washington can span six decades,
the combined “greenie” catch, 94 percent has been taken
with the oldest known specimen a 64-year-old male. They
from Monterey north. Similarly, in the recreational shery
typically reach their maximum size at about 15 years of
age and the largest recorded specimen was a 28-inch
female. Females begin to mature at 10 to 15 inches, with
half reaching maturity by a size of 15 to 18 inches; males
do not grow quite as large as females.
Yellowtail Rockfish, Sebastes flavidus
Credit: J. Mello DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
372
Commercial Landings
Yellowtail Rockfish
2.8 1916-1999,
Yellowtail Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
2.4
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Yellowtail Rockfish
2.0 survey with input from Pacific Fish-
eries Information Network (PacFin),
1.6 National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
1.2
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
0.8 derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based
0.4 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
Status of the Population References
A recent assessment of the northern portion of the Eschmeyer, W. N. 1983. A Field Guide to Pacic Coast
population indicates that unlike many of our rocksh Fishes of North America From the Gulf of Alaska to Baja
stocks, the resource is very healthy. Based on a wide California. Houghton Mifin Co., Boston, 336 p.
variety of information collected over the last 30 years Tagart, J. V., F. R. Wallace, and J. N. Ianelli. 2000. Status
or more, population abundance is currently believed to of the yellowtail rocksh resource in 2000. In: Status
be about 77,000 tons, down to 60 percent of the virgin of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 2000 and
population size, but still well above the target population Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for 2001;
size, which is 40 percent of the unexploited level. Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 125 p.
Stephen Ralston
National Marine Fisheries Service
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 373
Thornyheads
History of the Fishery Increased landings during the 1980s were the result of
higher prices and demand for thornyheads, primarily as
L ongspine (Sebastolobus altivelis) and shortspine ( S. a headed and gutted product exported to Japan. As
alascanus) thornyheads are both important to commer- markets for thornyhead matured, minimum marketable
cial sheries in California, Oregon, Washington, Canada size decreased and smaller longspine thornyheads became
and Alaska, but are insignicant in recreational sheries. valuable. During the 1980s, most processors began accept-
In California, Oregon and Washington, thornyheads are ing sh as small as 10 inches, the shery expanded
taken in the deepwater commercial shery for Dover sole, into deeper waters, and landings of longspine thornyhead
thornyheads, and sablesh, known as the DTS complex. increased. By the 1990s, a two-tier price structure (higher
In terms of landed weight and ex-vessel value, the DTS prices for large sh) replaced the minimum size limits that
complex is the most important element in the California had been previously imposed by the buyers.
groundsh shery. Market factors and shery regulations effect discard rates,
Fishing for thornyheads is typically by bottom trawl and particularly for small sh. Discard rates have changed over
longline gear on sand or ne sediment, and in relatively time but have often been substantial. During the late
deep water (1,800 to 3,000 feet, although some shing 1990s, trip limits imposed by shery managers caused
grounds are as shallow as 600 feet). Fishermen report additional discarding of shortspine thornyhead because
that there are areas where both thornyhead species are shortspine trip limits were reached before the limits for
found together and other areas where one or the other longspine. In 1999, managers assumed a 30 percent discard
is prevalent. Most of the thornyheads landed in California rate for shortspine thornyheads, and a ve percent discard
are taken in the Eureka, Fort Bragg, and Morro Bay areas. rate for longspine thornyheads.
Few thornyheads are taken south of Point Conception. California landings of thornyheads are consistently the
Although there are physical differences between the two largest on the West Coast. During most years, the Califor-
species and shortspine thornyheads grow to larger size, nia shery accounted for over one-half of the combined
distinguishing between them can be difcult under eld California, Oregon and Washington landings. From 1953
conditions. Landings and other data for each species may, to 1969, annual thornyhead landings in California were
therefore, be less reliable than data for thornyheads as below 440 tons. Thornyheads became more common in
a group. It is likely that thornyhead landings were mostly landings when California trawlers began shing intensively
shortspine during the early years when the shery oper- for Dover sole in the early 1970s. Landings averaged 1,540
ated in relatively shallow water. Longspine thornyheads tons annually from 1970 to 1979, increased throughout the
were not landed in large quantities until later when the 1980s, and reached a record high of 7,800 tons in 1992.
shery expanded into deeper water. The long-term trend Following the record high, landings during the remainder
is toward a lower proportion of shortspine in landings. of the 1990s trended sharply downward due to harvest
During the 1980s, thornyhead landings were about 75 restrictions, to a low of 1,628 tons in 1999.
percent shortspine, which decreased to only 25 percent As export markets developed in the 1980s, nominal prices
shortspine thornyheads in the 1990s. paid to shermen increased by more than 60 percent,
The west coast shery for thornyheads rst developed in from $0.23 in 1983 to $0.38 per pound by the end of
northern California during the 1960s, when large thorny- the decade. Gross revenues for thornyheads landed in
heads (primarily shortspine, minimum size 12-14 inches) California rose from $728,000 in 1980 to $5,971,000 in
were marketed as rocksh llets in domestic markets. 1990 (dollar amounts not adjusted for ination) as the
result of increased prices and landings. The relative value
of thornyheads in the groundsh shery also increased
during that time. Revenues from thornyheads were only
12 percent of total revenues for the deepwater shery
(DTS complex) during 1980, but increased to 39 percent by
1990. The value of California thornyhead landings trended
upwards through the mid-1990s, and reached a high of
$8,292,000 in 1995, which coincided with record high ex-
vessel prices (excluding live sh) of $1.05 per pound.
Annual thornyhead revenues declined after 1995 due the
decreased tons landed and slightly lower prices (excluding
live sh). Annual revenues from landings totaled about
$3,286,000 during both 1998 and 1999.
Longspine Thornyhead, Sebastolobus altivelis
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
374
Commercial Landings
Thornyheads
14 1916-1999, Thornyheads
Data for total thornyhead includes
millions of pounds landed
12
landings for lonspined thornyhead,
10 shortspined thornyhead, and
Thornyheads
unspecified thornyhead. Expansion
8 data not available for years
prior to 1978. Landings data
6
for lonspined thornyhead, short-
4 spined thornyhead, and unspeci-
fied thornyhead are presented in
2 the landings tables at the end of
Groundfish Chapter. Data Source:
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 CalCom, a cooperative survey with
input from Pacific Fisheries Infor-
An important specialty market has developed for live mation Network (PacFin), National Marine Fishery Service (NMFS), and California Department
thornyheads since 1993, which takes advantage of their of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are derived from DFG commercial landing receipts with
lack of a swim bladder and ability to survive after capture expansions based on port samples collected by PacFin samplers.
at depth, and ex-vessel prices that are several times
higher than for dead sh. Landings of live thornyhead
Status of Biological Knowledge
increased from two tons in 1993 to an estimated 107
tons in 1999. Despite steady growth, the live shery has
T hornyheads (genus Sebastolobus) belong to the same
remained a minor part of the total tons of thornyheads
family (Scorpaenidae) as the rockshes (Sebastes spp.)
landed. However, due to the high ex-vessel prices, live
but are distinguished from them in having more dorsal
sh accounted for a signicant fraction (18.8 percent,
and head spines, in losing their swim bladder at the time
or $619,000) of the total value of thornyhead landings
they settle to the bottom, and in spawning gelatinous
in 1999.
egg masses. Shortspine thornyheads grow to larger size
With the 4.5-inch mesh cod ends currently used in the and when small are found in shallower water than long-
commercial trawl shery, thornyheads become vulnerable spine thornyheads. Population dynamics of the two spe-
to bottom trawls at about ve to seven inches in length cies differ. Shortspine thornyheads have longer life span,
and at an age of about eight to nine years. Thornyheads lower natural mortality, and smaller biomass than long-
are seldom taken by gill nets or in the recreational shery spine thornyheads. Consequently, shortspine thornyheads
because of the depths at which they live. are less productive than longspine thornyheads with
respect to shery yields.
Thornyheads are managed by the Pacic Fishery Manage-
ment Council under the Groundsh Management Plan. Shortspine thornyheads tend to migrate toward deep
Shortspine and longspine thornyheads were rst regulated water as they grow, and larger shortspine thornyheads
in 1990. Annual quotas and associated shing regulations may be found in deeper water with longspine thorny-
were established for thornyheads as a group during heads. Longspine thornyheads, in contrast, spend their
1990-1994 because of difculties in separating the two entire lives in a more narrow range of depth. The adults
species in the landings. Beginning in 1995, individual of both species are major components of the assemblage
quotas and trip limits were adopted and enforced for of shes on the continental slope. Both species have
each species. The separate trip limits for each species special enzymatic adaptations that allow metabolic activ-
resulted in a requirement that catches be sorted by spe- ity despite the high pressure, low oxygen, and low tem-
cies prior to weighing. Shortspine trip limits have been perature at the depths where they live. Peak spawning
about 75 percent smaller than limits for longspine in biomass for both species is in the deep “oxygen minimum
recent years, which has likely caused some discards of zone” at 1,200 to 3,000 feet, where concentrations of
shortspine because vessels could continue shing for long- dissolved oxygen may be less than 0.5 parts per thousand.
spine after the shortspine limits were reached. During Longspine thornyheads have been described as “oxygen
2000, the total West Coast optimum yield for shortspine minimum zone specialists.”
thornyheads was 1,250 tons of landed catch, and for
Estimates of ages for both species are based on counts of
longspine thornyhead it was 4,980 tons.
growth rings in thin-sectioned otoliths. Shortspine thorny-
heads can grow to 30 inches and may be quite long-lived.
Radiochemical analysis of otoliths from shortspine thorny-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 375
Status of the Population
heads suggest larger size-at-age than were obtained by
Thornyheads
annuli counts. It is particularly difcult to determine the
S tock assessments are carried out for both longspine
age of older individuals, but recent estimates indicate
and shortspine thornyheads. Results are used by sh-
that the maximum age of shortspine thornyheads off Cali-
ery managers to determine allowable shing mortality
fornia may be in excess of 100 years. Longspine thorny-
each year. Shortspine thornyheads along the west coast
heads grow to a maximum length of 15 inches. Their
of the U.S. were assessed in 1998 by two independent
maximum age is probably at least 45 years.
analyses. Both assessments used data from the shery and
Shortspine thornyhead are found at depths of about 100
data from scientic trawl surveys. Based on the combined
to over 5,000 feet along the west coast of North America
results, the stock in 1999 had declined to 32 percent
from northern Baja California to the Bering Sea and across
of unshed abundance. The best estimate of spawning
the North Pacic to the coast of Japan. It is not known
biomass from central California to the U.S./Canada bound-
if separate stocks exist. Off California, shortspine thorny-
ary in 1998 was 32,365 tons, compared to an estimated
head spawn during late winter and early spring. Males off
unshed stock size of 95,755 tons. Maximum surplus pro-
Alaska may spawn at about 6.5 inches in length (estimated
duction and yield for thornyheads probably occurs at bio-
age ve). About half of all females off California are sexu-
mass levels greater than 40 percent of unshed stock size.
ally mature at 8.25 inches in length (estimated age 13) and
Consequently, current abundance of shortspine thorny-
almost all are sexually mature at 13.5 inches (estimated
head is less than desired, and recent shing quotas have
age 28). A female may release as many as 400,000 eggs
been set at levels to allow some growth in stock size.
annually in gelatinous egg masses that oat to the surface.
The most recent assessment of longspine thornyheads
Larvae free themselves from the egg when about 0.25 inch
was done in 1997, using shery and survey data to esti-
in length and transform to juvenile sh at about 0.75 inch.
mate changes in abundance and associated uncertainty.
Larvae and young juveniles are pelagic for 14 to 15 months
The assessment covered the portion of the stock found
and settle to the bottom when about one inch long during
from central California to the U.S./Canada international
January to June of the year after they hatch. Juveniles
boundary. Results indicate that spawning biomass steadily
settle in shallow water along the upper boundary of
declined in recent decades, from a high of 36,958 tons
their habitat and move to deeper water as they grow.
in 1964 to 20,203 tons in 1996. The degree to which
They spend the rest of their lives closely associated with
longspine thornyheads have been shed down is generally
the bottom. Shortspine thornyheads in Alaska are known
thought to be appropriate for attaining maximum shery
to eat crustaceans, crabs, worms, clams, octopus, sea
yields from the stock, based on biological characteristics
cucumbers, and sh. Longspine thornyheads feed primar-
and population dynamics of the species.
ily on polychaetes and small crustaceans.
Longspine thornyheads are found from Cape San Lucas,
Baja California to the Aleutian Islands in water from J. Thomas Barnes and Sandra L. Owen
about 1,000 to over 5,000 feet deep. It is not known California Department of Fish and Game
if separate stocks exist. Like shortspine thornyheads, long-
Lawrence D. Jacobson
spine thornyheads spawn in the late winter and early
National Marine Fisheries Service
spring. Half of the females are sexually mature at about
7.5 inches (estimated age 14) and most are mature at
8.75 inches (estimated age 18). A female may produce as
many as 100,000 eggs annually, which, like the eggs of
the shortspine thornyhead, are released in gelatinous egg
masses that oat to the surface. Two to four batches of
eggs may be spawned each year. Larval sh are pelagic
after hatching and transform into juveniles during July
to December. Young juveniles are pelagic for as long
as 20 months and begin settling to the ocean bottom
when about two inches long. Settlement starts during the
summer of the year after they hatch. Juvenile longspine
thornyheads settle in deeper water than do shortspine
thornyheads, with newly settled juveniles occupying the
same depth range as adults. There does not appear to be
a tendency for individuals to move deeper as they grow.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
376
References
Thornyheads
Jacobson, L.D., and R.D. Vetter. 1996. Bathymetric demog-
raphy and niche seperation of thornyhead rocksh: Sebas-
tolobus alascanus and Sebastolobus altivelis. Can. J. Fish.
Aquat. Sci. 53: 600-609 (1996).
Moser, H.G. 1974. Development and distribution of larvae
and juveniles of Sebastolobus (Pisces: family Scorpaeni-
dae). Fish. Bull. 72: 491-494.
Rogers, J., T. Builder, P. Crone, J. Brodziak, R. Methot,
R. Conser, and R. Lauth. 1998. Status of the thornyhead
resource in 1998. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
1998. Appendix: Status of the Pacic coast groundsh sh-
ery through 1998 and recommended acceptable biological
catches for 1999, Stock assessment and shery evaluation.
Rogers, J.B., L.D. Jacobson, R. Lauth, J.N. Ianelli, and
M. Wilkins. 1997. Status of the thornyhead resource
in 1997. Appendix to: Status of the Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1997 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 1998, Stock assessment and
shery evaluation.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 377
Bank Rockfish
History of the Fishery Juveniles and sub-adults tend to be found in shallower
waters than adults are.
M ost bank rocksh (Sebastes rufus) are taken commer- Demersal juveniles and adults often are found over high
cially by trawls, although gill nets were also impor- relief boulder elds or steep cliff faces with plenty of
tant early in the shery. Most of the catch occurs off crevices and caves. They also are found over cobblestones
California, although substantial landings are occasionally or on mixed mud-rock bottoms, where they shelter near
made off southern Oregon. Until the 1980s, bank rocksh or beneath the hard substrate. Small numbers have been
were a relatively minor part of the commercial catch. observed around the bottom of deeper offshore oil plat-
However, as shing effort off California expanded into forms. Banks usually are found either alone or in small
deeper waters, landings of this species sharply increased. groups of up to 30 individuals, often hiding in, or very
From 1981 to 1992, banks ranked among the top 10 rock- close to, sheltering sites. It is also possible that this
sh species taken in California, averaging 1,115 tons annu- species previously formed large schools before it was sub-
ally, and ranked among the top three rocksh species jected to intense shing pressure. In southern California,
landed at Monterey and Morro Bay. In general, catches banks are often found with blackgill rocksh.
after 1992, though variable, have remained somewhat
Bank rocksh live to at least 53 years. They are among
steady. Since the 1970s, there has been a decrease in
the slowest growing of the rockshes. Females grow larger
both age and length of individuals in the shery. In 1998,
than males and, at least among older sh, appear to be
about 450,000 pounds of bank rocksh were caught in
larger at a given age. Males reach maximum length at a
the California commercial shery; these were valued at
slightly faster rate than females and mature at a smaller
about $207,000.
size than females. A few males are mature at 11 inches
While bank rocksh are rarely caught in the recreational and 10 years, and all are mature at 14.8 inches and
shery north of Pt. Conception, California, they are a 20 years. Off California, banks release larvae from Decem-
frequent catch of recreational anglers in deep waters off ber to May (peaking in January and February) and from
southern California. January to April off Oregon. Individual females produce
between about 65,000 and 608,000 eggs. Off southern
California, females release larvae in several batches per
Status of Biological Knowledge season, although this is not the case further north. Little
B
is known of their food habits, although krill and gelatinous
ank rocksh are oval-shaped sh with small head
zooplankton have been found in their stomachs.
spines. They are dusky red or red-brown, often with a
clear pinkish-orange zone along the lateral line and black
spotting on the body and spinous portion of the dorsal
Status of the Population
n. However, some individuals may not have spots. This
species reaches a maximum length of 21.7 inches.
I n 2000, a partial stock assessment was made on bank
Bank rocksh are found from Queen Charlotte Sound, rocksh. This assessment implied that there has been
British Columbia to central Baja California and Isla Guadal- a substantial decrease in the bank rocksh population,
upe (off central Baja California). They are abundant from particularly in the 1990s.
the southern Oregon-northern California area to at least
southern California. They live in depths between 100 and
Milton Love
1,500 feet, but most commonly between 300 and 800 feet.
University of California, Santa Barbara
Diana Watters
California Department of Fish and Game
Bank Rockfish, Sebastes rufus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
378
Commercial Landings
Bank Rockfish
5 1916-1999,
Bank Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
4 Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
Bank Rockfish
eries Information Network (PacFin),
3
National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
2 of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
derived from DFG commercial land-
1 ing receipts with expansions based on
port samples collected by PacFin sam-
plers. Expansion data not available
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 for years prior to 1978.
References
Barss, W. H. 1989. Maturity and reproductive cycle for 35
species from the family Scorpaenidae found off Oregon.
Ore. Dep. Fish Wildl., Inf. Rep. 89-7.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California bight. NOAA Tech.
Rep. NMFS 87.
Pearson, D. E. 2000. Data availability, landings, and length
trend of California’s rocksh. NMFS, SWFSC Adm. Rep.
SC-00-01.
Watters, D. 1993. Age determination and conrmation
from otoliths of the bank rocksh, Sebastes rufus (Scor-
paenidae). M.S. thesis, San Jose State Univ.
Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish.
Bull. 85:229-250.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 379
Shortbelly Rockfish
History of the Fishery The quota for catches off California, Oregon and Washing-
ton in 2000 is 13,900 tons. Applications by joint venture
T he shortbelly rocksh (Sebastes jordani) is the most companies to sh for shortbelly rocksh submitted in
abundant rocksh off California but has been shed the early 1990’s were not approved. Those companies
very little. A directed shery occurred in 1982, when a intended to use the catch for surimi (articial crab).
joint venture with the USSR caught 700 tons off central There has been little current interest in development
California. Otherwise, a few shortbelly rocksh occasion- of a shery. Bocaccio is one of the most common
ally appear with other rocksh landed in California ports. bycatch species. Since bocaccio has been declared an
There is no domestic market for shortbelly rocksh at overshed species, it is unlikely that a commercial shery
present. If a market develops, special shing permits will for shortbelly rocksh will be allowed to develop in the
be required, because shing with legal mesh sizes is not foreseeable future.
practical for this small species. Large catches of shortbelly
rocksh can be made using midwater or bottom trawls
Status of Biological Knowledge
with ne mesh cod ends. Research has shown, however,
that while directed shing for shortbelly rocksh results
S hortbelly rocksh are found from Punta Baja, Baja
in low incidental catches of other species when midwater
California, to La Perouse Bank, British Columbia. Larg-
trawls are used, high incidental catches can occur when
est numbers are found between the Farallon Islands and
bottom trawls are used. Because of the concern that
Santa Cruz, and off the Channel Islands. Young-of-the-year
bottom trawls would take unacceptably high numbers
shortbelly rocksh have been observed in the surf line,
of small sh of other important species, scientists have
and adults have been reported as deep as 930 feet. The
recommended against the use of bottom trawls for
peak abundance of adults is over bottom depths of 400 to
shortbelly rocksh.
700 feet. Adults commonly form very large schools over
The potential shery for shortbelly rocksh is contro- smooth bottom near the shelf break. Schools are often
versial. Some shermen express concern that signicant near or on the bottom during the day and tend to be less
amounts of salmon may be caught incidentally to shing dense and higher in the water column at night. The size of
for shortbelly rocksh, but scientists have not observed shortbelly rocksh tends to increase with bottom depth.
incidental salmon catches on numerous research cruises
The maximum reported age for shortbelly rocksh is 32
and believe that a shery for shortbelly rocksh is
years, but sh older than 10 years are uncommon. Most
likely to be offshore from concentrations of salmon. Fish-
are less than 11.5 inches in length, which corresponds to a
ermen and environmental groups also express concern
weight of 0.5 pound. The largest measured specimen was
because young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are forage
13.4 inches, about 0.7 pound. Early growth is fairly rapid,
for salmon, sea birds and marine mammals. Scientists
and by age three the average size is 7.8 inches for males
have recommended quotas that are thought to be suf-
and 8.3 inches for females. Growth slows by age eight,
ciently low so as not to impact either the recruitment or
when the average size is 9.7 inches for males and 10.3
the availability of young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh for
inches for females. About 50 percent of female shortbelly
forage. Scientists have also recommended close monitor-
rocksh are mature by age three, and almost all are
ing of shing for shortbelly rocksh to verify that high
mature by age four. Fecundity ranges from 6,200 eggs for
incidental catches of this species and/or depletion of
a 6.8-inch sh to 50,000 eggs for a 12.0-inch sh.
forage do not occur.
Plankton surveys during the January-April parturition
season indicate that larvae are released in the same areas
inhabited in the summer and fall by large aggregations of
adults. However, the sh may be more dispersed during
late winter because aggregations of adults have been dif-
cult to locate then. Larvae are about 0.2 inch when
released. The young sh lead a pelagic existence until
June, when they are about ve months old, after which
they settle out to lead a semi-pelagic existence. In June,
the young shortbelly rocksh begin to take on the behav-
ior of adults. Divers have occasionally observed them in
large, compact schools in fairly shallow water. Large num-
bers of moribund young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are
sometimes found on beaches after periods of wind pat-
Shortbelly Rockfish, Sebastes jordani
terns that are thought to cause currents, which carry
Credit: David Ono, DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
380
Commercial Landings
Shortbelly Rockfish
160 1916-1999,
thousands of pounds landed
Shortbelly Rockfish
140
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Shortbelly Rockfish
120 survey with input from Pacific Fish-
100 eries Information Network (PacFin),
National Marine Fishery Service
80 (NMFS), and California Department
60 of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
derived from DFG commercial land-
40 ing receipts with expansions based
20 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
References
them into shallow waters. These sh did not appear to be
either starved or diseased. They appear to be maladapted
Chess, J. R., S. E. Smith, and P. C. Fisher. 1988. Trophic
to contact with the abrasive bottom when in the near-
relationships of the shortbelly rocksh, Sebastes jordani,
shore environment.
off central California. CalCOFI Rep. 29:129-136.
During the latter part of the juvenile pelagic stage, the
Kato, S. 1981. Checking out shortbelly rocksh - Colintino
two to three-inch shortbelly rocksh feed mostly on cope-
Rose II’s mission accomplished. Pacic Fishing (November,
pods and young stages of euphausiids. Adults feed pri-
1981):96-100.
marily on euphausiids but also consume some copepods.
Young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are important prey Lenarz, W. H. 1980. Shortbelly rocksh, Sebastes jordani:
for salmon and sea birds. They have also been found in a large unshed resource in waters off California. Mar.
the diet of lingcod and northern fur seals. Adult shortbelly Fish. Rev. (March-April):34-40.
rocksh are occasionally found in the diet of large sh
Pearson, D. E., J. E. Hightower, and J. T. H. Chan. 1991.
such as lingcod.
Age, growth, and potential yield for shortbelly rocksh
(Sebastes jordani). Fish. Bull. 89:403-409.
Status of the Population
T he population is at the unshed level. Biomass esti-
mates have been attempted on four hydroacoustic
surveys from Santa Cruz to the Farallon Islands in 1977,
1983, 1986, and 1989. Large aggregations needed for the
hydroacoustic technique were found only on two of the
four surveys. The two estimates of biomass were 168,000
tons and 325,000 tons. It was estimated that the biomass
in this area could support annual catches of at least
14,800 tons without reducing the spawning stock below
levels thought to be needed to maintain good recruit-
ment. Recent larval abundance surveys have suggested
that recruitment is low which may be related to unfavor-
able oceanographic conditions.
William H. Lenarz
College of Marin
Revised by:
Donald E. Pearson
National Marine Fisheries Service
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 381
Dover Sole
History of the Fishery Council (PFMC) as a trip limit on the aggregate poundage
of Dover sole, thornyheads, and sablesh (the DTS com-
T he stature of Dover sole (Microstomus pacicus) has plex). Prior to that time, market demand and gear regula-
evolved from that of an undesirable by-product of tions controlled statewide Dover sole landings. The intent
bottom trawling prior to the 1940s, to the most abundant of this regulation was to reduce the harvest of sablesh
groundsh in statewide landings. This phenomenal rise by restricting effort for the DTS complex. While reduced
was the result of market demand during and following quotas and increasingly restrictive trip limits were placed
World War II and technological advances in sh handling on the DTS complex coast-wide during the 1990s, the
and processing. major reason for the decline in California Dover sole land-
ings was a reduction in market demand. The port of
At the advent of trawling in the 1870s, Dover sole were
Eureka has historically supported the largest Dover sole
inadvertently caught by lateen sailboats using paranzella
shery and was strongly impacted by the loss of a major
nets. California’s Dover sole shery expanded from its
Army contract. Fort Bragg, Crescent City, San Francisco,
beginning in San Francisco Bay to its present scope
Monterey, and Morro Bay are other ports with signicant
extending from Santa Barbara to the Oregon border. The
Dover sole landings.
developing trawl shery experienced major changes in
vessels and netting. Sailboats were replaced by steam, Sport utilization of Dover sole is practically nonexistent.
gasoline, then diesel-powered vessels. The original paran- The depth distribution of Dover sole normally places
zella trawl net was supplanted by the more efcient otter them beyond most sport shing activity, and Dover sole,
trawl in the 1920s. By the 1980s, some trawl shermen because of their feeding habits, are not vulnerable to
began to use roller or bobbin trawls to capture Dover hook-and-line shing.
sole and other deep-slope groundsh instead of more
conventional trawls with rubber mudlines between the
Status of Biological Knowledge
trawl doors and footrope to create a sh-herding mud
cloud. A quick-freezing method, developed during World
D over sole occur from the Bering Sea to northern Baja
War II, hardened the soft esh of the Dover sole to
California on mud bottoms at depths from 180 to
produce marketable llets. This advance and the wartime
4,800 feet. Although early tagging experiments off Oregon
demand for sh allowed trawlers to turn their attention to
and California suggested Dover sole move inshore in the
the large north coast population of Dover sole.
summer, a more recent California Department of Fish and
The directed Dover sole shery began in 1943 when Game (DFG) tagging study discovered that not all Dover
28 tons were landed. Between 1944 and 1947, landings sole participate in the summer inshore movement. Most of
ranged from 62 tons to 1,400 tons. The shery expanded the mature sh tagged and released in deep water were
to 3,600 tons in 1948, at which time Dover sole landing recovered in deep water regardless of season. The DFG
records were separated from nominal or unspecied sole tagging data indicate that two substocks may exist – one
landings, and rose further to 5,850 tons by 1952. Annual that migrates and one that does not. Juvenile Dover sole
landings then remained stable at approximately 4,000 tons settle on the continental shelf and gradually move down
until 1969. From 1969 through 1989, landings averaged the slope over their lifetime, reaching the oxygen-mini-
10,200 tons and from 1990 through 1999, average landings mum zone as they become sexually mature.
dropped to 5,892 tons.
Growth is rapid during the early years of life but decreases
Commercial Dover sole landing limits were imposed coast- with age. Five-year-old Dover sole grow 0.7 inch per year,
wide in 1989 and 1990 by the Pacic Fishery Management but by 10 years of age, growth slows to 0.4 inch annually.
Dover sole may attain an age of over 50 years and reach
30 inches in length. Fifty percent of Dover sole females
12 inches long are mature. The youngest mature Dover
sole in 1987-1988 studies was six years old, whereas earlier
studies reported mature ve-year-old females.
Dover sole may spawn nine batches to release all eggs in
a spawning season. Egg production is correlated with size.
Fish of 0.6 pound produce 33,000 eggs, while 2.4-pound
sh produce 54,000 eggs on average. Incubation time for
the buoyant eggs may vary from 10 days to one month
depending on the ambient water temperature. Larvae
are unusually large (one to two inches long) and have a
Dover Sole, Microstomus pacificus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
382
Dover Sole
30
millions of pounds landed
25
Commercial Landings
20
Dover Sole
1916-1999,
Dover Sole
15 Prior to 1931, all soles were com-
bined as one group; individual
10 species were tabulated separately
when they became sufficiently
5
important. Data Source: DFG
Catch Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
prolonged pelagic life of at least one year before settling Francis D. Henry
to the bottom. Larvae have been found along the entire California Department of Fish and Game
California coast, as far as 60 miles south of the U.S.- N. Chyan-huei Lo
Mexico border and up to 280 miles offshore. National Marine Fisheries Service
Dover sole feed commonly on polychaete worms, pelecy- Revised by:
pod and scaphopod mollusks, shrimp, and brittle stars. David Thomas
Only Pacic sleeper sharks and spiny dogsh are known to California Department of Fish and Game
prey on Dover sole.
References
Status of the Population
Brodziak, J., L. Jacobson. R. Lauth, and M. Wilkins.
I n 1987 and 1988, the National Marine Fisheries Service 1998. Assessment of the Dover Sole Stocks for 1997. In:
(NMFS) conducted two surveys to assess the adult bio- Status of the Pacic coast groundsh shery through 1997
mass of Dover sole in the area from Point Conception and recommended acceptable biological catches for 1998.
to Monterey Bay. The surveys found that 98 percent of Pacic Fishery Management Council, Portland Oregon.
the spawning biomass of Dover sole in central California
Hagerman, F.B. 1952. The biology of the Dover sole
waters live on the continental slope between 2,100 and
(Microstomus pacicus) (Lockington). Calif. Dept. Fish and
3,300 feet deep, an area characterized by low oxygen
Game, Fish Bull. 85. 48 p.
concentrations and very cold temperatures. A 1991 assess-
Hunter, J.R., B.J. Macewicz, N.C.H. Lo, and C.A. Kimbrell.
ment using 1990 NMFS bottom trawl survey data provided
1992. Fecundity, spawning, and maturity of female Dover
estimates of biomass and yields for the area from Cape
sole, Microstomus pacicus, with an evaluation of assump-
Mendocino, California to Cape Blanco, Oregon (Eureka
tions and precision. Fish. Bull., U.S. 90: 101-128.
area). Another assessment, conducted in 1992, included
the Eureka area and the Columbia area and another Turnock, J. and R. Methot. 1992. Status of west coast
completed in 1995 included the northern Monterey area as Dover sole in 1992. In: Status of the Pacic coast ground-
well as the US Vancouver area. sh shery through 1992 and recommended acceptable
biological catches for 1993. Pacic Fishery Management
The last Dover assessment, conducted in 1997, treated the
Council, Portland, Oregon.
entire population in the Monterey area through the U.S.
Vancouver area as a single stock based on research on the Turnock, J., M. Wilkins, M. Saelens, and R. Lauth. 1995.
genetic structure of the population. The Point Conception Status of west coast Dover sole in The US Vancouver and
area population has yet to be fully assessed. Using yield Northern Monterey Areas in 1995. In: Status of the Pacic
recommendations presented in the 1997 assessment, the coast groundsh shery through 1995 and recommended
PFMC set a coastwide landed catch limit of 8,955 tons. acceptable biological catches for 1996. Pacic Fishery
This stock is believed to be in equilibrium and near the Management Council, Portland, Oregon.
target biomass level that would provide maximum sustain-
able yield.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 383
English Sole
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
E E
nglish sole (Pleuronectes vetulus) has been commer- nglish sole range from San Cristobal Bay, Baja Califor-
cially important since the introduction of the rst nia to northwest Alaska in water as deep as 1,800 feet.
trawl net, the paranzella, in San Francisco in 1876. The Fish tend to move to deeper water in the winter and
use of trawl nets made the catch of “sole” species one shallower water in the summer, and shing effort follows
of the leading categories of sh landed in California, and these movements. Tagging studies in California, Oregon,
English sole was the leading atsh in that group until Washington, and British Columbia show that, although
Dover sole took rst place in 1949. Since then, English there is little overall migration, small seasonal north-
sole has been second in pounds landed except for 1970 south movements probably occur, and some sh have been
through 1972, when petrale sole was second. The peak found to move in excess of 200 miles. Analysis of tag
year for English sole was 1929, when 8.7 million pounds returns also suggest that four separate stocks are found in
were caught off central California and at new shing areas California: south of Point Conception, Point Conception to
off Fort Bragg and Eureka. Annual landings in California Bodega Bay, Monterey to Eureka, and Eureka to southern
averaged 2.8 million pounds during the 10 years from 1980 Oregon. The overlap in areas is a result of apparent north-
to 1989 and dropped to an average 1.3 million pounds south movement of the stocks. Some seasonal intermin-
between 1990 and 1999. The majority of recent California gling between stocks probably also occurs.
landings were made by trawlers shing on the grounds Three-year-old female English sole, on average, are only
off Eureka and San Francisco. Little is taken commercially about eight inches, while 10-year-old females are about
south of Point Conception. 14 inches. Fifty percent of female English sole are usually
English sole are shed primarily by trawling in water 120 mature at ve years and nine inches. Spawning generally
to 900 feet deep on sandy bottoms. Because of the shal- occurs over sand and mud-sand bottoms at depths of 200
low water in which this species is found, relatively small to 360 feet from September to April. In California, peak
vessels can participate in the shery. A very small portion spawning occurs from December through February, with
of the catch is taken by commercial hook-and-line or by annual variations in timing apparently related to water
gill net, and it is not an important species for recreational temperature. Each sh probably spawns only once per
shing. Female sh greater that 11 inches comprise the year. Egg diameter is approximately 0.04 inch. Fertilized
majority of landings because females tend to be longer eggs are buoyant when rst released, but shortly before
and heavier than males, and markets request sh of at hatching they begin to sink into the water column.
least 11 inches in order to produce reasonable size llets. When the eggs hatch, in four to 12 days, the larvae are
While English sole llets are desirable for the market and approximately 0.1 inch long. Typically the larvae are in the
restaurant trade, demand is affected by the abundance of midwater column but sink deeper as they approach meta-
other atsh and roundsh as well as the availability and morphosis. During development, the larvae may be car-
price of imported sh products. ried toward shore on lower-level water currents. Spawning
and development during times of rapid plankton growth
may result in good recruitment. During their pelagic phase
of six to 10 weeks, the larvae grow to about 0.75 inch,
then settle to the bottom and metamorphose to the adult
benthic body form.
After metamorphosis, and for the rst year of life, juvenile
English sole are found in shallow bays and estuaries and
feed all the way up to the intertidal zone. Juveniles are
found in sand, mud, and eelgrass habitats. The population
density of juvenile English sole in estuaries is several
times higher than on the open coast; however, it is not
known how important estuaries are to survival of juvenile
English sole. In southern California, the shallow open coast
may be more important as juvenile habitat than it is
further north. As the sh grow they tend to move to
deeper water. While in the estuary and nearshore shallow-
water environment, juveniles feed on copepods, the palps
of segmented worms, siphons of small clams, brittle stars,
English Sole, Pleuronectes vetulus and other small invertebrates. At the end of their rst
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
384
English Sole
9
8
millions of pounds landed
7
6
English Sole
Commercial Landings
5 1916-1999, English Sole
4 Prior to 1931, all soles were
combined as one group; indi-
3
vidual species were tabulated
2 separately when they became
1 sufficiently important. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
year of life (about ve inches), most juveniles have moved Donald E. Pearson
to offshore waters. National Marine Fisheries Service
Adult sh are seldom found in estuaries. They are oppor- Sandra L. Owen
tunistic feeders eating shallowly burrowed or surface- California Department of Fish and Game
active prey such as worms, small crustaceans, clams, and Revised by:
occasionally small sh, crabs, and shrimp. Adults can also Dave Thomas
dig into the sediment to reach deeper prey. The largest California Department of Fish and Game
recorded English sole, from British Columbia, was 22.5
inches, and 21-inch sh have been taken in California.
References
The oldest recorded age is 22 years. English sole are
aged by counting the annual rings on the interopercular
Jow, T. 1969. Results of English sole tagging off California.
bone. The English sole is capable of interbreeding with the
Pac. Mar. Fish. Commis. Bull. 7:15-33.
starry ounder producing an inter-generic hybrid called
the hybrid or forkline sole or ounder. Kruse, G.H. and A.V.Tyler. 1989. Exploratory simulation of
English sole recruitment mechanisms. Transactions of the
AFS 118:101-118.
Status of the Population Krygier, E.E. and W.G. Pearcy. 1986. The role of estuarine
L
and offshore nursery areas for young English sole, Paroph-
ittle information is available to estimate the status of
rys vetulus Girard, of Oregon. Fish. Bull., U.S. 84:119-132.
the English sole stock in California. Catch-per-unit-of-
effort data exist but are complicated by the multiple spe- Lassuy, D.R. 1989. Species proles: life histories and envi-
cies aspect of trawl shing. In 1993, an assessment using ronmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
data collected from 1977 through 1992, was conducted for brates (Pacic northwest)–English sole. U.S. Fish Wildl.
the English sole stocks off Oregon and Washington. Results Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.101). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
indicate that the biomass increased steadily during the TR EL-82-4. 17 p.
assessment period, which was attributed to high recruit-
Rosenberg, A.A. 1982. Growth of juvenile English sole,
ment. The author concluded that English sole stocks can
Parophrys vetulus, in estuarine and open coastal nursery
sustain a high exploitation rate because a large portion
grounds. Fish. Bull., U.S. 80:245-252.
of the spawning stock is comprised of small females
Sampson , D. B. and Al-Jufaily, S.M. 1999. Geographic
that are not caught by the shery due to the small
variation in the maturity and growth schedules of English
size-at-maturity.
sole along the U.S. west coast. J. Fish Bio. 54:1-17.
The California shery is currently managed by the Pacic
Toole, C.L. 1980. Intertidal recruitment and feeding in
Fishery Management Council through gear regulations such
relation to optimal utilization of nursery areas by juvenile
as trawl net mesh size and a recommended Acceptable
English sole (Parophrys vetulus: Pleuronectidae). Env.
Biological Catch (1,100 metric tons at present). Landings
Biol. Fish. 5:383-390.
are monitored and populations continually assessed for
signs of biological stress.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 385
Petrale Sole
History of the Fishery Tagging studies in Washington, Oregon, and California indi-
cate that petrale sole concentrate for spawning in deep
T he California shery for petrale sole (Eopsetta jordani) water during winter and, shortly after spawning, disperse
began in the San Francisco Bay area during the late inshore and northward through the spring and summer
1880s. Petrale were then, as they are now, a highly desir- months. During fall and winter, they show an offshore and
able atsh. Most are lleted for the fresh market, with southerly movement again concentrating on local deep
the remainder being cleaned and smoked or dried. The water spawning grounds. Seasonal landing distributions
majority of the petrale sole landed are taken commer- show the same pattern. During winter, a targeted shery
cially with bottom trawls, along with various other at- occurs in deep water and large catches and landings of
shes and rockshes, although some are caught by long- petrale are made, while during summer, they are caught
line or entangling nets. The sport shery is negligible, in association with many other groundsh and individual
with only a few thousand pounds being landed annually. petrale landings are relatively small. Within California,
The principal sport catch is made by partyboats shing for four spawning populations of petrale sole have been delin-
bottomsh species such as rockshes. eated by tagging experiments and by locating spawning
sh. These are in the Cape Mendocino, Point Delgado,
In 1924, there were 66,000 pounds of petrale sole landed.
Point Montara, and Point Sal areas.
From 1924 through 1933, annual landings averaged about
250,000 pounds, with over 1.4 million pounds landed in Age and growth studies on petrale sole in California have
1931. The trawler eet increased greatly in size and been very limited. However, growth appears to be rapid
efciency following World War II. New gear technology during the rst few years for both male and female sh,
allowed trawling on new grounds at greater depths, result- after which the growth rate becomes disproportionate,
ing in larger landings. Also contributing to increased pro- with females growing more rapidly than males. The maxi-
duction was the discovery of winter spawning grounds at mum recorded sizes and ages of California petrale sole are
depths of 900 to 1,200 feet. Concentrations here were 19.5 inches and 21 years for males and 25.2 inches and 25
very dense and catches increased accordingly. Over ve years for females. Petrale sole enter the shery at about
million pounds were landed in 1948. Between 1982 and three years of age, but most of the petrale catch consists
1991, landings averaged 1.7 million pounds. From 1992 to of females between ve and seven years old and about 14
1999 landings averaged 1.3 million pounds. to 17 inches long.
Petrale sole reproduce in water between 900 and 1,200
feet deep from November through March, with peak
Status of Biological Knowledge spawning during January and February. Males reach rst
P
maturity at three years of age and 11.7 inches long, and
etrale sole are found from the Bering Sea to northern
females at four years and 12.5 inches. About 50 percent of
Baja California on sandy bottoms at depths ranging
the males are mature at seven years and 16 inches. The
from 60 to 1,500 feet. These sh have been known to
largest immature male recorded was 15.2 inches and eight
move great distances; tagged sh released off Eureka,
years; the largest immature female, about 18.5 inches and
California have been recovered in British Columbia. Never-
nine years. Eggs are pelagic and hatch in about 8.5 days
theless, most tagged petrale sole are recovered within
at 44.6 F.
short distances of the release point.
Petrale sole are among the largest California atsh. They
feed on euphausiids, shrimp, anchovies, herring, juvenile
hake, small rocksh, and other atsh.
Status of Population
A 1999 stock assessment, which focused on petrale
stocks off Oregon and Washington did not estimate
absolute
biomass or offer a harvest projection for California.
However, the authors did examine some limited data
from California including a set of shelf survey indices of
biomass and noted that this index has been steadily
Pertrale Sole, Eopsetta jordani
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
386
Petrale Sole
6
millions of pounds landed
5
4
Petrale Sole
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Petrale Sole
3
Prior to 1931, all soles were
combined as one group;
2
individual species were tabulated
separately when they became
1
sufficiently important. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
References
increasing since 1980. This assessment suggests recent
California catches are sustainable, prompting the PFMC
Best, O.A. 1963. Movement of Petrale sole, Eopsetta jor-
to retain a statewide acceptable biological catch of 3.3
dani (Lexington) tagged off California. Pac. Mar. Fish.
million pounds.
Comm. Bull. 6:24-38.
Memory, R.L. 1987. Progress report on the status of
David H. Thomas
petrale sole in the INPFC Columbia-Vancouver areas in
California Department of Fish and Game
1987. Appendix E in Status of the Pacic coast groundsh
shery through 1985 and recommended acceptable biolog-
ical catches for 1986. Pacic Fishery Management Council,
Portland, Oregon.
Forrester, C.R. 1969. Life history information on some
groundsh species. Fish. Bd. Canada, Tech. Rept. 105:1-17.
Ketchen, K.S. and C.R. Forrester. 1966. Population dynam-
ics of the Petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani, in waters off
western Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 153:1-195.
Sampson, D.B. and Lee, Y.W. 1999. An Assessment of
the Stocks of Petrale Sole Off Washington, Oregon, and
California in 1998. Appendix in Status of Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 2000.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 387
Rex Sole
History of the Fishery compressed head, a small mouth, and a nearly straight
lateral line that lacks an accessory branch.
T he rex sole (Errex zachirus, formerly Glyptocephalus Rex sole rst appear in the trawl catch when they are
zachirus) is taken commercially by bottom trawl nets about 12 inches long and 10.5 years of age. They can
from southern California to the Bering Sea at depths of attain a length of 23.25 inches and an age of 24 years.
300 to 1,200 feet. Despite its wide-distribution, this spe- Male rex sole rst spawn in their second year when about
cies does not lend itself to a high-production targeted ve inches long. Females rst spawn at age three and
shery, because it rarely aggregates in any one location about eight inches. Rex sole become fully mature at age
at any certain time of year. It is rarely taken by four and about nine inches in length. After 3.5 years of
sport shermen. age, females grow somewhat faster than males; they also
The commercial shery for rex sole in California had been tend to live longer.
steady and stable between 1970 and 1989, with most Although rex sole in spawning condition have been col-
catches made incidentally to other groundsh species. lected throughout the year, peak spawning activity is from
Annual California landings of rex sole from 1970 to 1989 February through March off San Francisco and during the
averaged 1.6 million pounds, with a range of 1.3 to 2.0 mil- summer off Eureka. Spawning rex sole are most abundant
lion pounds. However, during the 1990s landings declined at depths of 300 to 900 feet.
along with landings of other groundsh. By the end of
The number of eggs produced by a single female rex sole
the 1990s, landings were down to approximately 630,000
increases with size. A 9.5-inch female will produce about
pounds worth $243,772 to shermen. Prices have been
3,900 eggs, while a 23.25-inch female can have as many
steady at $.35 to $.40 per pound for the past decade.
as 238,000 eggs. Rex sole eggs average about 0.10 inch in
Traditionally, the majority of the landings in California
diameter, are fertilized near the sea bed, become pelagic,
have come from the Eureka-Crescent City area. Since
and probably require a few weeks to hatch.
1985, rex sole landings from other ports as far south as
Rex sole eggs hatch to produce pelagic larvae that are
Morro Bay have grown relative to landings in the Eureka-
about 0.25 inch in length. Larvae have been collected
Crescent City area.
from nearshore to 200 miles offshore during California
Rex sole is primarily processed for the fresh food market,
Cooperative Oceanic Fishery Investigations (CalCOFI) sur-
where it is held in high esteem by seafood connoisseurs
veys and are most abundant from April to July. The larvae
because of its bright, white esh and its sweet, distinctive
retain an extended pelagic existence for about a year
taste. Most rex sole are marketed in a dressed form
before settling out to the bottom as two-inch-long juve-
(eviscerated with the head off), which gives processors a
niles. The long pelagic phase may make rex sole larvae
35 to 45 percent yield by weight. Rex sole is generally not
more susceptible to dispersal and drift by currents, a
lleted because its thin, slight body does not allow for
factor that might affect survival and subsequent year-class
efcient recovery.
strength. Juveniles are common on the outer edge of the
continental shelf, which is possibly used as a nursery area,
Status of Biological Knowledge at depths of 490 to 660 feet.
Little is known about rex sole movements and migrations.
T he rex sole belongs to the family Pleuronectidae, They are found from shallow water (60 feet usually deeper
the right-eyed ounders. It is distinguished by a long than 200 feet) to depths of 2,100 feet. They show a prefer-
narrow pectoral n on the eyed side of the body, a short ence for a muddy-sandy bottom but also frequent both
sand and mud bottoms.
Stomach analyses show that rex sole feed primarily on
amphipods and polychaetes; shrimp are also eaten. Rex
sole are preyed upon by sharks, skates, rays, lingcod, and
some rocksh.
Rex Sole, Errex zachirus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
388
Rex Sole
2.5
millions of pounds landed
2.0
Commercial Landings
Rex Sole
1.5
1916-1999, Rex Sole
Prior to 1931, all soles were
1.0 combined as one group;
individual species were tabulated
0.5 separately when they became
sufficiently important. Data Source:
DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Status of the Population References
T he rex sole is listed under the “other atsh” category Hosie, M. J. 1976. The rex sole. Oregon Department of Fish
in the Pacic Coast groundsh plan. It is believed and Wildlife Information Report 76-2:1-5.
to be adequately protected by trawl mesh-size regula- Hosie, M.J. and H.F. Horton. 1977. Biology of the rex sole,
tions, which result in the retention of only the larger Glyptocephalus zachirus, in waters off Oregon. Fish. Bull.,
sh. Yet, insufcient information is available to determine U.S. 75:51-60.
possible trends in stock abundance. Increased restrictions
Pearcy, W. G. 1978. Distribution and abundance of small
on trawling effort may be partially responsible for recent
atshes and other demersal shes in a region of diverse
reductions in landings.
sediments and bathymetry off Oregon. Fish. Bull., U.S.
76:629-640.
Lawrence F. Quirollo Pearcy, W.G. , M.J. Hosie, S.L. Richardson 1977. Distribu-
California Department of Fish and Game tion and duration of pelagic life of larvae of Dover sole,
Revised by: Microstomus pacicus; rex sole, Glyptocephalus zachirus;
Christopher M. Dewees and petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani, in waters off Oregon.
University of California, Davis Fish. Bull. U.S. 75: 173-184.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 389
Sablefish
History of the Fishery worth $3.63 million, ranked fourth in ex-vessel value
among groundsh species. Between 1990 and 1999, Cali-
T he sablesh (Anoplopoma mbria) resource off Califor- fornia landings had an average ex-vessel value of 5.1 mil-
nia has a lengthy history of commercial exploitation. lion dollars. Sablesh are marketed commonly as “black
Prior to 1935, landings averaged about 500 tons annually. cod” and smaller sh are often lleted and sold as “but-
By 1935, annual landings had risen to 1,400 tons at a tersh.” The high oil content of the esh produces an
time when sablesh livers, because of their high vitamin A excellent smoked product, and most of the large indi-
content, commanded a higher price than the edible parts viduals are sold domestically in this form. Sablesh are
of the sh. Landings increased to over 3,000 tons in 1945 typically exported in frozen, dressed (headed-and-gutted)
due to strong wartime market demand, then varied from form. There is a large price difference with size.
approximately 770 to 2,200 tons per year until 1972. Sport utilization of sablesh is negligible, with rare
More intensive exploitation of sablesh began in 1972 instances of large catches when schools of small sablesh
with the development and widespread use of sablesh concentrate around public piers. The depth distribution
traps, which proved highly effective. Foreign shing eets of sablesh normally places them beyond most sport
from the U.S.S.R, Japan, and the Republic of Korea shed shing activity.
for sablesh off California from 1967 to 1979, catching
Sablesh are captured commercially with longline, trap,
relatively minor quantities in most years. However, in
bottom trawl, and gill net gears. Before 1943, sablesh
1976 the Republic of Korea reported a catch of 9,500
were landed principally by small two- to three-man long-
tons off California. The establishment of the U.S. 200-mile
line boats shing deep for large sablesh for the smoked
shery conservation zone in 1977 phased out foreign sh-
sh market. Catches by trawlers became signicant in
ing in those waters; consequently Japan, the principal
1944. The distribution of landings among gear types has
foreign market for sablesh, became increasingly reliant
varied considerably over time, but bottom trawlers have
on imports of U.S.-caught sablesh. Japanese demand for
accounted for about 70 percent of annual California land-
sablesh helped drive California landings to a record high
ings in recent years. In recent years, a small number of
of 14,287 tons in 1979, followed by a market collapse the
sablesh have been caught in the recently developed live-
next year to just 5,141 tons.
sh shery.
The rst commercial sablesh landing limits were imposed
Trawls and gill nets capture sablesh in mixed-species
coastwide in 1982 by the Pacic Fishery Management
catches with a variety of other groundshes, whereas
Council. Prior to that time, market demand, not resource
longline and trap gears target on sablesh. Off California,
availability or quotas, was the dominant force controlling
most trawl-caught sablesh are taken in association with
statewide sablesh landings. From 1982 to 1989, regula-
Dover sole and thornyheads in deep (1,200-4,200 feet)
tions constrained statewide sablesh landings to an aver-
water. Longlines and traps are also shed at such depths
age of approximately 6,175 tons. Annual coastwide landing
for sablesh, but gill net-caught sablesh commonly are
quotas remained at 19,183 tons from 1982 to 1984, then
captured with rocksh at depths less than 900 feet.
gradually declined to 9,800 tons in 1990 as the stock was
Because of the immense shing power of the West Coast
shed down to the recommended long-term target level.
groundsh eet and a robust market demand, rather
Between 1990 and 2000, the Allowable Biological Catch
intensive management of sablesh became necessary in
(ABC) was reduced slightly to 10,661 tons.
the 1980s to prevent overexploitation and to accomplish
The economic importance of sablesh to California has
other management goals. Trip landing and frequency
increased considerably in recent years. In 1989, sablesh,
limits, a 22-inch minimum size limit, user-group alloca-
tions, as well as more commonly used quotas and gear
restrictions, have been applied to the commercial sable-
sh shery by the PFMC. Trip landing and frequency
limits prevent early quota attainment, thereby reducing
the discard of sablesh by-catch in non-directed sheries
and providing year-round availability of fresh sablesh
to domestic consumers. The minimum size limit, imple-
mented in 1983, prevents the excessive harvest of juvenile
sablesh. Quota allocation distributes the harvest among
user groups to achieve social and economic goals. Quotas
and gear restrictions are designed to ensure the optimal
long-term harvest of sablesh.
Sablefish, Anonlopoma fimbra
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
390
Sablefish
35
millions of pounds landed
30
25
Sablefish
20
15
Commercial Landings
10
1916-1999, Sablefish
5 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
The sablesh resource is unique among West Coast Approximately 50 percent of female sablesh reach matu-
groundshes, for the annual commercial catch quota has rity at 23.6 inches long and six years of age off California.
been allocated between trawl and non-trawl gears since Females grow faster than males from age two and attain a
1986. Trawl/non-trawl allocations, based on historical larger maximum size. Sablesh may attain an age of over
shares and incidental catch requirements, have ranged 50 years and reach a size of 47 inches and 126 pounds but
from 58:42 to 52:48 during 1986 to 2000. Separate alloca- are usually less than 30 inches and 25 pounds. Sablesh
tions are needed because trawl-landing restrictions put enter the trawl shery as early as one year of age but are
trawlers at a disadvantage with non-trawl shermen when fully selected by trawl and nontrawl sheries at ages four
both groups compete for a joint quota. Most non-trawl to six. Large, older sh are most selected by the trap and
shermen land only sablesh; thus an unrestricted open longline sheries.
shery followed by a closure is acceptable to them. Quota Sablesh are conventionally aged using the broken and
allocation allows each group to use their optimal harvest burnt otolith method. There is very poor agreement
strategy within regulatory constraints. among agers and therefore the estimated ages are ques-
tionable. This is in spite of a considerable amount of
research on the problem.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he geographic distribution of sablesh extends from
Status of Population
the Asiatic coast of the Bering Sea to northern Baja
F
California. Tagging studies by the National Marine Fisher- or management purposes, a unit stock is assumed to
ies Service (NMFS), Department of Fisheries and Oceans- exist in waters off California to the Canadian border.
Canada, and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Considerable progress has been made in the 1980s towards
indicated that adult sablesh are relatively sedentary, understanding the dynamics, structure, and size of this
as most sh were recaptured within 50 nautical miles stock. Two types of sheries-independent surveys were
of release sites. However, some sablesh, particularly conducted by the NMFS, triennial groundsh trawl surveys
those tagged in southern California, have moved in excess (initiated in 1977) from Monterey Bay to the Canadian
of 1,000 nautical miles. Adult sablesh are found from border and biennial sablesh trap surveys in the INPFC
less than 300 to more than 4,800 feet deep, but peak Conception to Eureka areas (Mexican border to 43° 00’ N
abundance off California is at about 1,200 to 1,800 feet. latitude). In 1991, the biennial trap survey was discontin-
Length and age generally increase with depth. ued due to a lack of funding. In addition, a systematic
The spawning season extends from October through Feb- landings sampling program and trawl logbook data pro-
ruary. A central California study determined that spawn- vided insight into catch-per-effort, and age- and length-
ing occurs at depths greater than 2,700 feet. Initially, composition trends. In general, these disparate data sets
larval sablesh inhabit surface waters offshore; later they presented a somewhat equivocal picture of stock status in
move into nearshore nursery areas. Juveniles aggregate in California waters.
water depths of continental slope and abyssal areas. The Fisheries-independent and dependent studies have had
diet of juvenile sablesh includes copepods, amphipods, conicting results. Stock assessments have been hampered
euphausiids, sh eggs, and sh larvae. Adults eat euphau- by the lack of reliable age data. In 1998, two independent
siids, tunicates, and sh. stock assessments were performed which resulted in bio-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 391
References
mass estimates ranging between 33,000 and 319,000 tons.
Sablefish
Given the highly uncertain status of the population, it
Hastie, J.D. 1988. Catch and revenue characteristics
is unclear whether management has been too liberal or
of vessels harvesting sablesh off the west coast of
too conservative.
the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
F/NWC-144.
Francis D. Henry
Hunter, J.R, B.J. Macewicz, and C.A. Kimbrell. 1989.
California Department of Fish and Game
Fecundity and other aspects of the reproduction of sable-
Revised by:
sh, Anoplopoma mbria, in central California waters.
Donald E. Pearson
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 30:61-72.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Melteff, B.R. 1983. Editor. Proceedings of the International
Sablesh Symposium. Alaska Sea Grant Report 83-8. Alaska
Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska-Fairbanks.
Methot, R.D., P.Crone, R.J. Conser, J. Brodziak, T. Builder,
D. Kamikawa. 1998. Status of the sablesh resource of the
U.S. pacic coast in 1998. In Status of the Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1998 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 1999. Pacic Fishery Manage-
ment Council, Portland, Oregon.
Parks, N.B. and F.R. Shaw. 1989. Relative abundance
and size composition of sablesh (Anoplopoma mbria)
in the coastal waters of California and southern
Oregon, 1984-1988. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
F/NWC-167.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
392
Pacific Hake
History of the Fishery In 1964, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
Pacific Hake
demonstrated that large catches of hake (to 60,000
T he Pacic hake (Merluccius productus), also known pounds per half-hour haul) could be achieved off coastal
as Pacic whiting, makes up more than 50 percent Washington and Oregon using newly developed depth
of the potential annual harvest of West Coast groundsh telemetry systems on midwater trawlers. This shery grew
off Washington, Oregon, and California and is the largest from 484 tons in 1964 to 15,883 tons in 1967.
groundsh resource managed under the Pacic Fishery Knowledge of the large hake resource off the West Coast
Council’s Groundsh Management Plan. Pacic hake was attracted a large eet of Soviet trawlers and accompa-
considered an underutilized domestic species until 1991, nying support vessels in 1966. Between 1973 and 1976,
the rst year the entire harvest was captured and pro- Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany),
cessed by the U.S. seafood industry. the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), and
A member of the cod family, Pacic hake is a delicate Bulgaria entered the shery. Japan also participated in
sh that requires careful handling to achieve a marketable the shery before 1977; their peak harvest was 9,104 tons
product. The sh must be chilled, processed, and frozen in 1974. The estimated catches of Pacic hake during this
soon after the harvest. Also, Pacic hake are infected with period of expansion ranged from 130,000 tons to 262,000
a myxosporidian parasite that can appear as black spots tons. Catches peaked in 1976 and were subsequently
within the esh. Protease enzymes associated with the reduced due to restrictions on foreign effort imposed by
parasite can cause degradation of the esh if the sh are the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act
not handled properly. (MFCMA) of 1976.
The Pacic hake shery is a high-volume, low-value sh- Two types of shing operations involving foreign vessels
ery (ex-vessel prices have ranged from $0.025-$0.08 per were conducted off Washington, Oregon, and northern
pound). Its product contains, on average, about 15 percent California after the implementation of the MFCMA in 1977.
protein and three percent fat. Domestic production had In one shery (the foreign trawl shery or “directed sh-
been primarily geared towards the frozen headed and ery”), sh were caught and processed by foreign vessels.
gutted market, shipped in high volume on a penny-a- In a second shery, known as the joint venture (JV) sh-
pound margin. However, with the growth of the domestic ery, U.S. trawl vessels deliver their catch to foreign pro-
shery in the 1990s, there has been signicant growth cessing vessels at sea.
in the production of surimi (sh paste), Individual The joint venture shery for Pacic hake started in
Quick Frozen (IQF) llets, and frozen blocks. Today 1978 between foreign nations and the United States and
60 to 80 percent of production is surimi, 10 to 20 Canada. Consistent with the intent of the MFCMA to
percent headed and gutted, 10 to 20 percent llets. A encourage development of domestic sheries, landings of
signicant proportion of the waste products is processed hake declined in the foreign directed shery while increas-
into shmeal and fertilizers including hydrolosate and ing in the JV shery. In 1978, the foreign catch amounted
compost-based products. to 98 percent of the total hake catch in the U.S. manage-
Economic contributions to the Pacic Coast states of hake ment zone. The foreign catch declined to 11 percent of
harvesting/processing vary according to product form and the total by 1988, and in 1989 there was no foreign catch.
harvest/processing mode. Each pound harvested and pro- U.S. shermen harvested the entire annual hake quota in
cessed in headed-and-gutted form contributes about $0.38 1989, eliminating the foreign directed shery, and in 1991
per round pound. For surimi, the state contribution is
between $0.27 and $0.32 per round pound. In 1999, the
hake shery generated an estimated cumulative economic
impact to West Coast states of between $134 and $185
million dollars.
The shery has been multi-national in character, having
been exploited commercially since before 1900 by the U.S.
shing industry and since 1966 by foreign eets. A small
domestic shery has existed for coastal hake since at least
1879. Most catches prior to 1960 were made incidental
to the pursuit of more valuable trawl-caught species and
were either discarded or delivered to reduction plants
producing animal food and shmeal. The average annual
California catch from 1959 to 1966 was 248 tons. Pacific Hake, Merluccius productus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 393
domestic processors were able to process the entire catch allocation agreement was approved by the PFMC, shing
Pacific Hake
thereby eliminating the JV shery. companies with factory trawler permits established the
Pacic Whiting Conservation Cooperative (PWCC). The pri-
The phase out of foreign sheries opened development to
mary role of the PWCC is to allocate the factor trawler
domestic sheries. This took the form of domestic factory
quota between its members. Benets of the PWCC include
trawlers, which catch and process their catch, mother-
more efcient allocation of resources by shing compa-
ships which take sh at sea from catcher vessels, and the
nies, improvements in processing efciency and product
development of shoreside processing plants. Development
quality, and a reduction in waste and bycatch rates rela-
was accelerated by the discovery of enzyme inhibitors
tive to the former “derby” shery in which all vessels
that made it possible to utilize hake for surimi.
competed for a eet-wide quota.
The domestic at-sea and shore-based sheries grew
The rapid development that took place in the 1990s
through the 1990s with the at-sea sector harvest increas-
has resulted in full utilization of the combined U.S. and
ing from 4,700 tons in 1990 to 197,000 in 1991. The Pacic
Canadian hake catch. The 1994 combined catch reached
Fisheries Management Council (PFMC) reduced the at sea
359,000 tons, the largest yield since the inception of the
harvest in following years to allow growth in the shoreside
shery. Since 1994, the total hake harvest has declined
sector. Prior to 1991, shore-based deliveries of Pacic
slightly, as biomass declined from high levels, and aver-
hake were relatively small with an annual harvest of less
aged 312,000 tons from 1996 to 1999.
than 10,000 tons. Between 1985-1991, the shore-based
shery concentrated off northern California with process-
ing plants at Eureka and Crescent City. As the domestic
Status of Biological Knowledge
shoreside shery grew, additional processing plants were
P
opened in Oregon and Washington. Shoreside deliveries acic hake are distributed from the Gulf of Alaska to
increased from 8,115 tons in 1990 to 87,862 in 1998. In the Gulf of California. Four major stocks have been
California, landings have increased from 41 tons in 1980 to identied within this area. The most abundant and widely
about 11,000 tons in 1999. distributed stock (which is the subject of this report)
In the early 1990s, shing seasons began April 15. Since spawns between central California and northern Baja Cali-
1998, PFMC has used a season-ending, forward-counting fornia and is referred to as the “coastal stock.” Two
protocol to estimate the season opening for the shore- of these stocks are generally referred to as the “inside
based sector only (the offshore sector still opens May 15). stocks;” they live and spawn in Puget Sound and the Strait
Using October 15 as the season ending date, the PFMC of Georgia. A fourth major stock occurs off the west coast
estimates daily harvesting and processing capacity and of southern Baja California.
shore-based quotas to determine the season opening date. The hake that spawn in Puget Sound and Strait of Georgia
The greater the quota or the lower the daily capacity, are considered a separate genetic stock from oceanic
the earlier the season opening. Before 1995, the season coastal hake. These hake spawn and live their lives
opened April 15, between 1995 and 1998 the season entirely within Puget Sound, are small in size (14 to 18
opened May 15, (mostly to avoid salmon bycatch), and inches total length), and lack the specic myxosporidian
since 1998 the season has opened June 15. The shift parasite that causes rapid postmortem esh decomposi-
in season opening date has had a signicant effect on tion in coastal stocks. The differences in parasitization
improving economic benets (recovery, quality, price, between inside and offshore stocks indicate the absence
and growth). of interchange between populations.
In 1996, the Makah Tribe in Washington requested an The oceanic coastal stock of adult Pacic hake is migra-
allocation of hake as part of its treaty entitlement. NMFS tory and inhabits the continental slope and shelf within
allocated 15,000 tons of the domestic TAC to the Makahs, the California Current system from Baja California to Brit-
increasing it to 25,000 in 1997 and 1998, and to 32,000 in ish Columbia. It is often classied as a demersal species
1999. The sh are harvested by Makah trawl vessels and (living on or near the sea bed), but its distribution and
delivered to a oating processor mothership. The shery behavior suggests a pelagic existence. It exhibits extreme
is limited to the Makah’s “usual and accustomed” shing night and day movement during spring and summer feed-
grounds off the northern Washington coast. ing migrations as it feeds on a variety of pelagic shes
In 1997, the PFMC adopted a sector allocation formula or zooplankton. It is commonly found at depths of 160
dividing U.S. non-tribal hake harvest guideline between to 1,500 feet but has been found from the surface to
factory trawlers (34 percent), vessels delivering to at-sea 2,600 feet.
processors (24 percent), and vessels delivering to shore- Coastal Pacic hake are pelagic spawners that appear to
based processing plants (42 percent). Shortly after this spawn from January to March. The location of spawning
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
394
appears to center on the Southern California Bight, but increased predation from cannibalism and to increased
Pacific Hake
spawning may take place within an area from San Fran- vulnerability to shing mortality.
cisco to Baja California at depths of 660 to 1,600 feet and When northward-migrating hake inhabit waters overlying
as far as 300 miles offshore. Active spawners aggregate in the continental shelf and slope, they form schools, which
loose, stationary bands that can be up to 150 feet thick. may be characterized as long, narrow bands whose axis
Coastal stock females mature at 16 inches total length is usually oriented parallel to the depth contours. Excep-
or larger, and at weights greater than 0.9 pounds. These tions to this generality are those schools that align per-
minimum sizes are achieved by some three-year-old sh pendicular to the edge of the continental shelf and extend
and most four-year-old sh. Fecundity estimates range offshore at a uniform depth, such that they are high-off
from 80,000 to 500,000 eggs per female, depending on the bottom over the continental slope. School sizes may
body size. The pelagic eggs drift with the ocean currents vary in length from several hundred feet to 12 miles. The
and hatch in about three days. Larval hake are abundant widths of schools have reached 7.5 miles at times. Most
from December through April within 25 miles of the coast schools usually have a vertical height of 20 to 70 feet.
from central California to northern Baja California. Peak During the summer, when feeding adults are distributed
occurrences of eggs and small larvae pinpoint January and over the continental shelf, schools exhibit pronounced
February as the chief spawning months. The majority of movement into midwater associated with nighttime feed-
eggs and larvae are found over the areas of the continental ing activities. Hake feed during the evening on euphausi-
slope where bottom depths ranged from 430 to 1,640 feet. ids, shrimp, and pelagic shes. Vertical movement away
Hake reach about 70 to 75 percent of their maximum from the sea bed occurs at nightfall and descent back
length and about 50 percent of their maximum weight by towards the bottom occurs near dawn. At dawn, coastal
age 4.3 years. As hake get older, differential growth is hake descend and begin to regroup into schools near the
observed between the sexes with females attaining larger sea bed (seven to 70 feet above the ocean oor), usually
lengths and weight at age than males. Average maximum in the same area where they were the day before. The
sizes are 22 inches fork length (FL) and 2.25 pounds for degree to which hake congregate during the day appears
males, and 24 inches FL and three pounds for females. to be related to the type of food that was available
The largest female hake measured off California was 34 during the feeding period. Schools are more dispersed
inches FL. when feeding on sh and other mobile nekton, but more
compact when feeding on euphausiids.
In late winter, following spawning, adult hake migrate
north in deep water overlying the continental slope to the The southward spawning migrations of the adults appears
summer feeding grounds off northern California, Oregon, to occur in November and December, just prior to the
Washington, and Vancouver Island. The peak period of spawning period. Availability of Pacic hake to bottom and
northward migration appears to be in March and April. The midwater trawls off Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver
migration behavior of hake is strongly age dependent, and Island drops sharply in November and is practically nil
inuenced by oceanographic conditions. In warm years, a during winter.
signicant portion (up to 50 percent) of the stock may Hake are a favorite prey for a great many creatures,
move into Canadian waters off Vancouver Island. Large especially marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, por-
adults may travel up to 1,100 miles, while newly mature poises, and small whales. Hake have also been found
hake may travel a maximum of 900 miles from southern
California spawning grounds during the summer feeding
period. Hake caught from Oregon to Vancouver Island
range from 16 to 18 inches FL and are four to 10 years
old. Young-of-the-year are usually concentrated off central
and northern California, and one year old hake are found in
nearshore waters from central California to northern Oregon.
Range extensions to the north occur during El Niños, as
evidenced by reports of whiting from southeast Alaska
during warm water years. During the warm periods expe-
rienced in 1990s, there have been changes in typical pat-
terns of distribution. Spawning activity has been recorded
north of California, and frequent reports of unusual num-
bers of juveniles from Oregon to British Columbia suggest
that juvenile settlement patterns have also shifted north- A catch of Pacific Hake is brought aboard
ward. Because of this, juveniles may be subjected to Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 395
Pacific Hake
18
Commercial Landings
millions of pounds landed
15
1916-1999, Pacific Hake
Data reflects commercial landings
Pacific Hake
12
that occurred at California ports, but
not foreign vessel catches landed
9
outside of California. The reduction
in commercial landings of Pacific
6
Hake in 1960 is due to a change
in the recording method for hake
3
landed for animal feed.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts.
in the stomachs of swordsh, lingcod, soupn sharks, In the 1990s, hake recruitment averaged lower but was
Pacic halibut, electric rays, and an assortment of other less variable than in the 1980s. If this pattern continues,
piscivorous shes. the stock will continue to decline gradually. The most
recent hake assessment projected a moderate decline in
catches in 2001 as the 1994 year class, the most recent
Status of the Population strong-year class, passes out of the population and is
replaced by smaller sized year classes. However, the
T he coastal Pacic hake stock is at moderate abun-
dependence of the hake population on occasional large
dance. Stock biomass increased to a historical high
year classes makes these projections highly uncertain.
of 5.7 million tons in 1987 due to exceptionally large
Widespread changes in California current ecosystem con-
1980 and 1984 year classes, then declined as these year
tribute to that uncertainty. A coastwide U.S.-Canada
classes passed through the population and were replaced
acoustic survey of the hake resource is planned for
by more moderate year classes. The stock has uctuated
summer of 2001.
throughout its history from the irregular occurrences of
strong year classes, which appear about every three or
Management Considerations
four years and remain in the shery for about ve to seven
years. Recruitment is highly variable and appears to be
strongly inuenced by oceanic environmental conditions, See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
especially water temperature at the time of spawning. further information.
Over the past four years, stock size has been stable at
1.7 to 1.8 million tons. The mature female biomass in Lawrence F. Quirollo
1998 is estimated to be 37 percent of an unshed stock. California Department of Fish and Game
Although 1998 stock size is near a historical low, it is close
Revised by:
to average stock size under current harvest policies. The
Vidar G. Wespestad
exploitation rate was below 10 percent prior to 1993, then
Pacic Whiting Conservation Cooperative
increased to 17 percent during 1994-1998. Total U.S. and
Martin W. Dorn
Canadian catches have exceeded the ABC by an average
National Marine Fisheries Service
of 12 percent since 1993 due to disagreement on the
allocation between U.S. and Canadian sheries.
The prospects for the Pacic hake resource in the imme-
diate future are for stable to slightly declining yields,
depending on the timing of the next strong year class. An
assessment survey conducted by the National Marine Fish-
eries Service in 1998 estimated the population biomass at
1.1 million tons, a decline of 15 percent from estimates
made during a previous survey in 1995.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
396
References
Pacific Hake
Bailey, K.M. 1982. The early life history of the Pacic
hake, Merluccius productus, Fish. Bull., U.S. 80:589-598.
Bailey, K.M., R. Francis, and P. Stevens. 1982. The life
history and shery of Pacic hake, Merluccius productus.
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 23:81-92.
Dark, T.A. 1975. Age and growth of Pacic hake, Merluc-
cius productus. Fish. Bull., U.S. 73:336-355.
Dark, T.A. (ed.). 1985. Pacic whiting: the resource, indus-
try, and management history. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(2):1-98.
Dorn, M.W. and R. D. Methot. 1990. Status of the
coastal Pacic whiting resource in 1991. In: Pacic Fishery
Management Council, Status of the Pacic Coast ground-
sh shery through 1991 and recommended acceptable
catches in 1992, p. A1-A44.
Dorn, M.W. 1995. The effects of age composition
and oceanographic conditions on the annual migration
of Pacic whiting, Merluccius productus. CalCOFI Rep.
36:97-105.
Dorn, M.W., M.W. Saunders, C.D. Wilson, M.A. Guttormsen,
K.Cooke, R.Kieser, and M.E. Wilkins. 1999. Status of the
coastal pacic hake/whiting stock in U.S. and Canada in
1998 In: Pacic Fishery Management Council, Status of the
Pacic Coast groundsh shery through 1998 and recom-
mended acceptable catches in 1999.
Larkin, S. and G. Sylvia. 1999. Intrinsic sh characteristics
and intraseason production efciency: A management
level bioeconomic analysis of a commercial shery.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81:29-43.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 397
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Bocaccio/
Bank 5 Blackgill 2; 5 Chilipepper 3 Bocaccio 4; 5 Chilipepper 5 Shortbelly 5 Widow 5: 6 Yellowtail 5 Unspecified
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,918,952
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,774,026
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,242,754
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,398,109
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,633,077
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,761,658
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,312,014
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,096,622
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,742,885
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,488,621
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,540,969
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,390,604
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,419,909
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,036,409
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,225,424
1931 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,277,688
1932 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,636,319
1933 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,787,744
1934 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,603,536
1935 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,831,174
1936 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,603,904
1937 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,291,214
1938 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,637,137
1939 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,333,126
1940 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,570,636
1941 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,405,622
1942 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,423,440
1943 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,762,192
1944 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,422,230
1945 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 13,286,076
1946 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,161,222
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,498,584
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,507,205
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,962,267
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,115,102
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,993,502
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,727,521
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 12,228,663
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 12,640,729
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 12,681,697
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 14,943,515
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 16,091,279
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 17,842,163
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 15,281,282
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 13,713,886
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,830,762
1962 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,834,393
1963 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,749,460
1964 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,117,912
1965 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,392,424
1966 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,063,592
1967 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,798,951
1968 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,444,493
1969 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,227,451
1970 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,686,844
1971 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,168,746
1972 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 16,421,252
1973 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 22,052,455
1974 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 21,498,984
1975 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 23,624,150
1976 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 24,603,179
1977 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 20,900,305
1978 832,144 232,341 ---- 6,611,589 2,613,559 7,195 1,167,141 805,076 20,510,364
1979 121,041 11,798 8,935,837 3,766,632 2,701,208 10,000 4,833,977 656,505 19,632,482
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
398
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Bocaccio/
Bank 5 Blackgill 2; 5 Chilipepper 3 Bocaccio 4; 5 Chilipepper 5 Shortbelly 5 Widow 5: 6 Yellowtail 5 Unspecified
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 158,725 976,735 10,115,735 9,111,594 6,248,294 6,567 11,780,969 595,152 25,692,416
1981 2,202,588 2,104,908 7,831,367 9,816,582 5,087,316 609 11,071,879 862,289 27,295,022
1982 2,210,769 2,924,400 10,604,864 11,774,442 4,131,231 14,416 23,856,732 1,632,561 19,827,921
1983 2,613,466 2,023,211 9,841,652 11,118,007 4,639,861 7,654 8,781,700 1,956,643 19,599,497
1984 4,046,635 1,187,141 7,196,636 8,296,616 5,489,532 5,092 6,565,481 1,931,196 18,181,423
1985 2,760,142 1,420,096 6,299,317 4,799,757 5,669,493 62,749 7,101,038 1,381,153 14,383,905
1986 3,940,317 1,973,521 6,766,491 4,630,024 4,829,518 42,601 5,499,235 1,335,237 13,815,096
1987 2,922,307 1,736,977 5,029,313 5,420,165 3,759,112 1,811 5,655,481 834,014 15,816,720
1988 2,361,829 2,336,632 4,023,966 4,143,162 4,608,400 567 4,051,348 490,820 13,090,228
1989 1,585,979 1,133,985 4,110,006 5,166,105 6,437,291 4,215 4,828,775 1,978,450 15,358,303
1990 1,598,223 1,358,878 3,853,439 4,415,613 5,678,528 13,873 4,929,551 1,985,856 16,036,264
1991 1,595,339 827,030 4,122,938 2,997,035 6,502,562 7,427 2,928,155 1,412,624 11,326,256
1992 1,165,990 1,785,896 ---- 3,237,769 5,626,573 1,568 2,525,230 1,604,573 8,613,030
1993 758,709 883,202 ---- 3,031,592 5,135,472 5,299 2,655,014 645,218 7,177,482
1994 728,970 855,640 ---- 2,168,035 4,043,163 10,619 2,031,959 723,745 4,329,766
1995 957,140 772,323 ---- 1,604,367 4,406,698 25,169 3,853,755 684,933 4,329,467
1996 1,245,261 815,583 ---- 1,050,403 3,951,518 70,953 3,023,829 596,949 3,851,420
1997 937,738 595,059 ---- 707,066 4,468,794 134,178 2,959,535 925,866 3,859,850
1998 1,231,818 503,921 ---- 339,060 3,115,112 39,962 2,018,093 969,512 3,019,099
1999 72,213 120,773 ---- 160,987 2,082,043 17,683 1,390,413 210,986 639,655
- - - - Landing data not available.
1
Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 399
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Sole 6 Sole 6
Dover English Petrale Rex Dover English Petrale Rex
Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1980 18,046,924 4,573,524 2,350,525 1,899,609
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1981 20,418,283 3,773,262 1,775,054 1,727,754
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1982 22,089,490 3,221,471 1,741,721 1,466,411
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1983 18,913,890 2,607,636 1,287,287 1,410,762
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1984 21,563,452 2,098,964 1,301,912 1,252,976
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1985 26,499,393 2,341,942 1,888,394 1,979,244
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1986 24,365,419 2,385,989 1,600,400 1,856,179
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1987 23,723,648 2,914,768 1,815,856 1,818,777
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1988 18,071,140 2,351,350 1,752,940 1,854,324
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1989 17,027,320 2,321,586 1,853,165 1,651,684
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1990 13,933,132 1,967,050 1,495,680 1,226,691
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1991 17,021,228 1,789,777 1,619,211 1,369,558
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1992 19,054,146 1,268,119 1,172,949 970,859
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1993 14,426,111 1,044,544 1,021,859 1,007,925
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1994 9,888,498 1,019,307 1,211,845 1,256,861
1931 ---- ---- 1,375,535 831,240 1995 13,417,995 1,101,103 1,305,154 1,517,177
1932 ---- ---- 1,227,223 555,558 1996 14,107,539 1,281,212 1,803,549 1,097,983
1933 ---- ---- 953,424 559,743 1997 11,693,676 1,430,131 1,830,750 1,000,369
1934 ---- 5,280,154 2,456,989 715,498 1998 7,874,411 941,187 1,042,029 637,697
1935 ---- 6,035,966 1,988,325 631,432 1999 8,417,498 849,836 1,249,628 629,453
1936 ---- 6,286,867 1,126,527 515,648
1937 ---- 5,750,060 1,802,721 451,497 - - - - Landing data not available.
1938 ---- 4,953,934 2,026,166 515,254
1
1939 ---- 6,270,424 2,558,461 667,496 Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category
1940 ---- 5,056,535 1,575,489 593,359 landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
1941 ---- 3,278,638 893,426 371,130 Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
1942 ---- 2,020,562 611,580 387,545 Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
1943 ---- 3,092,170 918,925 495,672 Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
1944 ---- 3,066,865 1,123,986 413,286 Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts.
1945 ---- 5,857,240 1,232,801 442,179 Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin,
1946 ---- 7,176,727 2,666,285 570,418 NMFS, and DFG.
6
1947 ---- 8,379,502 2,947,177 842,968 Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
1948 7,234,438 8,171,645 5,089,684 893,248 Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabu-
1949 7,890,073 5,713,258 4,952,156 982,307 lated separately when they became sufficiently important.
9
1950 9,548,379 8,080,693 4,366,598 1,068,456 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.10 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
10
1951 8,621,238 5,631,659 2,726,304 1,013,890 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
1952 11,748,215 4,911,468 2,893,619 1,185,451
1953 8,904,367 4,099,106 3,350,163 1,020,877
1954 9,930,438 3,748,245 4,171,901 1,183,538
1955 8,185,501 4,134,779 3,619,530 1,094,437
1956 8,268,424 3,826,297 2,830,158 1,147,523
1957 7,932,137 4,819,872 3,456,819 1,234,494
1958 8,053,040 5,150,234 3,157,678 1,422,891
1959 7,327,420 4,617,491 2,632,451 1,443,005
1960 9,184,814 2,375,383 2,475,661 1,107,372
1961 7,826,617 3,645,918 3,390,739 1,208,829
1962 8,581,091 4,206,048 3,041,164 1,408,245
1963 9,781,732 4,254,545 3,317,948 1,565,672
1964 9,265,238 4,592,752 2,697,670 1,410,647
1965 10,759,963 4,892,391 2,662,257 1,490,475
1966 10,311,633 4,844,868 2,927,190 1,635,399
1967 7,215,037 5,821,909 2,768,537 1,766,038
1968 8,535,521 5,811,438 2,946,605 1,930,583
1969 12,918,982 3,804,047 2,867,064 2,259,165
1970 15,160,886 3,282,316 3,415,708 1,741,479
1971 14,248,719 2,964,015 3,704,384 1,467,875
1972 22,081,697 3,001,965 3,575,245 1,661,610
1973 22,485,725 3,209,733 2,876,989 1,584,734
1974 19,087,485 3,813,499 3,430,685 1,381,737
1975 22,688,520 4,314,262 3,269,998 1,646,421
1976 22,756,812 4,282,998 2,977,557 2,012,820
1977 21,923,851 3,403,057 2,200,713 1,548,006
1978 20,770,086 3,974,782 2,634,044 1,537,347
1979 23,394,091 5,006,960 3,061,810 1,914,805
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
400
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Pacific Longspine Shortspine Unspecified
Cowcod 5 Hake 7 All Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5
Sablefish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- 189,219 83,623 ---- ---- ---- ----
1917 ---- 254,331 909,846 ---- ---- ---- ----
1918 ---- 193,018 498,937 ---- ---- ---- ----
1919 ---- 133,181 334,950 ---- ---- ---- ----
1920 ---- 141,981 781,032 ---- ---- ---- ----
1921 ---- 90,218 1,022,642 ---- ---- ---- ----
1922 ---- 74,516 268,554 ---- ---- ---- ----
1923 ---- 78,969 538,292 ---- ---- ---- ----
1924 ---- 60,780 933,310 ---- ---- ---- ----
1925 ---- 22,017 722,472 ---- ---- ---- ----
1926 ---- 58,335 175,642 ---- ---- ---- ----
1927 ---- 84,553 992,654 ---- ---- ---- ----
1928 ---- 108,648 916,955 ---- ---- ---- ----
1929 ---- 145,669 1,439,408 ---- ---- ---- ----
1930 ---- 56,088 1,359,147 ---- ---- ---- ----
1931 ---- 12,501 1,021,215 ---- ---- ---- ----
1932 ---- 29,001 975,373 ---- ---- ---- ----
1933 ---- 37,539 1,332,573 ---- ---- ---- ----
1934 ---- 56,901 2,117,048 ---- ---- ---- ----
1935 ---- 73,843 2,848,672 ---- ---- ---- ----
1936 ---- 50,791 1,035,530 ---- ---- ---- ----
1937 ---- 63,454 733,499 ---- ---- ---- ----
1938 ---- 36,428 415,836 ---- ---- ---- ----
1939 ---- 13,661 767,044 ---- ---- ---- ----
1940 ---- 18,049 573,785 ---- ---- ---- ----
1941 ---- 15,044 536,540 ---- ---- ---- ----
1942 ---- 41,981 1,972,522 ---- ---- ---- ----
1943 ---- 10,505 3,205,374 ---- ---- ---- ----
1944 ---- 4,751 4,116,451 ---- ---- ---- ----
1945 ---- 2,415 6,264,397 ---- ---- ---- ----
1946 ---- 550 2,656,873 ---- ---- ---- ----
1947 ---- 876 902,110 ---- ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- 4,600 2,068,439 ---- ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- 1,535 1,743,372 ---- ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- 500 1,584,301 ---- ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- 24,972 2,585,513 ---- ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- 6,145 1,343,867 ---- ---- ---- ----
1953 ---- 103,926 1,655,653 ---- ---- ---- ----
1954 ---- 611,522 2,357,531 ---- ---- ---- ----
1955 ---- 956,545 2,065,737 ---- ---- ---- ----
1956 ---- 1,376,217 2,868,407 ---- ---- ---- ----
1957 ---- 1,150,006 2,199,782 ---- ---- ---- ----
1958 ---- 1,135,138 1,732,992 ---- ---- ---- ----
1959 ---- 1,097,069 1,938,356 ---- ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- 325,088 2,419,024 ---- ---- ---- ----
1961 ---- 3,275 1,616,528 ---- ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- 78,530 2,015,237 ---- ---- ---- ----
1963 ---- 139,699 1,809,349 ---- ---- ---- ----
1964 ---- 111,529 2,463,452 ---- ---- ---- ----
1965 ---- 119,255 2,863,550 ---- ---- ---- ----
1966 ---- 69,002 3,215,939 ---- ---- ---- ----
1967 ---- 14,430 3,798,493 ---- ---- ---- ----
1968 ---- 6,494 3,219,455 ---- ---- ---- ----
1969 ---- 27,047 4,156,846 ---- ---- ---- ----
1970 ---- 9,775 4,428,077 ---- ---- ---- ----
1971 ---- 34,685 4,424,463 ---- ---- ---- ----
1972 ---- 10,525 8,395,714 ---- ---- ---- ----
1973 ---- 34,175 8,550,071 ---- ---- ---- ----
1974 ---- 32,210 12,038,542 ---- ---- ---- ----
1975 ---- 38,508 14,131,964 ---- ---- ---- ----
1976 ---- 28,521 13,331,261 ---- ---- ---- ----
1977 ---- 86,813 13,315,975 ---- ---- ----
1978 24,653 747,709 17,715,724 2,668,993 432,833 2,229,418 6,742
1979 ---- 1,836,264 28,573,600 4,095,918 310,877 3,755,624 29,417
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 401
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Pacific Longspine Shortspine Unspecified
Cowcod 5 Hake 7 All Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5
Sablefish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 32,435 1,527,992 10,284,930 3,411,449 699,083 2,339,704 372,662
1981 190,424 1,467,276 14,727,481 3,805,719 238,829 3,542,348 24,542
1982 141,863 2,251,253 20,996,253 4,506,242 842,307 3,651,959 11,976
1983 166,142 2,160,904 14,613,392 3,596,221 436,599 3,124,112 35,510
1984 352,869 5,147,912 10,633,321 4,695,974 589,932 4,089,042 17,000
1985 294,987 6,604,729 11,305,795 6,485,049 1,140,992 5,315,642 28,415
1986 339,676 6,574,845 13,585,936 6,501,347 1,306,111 5,138,999 56,237
1987 198,967 9,959,960 9,585,601 6,438,777 1,790,910 2,872,981 1,774,886
1988 209,633 14,401,883 8,360,454 10,008,902 5,587,483 4,310,853 110,566
1989 96,880 16,088,904 8,715,410 11,906,498 4,911,249 6,905,965 89,284
1990 74,945 12,166,681 8,042,899 11,898,501 7,600,557 4,243,813 54,131
1991 48,244 15,196,946 7,300,661 6,329,277 4,085,076 2,192,086 52,115
1992 153,820 10,868,278 8,078,145 9,654,483 6,344,552 3,228,425 81,506
1993 110,041 6,834,597 5,676,270 9,182,924 5,637,099 3,471,866 73,959
1994 76,102 7,964,783 4,784,967 7,289,241 4,503,103 2,629,627 156,511
1995 145,648 9,018,285 6,185,954 8,016,679 5,681,269 2,122,323 213,087
1996 105,483 6,395,184 6,998,149 7,309,101 5,353,926 1,713,345 241,830
1997 117,747 14,028,191 6,481,886 6,194,508 4,415,693 1,531,749 247,066
1998 34,188 12,617,919 3,155,536 4,173,425 2,667,011 1,399,066 107,348
1999 27,157 2,883,014 4,342,086 3,296,044 2,255,859 952,219 87,966
- - - - Landing data not available.
1
Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
402
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Rockfish1
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Canary/
Bolina 3 Deep 9 Gopher 10 Red 3 Rosefish 9 Small 3 Black/Blue 11 Vermilion 11
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1931 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1932 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1933 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1934 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1935 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1936 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1937 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1938 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1939 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1940 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1941 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1942 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1943 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1944 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1945 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1946 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1963 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1964 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1965 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1966 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1967 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1968 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1969 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1970 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1971 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1972 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1973 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1974 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1975 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1976 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1977 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1978 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1979 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 403
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Rockfish1
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Canary/
Bolina 3 Deep 9 Gopher 10 Red 3 Rosefish 9 Small 3 Black/Blue 11 Vermilion 11
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 39,213 ---- ---- 263,829 ---- 35,608 ---- ----
1981 ---- ---- ---- 208 ---- ---- ---- ----
1982 58,421 36,025 ---- 250,750 361,583 3,487 ---- ----
1983 94,343 50 53 2,203,793 1,077,155 86,560 ---- ----
1984 84,585 405 26,103 3,834,957 1,343,759 356,287 ---- ----
1985 84,095 40,430 43,811 243,999 1,593,975 549,829 ---- ----
1986 95,834 681 72,714 2,090,707 1,359,133 560,443 ---- ----
1987 96,714 1,876 95,702 1,670,231 1,143,584 620,535 ---- ----
1988 163,983 ---- 156,017 2,045,468 911,889 1,016,713 ---- ----
1989 168,133 ---- 158,110 2,623,254 803,828 687,511 ---- ----
1990 135,187 578 147,435 2,804,469 1,028,221 1,030,960 ---- ----
1991 203,945 257 183,231 2,326,611 910,364 808,536 ---- ----
1992 162,071 1,063 172,256 168,459 854,455 497,502 ---- ----
1993 102,927 500 170,079 1,274,651 756,903 774,437 ---- ----
1994 73,732 2,368 147,069 1,354,763 549,425 1,099,405 10,309 147
1995 56,230 36,572 167,911 1,044,059 650,930 924,333 384 227
1996 97,338 6,138 221,345 1,225,811 594,180 1,210,981 2,226 33
1997 126,021 4,332 141,643 850,384 773,483 1,487,399 8,192 58
1998 125,799 379 135,196 710,134 2,761,055 1,236,840 2,695 ----
1999 108,878 ---- 28,375 242,840 409,839 288,096 487 164
- - - - Landing data not available.
1
Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
404
Salmonids:
Overview coastal coho (threatened), southern Oregon/northern Cali-
Salmonids: Overview
fornia coho (threatened), southern California steelhead
(endangered), northern California steelhead (threatened),
C alifornia’s salmonid populations were a vital compo- and Central Valley, central California, and south-central
nent of American Indian society long before European California steelhead (threatened). In addition, three ESUs
settlers arrived, and they still play a signicant role in are also listed under the California Endangered Species
today’s coastal communities. Salmon provide a living for Act (CESA): Sacramento River winter chinook (endan-
commercial shermen, generate recreational marine and gered), Central Valley spring chinook (threatened), and
freshwater angling opportunities, support tourism within central California coastal coho (endangered).
our coastal and riverside communities, fulll Native Amer-
California’s main salmon conservation management objec-
ican cultural and economic needs, and are important
tives are as follows:
elements of California’s highly diverse marine and
• Klamath River fall chinook: a minimum adult natural
freshwater ecosystems.
escapement rate of 33-34 percent, with a minimum
There are seven salmonid species in California. The Cali-
spawner escapement of 35,000 adults in natural areas
fornia sheries primarily harvest chinook or king salmon
is required.
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), which is the salmonid most
• Sacramento River fall chinook: an escapement goal of
often encountered by shermen. Coho or silver salmon
122,000 to 180,000 hatchery and natural adult sh
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) are observed in small numbers
• Sacramento River winter chinook: the ESA jeopardy
but are presently under a no-retention catch policy. Occa-
standard is a 31 percent increase in the adult spawner
sionally in odd-numbered years, pink salmon (Oncorhyn-
replacement rate relative to the observed mean rate
chus gorbuscha) are landed. No sheries exist for
for 1989 to 1993.
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and chum salmon
(Oncorhynchus keta) due to their limited numbers in • Central Valley spring chinook: the Central Valley
California waters. Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are spring chinook population is under an NMFS nding of
caught recreationally in streams and rivers from the “no jeopardy,” and it also benets from Sacramento
Central Valley basin north to the California/Oregon River winter chinook conservation measures.
border. Small numbers of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus
• Coastal California chinook: the ESA jeopardy standard
clarkii) are found in northern coastal streams, lagoons,
limits the ocean harvest rate for age-four Klamath
and estuaries.
River fall chinook to 17 percent.
Several government agencies are involved in the manage-
• California coastal coho: the ESA objective requires no
ment of California salmon. The Pacic Fishery Manage-
retention of coho in any California shery and limits
ment Council (PFMC) manages sport and commercial sh-
marine shery impacts to no more than 13 percent,
eries in the Exclusive Economic Zone (three to 200 miles
as measured by projected impacts on Rogue/Klamath
offshore), the California Fish and Game Commission (FGC)
hatchery coho.
manages inland sport and ocean sport sheries in state
• Steelhead: shing regulations were revamped to
waters (to 3 miles offshore), and the California Depart-
enact time and area closures, catch and release sh-
ment Fish and Game (DFG) manages commercial sheries
ing, or retention of hatchery steelhead only (marked
in state waters via a delegation from the California Leg-
with an adipose n clip).
islature. California continues to have productive commer-
cial and recreational sheries due to the various con-
servation measures enacted by the PFMC, FGC, and
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). These measures
allow for reduced harvest levels on Central Valley and
Klamath River fall chinook stocks, while safeguarding
the recovery of endangered or threatened chinook and
coho populations.
While Central Valley and Klamath River fall chinook
stocks continue to be healthy, three salmonid species
and ten distinct populations, or Evolutionary Signicant
Units (ESU), are listed under the federal Endangered Spe-
cies Act (ESA): Sacramento River winter chinook (endan-
gered), Central Valley spring chinook (threatened), Cal-
Coho Salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch
ifornia coastal chinook (threatened), central California
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 405
The annual economic value of California’s commercial Traditional approaches for identifying and solving envi-
Salmonids: Overview
salmon shery from 1996 to 2000 ranged from 7.7 to ronmental issues, while still important, must evolve to
20.9 million dollars to the state’s economy, as assessed be effective with today’s complex problems. California’s
by the PFMC’S Fishery Economic Assessment Model. The salmon sheries have been increasingly regulated to
PFMC’s economic estimate for California’s recreational rebuild threatened or endangered populations, to equita-
ocean salmon shery ranged from 13.9 to 22.5 million bly allocate available sh among stakeholders, and to
dollars for the same period. A 1985 economic analysis achieve natural and hatchery spawning escapement goals.
estimated that steelhead shing in the Sacramento River Freshwater habitat restoration and revised water man-
and tributaries directly generated around 7.2 million dol- agement policies are necessary to return natural salmon
lars. Using the above estimates, all salmon sheries gener- production to former levels. A collaborative combination
ate approximately 28.8 to 50.6 million dollars annually to of marine and freshwater measures is needed to ensure
the California economy. The indirect economic benets that salmonid populations will thrive and provide shing
are difcult to separate and quantify, but it is clear opportunities, economic benets, and ecological value for
that California’s salmonid stocks are a signicant revenue all Californians, now and in the future.
source for the state.
As the population of California continues to increase, Scott Barrow and Marc Heisdorf
our relationships with our natural resources also change. California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
406
Pacific Salmon
C alifornia’s salmon resources are many things to the was stimulated by the canning industry; the rst salmon
Pacific Salmon
people of California. They are a source of highly nutri- cannery on the Pacic coast started operations on the
tious food for the general population and an important Sacramento River in 1864. By 1880, there were 20 can-
source of income for commercial shermen. Recreational neries operating in the Sacramento-San Joaquin river
anglers value them for their excellent sporting qualities system and intensied shing efforts provided them with
and American Indians celebrate them in annual events an ample supply of salmon for processing. The shery
welcoming the returning adults. Salmon play a key role, reached its peak in 1882 when about 12 million pounds
and occupy a unique niche, within the State’s highly were landed. Shortly thereafter, the shery collapsed due
diverse marine and inland ecosystems. They are a high to a sudden decline in salmon stocks caused primarily
level predator, but also contribute to the sustenance of by the pollution and degradation of rivers by mining, agri-
other high level predators. In addition, their spawned-out culture, and timber operations combined with increased
carcasses enhance the nutrient base of their ancestral landings. By 1919, the last cannery had shut down and
spawning streams. Like other anadromous species, their one by one, the rivers were closed to commercial shing.
survival depends on the quantity and quality of fresh Legislation closed the Mad River shery in 1919, the Eel
water spawning and rearing habitat available to them. River shery in 1922, and sheries (including tribal) on
The destruction of that habitat over the past 150 years the Smith and Klamath rivers in 1933. In 1957, the last
has resulted in many naturally spawning populations of inland commercial shing area open to the general citi-
salmon becoming so diminished that, in some cases, they zens of California (Sacramento-San Joaquin rivers) was
face biological extinction. We provide a brief overview of permanently closed.
the importance and role of salmon in the management of The commercial ocean troll shery began in Monterey Bay
California’s living marine shery resources. during the 1880s. These early shers trolled for salmon
using small sailboats that supported two hand rods, one
over each side with one hook and leader attached to
History of the Fishery each line. The leader was approximately 30 feet long
O
and carried a lead sinker midway between the main line
f the ve species of Pacic salmon found on the
and the lure. Circa 1908, several Sacramento River sher-
West Coast, chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and
men transported their powered gillnet boats to Monterey
coho (O. kisutch) are most frequently encountered off
Bay and began trolling for salmon. These boats were
California. Small numbers of pink salmon (O. gorbuscha)
a great improvement over the sailboats, but were still
are landed on occasion, mainly in odd-numbered years.
small compared to present standards. The shery grew to
Chum salmon (O. keta) and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) are
approximately 200 boats and by 1916, had expanded north
rarely seen in California.
to Fort Bragg, Eureka, and Crescent City.
Salmon sheries existed in California long before European
During the 1920s and 1930s, a typical salmon troller shed
settlers made their rst appearance in the state circa
four to nine lines that each carried ve or more hooks
1775. Harvests of Central Valley salmon by American Indi-
with up to 30 pounds of lead attached to keep the line at
ans may have exceeded 8.5 million pounds annually. In
the proper depth. Pulling weights, lines, and salmon onto
northern coastal areas, native peoples subsisted primarily
a moving boat by hand was a backbreaking job. Power
on salmon. Not only did salmon form the bulk of their
gurdies were soon developed to pull the lines and, by
diet – a family might eat up to 2,000 pounds of sh in a
the late 1940s, most of the professional salmon trollers
year – but it was also used as barter with other tribes.
Salmon was consumed fresh or dried and smoked for later
use throughout the year. The sh were of such signicance
to these early shers that ceremonies and rituals honoring
their existence and importance were created. Traditional
shing methods included the use of gill and dip nets,
shing spears, and communal sh dams.
Commercial salmon shing in California began in the early
1850s, coincidental with the massive inow of miners into
the gold country. By 1860, these gillnet salmon sheries
were well established in Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay, and
the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The shery
were using them. The shery changed little until the mid-
gradually spread to include rivers north of San Francisco,
although the Sacramento-San Joaquin shery
Chinook Salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
remained the largest. Growth of this shery Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 407
Commercial Landings
Pacific Salmon
16
1916-1999, All Salmon
14
Catch Data includes salmon
Total Commercial Salmon
millions of pounds landed
taken in the ocean, and coastal
12
rivers including the Sacramento
10
and Klamath. The Klamath River
commercial fishery closed after
8
1933; and the Sacramento
6
commercial fishery closed after
1959. Coho were no longer
4
permitted for take after 1992.
2
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
16 450
Recfreational Landings By Species
14
millions of pounds landed
400
number of fish landed
12 350
River and Ocean
300
10
250
8
200
6
150
4
100
2
50
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
River Salmon Coho Salmon
Ocean Salmon Chinook Salmon
Commercial Catch 1947-1999 , River and Ocean Recreational Catch 1960-1999 , By Species
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts. Catch Data Data Source: DFG, Ocean Salmon Project. Differentiation by salmon species (chinook
includes salmon taken in the ocean, and coastal rivers including the Sacramento or coho) was not reported prior to 1962. Coho were no longer permitted for take
and Klamath. The Klamath River commercial fishery closed after 1933; and the after 1992.
Sacramento commercial fishery closed after 1959. Coho were no longer permitted for
take after 1992.
1400
450
Commercial Landings By Species
400
1200
thousands of fish landed
number of fish landed
350
1000
300
All Salmon
800
250
200
600
150
400
100
200
50
0 1960 0
1970 1980 1990 1999 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Coho Salmon
Chinook Salmon
Recreational Catch 1960-1999 , All Salmon
Commercial Catch 1960-1999 , By Salmon Species
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
Data Source: DFG Ocean Salmon Project. Coho were no longer permitted for take
after 1992.
1940s. After the end of World War II, a signicant increase adequate ocean-going boats, but most used small sport-
in shing effort occurred in conjunction with improved type boats that could be conveniently towed on a trailer.
transportation and a rebound in salmon populations. In Today’s salmon troller still uses the basic shing tech-
1935, an estimated 570 trollers were active in the shery; niques developed during the 1940s, including powered
by 1947 the eet had nearly doubled to 1,100 vessels. gurdies and four to six main trolling lines. Now, however,
During the 1970s, the salmon eet grew to almost 5,000 the vessels are also equipped with various electronic
vessels and included many summer shers who had other devices that greatly aid in nding and staying on the sh.
jobs during the remainder of the year. Some of these Radio communications are possible among several vessels
shers were serious about commercial shing and had simultaneously over large distances. Highly sensitive sonar
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
408
equipment aids the troller in nding the salmon or baitsh Between 1947 and 1990, the sport industry contributed
Pacific Salmon
schools and in pinpointing the depth at which to position about 17 percent to the total salmon catch annually in Cal-
lures. Precise vessel positioning is made possible through ifornia. During the last decade, however, the sport shery
the use of global positioning systems. It is easy today has accounted for about 31 percent of the total landings
to replicate a troll path or “tack” within a few feet of due to increased regulation of the commercial shery.
a previous or suggested path. Collectively, these instru- The catch has also been more evenly distributed between
ments have probably more than doubled the efciency of CPFVs and private skiff anglers. Before the 1990s, CPFVs
the modern troller compared to 70 years ago. accounted for more than 65 percent of the salmon
catch; during the 1990s, CPFVs landed 51 percent of the
Estimates of commercial salmon catches are available in
total sport catch. The highest sport landings occurred
one form or another for years as early as 1874. In 1952,
in 1995 when sport anglers landed a record 397,200 chi-
DFG began a systematic sampling of commercial ocean
nook salmon; the lowest landings during the last 30
salmon landings. During the 1960s and 1970s, the industry
years occurred in 1983, following the extreme 1982-1983
enjoyed relatively high and consistent harvests, mainly of
El Niño event.
chinook, averaging about seven million pounds dressed
weight. The following two decades produced much During the 1990s, a shing technique known as mooching
more variable catches. The largest commercial landings gained popularity among salmon sport anglers in Califor-
observed in California occurred in 1988 when more than nia. Mooching is generally used when salmon are feeding
1.3 million chinook (14.4 million pounds) and 51,000 on forage sh such as anchovies or herring in fairly shal-
coho (319,000 pounds) were landed. The lowest landings low, nearshore areas. Mooching differs from trolling in that
occurred in 1992, an El Niño year, when only 163,400 the bait is drifted to resemble dead or wounded prey
chinook (1.6 million pounds) and 2,500 coho (11,300 instead of being pulled through the water to simulate live
pounds) were taken in the commercial shery. Although swimming prey. When trolling, the hook generally sets
oceanic and in-river conditions play a major role in salmon itself as the salmon attacks the moving prey whereas
catches, variation among years can also be attributed to during mooching, line is fed out to the salmon when it
changes in shery regulations; since 1988, progressively strikes to encourage the salmon to swallow the bait and
more restrictive regulations have been placed on the sh- hook. Thus more salmon are gut-hooked when caught by
ery to protect salmon stocks of special concern. mooching. Onboard observations conducted by the depart-
ment’s Ocean Salmon Project (OSP) on commercial pas-
The state’s jurisdiction over tribal commercial shing in
senger shing vessels during 1993-1995 found that 60 per-
the Klamath Basin was challenged in 1969 when a Yurok
cent of the sublegal salmon (<20 inches total length)
sherman had his gillnets conscated for shing on the
caught via mooching were hooked in the guts or gills.
lower Klamath River. After years in the lower courts, the
Since studies have found that 80 to 90 percent of sublegal
First District Court of Appeals decided the issue in 1975
salmon hooked in the gut or gills die, there was concern
and found that the right of a tribal member to sh on a
that this new shing technique could seriously impact
reservation was created by presidential executive order,
stocks of special concern. Beginning in September 1997,
which was derived from statute and thus not subject to
all sport anglers mooching with bait were required to
state regulation. In 1977, the Bureau of Indian Affairs
use circle hooks to reduce the hooking mortality on all
(BIA) took over the management of tribal reservation
released salmon. Studies conducted by OSP during 1995
sheries in the Klamath Basin and the lower 20 miles
through 1997 found that the use of circle hooks signi-
of the Klamath River was opened to tribal gillnet shing
cantly reduced the hooking mortality on sublegal salmon.
for subsistence and commercial harvest; however in 1978,
the BIA closed the shery. The so-called conservation
moratorium remained in effect until 1987 when the BIA
Salmon Management History
reopened commercial shing by American Indians on the
I
lower Klamath River. In 1993, the Department of the Inte- n 1948, the Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission (PMFC)
rior determined that the Yurok and Hoopa Valley Indian was formed by the states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon,
tribes possessed a federally reserved right to harvest Idaho and California. A primary objective of the compact
50 percent of the total available harvest of Klamath was to make better use of the marine resources shared by
Basin salmon. the member states. Prior to that time, there was minimal
Ocean sport shing for salmon became popular with coordination of marine shing regulations between the
the development of the commercial passenger shing states. For example, in 1947 California had a 25-inch
vessel (CPFV) industry after World War II. In 1962, the minimum size limit and an April 1 to September 15 season
department expanded its dockside monitoring to include for both chinook and coho. Washington and Oregon both
recreational landings (private skiffs and charterboats). had a 27-inch limit and year-round season for chinook and
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 409
a July 1 to November 15 season for coho. Washington had salmon shery. This was done to increase prots of indi-
Pacific Salmon
an 18-inch limit for coho, while Oregon had no size limit vidual shermen and to reduce overall shery impacts
for the species. The rst commercial salmon recommen- on the resource. In 1983, a limited-entry program was
dation of the PMFC was a 26-inch total length minimum implemented that capped the shery at just over 4,600
size and March 15 to October 31 maximum season length commercial salmon vessels.
for chinook. For coho the recommended season was June In 1989, Sacramento River winter-run chinook was listed
15 to October 31 except that California could open May under the California and federal endangered species acts.
1 provided it retained its 25-inch minimum size limit for This, and subsequent listings, added another dimension to
the species. For many years the states uniformly adopted salmon management. The ESA requires that NMFS assess
the 26-inch standard and an April 15 opening date for the impacts of ocean sheries on listed salmon popula-
commercial chinook shing with a general September 30 tions and develop standards that avoid the likelihood of
closing date. The coho season opening was June 15 in both jeopardizing their continued existence. As more salmon
Oregon and Washington with no, or a very low, minimum populations have become listed, the ESA “jeopardy
size limit. California retained its 25-inch coho standard standards” have become a dominant factor in shaping
until about 1970 when it was dropped to 22 inches and the ocean sheries.
season opening date delayed until May 15.
NMFS has concluded that the harvest of the relatively
In 1976, the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Man- abundant Central Valley fall chinook stocks could continue
agement Act (Act) established the Exclusive Economic at reduced levels without jeopardizing the recovery of
Zone and the authority of the Secretary of Commerce listed chinook and coho populations. The California Fish
to manage sheries covered under federal shery manage- and Game Commission, PFMC and NMFS have implemented
ment plans from 3 to 200 miles offshore. The Act created various protective regulations to reduce shery impacts
regional shery management councils to develop shery on California populations of Central Valley winter and
management plans (FMPs) and recommend shing regula- spring chinook, and coastal chinook and coho, all of which
tions to the states, tribes, and the National Marine Fisher- are listed. The PFMC began in 1992 to severely curtail
ies Service (NMFS). It also created the Pacic Fishery the ocean harvest of coho salmon in California due to the
Management Council (PFMC) that had management author- depressed condition of most coastal stocks. Following the
ity over the federal sheries off the coasts of Washington, federal listing of California coho stocks in 1996 and 1997,
Oregon and California. Representation on the PFMC cur- NMFS extended the protective measures to a complete
rently includes the chief shery ofcials of California, prohibition of coho retention off California.
Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, the NMFS, a Tribal repre-
Although not listed under the ESA, Klamath River fall chi-
sentative, and eight knowledgeable private citizens. The
nook salmon have continued to play an important role in
PFMC receives advice from a Salmon Technical Team and
shaping ocean shing seasons. Ocean harvests of chinook
an advisory panel of various industry, tribal, and envi-
must be constrained to meet the spawning escapement
ronmental representatives. The PFMC’s salmon plan was
goal of the Klamath River fall chinook and to provide
developed in 1977 and was the rst FMP developed by the
for the federally reserved shing rights of the Yurok and
organization. The PFMC annually develops management
Hoopa Valley Indian tribes.
measures that establish shing areas, seasons, quotas,
legal gear, possession and landing restrictions, and mini-
mum lengths for salmon taken in federal waters off Wash-
Status of Biological Knowledge
ington, Oregon, and California. The management mea-
P
sures are intended to prevent overshing and to allocate acic salmon are anadromous (they migrate from
the ocean harvest equitably among ocean commercial and the ocean to the freshwater streams to spawn) and
recreational sheries. The measures must meet the goals semelparous (die after spawning). Both chinook and coho
of the FMP that address spawning escapement needs and salmon have similar spawning requirements and habits.
allow for fresh water sheries. The needs of salmon spe- Successful spawning requires water temperatures less than
cies listed under the federal Endangered Species Act 56˚ F, clear water, suitable gravel rifes, and a stream
(ESA) must also be met as part of the process. The mea- velocity sufcient to permit excavation of nests (redds)
sures recommended by the PFMC must be approved and and provide high subgravel ow to the deposited, fertil-
implemented by the U.S. Department of Commerce. ized eggs. The female digs the nest, lays the eggs, and
covers them after the male fertilizes them. After a period
During the 1980s, California ocean salmon sheries were
of time, depending primarily on water temperature (usu-
increasingly regulated under quotas and area closures.
ally 50 to 60 days in California), the eggs hatch into
In 1980, a moratorium was placed on the issuance of
yolk sac larvae (alevins), which remain buried in the
permits to new participants in the ocean commercial
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
410
gravel until the yolk sac is absorbed. The young salmon Chinook spend two to ve years at sea before returning
Pacific Salmon
(fry) wriggle up out of the gravel and begin feeding on to spawn in their natal streams. The small percentage of
microscopic organisms. chinook that mature at age two are predominately males
and are commonly referred to as “grilse,” or “jacks.” The
When the salmon are about two inches long, their backs
older age classes of chinook are composed of about equal
become brown and their bellies a light silver so that they
proportions of males and females.
blend inconspicuously with their background. Referred to
as ngerlings, the length of stream-residency by these The state record for a sport-caught chinook is 88 pounds,
juveniles varies according to species and race. Following landed by an angler on the Sacramento River in 1979. The
a period of rapid growth, the salmon begin changing physi- largest chinook on record is a 127-pounder taken from
ologically in preparation for life in the ocean. A young a trap in Alaska. Ocean sheries can have a signicant
salmon that has undergone the anatomical and physiologi- impact on the average age of spawning chinook because
cal changes that allow it to live in the ocean is called ocean-shing gear often selects for larger, older sh. In
a smolt. Following an instinctive internal cue, the smolts addition, minimum size limits allow for the harvest of
begin migrating in schools downstream towards the ocean. chinook in the sport shery starting at age two (20-inch
Many of the sh pause in estuaries, remaining there until minimum) and in the commercial shery at age three
the smoltication process is completed. The salmon then (26-inch minimum). As ocean harvest rates increase, the
enter the sea where they begin a period of rapid growth. average age of adult spawners declines. Fish destined to
After spending two to six years in the ocean, depending on mature at age ve must survive two more years of ocean
species, the sexually mature salmon begin their arduous sheries than sh destined to mature at age three. It has
journey upriver. not been documented that the selectivity of the ocean
sheries for older maturing sh has adversely affected the
Chinook salmon genetics of the populations, but it has probably reduced
the utilization of spawning habitats that are best suited
Chinook are the largest of the salmon species. Historically,
for larger, older sh. Larger sh, for example, are prob-
juvenile chinook have been reported in coastal streams as
ably better able to utilize the larger gravel found in the
far south as the Ventura River in southern California. Cur-
main stems of most river systems. High rates of ocean har-
rently, they spawn in suitable rivers from the Sacramento-
vest in recent decades have led to the virtual disappear-
San Joaquin system northward. Spawning migrations can
ance of ve-year-olds in chinook salmon runs throughout
require minimal effort, with spawning occurring within a
the state.
few hundred feet of the ocean, or it can be a major
undertaking, with spawning occurring hundreds of miles All Pacic salmon exhibit a strong tendency to return at
upstream. In addition, dams and other diversion structures a specic time each year to spawn in their natal streams.
can seriously impede the upstream passage of adults by This has resulted in the development of distinct stocks,
creating physical barriers and confounding migration cues or populations, within each species that are, to varying
due to changes in river ow and water temperatures. degrees, both reproductively and behaviorally isolated.
Stocks are often grouped into “runs” based on the time of
The female chinook selects a nesting site that has good
the year during which their upstream spawning migration
subgravel ows to ensure adequate oxygenation. Since
occurs. There are four distinct chinook runs in California
chinook eggs are larger and have a smaller surface-to-
- fall, late-fall, winter, and spring. In a river where all
volume ratio, they are also more sensitive to reduced
four runs of chinook spawn, adults migrate upstream and
oxygen levels than eggs of other Pacic salmon. Female
juveniles migrate downstream during all months of the
chinook will defend their redds once spawning has begun
year. The timing of chinook spawning is often inuenced
and will stay on the nests from four days to two weeks,
by stream ow and water temperature, and therefore
depending on the time in the spawning period. Spawning
adults can be easily chased off redds by minor distur-
bances which may result in unsuccessful spawning. At the
time of emergence, fry generally swim or are displaced
downstream, although some fry are able to maintain their
residency at the spawning site. As they grow older, the
ngerlings tend to move away from shore into midstream
and higher velocity areas. Once smoltication is complete,
the young chinook migrate to the ocean, where they tend
to be distributed deeper in the water column than other
Pacic salmon species.
Steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 411
varies somewhat from river to river, and even within migrate seaward from early July though the following
Pacific Salmon
river systems. March, but the bulk of the juveniles move seaward in
September. Winter-run smolts enter the ocean between
All four runs use the Central Valley (Sacramento River-San
December and May. The adults mature and spawn as
Joaquin River) basin with the fall run being the most
three-year-olds, unlike the other races, which include
numerous. Historical runs of winter and spring chinook in
many four-year-old sh. Because of winter chinook’s
the upper Sacramento drainage were signicantly reduced
unique life history, ocean sheries, which are structured
by the construction of Shasta Dam in 1945. Spring chinook
to harvest the more abundant fall chinook runs during
also formed a major run in the San Joaquin River, but the
spring and summer months, have less of an impact on
completion of Friant Dam in 1942 contributed to the run’s
winter chinook than on other runs.
subsequent extinction.
Spring run. Spring chinook salmon arrive in the spawning
On the coast, the Klamath, Eel, Mad and Smith rivers
areas between March and June, with the peak time of
have fall and late fall runs. Spring chinook are also pres-
arrival usually occurring in May or June, depending upon
ent in several streams within the Klamath River basin
ows. They rest in the deep, cooler pools during the
and occasionally appear in the Eel and Smith rivers. In
summer and then move onto the gravel rifes and spawn
the Klamath Basin, the abundance of spring and fall chi-
between late August and early October. Emergence of fry
nook are believed to have been comparable prior to the
varies among drainages with fry emerging in some tribu-
completion of barrier dams in upper river areas in the late
taries as early as November, while fry in other areas wait
1800s. Smaller coastal rivers have only fall chinook.
until late March to appear. Juveniles either exit their natal
Fall run. Fall chinook salmon are the most numerous
tributaries soon after emergence or remain throughout
salmon in California today. They arrive in spawning areas
the summer, exiting the following fall as yearlings, usually
between September and December, depending upon the
with the onset of storms starting in October. Yearling
river system, but peak arrival time is usually during Octo-
emigration from the tributaries may continue through the
ber and November. Under current ocean harvest rates,
following March, with peak movement usually occurring in
the fall chinook runs are dominated by three-year-old sh
November and December. Juvenile emigration alternates
followed by jacks and four-year-olds. Five-year-old sh are
between active movement, resting and feeding. Juvenile
rare. Spawning occurs in the main stem of rivers, as well
salmon may rear for up to several months within the
as in tributaries, from early October through December. In
Delta before ocean entry. Spring chinook runs tend to
general, there is a large outmigration of fry and ngerlings
be dominated by three-year-old sh followed by four-year-
from the spawning areas between January and March. An
olds and jacks.
additional outmigration from the spawning areas, consist-
Ocean distribution. The development and widespread use
ing primarily of smolts, occurs from April through June.
of the coded wire tag since the mid-1970s have provided
The juveniles enter the ocean as smolts between April
extensive data on the ocean distributions of Pacic coast
and July.
salmon stocks. Tagging studies in California, particularly
Late fall run. In California, late fall chinook salmon are
on Central Valley and Klamath River fall chinook salmon
found primarily in the Sacramento River system, but have
stocks, have provided better denition of the coastal
been reported from the Eel River as well. They arrive
areas used by these stocks, as well as the mix of stocks
in upper-river spawning areas between October and mid-
in a particular ocean area. Although Central Valley fall
April. The runs of late-fall chinook tend to consist of
chinook are distributed primarily off of California and
equal numbers of three and four-year-old sh. Spawning
Oregon, some sh have ventured as far north as Alaska.
occurs from January through mid-April, primarily in the
Klamath River fall chinook are more narrowly distributed
main stem of the Sacramento River. Some of the juveniles
between Point Arena in northern California and Cape
start migrating seaward as fry during May, but the bulk
Falcon in Oregon. Ocean conditions have been found to
of the juveniles leave the upper river between October
affect the ocean distribution patterns of these and other
and February. Late fall smolts enter the ocean between
Pacic coast salmon stocks.
November and April.
Coho salmon
Winter run. Winter chinook salmon are unique to the
Sacramento River system. Adults arrive in the upper Sac- Coho salmon are smaller than chinook salmon; the average
ramento River spawning area from mid-December through size of a mature coho is seven to 12 pounds. The California
early August, with a peak in March. Spawning occurs record for a sport-caught coho salmon is 22 pounds, taken
primarily in the main stem of the upper Sacramento River on Paper Mill Creek (Marin County) in 1959. The world
below Shasta Dam between late-April and mid-August. record is a 33-pound sport-caught coho landed in British
May and June are peak spawning months. The juveniles Columbia.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
412
In California, coho spawn in suitable streams from north- Coded wire tagging of California hatchery coho stocks has
Pacific Salmon
ern Monterey Bay northward, but they rarely enter the indicated that nearly all are harvested in ocean sheries in
Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Coho enter many their third year of life. Some are caught as far north as the
small coastal streams that are not utilized by chinook, central Washington coast, but most are caught within 100
but they also spawn in some larger river systems where miles of the stream from which they entered the ocean.
chinook occur. Compared to chinook salmon, there are
relatively few coho in California today. Most California
Status of Spawning Populations
streams utilized by coho salmon are short in length, but
some coho do make relatively long migrations, particularly
Central Valley Fall Chinook - Fall chinook are the most
into the Eel River system. Many smaller coastal rivers have
abundant of the four races of Central Valley salmon,
runs of coho salmon that enter during brief periods after
the rst heavy fall rains and move upstream.
Within California river systems, coho salmon populations
include only one race, or run, which is generally consistent
as to spawning area used and time of spawning. Most
spawning occurs between December and February. The
juveniles usually spend a little more than a year in fresh
water before migrating to the ocean; a few spend two
years. Most coho mature at the end of their third year
of life. Coho salmon older than three years are relatively
rare. A few males, or grilse, mature at age two.
Genetic analysis of California coho populations has indi-
cated a wide degree of mixing of the stocks in the past,
probably reecting past stocking and transplantation prac-
tices involving hatchery sh. Baird Station, first Pacific Coast salmon hatchery.
Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.
Members of the Wintu tribe drying salmon on the McCloud River, circa 1882.
Credit: Thomas Houseworth, U.S. Fish Commission. Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 413
spawning predominately in the Sacramento River basin. Klamath Basin - The recovery and analysis of coded
Pacific Salmon
The run is heavily supplemented by production at ve wire tagged sh produced at the two hatcheries in the
hatcheries. The spawning populations of fall chinook in Klamath Basin allow estimates of ocean abundance. Pre-
the Sacramento and San Joaquin river drainages averaged shing season abundance of fall chinook during the 1980s
about 340,000 between 1953 and 1963; 209,300 from 1970 averaged 395,000 sh; during the 1990s, the average
to 1979; 249,800 from 1980 to 1989; 166,600 from 1990 to decreased to 164,000 and included very low abundance in
1995; and 365,700 from 1996 to 2000. The recent increases 1991 and 1992. In 2000-2001, the pre-shing season abun-
in spawning runs, as well as commercial and recreational dance of fall chinook averaged 400,000. Spring chinook in
harvests, suggest a reversal in the decline of fall chinook, the Trinity and Salmon rivers in the Klamath Basin have
which hopefully will be sustained through the various been at very low levels in recent years.
restoration efforts to rebuild salmon stocks in the Central Many salmon anglers are attracted to rivers north of Mon-
Valley. In addition, since fall chinook is one of the primary terey County. Historically, almost half of the effort was
stocks harvested by ocean sheries in California, the in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Most of this
more restrictive regulations applied on these sheries activity occurs upstream from the city of Sacramento. The
in recent years appears to have also improved their main stem of the Sacramento River is the most important
freshwater returns. Central Valley stream, followed by the Feather and Ameri-
Central Valley Spring Chinook - Spring chinook, which can rivers. Of the coastal streams, the Klamath system
were historically the second most abundant run, now receives by far the most effort, followed by the Smith and
spawn in relatively small numbers in streams in the Eel systems. Much of the shing in coastal river systems
northern Sacramento River basin. Spawning populations occurs in estuaries. The Klamath and Smith River mouths
increased during the late 1990s, particularly the Deer and draw large numbers of anglers from great distances and
Butte Creek stocks. Spring chinook are listed as threat- concentrate them in a small area. The term “madhouse”
ened under the ESA (1999) and CESA (1999). is appropriate during the peak of a good run. The catch in
both of these rivers consists of chinook salmon.
Central Valley Late-fall Chinook - Late-fall chinook spawn
primarily in the main stem of the Sacramento River. The Past over-harvest has undoubtedly contributed to the cur-
run, which was not identied until the construction of rent plight of salmon. However, harvest constraints, which
a dam and sh ladder at Red Bluff enabled monthly are easily and quickly implemented, have no effect on the
counts of spawners, averaged about 25,000 from 1967 to root causes of the decline of wild salmon. Reasons for the
1976, 9,500 from 1977 to 1986 and 10,400 from 1987 to decline in California’s salmon populations vary somewhat
1994. More recent estimates of run size have been made from river to river, but there are two major causes: (1)
difcult by changes in the operation of the Red Bluff destruction or loss of habitat, and (2) water diversion.
Diversion Dam. In the Central Valley, a multitude of factors has con-
Sacramento River Winter Chinook - Winter chinook was tributed to the decline. These include several hundred
the rst anadromous sh to receive protection under the unscreened irrigation diversions in the Sacramento Valley,
ESA (1989), following its listing under CESA (1989). Winter 1,800 unscreened diversions in the Delta and about 150
chinook no longer exist in any of its original spawning hab- unscreened diversions in the San Joaquin Valley; poor
itat above Shasta Dam and the run persists only because or lost gravel deposition in salmon spawning and rearing
of the new habitat created by cold water releases from areas; pollution; aberrant river ow uctuations caused
the dam into the mainstem Sacramento River. The spawn- by alternating water-release schedules from dams to meet
ing populations below Shasta declined from the 20,000 to downstream water-quality standards and water diversion
80,000 sh observed in the 1970s to a few hundred in the contracts; elevated water temperatures stemming from
early 1990s. Spawning populations between 1998 and 2000 power generation operations and reduction in cold water
numbered between 1,400 and 3,200 sh. storage as reservoirs are emptied to meet agricultural
contracts; and impediments to migration such as dams
Coastal Populations - Coastal California streams support
or diversions. The massive export of water from the south-
small populations of coho and chinook salmon. Habitat
ern Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta has probably been the
blockages, logging, agriculture, urbanization and water
greatest cause of decline in Central Valley salmon.
withdrawals have resulted in widespread declines of both
species. All coastal coho populations in California are Red Bluff Diversion Dam on the upper Sacramento River
listed as threatened under the ESA and coho south of San continues to be an impediment to adult upstream migra-
Francisco are listed as threatened under CESA. Coastal tion, a major point of diversion and loss of downstream
chinook south of the Klamath River are listed as threat- migrating juveniles, and a haven for predatory Sacramento
ened under the ESA (1999). pikeminnow. Lifting of the gates at this facility has been
implemented in the fall through spring to protect all races
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
414
of chinook; alternative diversion facilities are being evalu- any of them from reaching the ocean, even if adequate
Pacific Salmon
ated that would allow the dam to be removed. sh screens are in place to keep them from entering the
irrigation canals. Reducing stream ows or shade may
Declines in coastal river chinook and coho salmon popula-
result in a stream becoming too warm for salmon. Siltation
tions have been caused by many of the same factors. But,
from logging or road construction can smother salmon
in addition, these areas have been affected by past and, in
eggs and suppress production of aquatic invertebrates
some instances, present timber harvest practices. These
upon which the young sh depend for food.
practices have reduced stream shading, resulting in high
temperatures, and have accelerated erosion and lling Substantial efforts have been made during the past
of pools. decade to ensure that the ecological requirements of
anadromous sh receive equal consideration with all the
Although many of California’s naturally spawning popula-
other economic and social demands placed on the state’s
tions are listed as threatened or endangered, the produc-
water resources. The Central Valley Improvement Act of
tion of large numbers of salmon by state and federal
1992 required a program designed to double natural pro-
hatcheries has continued. The trucking of sh from state
duction of anadromous sh in Central Valley streams.
hatcheries in the Central Valley for release in the lower
In 1995, the federal government and California initiated
Delta began in the late 1970s. The program was started
the CALFED Bay-Delta program to address environmental
with the intent of bypassing the many hazards that were
and water management problems associated with the
known to exist for juvenile salmon in the lower river
Bay-Delta system. The primary mission is to develop a
and Delta areas. Tagging studies have shown that survival
long-term comprehensive plan that will restore ecological
of trucked sh is much higher than sh released at the
health and improve water management for the benecial
hatchery and the program has continued to this day. The
uses of the Bay-Delta system.
average annual escapement of fall chinook to the Central
Valley between 1995 and 2000 was almost 85 percent Although the listing of salmon populations under the ESA
greater than the average observed during the previous 25 has meant new restrictions on recreational and commer-
years (1970-1994) and was due primarily to the restrictive cial shing, it has also provided a mechanism for address-
regulations placed on ocean salmon sheries in recent ing the effects of dams, irrigation diversion, logging, road
years. When salmon return to the Central Valley in construction, etc. on aquatic environments. Species man-
near record numbers, the public understandably has dif- agement under provisions of the ESA requires that existing
culty appreciating the need for harvest constraints to and proposed federal actions and permitted activities
protect endangered salmon. Commercial and sport sher- be conducted in a manner that will not jeopardize the
men expect shing regulations that permit harvest of continued existence of the animal or result in the destruc-
the hatchery “surplus.” Full utilization of hatchery produc- tion or adverse modication of habitat essential to the
tion subjects naturally spawning sh, which cannot sustain continuation of the species. Federal agencies must consult
nearly as high a rate of harvest as hatchery stocks, to with NMFS when they propose to authorize, fund, or
over-harvest. Responsible hatchery management means carry out an action which could potentially adversely
not only producing a healthy and robust sh, but also edu- affect listed salmon or steelhead. Likewise, state-spon-
cating sport and commercial shermen on the importance sored activities that might affect state-listed species must
of managing the sheries for natural production while be reviewed under the provisions of CESA.
accepting a surplus of hatchery adults.
Salmon: Discussion
Challenges to Inland Salmon Management
Maintaining salmon runs in California depends on the res-
toration and preservation of the state’s rivers and streams
as living systems. A poor law or regulation affecting shing
can be changed long before the damage it causes becomes
permanent, but a stream that is blocked near its mouth by
an impassable dam will produce no more salmon. A stream
kept dry through the spawning season by diversion is no
better, but may prove salvageable if water can eventually
be provided. Diverting all the water from a stream during
Typical commercial salmon troller
the downstream migration period of juveniles will prevent Credit: Chris Dewees, CA Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 415
Hatchery sh have been important to maintaining ocean ter habitats, and changes in ocean productivity or precipi-
Pacific Salmon
and in-river sheries, but have incorrectly been perceived tation. An incremental approach to harvest reductions
as a viable alternative to maintenance of natural spawning seems to have produced encouraging results with respect
populations. Unfortunately, a successful hatchery program to winter chinook. At the time of listing, spawning popula-
can mask the decline in the natural run due to straying tions were estimated at less than 200 sh and by the end
of the returning adults, and this appears to be the case of the 1990s had increased to several thousand.
for chinook in many areas of the Central Valley and the In recent years, test sheries have been conducted off
Klamath River basin. Hatchery adults spawning in the California, which apply the methods of genetic stock iden-
wild can compete with naturally produced sh for adult tication (GSI) to estimate the contribution of various
spawning and juvenile sh rearing areas. Interaction of stocks of chinook to catches. GSI detects the presence of
hatchery and naturally produced salmon is most acute in certain proteins that are characteristic of various popula-
the close vicinity of the rearing facilities. Battle Creek tions, both hatchery and naturally produced. The tech-
below Coleman Hatchery and Bogus Creek adjacent to nique can be used to verify the coded wire tag data
Iron Gate Hatchery typically are overloaded with spawning associated with hatchery stocks as well as to estimate the
sh each fall due to straying of hatchery adults. Trucking catch of relatively small numbers of naturally produced
operations in the Central Valley have greatly increased sh, which would not normally be available for marking
hatchery sh survival by reducing in-stream losses of sh with coded wire tags. The test sheries were initially
to diversions and predators but have also increased the undertaken with the hope of identifying previously unrec-
rate of straying of returning adults, possibly to the detri- ognized distributional differences between Central Valley
ment of the naturally produced sh. fall chinook and Klamath River fall chinook. As more popu-
lations of salmon have been listed under the ESA and
Challenges to Ocean Management
included in the GSI baseline, the search for times and
Ocean salmon sheries harvest a mixture of stocks that areas in which contact with stocks of concern is minimal
can differ greatly in their respective abundance and pro- has been made increasingly difcult. Listed species are
ductivity. It has long been recognized that the manage- at extremely low abundance and comprise a very small
ment of mixed stock salmon sheries is difcult and com- fraction of ocean catches; even GSI methods are unlikely
plex; sheries supported by hatcheries can deplete less to produce accurate estimates of ocean impacts on threat-
productive, naturally produced stocks unless programs are ened and listed populations. When faced with the difcul-
in place to monitor and evaluate their status and make ties of estimating ocean distribution and the presence of
necessary adjustments in harvest. Ideally, some differ- salmon from such populations, it seems safest to reduce
ences in distribution of “strong” and “weak” stocks exist ocean harvest rates to levels sufciently low that ocean
that allow managers to develop measures that selectively impacts are unlikely to extinguish these weak ESA popula-
protect stocks of concern. tions of salmon.
NMFS has concluded that the harvest of the relatively Ocean salmon managers must continually be prepared to
abundant Central Valley fall chinook stocks may continue respond to changes in the sheries. The advent of mooch-
at reduced levels without jeopardizing the recovery of ing in central California led to different resource impacts.
listed California chinook populations. The California Fish Likewise, the ocean environment continues to change,
and Game Commission, PFMC and NMFS have implemented physically as well as biologically. Relative to the salmon
various protective regulations to reduce shery impacts resource, coastal water quality needs to be monitored and
on California populations of Central Valley winter and protected. There also appear to be increasing conicts
spring chinook, and coastal chinook and coho, all of which between ocean shermen, both recreational and com-
are listed. In 1992, the PFMC began to severely curtail mercial, and marine mammals, in particular harbor seals
the ocean harvest of coho salmon in California due to the and sea lions. Federal legislation aimed at protecting
depressed condition of most coastal stocks. Following the these animals has been very effective in increasing
federal listing of California coho stocks in 1996 and 1997, their numbers and has led to increased depredation on
NMFS extended the protective measures to a complete sport and commercially hooked salmon. Most of the prob-
prohibition of coho retention off California. lems have been in the marine area, particularly in the
Monterey-San Francisco region, but problems have also
Ocean abundance estimates are not available for any of
occurred in some lower river areas, such as the Klamath
California’s listed salmon and harvest rates are subject to
River estuary where American Indian and sport anglers
speculation. Determining levels of harvest that are appro-
annually seek to harvest salmon.
priate for recovery is challenging. Without age-specic
mortality estimates it is difcult to assess the relative
effects of reductions in harvest, improvements in freshwa-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
416
Management Considerations Kope, R.G. 1987. Separable virtual population analysis
Pacific Salmon
of Pacic salmon with application to marked chinook
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, from California’s Cen-
further information. tral Valley. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 44(6):1213-1220.
Lufkin, A. 1991. California’s Salmon and Steelhead: The
Struggle to Restore an Imperiled Resource. University of
LB Boydstun
California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles. 305 p.
Department of Fish and Game
Nehlsen, W., J.E. Williams, and J.A. Lichatowich. 1991.
Melodie Palmer-Zwahlen
Pacic salmon at the crossroads: stocks at risk from
Department of Fish and Game
California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington. Fisheries,
Dan Viele
16(2):4-21.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission. 1948. Coordinated
Plans for the Management of the Fisheries of the Pacic
References Coast. Bulletin 1, Portland, OR. 64 p.
Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC). 1984. Final
framework amendment for managing the ocean salmon
Bartley, D., B. Bentley, P. G. Olin, and G.A.E. Gall. 1992. sheries off the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and Cali-
Population genetic structure of coho salmon (Oncorhyn- fornia commencing in 1985. Pacic. Fish. Mgmt. Council,
chus kisutch) in California. Calif. Fish and Game. Vol 78. Portland. Eight sections plus appendices.
No.3 p.88-100.
PFMC. 1999. Review of 1999 Ocean Salmon Fisheries.
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead Pacic. Fish. Mgmt. Council, Portland. Four sections plus
Trout. 1988. Restoring the balance. 1988 annual report. appendices.
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Sacramento. 84 p.
_____ . 1999. Preseason report I, stock abundance
California Department of Fish and Game. 1998. A status analysis for 2000 ocean salmon sheries. Pacic Fish.
review of the spring-run chinook (Oncorhynchus Tshawyts- Mgmt. Council, Portland. Three sections plus appendices.
cha) in the Sacramento river drainage. Report to the Fish
Pierce, Ronnie M. 1998. Klamath Salmon: Understanding
and Game Commission. Candidate Species Status Report
Allocation. Klamath Riv. Basin Fish. Task Force, Yreka CA.
98-01. June 1998.
32 p.
Campbell, E.A. and P.B. Moyle. 1990. Historical and
Yoshiyama, R.M., Fisher, F.W., and Moyle, P.B. 1998 His-
recent population sizes of spring-run chinook salmon in
torical abundance and decline of chinook salmon in the
California. Pages 155-216. In Proceedings, 1990 Northeast
central valley region of California. N. Am. J. Fisheries
Pacic Chinook and Coho Salmon Workshop. Humboldt
Management. 18:487-521.
Chapter, American Fisheries Society.
Feinberg, L. and M. Morgan. 1979. California’s Salmon
Resource: Its Biology, Use and Management. Sea Grant
Report Series No. 3, California Sea Grant College Program,
CSGCP No. 72. 37p.
Gall, G.A.E., B. Bentley, C. Panattoni, E. Childs, C. Qi, S.
Fox, M. Mangel, J. Brodziak, and R. Gomulkiewicz. 1989.
Chinook mixed shery project, 1986-89. Prepared under
contract for the Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Sacramento.
192 p.
Hankin, D.G., and M.C. Healey. 1986. Dependence of
exploitation rate for maximum yield and stock collapse on
age and sex structure of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha) stocks. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.,
43(9):1746-1759.
King, D. 1986. The economic issues associated with com-
mercial salmon shing and limited entry in California.
Prepared under contract for the California Commercial
Fishing Review Board, Sacramento. 106 p. plus appendix.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 417
Steelhead
Rainbow Trout card data was 168,000 sh (but only 40,000 were kept).
In 1994, estimated catch was 178,000, with 53,000 sh
retained. These gures have not been corrected for
History of the Fishery non-response bias, however, so are likely overestimated.
Even prior to the implementation of catch-and-release
S teelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss formerly Salmo gaird- requirement for wild steelhead (see below), California
neri) were once abundant in California coastal and steelhead anglers released approximately 70 percent of all
Central Valley rivers and streams. American Indians uti- steelhead caught.
lized this resource for subsistence, trade, and ceremonial Steelhead sport shing is important not only for the recre-
purposes. Salmon and steelhead were harvested year- ation that it provides, but also for its economic benets.
round by central coast and Central Valley tribes, and pri- A 1985 economic analysis of the anadromous sport
marily during late summer and fall months by north coast shery of the Sacramento-San Joaquin river system esti-
tribes. Nets, spears, traps, and weirs were utilized to mated that sales revenue generated from steelhead sport
capture the sh. Today, American Indians employ gillnets shing in the Sacramento River and tributaries was
to capture salmon and are limited to the Klamath River over 7.2 million dollars. When non-shing activities were
system. These gillnet sheries target chinook salmon, but included, Sacramento River steelhead generated over $9
an unknown number of adult steelhead is also taken. million annually.
There is no commercial steelhead shery in California.
Commercial salmon trollers cannot legally possess steel-
Status of Biological Knowledge
head, and very few are taken incidentally in the commer-
cial salmon catch. However, there is a well-established,
S teelhead are the anadromous form of rainbow trout,
popular steelhead sport shery in California. The majority
a salmonid native to western North America and the
of angler effort is expended in river systems and coastal
Pacic coast of Asia. In North America, steelhead are
streams of the north coast, the central coast north of San
found in Pacic Ocean drainages from southern California
Francisco Bay, and the Sacramento River system. Some
to Alaska, and in Asia in coastal streams of the Kamchatka
rivers and streams of the central coast south of San
Peninsula. Spawning populations in California are known
Francisco still support a steelhead sport shery, but these
to have occurred in coastal streams from Malibu Creek
have become limited in recent years due to a decline
(Los Angeles County) to the Smith River near the Oregon
in their populations. The steelhead shery in southern
border, and in the Sacramento and San Joaquin river sys-
California (south of San Luis Obispo) has been closed due
tems. Southern California streams south of Malibu Creek
to severe declines and extirpation of many of the runs
appear to support at least occasional spawning and pro-
and a listing of others under the federal Endangered
duction, but it is unknown if these coastal streams cur-
Species Act (ESA). The San Joaquin River system
rently support steelhead populations. The present distri-
presently supports a very limited shery. The rest of
bution and abundance of steelhead in California has been
California’s steelhead sportshery has instituted catch
greatly reduced from historical levels.
and release regulations since the ESA listing of naturally
Steelhead are similar to Pacic salmon in their ecological
produced steelhead.
requirements. They spend most of their lives in the ocean
In 1993, California implemented the Steelhead Trout Catch
where they grow to relatively large size, and then return
Report-Restoration Card Program, which required that all
to fresh water to spawn. Unlike Pacic salmon, steelhead
steelhead anglers purchase a steelhead catch report card
do not necessarily die after spawning. Repeat spawning is
and record their catch. These data are used by the
common; however post-spawning survival rates are gener-
Department of Fish and Game (DFG) to generate catch
ally quite low (10 to 20 percent). Steelhead do not neces-
statistics, including the number of steelhead caught and
sarily migrate to sea at a specic age. Some individuals
released. The report card has provided angler harvest
remain in a stream, mature, and even spawn without ever
information and funding for management, research,
going to sea; others migrate to sea at less than a year
and habitat restoration projects. Current information indi-
old. Although most spend two to six years at sea, some
cates that approximately 69 percent of angler effort is
return to freshwater after spending less than a year in
expended on the north coast (north of the Mattole River),
the ocean. The well-known Klamath River “half-pounders”
15 percent on the north-central coast (between the Mat-
are sexually immature steelhead that return to fresh water
tole River and the Golden Gate), four percent on the
after spending only a few months at sea. These sh do
south-central coast (from the Golden Gate to Pt. Concep-
not spawn, but return to the ocean and eventually ascend
tion) and 12 percent in the Central Valley. In 1993, the
the river in a second upstream migration as a larger,
total statewide steelhead catch estimated from report
mature steelhead.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
418
In California, peak spawning in most runs occurs from The second principal difference between salmon and
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
December through April. Steelhead generally spawn in steelhead is the amount of time steelhead spend in fresh
small tributaries where cool, well-oxygenated water is and salt water, which is much more variable. In a study
available year-round. Like salmon, the female steelhead of steelhead life history in central coast streams, it was
digs a nest, or “redd,” deposits eggs while an attendant found that the majority of adults returning to spawn had
male fertilizes them, then covers the eggs with gravel. spent two years in fresh water and one or two years in
The length of time it takes for eggs to hatch largely the ocean. However, steelhead showing other life history
depends on water temperature. Steelhead eggs hatch in patterns were not uncommon. Scale analysis of adults
about 30 days at 51o F. Fry usually emerge from the gravel indicated that they typically spent from one to four
four to six weeks after hatching, but factors such as redd years in fresh water and from one to three years in the
depth, gravel size, siltation, and temperature all inuence ocean. Studies on Sacramento River steelhead also show
the timing of emergence. this variability.
The newly emerged fry move to shallow, protected areas Steelhead have traditionally been grouped into seasonal
associated with stream margins where they establish feed- runs according to their peak migration period. In Cal-
ing stations that they defend. Juveniles mainly inhabit ifornia, there are well-dened winter, spring, and fall
rifes, but they can utilize a variety of other habitat runs. This classication is useful in describing actual run
types. Relatively high ngerling densities occur in associa- timing, but is misleading when it is used to further catego-
tion with structural complexity, such as that provided by rize steelhead. Run-timing may be a characteristic of a
large woody debris. Juveniles also exhibit a preference for particular stock, but by itself, does not constitute race
sites with overhead cover and appear to select positions in or ecotype.
streams in response to low light levels. There are two principal steelhead ecotypes: 1) stream-
The preferred depth for steelhead spawning is approxi- maturing steelhead, which enter fresh water with imma-
mately 14 inches and ranges from six to 24 inches. In ture gonads and consequently must spend several months
natural channels, water depth usually does not hinder in the stream before they are ready to spawn; and
adult migration because adult steelhead normally migrate 2) ocean-maturing steelhead, which mature in the ocean
during high ows. Depth can become a signicant barrier and spawn relatively soon after reentry into fresh water.
or impedance in streams that have been altered for ood This corresponds to the accepted classication that groups
control purposes. It has been reported that seven inches steelhead into two seasonal “races” — summer and winter
is the minimum depth required for successful migration steelhead. Stream-maturing steelhead (summer steelhead)
of adult steelhead, although the distance sh must travel typically enter fresh water in spring, early summer, and
through shallow water areas is also a critical factor. fall. They ascend to headwater tributaries, hold over in
deep pools until mature, and spawn in winter. Ocean-
Water temperature requirements for various life stages
maturing steelhead (winter steelhead) typically begin
of steelhead have been well studied, although there are
their spawning migration in late fall, winter, and spring
relatively few data specic to California. Egg mortality
and spawn relatively soon after freshwater entry. Ocean-
begins to occur at 56o F. Thermal stress has been reported
maturing steelhead generally spawn from January through
at temperatures beginning at 66o F, and temperatures
April, but some spawning can extend into May and June.
demonstrated to be lethal to adults have been reported at
70o F. In California, low temperatures are not as much of Prior to the intensive water development of this century
a concern as high temperatures, particularly during adult and the resultant loss of a considerable amount of holding
migration, egg incubation, and juvenile rearing. The abil- habitat, stream-maturing (summer) steelhead were prob-
ity of steelhead to tolerate adverse temperatures varies ably more common in California than they are today.
depending on stock characteristics, ecological conditions, There is some evidence that they were present in the
and physiological conditions such as life stage. Central Valley drainages, but were most likely extirpated
with the construction of large dams that blocked access
The life history of steelhead differs from that of Pacic
to the upper reaches on many of the major spawning
salmon in two principal aspects. First, juvenile steelhead
tributaries. At present, summer steelhead are known
rear in fresh water for longer periods of time (usually
to occur only in north coast drainages, mostly in tribu-
from one to three years). Because of this multi-year rear-
taries of the Eel, Klamath, and Trinity river systems.
ing requirement, water temperatures and other water
Ocean-maturing (winter) steelhead are also present in
quality parameters must remain suitable year-round. That
north coast drainages, and are also found in the Sacra-
is why steelhead typically migrate higher into watersheds
mento and San Joaquin river systems and central/south
to spawn than salmon. It is mostly in these upper tributar-
coast drainages.
ies that water quality - most importantly water tempera-
ture - remains suitable year-round.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 419
The above classication scheme is based on behavioral to persist in this marginal, frequently suboptimal
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
and physiological differences and may not reect genetic environment. Having several different life-history strat-
or taxonomic relationships. Genetic similarity appears to egies among a single population effects “bet-hedging”
be a reection of geographical relationships. For example, against extinction.
summer steelhead occupying a particular river system
are more genetically similar to winter steelhead of that
Status of the Populations
system than they are to summer steelhead in other sys-
tems. Similarly, little or no morphological or genetic dif-
B ecause of the difculty in assessing steelhead popula-
ferentiation has been found between steelhead and res-
tions, we have limited estimates of adult numbers and
ident rainbow trout forms inhabiting the same stream
a statewide population estimate is not available. Carcass
system. Taxonomists conclude that O. mykiss cannot be
surveys, a dependable method to estimate salmon spawn-
separated taxonomically by immigration timing (fall-, win-
ing populations, are not useful for assessing steelhead
ter-, spring-runs), ecotype (stream-maturing vs. ocean-
spawning populations, because steelhead do not always
maturing), or their migratory behavior (steelhead vs. res-
die immediately after spawning. Counts made at weirs
ident forms). Rather, rainbow trout are taxonomically
and shways can be difcult because adult steelhead tend
structured on a geographic basis. All steelhead in Cali-
to migrate on high, turbid winter ows. Despite the lack
fornia belong to the coastal rainbow trout subspecies,
of accurate numbers, other reliable indicators show that
O. m. irideus.
steelhead, like most other anadromous salmonid stocks in
This taxonomic classication recognizes the extreme vari- California, have declined signicantly.
ability that occurs within rainbow trout populations.
In October 1997, the federal government listed southern
Rather than the different life-history forms comprising
California steelhead as endangered and central and south
distinct populations, studies and observations provide evi-
Central Coast steelhead as threatened under the ESA. In
dence that coastal rainbow trout can form a single, inter-
May 1998, Central Valley steelhead were listed as threat-
breeding population in stream systems where there is
ened, and in August 2000, Northern California steelhead
access to the ocean. These populations are comprised
were listed as threatened. Consequently, all California
of individuals with different life-history traits and a con-
steelhead populations south of the Klamath-Trinity River
tinuum of migratory behaviors, the two extremes being
system are now listed under the ESA.
anadromy (strongly migratory) and residency (non-migra-
South Coast. The precipitous decline of steelhead on the
tory). Recent research demonstrating that juvenile rain-
south coast is well documented. Of 122 streams south
bow trout can adopt a life-history strategy that is
of San Francisco Bay that were known to have contained
different from their parents (i.e., a steelhead can
a steelhead population, 47 percent had populations with
produce non-anadromous progeny and non-anadromous
reduced production from historical levels, 33 percent no
rainbow trout can produce steelhead progeny) provides
longer supported steelhead populations, and only 20 per-
further evidence.
cent had populations that had not declined signicantly
This type of population structure and resultant exibility
from historical levels. The percentage of streams with
in reproductive strategies allows a population to persist in
extinct populations ranged from zero percent in San Mateo
the face of unstable and variable climatic, hydrographic,
and Santa Cruz counties in the north to 92 percent in
and limnological conditions that frequently exist at the
Orange and San Diego counties.
margins of a species’ range. For coastal rainbow trout, this
Water development appears to be the primary cause of
includes stream systems in the Central Valley and those
localized extinctions and decline in numbers. A recent
south of San Francisco Bay. Stream systems in California
study found that 35 percent of the southern steelhead
are subject to extreme variations in rainfall which can
populations reviewed were negatively impacted by water
result in high volume, ash ood runoff, or droughts last-
diversions, 24 percent by dams lacking functional sh-
ing several years. Natural stream ow in these streams
ways; 18 percent by articial barriers other than dams
can vary greatly, both seasonally and annually. It is not
(such as impassable culverts and bridge supports) and
uncommon, even under unimpaired conditions, for the
ve percent from stream channelization. Overall, 21 per-
lower reaches of many streams to become interrupted
cent of the 165 populations reviewed were impacted by
during the dry season, restricting the population to the
blocked access to spawning and rearing tributaries due
perennial headwaters, with these conditions persisting for to main stem impediments. Other major impacts include
years. The exibility inherent in this type of population urbanization and other land-use activities.
structure allows sh to complete their life cycles entirely
Southern steelhead stocks (those occurring south of Point
in freshwater until conditions once again allow migration
Conception) are the most imperiled of all of California’s
to the ocean, and this exibility has allowed populations
steelhead populations, and are the only California steel-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
420
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
The historical range of steelhead in California. The present range of steelhead in California.
Only major streams within the range are depicted. Only major streams within the range are depicted.
head that are listed under the ESA as endangered. The steelhead will now have access to some of their former
southernmost range of steelhead formerly extended to spawning and rearing habitat.
northern Baja California and they were present in streams The Santa Ynez River is reported to have had an annual
and rivers of Los Angeles, Orange, and San Diego counties. run size from 12,995 to 25,032 adults in the 1940s.
At present, Malibu Creek in Los Angeles County is the Although this was a cursory estimate, it does attest to the
designated southern extent of the steelhead range (in large size of this run, which was already reduced from
terms of the ESA listing). However, the recent discovery former times because of forest res and construction of
of a spawning population in San Mateo Creek in San Diego dams in the upper watershed. The large size of this run
County has conrmed that steelhead are still present in is also indicated by a DFG rescue of 1,036,980 juvenile
streams south of Malibu Creek, and the federal govern- steelhead from the partially dry bed of the Santa Ynez
ment has recently proposed to extend the designated River in 1944. Since the mid-1990s, a few adult steelhead
southern extent to include San Mateo Creek. It is not have been observed every year, and juvenile steelhead
known if steelhead still occur in streams south of San have been observed in several tributaries.
Mateo Creek.
In the mid-1940s, DFG biologists reported that a minimum
The historical run-size of the Santa Clara River is esti- of 2,000 to 2,500 adults spawned in Matilija Creek, a
mated to have been about 9,000 adults annually. In the tributary of the Ventura River, and they believed that
past ve years, several hundred steelhead smolts have this represented 50 percent of the total number of adults
been observed at sh screens at a diversion on the main- entering the Ventura River. There are recent anecdotal
stem so it appears this population may be recovering, reports of adult steelhead in the lower Ventura River, and
although only a few adult steelhead have been observed juvenile steelhead have been observed.
in the shway in the diversion dam. A shway on a small
Much of the coastline of southern Monterey and San
diversion dam on Santa Paula Creek, a major tributary
Luis Obispo counties is relatively undeveloped; hence,
to the Santa Clara River, was recently completed, so
many of these small coastal streams still contain steel-
head populations. Status of populations in these streams
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 421
range from healthy in the relatively undisturbed streams Creek (a tributary to the Russian River). All of these
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
in southern Monterey and northern San Luis Obispo coun- dams except the latter two are at elevations greater than
ties, to severely depressed or extirpated in the Morro 1,500 feet, so a considerable amount of habitat is still
Bay/San Luis Obispo urban area. The largest populations available downstream. The Russian River is the notable
of steelhead (on the order of hundreds of adults) in the exception - dams block access to the headwaters and a
south-central coast region are probably in the Little Sur major tributary.
and Big Sur rivers.
In the Carmel River from 1964 to 1975, the average annual
run-size of steelhead was estimated to be 3,177 sh, about
25 percent of historical levels. The mean number of adults
counted at the San Clemente Dam sh ladder during
this 12-year period was 821 sh per year. During a
three-year period from 1988 to 1990, the river never
breached its sand bar at the mouth making the river inac-
cessible to upstream migrant adult steelhead. One adult
was observed in the ladder in 1991, 14 adults in 1992, and
285 adults in 1993. In 1993, the Fish and Game Commission
closed the lower Carmel River to all angling to protect the
remnant steelhead run. With the cessation of the recent
six-year drought, the Carmel River steelhead population Adult Steelhead Counts at San Celmente Dam on the Carmel River
appears to be recovering. The average annual run size for Data show steelhead counted at the San Clemente Dam on the Carmel River between
1964 and 1999. Data not available for 1978-1983 and 1985-1987; no steelhead were
the ve-year period beginning in 1995 was 590 adults. In
counted at the San Celmente Dam during the years 1976-1977, 1989, and 1990.
recognition of the increasing health of the population, the
river was opened to a limited catch-and-release shery for The north coast rivers and streams have the largest area
steelhead in 1998. of steelhead habitat in the state and the most abundant
populations of steelhead. The California Fish and Wildlife
With the recent occurrence of several years of ample
Plan of 1965 estimated an annual spawning escapement
precipitation, it appears that steelhead in this region
of 513,500 steelhead for this region. Because many of the
may be starting to recover from the six-year drought of
spawning and rearing tributaries are largely undeveloped
the late 1980s through early 1990s. Opportunistic observa-
and fairly remote, the north coast runs are in better
tions conrmed the presence of steelhead in many small
condition than other areas of the state. However, these
southern California streams that were not known to have
populations have also had some declines.
contained steelhead populations for many years. Steel-
head have been observed in Carpenteria, Maria Ygnacio, In the 1960s, the Smith River was estimated to have a
Gaviota, Mission, and Arroyo Hondo creeks in Santa Bar- spawning escapement of 30,000 adult steelhead. There
bara County; Arroyo Sequit and Topanga creeks in Los have been no recent spawning surveys done for steelhead
Angeles County; and San Mateo Creek in San Diego County. and the population size is unknown at present. The Smith
Since the ESA listing, habitat restoration projects have River is presently protected by federal Wild and Scenic
increased in the past ve years and include modication River designation and has one of the most undisturbed
of grade stabilization structures to facilitate passage on watersheds in California. Steelhead populations appear to
Gaviota Creek, development and design of a shway and be healthy in this system and the habitat is relatively
screens on the Robles Diversion on the Ventura River, pristine. The Smith River is well known among anglers for
initial discussions on removal of Matilija Dam on Matilija producing trophy-size steelhead.
Creek, construction of a new shway at Harvey Dam on The largest population of steelhead in California inhabits
Santa Paula Creek, and various restoration projects in the Klamath River system. The California Fish and Wildlife
Topanga and San Mateo creek watersheds. Plan estimated an annual run size of 283,000 adult steel-
North Coast. The historical range of steelhead on the head for the entire Klamath River system. The size of
north coast (north of San Francisco Bay) has not been the fall-run from the 1977-1978 to the 1982-1983 seasons
reduced to the extent it has in other areas of the state. ranged from 87,000 to 181,410 adults annually. The size
Major dams that have blocked access to historical spawn- of the winter steelhead population in this system in the
ing and rearing areas are Iron Gate Dam on the Klamath early 1980s was probably about 10,000 to 30,000 adults
River, Lewiston Dam on the Trinity River, Ruth Dam on annually, based on limited sport angler and Native Ameri-
the Mad River, Scott Dam on the Eel River, Coyote Dam can gillnet harvest data. The steelhead population of the
on the Russian River, and Warm Springs Dam on Dry Klamath River excluding the Trinity River has declined
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
422
dramatically, most likely due to high summer water tem- smolts released, steelhead runs in north coast drainages
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
peratures in the mainstem. are comprised mostly of naturally produced sh.
The most reliable population estimates for steelhead on Since the early 1970s, systematic surveys have been
the north coast are for the Trinity River, a major tributary undertaken on summer steelhead holding habitat to
of the Klamath River. DFG has operated several weirs census adult summer steelhead. The most abundant popu-
in the system since 1977 to obtain steelhead run size, lations are in the Middle Fork Eel and the North Fork
sport harvest, and spawning escapement estimates. Esti- Trinity rivers. The Middle Fork Eel River population has
mates for some years during this period are not available not fully recovered from the devastating 1964 ood which
because of the difculty in maintaining weirs in high
water. Eight years of run size estimates for the Trinity
River upstream of Willow Creek range from 7,833 to 37,276
and average 15,185 adults. The 1991-92 estimated run size
for the Trinity River above Willow Creek was 11,417.
Steelhead runs in the Eel River system have declined
signicantly. Annual counts made at Benbow Dam on the
South Fork Eel River show a decline from an average of
18,784 during the 1940s to 3,355 during the 1970s (counts
were discontinued after 1975). Annual counts of adults
at Cape Horn Dam in the upper watershed of the main
stem Eel River declined from an average of 4,063 during
the 1930s to 540 during the 1990s. Annual counts of
Eel River Steelhead Population Trends
wild steelhead at this location show an even greater
Data shows steelhead population trends between 1971 and 1998 as counted for the
decline: from an average of 893 in the 1980s to 82 in the Upper Eel River wild steelhead population and the summertime steelhead population
(wild and hatchery) of the Middle Fork of the Eel River.
1990s. Recent anecdotal information indicates that steel-
head populations also appear to have declined signicantly
aggraded the river bed, lled-in holding pools, and smoth-
in the South Fork Eel River, partly due to predation or
ered spawning gravels. The adult population has declined
competition from introduced Sacramento squawsh, which
steadily since 1987 and is now about 500. The present esti-
are now widespread throughout the system.
mated annual statewide abundance of summer steelhead
The California Fish and Wildlife Plan estimated an annual is about 2,000 adults.
spawning escapement of 50,000 steelhead in the Russian
Major factors impacting north coast steelhead stocks are
River. Presently, escapement of naturally produced steel-
watershed disturbances due to logging, grazing, and road
head in this system probably ranges from about 1,750 to
building, water diversions, and other agricultural impacts.
7,000 adults. Historically, steelhead spawned throughout
Poaching is a problem, especially for summer steelhead,
the Russian River system, but today many of the tributar-
which must over-summer in fresh water, often concen-
ies, including the East Fork, are now inaccessible due to
trated in a few pools. This renders them susceptible to
dam construction.
snagging and netting, especially if the pools are located
Marin County tributaries to San Pablo and San Francisco in accessible areas. Urbanization of the watershed and
bays have all sustained intensive urban development and gravel mining operations have caused serious problems on
anadromous runs in many streams have been extirpated. central coast streams.
West Marin County tributaries to Tomales Bay and the
Central Valley. Steelhead were historically well-distrib-
Pacic Ocean still have steelhead with small population
uted throughout the Sacramento and San Joaquin river
estimates. Steelhead escapement in Lagunitas Creek is
systems, from the upper Sacramento/Pit river systems
probably about 400 to 500 adults annually.
south to the Kings River (and possibly Kern river systems
There are four DFG hatcheries in the north coast area: in wet years) and in both east- and west-side tributaries
Iron Gate Hatchery on the Klamath River, Trinity River of the Sacramento River. Present distribution of steelhead
Hatchery, Mad River Hatchery, and Warm Springs Hatchery in the Central Valley has been greatly reduced, mainly
on Dry Creek (tributary to the Russian River). Average from construction of impassable dams that block access to
annual production for these four hatcheries totals about essential spawning and rearing habitat. It is estimated that
1,750,000 steelhead yearlings per year. The private, non- 82 to 95 percent of the historical steelhead spawning and
prot Rowdy Creek enhancement hatchery on the Smith rearing habitat in the Central Valley has been lost to dam
River releases approximately 125,000 steelhead smolts construction/passage problems.
annually. Despite the signicant number of hatchery
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 423
and in some cases, is greater. It is estimated that chinook
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
salmon escapement was one to two million spawners
annually in the Central Valley prior to large-scale habitat
changes, so a cursory estimate of the annual steelhead
run size is one to two million adults
A cursory estimate of current steelhead abundance in
the Central Valley, based on Red Bluff Diversion Dam
(RBDD) counts, hatchery counts, and past natural spawn-
ing escapement estimates for some tributaries, is no
greater than 10,000 adult sh. A more reliable indicator
of the magnitude of the decline of Central Valley hatchery
and wild stocks is the trend in the RBDD adult steelhead
counts, which have declined from an average annual count
Adjusted Counts of Upper Sacramento River Steelhead at
Red Bluff Diversion Dam of 11,187 adults for the ten-year period beginning in 1967,
Data shows steelhead counted at the Red Bluff Diversion Dam between 1967 and 1993.
to 2,202 adults annually in the early 1990s. Natural spawn-
ing escapement estimates above RBDD for the period 1967
to 1993 averaged 3,465 and ranged from zero (1989 and
Naturally-spawning steelhead stocks are known to occur
1991) to 13,248 (1968). Natural escapement has shown
in the upper Sacramento River and tributaries, Mill, Deer,
a more substantial decline than hatchery escapement.
and Butte creeks, and the Feather, Yuba, American, Moke-
There are four steelhead hatcheries in the Central Valley:
lumne, Calaveras, Stanislaus, and Tuolumne rivers. Natu-
Coleman National Fish Hatchery on Battle Creek, Feather
rally spawning populations could be more widespread,
River Hatchery, Nimbus Hatchery on the American River,
however, as indicated by recent implementation of mon-
and the Mokelumne River Hatchery. Together, these
itoring programs that have found steelhead smolts in
hatcheries produce about 1.5 million yearlings annually.
streams previously thought not to contain populations,
such as Auburn Ravine, Dry Creek and the Stanislaus River. Factors affecting abundance, persistence, and recovery
It is possible that naturally spawning populations exist in have been identied for anadromous shes in the Sacra-
many other streams but are undetected due to lack of mento and San Joaquin River systems and these apply
monitoring or research programs. A genetic evaluation by reasonably well to Central Valley steelhead. These factors
the National Marine Fisheries Service provides evidence include: water diversions and water management, entrain-
that a native Central Valley steelhead stock still exists. ment, dams and other structures, bank protection proj-
ects, dredging and sediment disposal, and gravel mining.
Until very recently, steelhead were considered to be
The primary impact to Central Valley steelhead is the sub-
extinct in the San Joaquin River system. However, this
stantial loss of spawning and rearing habitat due to dam
conclusion was based on little information and no eld
construction at low elevations on all the major tributaries.
studies. The presence of steelhead in the San Joaquin
River system has been conrmed by observations of steel-
head smolts in the Stanislaus River and observations
Dennis R. McEwan
of steelhead adults and smolts in the Calaveras and
California Department of Fish and Game
Tuolumne rivers. Adult steelhead have also been observed
in the Stanislaus River and in the San Joaquin River at its
conuence with the Merced River.
The California Fish and Wildlife Plan estimated that there
were 40,000 adult steelhead in the Central Valley drain-
ages in the early 1960s. In the 1950s, the DFG estimated
the average annual steelhead run size in the Sacramento
River system above the mouth of the Feather River was
20,540 adults. Estimating steelhead abundance before
extensive water development and habitat modication
occurred is difcult given the paucity of historical infor-
mation. However, an estimate can be made by comparing
the relative abundance of chinook salmon and steelhead
in other, relatively unimpaired river systems. These esti-
mates show that steelhead abundance in these river sys-
tems is at least as great as chinook salmon abundance,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
424
References
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
Barnhart, R.A. 1986. Species proles: life histories and
environmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
brates (Pacic Southwest) - steelhead. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.60). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
TR EL-82-4. 21 p.
Behnke, R.J. 1992. Native trout of western North America.
American Fisheries Society Monograph no. 6. 275 p.
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead
Trout (CACSST). 1988. Restoring the balance. 1988 ann.
rpt. 84 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game. 1965. California
Fish and Wildlife Plan.
Interagency Ecological Program (IEP) Steelhead Project
Work Team. 1999. Monitoring, Assessment, and Research
on Central Valley Steelhead: Status of Knowledge, Review
of Existing Programs, and Assessment of Needs. In Com-
prehensive Monitoring, Assessment, and Research Program
Plan, Tech. App. VII-A-11.
McEwan, D.R. Central Valley steelhead. In proceedings of
the Central Valley Salmonid Symposium, 1997, R. Brown
ed. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull. No. 179. (in
press).
McEwan, D. and T.A. Jackson. 1996. Steelhead Restoration
and Management Plan for California. Calif. Dept. of Fish
and Game.
Titus, R.G., D.C. Erman, and W.M. Snider. (in prep.) His-
tory and status of steelhead in California coastal drainages
south of San Francisco Bay.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 425
Commercial Landings -
Salmonids
Commercial Landings - Salmonids
Total Salmon 1
Chinook Coho
Total Salmon 1
Chinook Coho
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- 5,592,216 1980 5,715,203 301,566 6,017,193
1917 ---- ---- 6,085,997 1981 5,534,833 477,237 6,040,353
1918 ---- ---- 5,933,346 1982 7,448,614 551,939 8,000,561
1919 ---- ---- 7,208,382 1983 2,144,365 266,412 2,410,783
1920 ---- ---- 6,066,190 1984 2,621,248 348,417 2,969,665
1921 ---- ---- 4,483,105 1985 4,519,174 80,396 4,639,296
1922 ---- ---- 4,338,317 1986 7,396,751 201,563 7,598,314
1923 ---- ---- 3,736,924 1987 9,047,150 245,608 9,296,162
1924 ---- ---- 6,374,573 1988 14,430,810 319,489 14,750,299
1925 ---- ---- 5,481,536 1989 5,489,796 230,581 5,724,836
1926 ---- ---- 3,863,677 1990 4,122,351 313,731 4,436,082
1927 ---- ---- 4,921,600 1991 3,238,000 459,000 3,697,000
1928 ---- ---- 3,444,306 1992 1,632,000 11,000 1,643,000
1929 ---- ---- 4,033,660 1993 2,536,884 ---- 2,536,884
1930 ---- ---- 4,085,650 1994 3,103,104 ---- 3,103,104
1931 ---- ---- 3,666,841 1995 6,633,463 ---- 6,633,463
1932 ---- ---- 2,649,204 1996 4,113,403 ---- 4,113,403
1933 ---- ---- 3,657,661 1997 5,247,792 ---- 5,247,792
1934 ---- ---- 3,921,530 1998 1,847,102 ---- 1,847,102
1935 ---- ---- 4,773,112 1999 3,845,762 ---- 3,845,762
1936 ---- ---- 4,093,475
1937 ---- ---- 5,934,996 - - - - Landings data not available.
1938 ---- ---- 2,170,921
1
1939 ---- ---- 2,238,755 Prior to 1958, a commercial salmon fishery in rivers and bays existed. This data
1940 ---- ---- 5,160,393 is not shown.
1941 ---- ---- 2,946,030
1942 ---- ---- 4,063,306
1943 ---- ---- 5,285,527
1944 ---- ---- 7,021,848
1945 ---- ---- 7,912,754
1946 ---- ---- 7,196,527
1947 ---- ---- 8,104,297
1948 ---- ---- 5,860,915
1949 ---- ---- 5,531,021
1950 ---- ---- 5,867,346
1951 ---- ---- 5,849,530
1952 5,785,214 751,677 6,536,891
1953 6,335,634 800,589 7,136,223
1954 8,167,724 431,855 8,599,579
1955 9,245,882 411,114 9,656,996
1956 9,814,366 460,536 10,274,902
1957 4,640,709 536,200 5,176,909
1958 3,576,385 80,456 3,656,841
1959 6,543,223 225,476 6,768,699
1960 6,096,384 125,061 6,221,445
1961 8,100,964 536,943 8,637,907
1962 6,301,520 371,341 6,672,861
1963 6,829,048 1,019,642 7,848,690
1964 7,562,445 1,918,770 9,481,215
1965 8,102,205 1,571,469 9,737,674
1966 5,979,027 3,467,427 9,446,995
1967 3,866,374 3,375,944 7,401,729
1968 4,612,488 2,337,629 6,951,931
1969 4,895,322 1,234,529 6,150,906
1970 5,269,494 1,341,820 6,611,522
1971 4,925,826 3,183,830 8,116,878
1972 5,372,779 1,050,355 6,423,289
1973 7,586,832 1,993,863 9,668,984
1974 5,048,456 3,700,084 8,749,414
1975 5,781,321 1,128,304 6,925,172
1976 4,943,891 2,843,849 7,787,787
1977 5,637,016 283,222 5,929,542
1978 5,492,397 1,295,073 6,787,474
1979 7,547,752 1,197,983 8,749,498
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
428
Recreational Catch -
Salmonids
Recreational Catch - Salmonids
Chinook Chinook Coho Coho Total
Salmon CPFV 2; 3 Salmon Skiff 2; 3 Salmon 4
Salmon CPFV Salmon Skiff
No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1
Year
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,000
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,200
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- 23,100
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- 56,300
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- 72,000
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- 86,500
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- 98,700
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- 119,900
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- 129,000
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- 114,500
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- 44,700
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- 52,700
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- 55,900
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- 37,900
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- 43,000
1962 85,700 33,900 1,900 11 121,511
1963 66,200 17,600 6,300 26 90,126
1964 77,300 24,600 14,700 25 116,625
1965 46,000 14,200 5,700 15 65,915
1966 62,700 10,900 7,500 25 81,125
1967 60,900 11,700 24,000 26 96,626
1968 113,600 40,600 14,000 26 168,226
1969 100,000 55,800 11,400 17 167,217
1970 93,000 54,800 5,300 9 153,109
1971 108,400 79,900 22,400 45 210,745
1972 139,800 60,700 11,800 33 212,333
1973 119,500 78,500 5,200 27 203,227
1974 91,700 65,800 16,200 60 173,760
1975 68,300 35,400 5,500 15,800 125,000
1976 50,600 30,400 15,300 42,600 138,900
1977 54,700 49,600 2,400 11,800 118,500
1978 42,000 34,100 3,600 41,000 120,700
1979 71,800 40,600 2,000 14,500 128,900
1980 62,900 22,500 1,700 20,400 107,500
1981 59,800 24,200 1,100 9,500 94,600
1982 91,500 47,200 3,900 22,800 165,400
1983 46,500 17,300 500 26,700 91,000
1984 68,200 19,600 800 18,200 106,800
1985 107,300 63,800 1,400 14,400 186,900
1986 86,500 55,100 2,200 16,500 160,300
1987 121,800 70,700 4,300 43,000 239,800
1988 109,100 62,300 3,500 31,200 206,100
1989 105,000 81,700 6,200 43,400 236,300
1990 78,300 61,600 10,200 41,500 191,600
1991 39,900 40,600 13,500 55,800 149,800
1992 42,400 31,100 1,000 10,500 85,000
1993 66,000 44,000 4,200 25,600 139,800
1994 99,100 84,100 (closed 5/1/94) 500 183,700
1995 182,000 215,200 (closed 5/1/95) 900 398,100
1996 72,900 91,200 closed 600 164,700
1997 122,400 106,600 closed 500 229,500
1998 59,700 62,300 closed 100 122,100
1999 40,000 47,700 closed 600 88,300
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational fishing for Coho was allowed before May 1 between 1994 and 1995.
3
Recreational fishing for Coho was prohibited after 1996.
4
Total recreational salmon catch between 1947 and 1961 is derived from CPFV logbook data only.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 429
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
430
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 431
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
432
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 433
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
434
Bay and Estuary
Ecosystems Besides serving as critical habitat for wildlife, the wet-
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems
lands that fringe many of the state’s bays and estuaries
T
also provide other important ecological and human ben-
he bays and estuaries dotting California’s coastline are
ets. Wetland plants and soils act as natural buffers
truly the jewels in the crown of the state’s marine
between land and ocean, absorbing ood waters, dissipat-
environment. These partially enclosed bodies of water are
ing storm surge, and ltering sediments, nutrients, and
protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and
other pollutants. The state’s bays and estuaries are also
storms. Bays are wide inlets or indentations of the ocean,
cultural centers of coastal communities, serving as the
whereas estuaries are inlets containing the terminus of
focal point for local commerce, recreation, and cultural
a river or stream. Many of the organisms described in
activities. The protected waters of California’s bays and
this report spend part of their life in bays or estuaries.
estuaries support important public infrastructure uses,
However, this section of the report focuses primarily
serving as harbors and ports vital for the state’s shipping,
on the plant and animal species that utilize the state’s
maritime, and industrial related economy.
estuarine areas as their principal habitat.
Because of the complexity and fragility of estuarine eco-
California estuaries vary widely in shape and size, and
systems, they are imperiled by their proximity to inten-
are often referred to as lagoons, harbors, inlets, esteros,
sive human activity and development. Sewage, industrial
and sounds. The dening feature of an estuary is the
waste, dredging, lling of marshes and tidal ats, and oil
mixing of fresh water from upland and riverine sources
development and spills typify the long-term degradation
with oceanic salt water. The estuary ecosystem forms a
of many of California estuaries. As a result, 40 animal
zone of transition from land to sea and from fresh to salt
and 10 plant species that occur in or depend on the
water. The sheltered waters of California’s estuaries sup-
state’s estuarine ecosystems, currently are listed by the
port unique assemblages of plant and animal communi-
federal government as threatened, endangered, or pro-
ties, varying by environmental conditions and location.
tected status. Additionally, environmental harm from non-
Estuarine habitat types include shallow open waters,
indigenous, or invasive, species has increased exponen-
fresh and saltwater marshes, sandy beaches, tidal mud
tially in recent years. San Francisco Bay is considered by
and sand ats, rocky shorelines, oyster-shell beds, river
experts to be “the most invaded estuary in the world.”
deltas, eelgrass meadows, and kelp beds.
Notable examples of deleterious nonindigenous species
California’s estuarine environment sustains remarkably
are the Chinese mitten crab, the Asian clam, and the
high levels of productivity. Often referred to as the
European green crab. Such invaders are capable of wreak-
“ocean’s nursery,” these waters support early life-history
ing extensive ecological and economic harm. As Califor-
stages of such important organisms as California halibut,
nia’s population grows, these impacts can be expected
Dungeness crab, Pacic herring, starry ounder, and
to increase. So too does the importance of protecting
numerous surfperch species. Representative organisms
the state’s estuarine resources for all of their natural,
typifying California estuaries include rails and stilts,
economic, and aesthetic values.
harbor seal, Dungeness crab, surfperches, leopard shark,
starry ounder, and clams and oysters. These animals are
linked to one another and to an assortment of specialized Eric J. Larson
plants and microscopic organisms through a complex food California Department of Fish and Game
web, unique to estuarine environments. Tens of thousands
of birds, mammals, sh, and other wildlife depend on
estuarine habitats as places to live, feed, and reproduce.
Additionally, the state’s estuaries provide ideal locations
for migratory birds in the Pacic Flyway to rest and forage
during their journey. Due to their critical importance, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Estuary
Project has identied San Francisco Bay, Morro Bay, and
Santa Monica Bay as nationally signicant estuaries, thus
affording federal funding for research, management, and
restoration efforts. This designation of three of the state’s
estuaries in no way diminishes the ecological importance
of the other bay and estuarine ecosystems that dot the
California coastline.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 435
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
436
Bay and Estuarine
Invertebrate face in protecting our resources. Increasingly, as pop-
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview
ulation pressures continue pressing on estuaries, espe-
Resources: Overview cially near the large metropolitan areas in southern and
central California, only remnant populations of harvest-
able bivalve mollusks will remain.
C alifornia’s bay and estuarine invertebrate resources
The law of unintended consequences and the complexity
are myriad, and when most of us think of these
of human interaction within the natural world can work
resources, extensive mudats come to mind, exposed
together in interesting and often unpredictable ways. The
at low tides and teeming with shorebirds and skittering
extirpation of the sea otter from most of California in the
crabs. The chapters in this section feature the molluscan
nineteenth century allowed populations of geoduck and
bivalves we know as clams and the caridean shrimps
pismo clams to ourish in the absence of this major preda-
known collectively as the bay shrimps. The latter are
tor. Under the protection of the federal endangered spe-
the object of targeted commercial trawl sheries in San
cies act, sea otter populations have reoccupied their his-
Francisco Bay for use mostly as live bait in the sport
torical range in central California and as a consequence,
sturgeon and striped bass sheries, while the edible
have reduced geoduck and pismo clam populations in the
clams have traditionally been largely the domain of
Morro Bay and Monterey Bay regions to a point below the
recreational shermen.
level of harvestable surplus.
In recent decades, California’s bays and estuaries have
The multiple threats of habitat destruction, pollution,
been under increasing assault from the introduction of
exotic invasions, and the re-establishment of sea otter
exotic species, many of which are invertebrates. Some of
populations could mean the end of California’s bay and
these like the Asian clam have signicantly altered the
estuarine resources as we have known them unless Califor-
ecology of San Francisco Bay and can be found in densities
nia’s shery managers, resource scientists and political
as high as several thousand per square meter. The exotic
leaders can work together to nd timely solutions to these
green crab and Chinese mitten crab have also adversely
problems.
impacted native species and their habitats. Green crabs
can outcompete juvenile Dungeness crab in mudat habi-
tats while the mitten crab can burrow into and weaken
Peter Kalvass
levees along the San Francisco Bay Delta waterways. The
California Department of Fish and Game
problems caused by such alien species are discussed in
another section of this publication.
California’s coastal clam resources have been under attack
from numerous other sources as well – from industrial
waste and municipal sewage, to habitat loss and degrada-
tion, to exotic viruses hitchhiking on imported aquaculture
seed stock, to over-harvesting and poaching. Bivalve mol-
lusks dwelling in our embayments and estuaries by the
luck of the evolutionary draw just happen to occupy those
habitats most likely to be near high concentrations of
human populations. In this respect, they have been our
“canary in the coal mine” warning us when the conse-
quences of under-regulated industrialization and human
overpopulation have exceeded the carrying capacities of
our bays and estuaries. Although wastewater treatment
standards have signicantly reduced the concentrations
of some pollutants entering California’s waters in recent
decades, bioaccumulation processes still result in certain
bivalve populations being unsafe to eat. For example, a
potentially signicant resource of Manila clams exists in
San Francisco Bay, but water quality problems discourage
public use in many clam beds. The accelerated silting-in
of Morro Bay and Bolinas Bay and the deleterious effects
of septic and agricultural runoff in Tomales Bay are just a
few more examples of the challenges resource managers
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 437
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
438
Bay Shrimp
History of Fishery truck in either live tanks or iced-down wooden trays with
Bay Shrimp
burlap linings.
T he commercial shery for bay shrimp in San Francisco Since 1985, annual landings of bay shrimp have averaged
Bay began in the early 1860s, with some accounts indi- 120,000 pounds and have ranged from 75,000 to 150,000
cating that the earliest participants used small-meshed pounds. In 1999, 11 boats participated in the bay shrimp
bag seines. By 1871, Chinese immigrants established sh- shery. Eight of these boats shed exclusively in north San
ing camps along the shores of the bay and exported large Francisco Bay and three shed exclusively in south San
quantities of dried shrimp meal (dried heads and shells) Francisco Bay. However, the total weight of bay shrimp
to China. These shermen introduced what is now known landed was almost twice as high in the south San Francisco
as the Chinese shrimp net, a funnel-shaped net that is Bay versus north San Francisco Bay due to higher catch per
anchored in place and relies upon the tide to carry shrimp boat, and higher catch per hour trawled. Primary shing
into the net. Fishing camps also existed in Tomales Bay locations are Alviso Slough and Redwood Creek in south
between 1890 and 1895. At the height of the shery in San Francisco Bay, north San Francisco Bay, northern San
the 1890s, as many as 26 shing camps operated up to 50 Pablo Bay, Petaluma Creek, and Carquinez Strait. Fishing
nets each in San Francisco Bay with daily landings of 400 generally occurs in waters less than 20 feet deep in chan-
to 8,000 pounds of shrimp, and annual landings exceeding nels of the estuary’s shallow reaches.
ve million pounds. Studies were required by the Califor-
The bay shrimp shery exhibits a distinct seasonal pattern
nia Fish and Game Commission between 1897 and 1911
both in pounds landed, and catch-per-unit (CPUE) of effort
to address concerns that many young sh, particularly
as measured in pounds caught per hour trawled, with
striped bass, were killed in the shrimp nets. The results
uctuations typically on the order of ve to eight-fold for
of these studies prompted a May to August season closure
both variables. Since 1996, March and April have had the
and a prohibition of Chinese shrimp nets in 1911. The
lowest average monthly landings at 3,000 pounds as well
legislature modied this decision in 1915 allowing Chinese
as the lowest CPUE. Peak CPUE and total catch typically
shrimp nets to be used in south San Francisco Bay. About
occurs in the months of June through November. Peak
this time, beam trawl nets began to be used by com-
monthly catch for the past four years ranged from 10,000
mercial shrimp harvesters in northern San Francisco Bay
to 12,000 pounds. Such seasonal variations in CPUE are
and San Pablo Bay. Annual landings gradually increased
most likely a result of uctuations in salinity. However,
over the next two decades and peaked at 3.4 million
seasonal variations in total pounds landed may reect
pounds in 1935. Following this period, landings steadily
corresponding uctuations in demand for bay shrimp by
declined in response to a decline in demand for fresh and
sport anglers.
dried shrimp as food. By the early 1960s, average annual
The current value of bay shrimp landed each year is
landings declined to 1,500 pounds, and in 1964 no shrimp
approximately $350,000, with the average pound of bay
were landed.
shrimp selling for $3.50 ex-vessel price. Additionally,
The current commercial shery for bay shrimp developed
over the past decade the bay shrimp shery has caught
in 1965 to supply live bait for sturgeon and striped bass
between 9,000 and 2,000 pounds of staghorn sculpin and
sport shing with a small percentage of the catch reserved
yellown goby per year at a total value ranging between
for human consumption. Regulation changes in the 1980s
$4,000 and $25,000.
eliminated shing in most of Suisun Bay due to high inci-
dental catch and associated mortality of small striped bass
in shrimp trawls. Currently, neither a quota nor season
closure is in effect for the commercial shery, and land-
ings are inuenced primarily by demand. Regulations also
allow for the catch of yellown (Oriental) goby, long jaw
mudsucker, and staghorn sculpin with a commercial bay
shrimp permit. Sport regulations allow the use of hand-
powered shrimp trawls no greater than 18 by 24 inches at
the mouth and a daily bag limit of ve pounds. Any nsh
caught in the sport shery must be returned to the water.
From 1965 to the present, the commercial shery for bay
shrimp has exclusively used beam trawls. These trawls
are spread by either a wooden or galvanized steel pole,
are 20 to 25 feet wide, and use a mesh of 7/8 inch to
one inch in the cod end. Live tanks are used on all California Bay Shrimp, Crangon franciscorum
vessels, and shrimp are transported to local bait shops by Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 439
Bay Shrimp
4
millions of pounds landed
3
Bay Shrimp
2
Commercial Landings
1
1916-1999, Bay Shrimp
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins, log books,
0 1916
and commercial
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
Status of Biological Knowledge place in nearshore areas outside of the estuary. During
fertilization, female California bay shrimp, and other cran-
T he bay shrimp (grass shrimp) shery is composed of gonid shrimp, extrude their eggs into their brood pouch
four species: the California bay shrimp (Crangon fran- (on their abdominal region). The fertilized eggs are held in
ciscorum), the blacktail bay shrimp (Crangon nigricauda), the brood pouch throughout development (approximately
the blackspotted bay shrimp (Crangon nigromaculata) and 8 to 12 weeks) until they hatch.
the oriental shrimp (Palaemon macrodactylus). The cran- California bay shrimp tolerate a wide range of salinity and
gonid shrimp (“crangonid” is a taxonomic family) are temperature. During a 17-year interagency study in the
easily distinguished from other shrimp by a very short ros- San Francisco estuary, 90 percent of collected specimens
trum that usually does not extend beyond the eyestalks, were found in waters with salinity ranging from 2.8 to 25.9
a dorsally attened body, and poorly developed chelipeds. parts per thousand (ppt) (mean 13.9 ppt). In the same
All four species prefer a soft substrate such as mud or area, mean temperature was 64.8˚F with 90 percent col-
sand, but can occasionally be found over rocky substrates lected between 55.8 and 70.3˚F. Juveniles may be found
and in the rocky intertidal. throughout the estuary where salinity is greater than one
The California bay shrimp, is the primary component of part per thousand, although they prefer shallow (less than
commercial shrimp landings. It is the dominant caridean 16 feet), low salinity waters and migrate to deeper, higher
shrimp (“caridean” is a taxonomic group between order salinity waters as they grow. The annual abundance of
and family) in most Pacic Coast estuaries, and the most juveniles is strongly correlated with fresh water outow in
common species in the San Francisco estuary. The Califor- the winter and spring; lowest abundance occurs in years
nia bay shrimp ranges from Alaska to San Diego to a depth with low outow.
of at least 180 feet. It is the largest of the bay shrimp Like other members of the genus, they are considered
species. Adult females and males may reach total lengths opportunistic feeders, and primary prey items may change
of 3.2 inches and 2.4 inches, respectively, in California, with size of the shrimp. Smaller California bay shrimp
while a maximum size of 4.3 inches has been reported (< 1.2 inches total length, TL) consume mostly foraminifer-
in the Columbia River. Life span varies by estuary. In the ans, ostracods, and copepods; intermediate size shrimp
San Francisco estuary, males are estimated to attain a prey upon amphipods and bivalves, and larger shrimp (>
maximum age of 1.5 years and females may live up to 2.5 2.4 inches TL) consume mostly bivalves, caridean shrimp,
years. This species has been reported to be a protandrous and polychaetes. Myoid shrimp are some common prey
hermophodite, with males changing to females. items in parts of the San Francisco estuary. Little is known
Their larvae develop into the post-larvae stage in about 30 about the ecology of larval and postlarval crangonids.
to 40 days. Both sexes reach maturity in about nine to 12 However, diatoms and small zooplankton such as copepods
months. Males mature at approximately 1.3 to 1.5 inches, are probably an important part of the larval diet.
while females mature at about 1.9 to 2.1 inches. Though The blacktail bay shrimp, ranges from Alaska to Baja
gravid females have been observed in all months of the California and is found in estuaries and nearshore ocean
year, they are most abundant in December through June. areas to a depth of at least 190 feet. This species is
Spawning occurs near the mouth of the estuary in the less tolerant of low salinities than California bay shrimp.
summer months. During winter and spring, spawning takes In the San Francisco estuary, 80 percent of collected
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
440
specimens were found in waters with salinity ranging from A sixth species of bay shrimp, Exopalaemon carinicauda,
Bay Shrimp
18.0 to 31.7 ppt (mean 25.9 ppt). In the same area, was reported from San Francisco Bay in 1993. This species
mean temperature was 60.6˚F with 80 percent collected seems to have been introduced accidentally from Korea.
between 51.3˚ and 66.7˚F. Juveniles tolerate lower salini- It is distinguished from other shrimp by its long, toothed
ties and higher temperatures than adults. Adult females rostrum, large chelae, and dorsal ridges. Its abundance
and males may reach total lengths of 2.5 and 2.4 inches, and distribution in the estuary, and the impact of this
respectively. Males may live up to one year and females species on the ecosystem are unknown.
may live up to 1.5 years. Both sexes are reported to Bay shrimp are an important component in the diets
mature by the end of the rst year; males are thought of nearshore and estuarine shes. Twenty-four predator
to spawn once and die. Male blacktails mature at approxi- species have been identied in the estuary and 20 in
mately 1.1 inches, while females mature at about 1.5 to the adjacent ocean environment. Major predators include
1.6 inches. Juvenile shrimp usually peak in abundance green and white sturgeon, striped bass, leopard shark,
from May through August, but in some years there is a brown smoothhound shark, big skate, white croaker, stag-
second fall-winter peak. Blacktail bay shrimp feed mostly horn sculpin, starry ounder, English sole, pile and rub-
on amphipods. berlip surfperch, Pacic tomcod and brown rocksh.
The blackspotted bay shrimp is a very minor component
of the catch. It ranges from the Gulf of the Farallones
Status of the Populations
to Baja California, and is more common in the nearshore
ocean area than in estuaries. It is found on sandy bottoms
T he absolute abundance of bay shrimp has not been
at depths ranging from 15 to 575 feet and reaches a maxi-
estimated nor has the impact of commercial shing on
mum size of 2.8 inches TL. Females mature at about 1.7
these populations. However, annual abundance indices of
inches and males mature at about 1.1 inches. Blackspotted
bay shrimp indicate that abundance can vary widely
bay shrimp tolerate a smaller salinity range and lower
from year to year. For example, annual abundance indices
temperatures than the other two common crangonids.
of adult California and blacktail bay shrimp varied by
They are generally limited to areas with high salinity
more than a factor of 10 from 1980 to 1996. Studies
and cool temperatures, with 80 percent of the specimens
indicate that the abundance of California bay shrimp
collected at salinities ranging from 25.9 to 31.9 ppt and
increases with increased river inow to the estuary, prob-
temperatures ranging from 51.6˚ to 64.0˚ F in the long-
ably because of the increased low-salinity habitat which
term interagency study. Abundance increased during the
is favorable for the rearing of juveniles. In contrast, abun-
1987-1992 drought. The Oriental shrimp, was introduced
dance of blacktail bay shrimp increased during years of
to the San Francisco estuary from Asia in the 1950s and
low river inow, although not to levels capable of replac-
is now a signicant component of the commercial catch.
ing California bay shrimp in abundance.
This species reaches a total length of about 3.0 inches
and appears to complete its entire life-cycle in estuarine
waters. It is common in lower salinity areas, including
Management Considerations
south San Francisco Bay and areas upstream from San
Pablo Bay. The center of its distribution is either Suisun See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Bay or the west delta. It is more tolerant of lower salinity further information.
than the crangonid shrimp and is abundant over a broad
range of salinities. In San Francisco Bay, 80 percent of
Paul Reilly, Kevin Walters, and David Richardson
collected specimens have been found in waters with salin-
California Department of Fish and Game
ity ranging from 1.9 to 28.1 ppt (mean 13.5 ppt) and
temperatures ranging from 54.1˚ to 71.˚ F (mean 64.4˚
F). Abundance of oriental shrimp did not appear to be
affected by the 1987-1992 drought. Gravid female oriental
shrimp occur most frequently from May to August, with
larvae hatching during summer and early fall.
An additional species of Crangon, C. munitella, has been
collected on rare occasions within the estuary. For exam-
ple, from 1980 to 1996 the DFG’s Bay-Delta Project caught
more than 2.2 million California bay shrimp in otter trawls,
while observing only 26 C. munitella.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 441
References
Bay Shrimp
Baxter, R., K. Hieb, S. DeLeon, K. Fleming, and J. Orsi.
1999. Report on the 1980-1995 sh, shrimp, and crab
sampling in the San Francisco Estuary, California. Calif.
Dept. Fish and Game Tech. Rep. 63. 503 p.
Bonnot, P. 1932. The California shrimp industry. Calif. Div.
Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 38. 20 p.
Brienes, M. 1983. China Camp and the San Francisco Bay
shrimp shery. Calif. Dept. Parks and Recreation, Sacra-
mento. 154 p.
Israel, H.R. 1936. A contribution toward the life history of
two California shrimps, Crago franciscorum (Stimpson) and
Crago nigricauda (Stimpson). Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
Fish Bull. 46. 28 p.
Jensen, G.C. 1995. Pacic coast crabs and shrimps. Sea
Challengers, Monterey, California.
Siegfried, C.A. 1989. Species proles. Life histories and
environmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
brates (Pacic Southwest). Crangonid Shrimp. Fish and
Wildlife Service Biol. Rep. 82(11.125). 18 p.
Skinner, J.E. 1962. Historical review of the resources of
the San Francisco Bay area. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Water Proj. Br. Rept. (1):1-225.
Wahle, R.A. 1985. The feeding ecology of Crangon fran-
ciscorum and Crangon nigricauda in San Francisco Bay,
California. Jour. Crustacean Biol 5:311-326.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
442
Pacific Razor Clam
History of Fishery in less than seven seconds. A digger must work quickly
Pacific Razor Clam
to capture a clam before it burrows to depths that are
T he Pacic razor clam (Siliqua patula) is one of the difcult to reach. At the surface of the sand, the clam
tastiest food clams in California and is diligently pur- assumes an almost vertical position with only siphons
sued by sportsmen on the beaches where it is abundant. exposed. Water is drawn into the inhalant siphon by a
The best California beaches for razor clams are in Del current set up by the action of cilia lining the mantle
Norte and Humboldt counties. Before 1949, a small com- cavity. As water is passed across the gills, planktonic food
mercial shery existed, but only a few pounds of clams organisms are guided by cilia and a pair of palps to the
were ever sold. Commercial shing for razor clams is mouth. Respiratory exchange takes place as the water
presently prohibited. passes over the gills, and waste products are passed out in
the water through the smaller exhalant siphon.
There were no seasonal restrictions on razor clamming
until 1953. Due to a decline in the numbers of larger clams The life-cycle of the razor clam is typical of most clams.
at that time, Clam Beach in Humboldt County was divided Sexes are separate, fertilization is external, and free-
into a north (Mad River to Strawberry Creek) and south swimming larvae develop three or four days after fertiliza-
beach (Strawberry Creek to Little River) to limit shing tion. Approximately eight weeks later, the larvae settle
effort seasonally. The south beach was open to clamming into the sand and the juvenile phase of life begins. Sexual
only in odd-numbered years, while the north beach was maturity in razor clams may be related to size as well
open during even-numbered years. A similar restriction as age. While maturity is commonly achieved at a length
went into effect for the razor clam bed at Crescent City in of about four inches, the age at maturity varies with
Del Norte County in 1955. geographic location; usually at the age of two years in
California. Razor clams usually spawn in May and June
A 1960 study on Clam Beach concluded that the alternate-
in California, mid-May to July in Washington, and as late
year closures were responsible for a decline in older and
as August in Alaska. The optimum temperature for razor
larger clams on the south beach due to of the concentra-
clam spawning is around 55° F.
tion of clammers there. As a result, all of Clam Beach was
opened to clamming from 1971 to 1973. During that three- Razor clams attain their maximum rate of growth during
year period, catch and effort were monitored, and public their rst year of life. The growth rate remains high
reaction noted. It was found that instead of being evenly through the second or third year, after which it slows
distributed, 86 percent of the clamming effort took place markedly. The largest razor clam on record in California
on the north beach. The high pressure on the north beach was a seven-inch specimen taken from Clam Beach
resulted from a combination of easier access to the north in 1979.
beach, and the much greater clamming success there. The mortality rate of razor clams on Clam Beach increases
There was also a strong sentiment among clam diggers to rapidly after the third year of life, with few clams living to
return to alternate year closures because of the declining be seven years old. In the northern part of the range, the
average size of clams. In 1974, the alternate year shing maximum age is greater. Razor clams in Alaska live 18 or
pattern was reinstated with the north beach open during 19 years, but the typical life-span is shorter.
odd-numbered years and the south beach open during
even-numbered years. In the years immediately following
the reinstatement, the catch-per-digger and the average
clam size increased signicantly.
A daily bag limit of 30 razor clams was changed to 20 in
1963. In addition, all clams dug were required to be kept
regardless of size or broken condition.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he Pacic razor clam ranges from western Alaska to
Pismo Beach, California, and is generally found on
at or gently sloping sandy beaches with a moderate to
heavy surf. Razor clam shells are long and thin, with
fragile, shiny valves – not what one would expect in a
surf-loving animal. An excellent burrower, it depends on
digging speed for protection from wave shock. Individuals Pacific Razor Clam, Siliqua patula
Credit: DFG
laid on top of the sand have buried themselves completely
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 443
Status of the Population respectively. Catch, effort and catch-per-digger exhibited
Pacific Razor Clam
no particular trends but uctuated over time.
T here are only three areas along the coast of California
that have had signicant populations of Pacic razor
Management Considerations
clams. The Pismo Beach-Morro Bay area supported a very
small sport shery, which has diminished over the years.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Currently, this population is quite small and seems to
further information.
consist mostly of individuals ranging from one to two
inches in size. The Clam Beach and Crescent City sheries
are similar to each other in several respects. Both beds Thomas O. Moore
are divided into north and south beaches with alternate- California Department of Fish and Game
year closures in effect. In both areas, the northern beach
was more heavily shed and more productive than the
References
southern beach for many years. However, the southern
beach in Crescent City saw an increase in effort and in
Amos, M.H. 1966. Commercial clams of the North Ameri-
catch-per-digger during the early 1980s. A decline in razor
can Pacic coast. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of
clam abundance was seen in the coastal states of Wash-
Comm. Fish. Circular 237. 18 p.
ington, Oregon, and California following the 1982-1983
El Niño. A previously unknown disease, nuclear inclusion Collier, P.C. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
X (NIX), caused the closure of the razor clam shery razor clam populations on coastal beaches in Humboldt
in Washington in 1984 and 1985. Mortality appeares to County, California. Unpublished.
depend on the intensity and prevalence of infection. The
McMillin, H.C. 1924. The life-history and growth of the
prevalence and intensity of NIX decreased both north and
razor clam. Wash. Dept. of Fisheries. Olympia, Wash. 52
south of central Washington beaches. In Oregon, preva-
p.
lence was high, but intensities were low enough that little
Sims, C.W. 1960. A study of the shery and the population
mortality was seen. Little information exists for NIX in
of the Pacic razor clam, Siliqua patula, of Clam Beach,
California, but large declines in razor clam abundance
California. Thesis, Humboldt State University. 81 p.
were noted in the late 1980s and into the mid-1990s for
beaches in northern California. A major source of mortal- Tegelberg, H.C. 1964. Growth and ring formation of Wash-
ity, especially for young razor clams, is the scouring effect ington razor clams. Wash. Dep. Fish. Fish. Res. Pap.
of winter storms. The El Niño events of the past two 2(3):69-103.
decades have had large storms associated with them and Wolotira, R.J., Jr., M.J. Allen, T.M. Sample, C.R. Iten, S.F.
this may have had some impact on northern California Noel, and R.L. Henry. 1989. Pacic razor clam, Siliqua
razor clam populations. The razor clam population in the patula (Dixon, 1789). Pages 73-79 in Life history and har-
Crescent City area is recovering, but the Clam Beach vest summaries for selected invertebrate species occur-
population is still much diminished from former levels. ring off the west coast of North America. Vol. 1: Shelled
No current population estimates are available for any Molluscs. NOAA Tech. Memorandum NMFS F/NWC-160,
of California’s razor clam beds. Beginning in 1974, a sam- 7600 Sand Pt. Way N.E., Seattle, WA 98115.
pling program was initiated to provide estimates of total
catch and effort for Clam Beach. Estimates of annual
catch, number of diggers, and annual catch-per-digger
were made for the years 1974 through 1989 for North and
South Clam Beach and for the years 1980 through 1989
for Moonstone Beach (Little River to bluffs). Estimates of
annual clam catch for North Clam Beach ranged from 1,100
to 116,400; for South Clam Beach the range was from zero
to 45,500; and for Moonstone Beach the range was from
zero to 74,800. The annual estimated number of diggers
ranged from 880 to 12,670 on North Clam Beach, from
220 to 6,900 on South Clam Beach, and from 50 to 5,510
on Moonstone Beach. Annual catch-per-digger for North
Clam Beach, South Clam Beach and Moonstone Beach
ranged from 1.3 to 9.5, 0.0 to 6.6 and 0.0 to 13.9 clams,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
444
Gaper Clams
History of the Fishery relatively thin shells, which do not close tightly enough to
Gaper Clams
maintain their moisture, restricts the commercial use of
T he shery for the gaper clams, the Pacic gaper these clams to a fairly local market.
(Tresus nuttalli) and the fat gaper (Tresus capax), is Diggers generally use skiffs to get to the better clam dig-
almost exclusively sport, however, the Fish and Game ging areas. Shovels are used to dig the clams, which may
Code allows these clams to be harvested commercially in be as deep as four feet in sand or mud. In muddy areas,
Humboldt Bay for daily restaurant or market orders. For three-foot lengths of PVC pipes about 12 to 15 inches in
the 20-year period from 1950 to 1970, annual commercial diameter are often used to prevent the hole from caving
landings for Humboldt Bay averaged 1,000 pounds with a in, enabling clammers to reach deeply buried clams.
maximum annual landing of 6,000 pounds and a minimum
Gaper clams generally are used in clam chowder or fried
of 200 pounds. More stringent public health regulations
and served as a main dish.
concerning the marketing of shellsh and the retirement
of a long-time commercial clammer essentially eliminated
the commercial clam shery in the early 1980s.
Status of Biological Knowledge
The Pacic and fat gaper are the object of a heavy
G aper clams are found from Alaska to Scammon’s
sport shery that takes place in intertidal areas of bays
Lagoon, Baja California. Both the Pacic and fat gaper
with sand and mud bottoms. Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay,
live in ne sand or rm sandy-mud bottoms in bays,
Tomales Bay, Drakes Estero, Elkhorn Slough and Morro Bay
estuaries, and more sheltered outer coast areas. They are
are popular digging areas. At Tomales Bay, which is one of
found from the intertidal zone to depths of at least 150
the major producing areas, as many as 1,200 people have
feet. The Pacic gaper is the most commonly taken gaper
been counted during one low tide on the two emergent
clam in California. A closely related species, the fat gaper,
sand bars. These popular areas, Clam Bar and Seal Bar,
is the predominant gaper clam taken in Humboldt Bay,
can be reached only by boat. In the past, a commercial
where it is very common in the intertidal zone. Further
ferry provided transportation to the two sandbars allow-
south, the fat gaper occurs mostly subtidally but can make
ing as many as 11,000 people to dig there each year.
up to ve percent of the catch taken in the intertidal zone
With a legal limit of 10 gaper clams per day, clammers
at Tomales Bay.
were taking about 55,000 clams per year. However, the
commercial ferry service has recently been permanently Reproduction occurs year around in central California but
discontinued and the annual sport take of clams has fallen is predominant during spring and peaks in the months of
by almost 75 percent. February and April. Upon completion of a free-swimming
larval stage, the young gaper clam settles down to a
Sport take of gaper clams is also quite popular in Hum-
xed position and comparatively inactive existence. The
boldt Bay. A survey in 1992 estimated an average of 4,300
only movement is downward as the clam grows older and
sport clammers per year for the previous 10-year period
increases in size. After reaching a size of about three
with an estimated annual take of 56,000 gaper clams.
inches, little downward movement occurs.
Current effort by clammers is estimated to be about the
same or slightly higher. Since the discontinuance of the Age and growth studies reveal that most gaper clams
Tomales Bay clam ferry, Humboldt Bay is the largest gaper taken in central California range from about three to eight
clam shery in the state. years old. For the rst four years, the clams average about
one inch of growth in length per year. The growth rate
In the past, Morro Bay had been considered a good loca-
tion for sport take of gaper clams. However, settlement of
small gaper clams has been poor since the early-1990s for
unknown reasons and that factor coupled with foraging by
sea otters has reduced abundance of gaper clams, result-
ing in greatly reduced effort by clammers in the 1990s.
Utilization of gaper clams has increased through the years,
and it appears that it will continue to increase in propor-
tion to population growth in the coastal counties where
these clams occur. There is no season or size limit, but
there are bag limits set for sport and commercial harvest-
ing. An angler may take 10 clams per day throughout
the state, except in Elkhorn Slough where the limit is 12
clams per day and in Humboldt Bay where a take of 25
Pacific Gaper Clam, Tresus nuttalli
clams per day is allowed. The fact that gaper clams have Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 445
Management Considerations
appears to slow down after this period. Gaper clams live
Gaper Clams
to a maximum age of 17 years and can attain a length of
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
10 inches with a weight of approximately ve pounds.
further information.
The gaper clams reach sexual maturity and spawns at
about two to three years of age. At this time, they are two
to 2.75 inches in size. Spawning appears to begin in the Thomas O. Moore
spring, coinciding with the seasonal water temperature California Department of Fish and Game
minimum.
Gaper clams are suspension feeders, feeding on sus-
References
pended particles, which include phytoplankton and detri-
tus. In intertidal beds, feeding occurs during the high
Campbell, A., N. Bourne., and W. Carolsfeld. 1990. Growth
tide period.
and maturity of the Pacic gaper Tresus nuttallii (Conrad
1837) in southern British Columbia. J. Shellsh Res.
Status of the Population 9(2):273-278.
Collier, P., and R. Warnerl 1992. Distribution, abundance
A lthough densities of gaper clams in areas of certain and use of clam populations in Humboldt Bay, Del Norte
bays have been determined, complete statewide inter- County, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpub-
tidal and subtidal population estimates have not been lished report.
made. However, both the intertidal and subtidal resource
Hardy, R.Al 2000. Distribution, abundance and use of clam
appears to be in a healthy state where most clamming
populations in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, Califor-
effort is located. Subtidal populations are relatively
nia. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
unavailable and unused by sport clammers and provide
Machell, J.R., and J.D. DeMartini. 1971. An annual repro-
a spawning refuge. In general, spawning stock reserves
ductive cycle of the gaper clam, Tresus capax (Gould),
seem adequate to sustain the population. Gaper clams
in south Humboldt Bay, California. Calif. Fish Game.
occur in densities of up to 20 clams per square foot,
57:274-282.
with a density of two clams per square foot considered
commercially viable. Intertidal siphon counts by biologists Wendell, F., J.D. DeMartini, P. Dinnel, and J. Sieke. 1976.
using a stratied random sampling design on Clam Bar in The ecology of the gaper or horse clam, Tresus capax
Tomales Bay supplied data for estimating intertidal popu- (Gould 1850) (Bivalvia: Mactridae), in Humboldt Bay, Cali-
lation sizes of 540,000 gaper clams in 1968 and 430,000 fornia. Calif. Fish and Game. 62:41-64.
in 1969.
DFG biologists showing off gaper clam catch from Tomales Bay
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
446
Washington Clams
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Washington Clams
T T
he Washington clam shery is almost exclusively a he range of the Washington clam is from Humboldt
sport shery. The Fish and Game Code allows commer- Bay, California, to San Quentin Bay, Baja California.
cial shing in Humboldt Bay by daily market or restaurant This species lives at depths of 12 to 18 inches in mud,
order and by special bag limits. These clams are highly sandy mud or sand of bays, lagoons and estuaries. Its
perishable and are dug as required and consumed locally. shell is thick and rm, oval in outline, and roughened on
From 1954 to 1963, commercial landings averaged 5,000 the outer surfaces by numerous concentric ridges. Inside,
pounds per year, with a high of 11,000 pounds in the shells are shiny white with dark purple markings at
1956 and a low of 2,000 pounds in 1960. Landings the posterior end. Though the harvest is from bottoms
decreased following this period due to more stringent exposed at low tide, this clam also occurs subtidally in the
public health regulations pertaining to the marketing of same general area.
shellsh. By the early 1980s, commercial landings of Wash- The butter clam ranges from Sitka, Alaska, to San Fran-
ington clams ceased with the retirement of a longtime cisco Bay, California, but is infrequently taken south of
commercial clammer. Humboldt Bay. Its shell is thick and rm, oval in outline,
Two principal species of Washington clam are harvested but more rounded than that of the Washington clam. The
in California. The Washington clam (Saxidomus nuttalli) is interior of the shell is entirely white with no purple mark-
the principal species sought, and the best yielding locali- ings. This clam lives at depths of 10 to 14 inches in mud or
ties are Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay, Tomales Bay, Drakes sandy mud of bays, lagoons and estuaries in areas that are
Estero, and Elkhorn Slough. Bolinas Lagoon and Morro Bay usually exposed at low tide.
have historically been good yielding localities. However, Spawning occurs during a period from spring to fall, pre-
in the past decade clam populations in these two areas sumably as a result of warmer water temperature. A study
have declined signicantly. The second popular Washing- of the Washington clam in British Columbia revealed that
ton clam, the butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus), formerly about half of these clams spawned at the end of their
known as the smooth Washington clam, is seldom taken third year. The larvae appeared as bivalve veligers in two
south of Humboldt Bay. In only one California locality, weeks and, at the end of four weeks, when less that 0.2
near Fields Landing in Humboldt Bay, is this clam common inches long, settled to the bottom. Tidal currents play an
enough to support a minor shery. Results of a sport important role in the distribution of these animals due
clamming survey of Humboldt Bay, from 1975 through to their pelagic larvae life-stage. Successful spawning and
1989, produced a mean estimated total take of both clam settlement may be somewhat sporadic, with a period of
species of 42,000 per year. years between settlements of consequence. Upon comple-
The Washington clam catch is considerably less than that tion of a free-swimming larval period, both species settle
of gaper clams, primarily because the latter are more pre- down to a xed position and a comparatively inactive
dominant in most bays, and the Washington clam siphon existence. About the only movement is downward as the
holes are more difcult to locate. The recent Humboldt clams grow older and increase in size. Age studies reveal
Bay survey found that the Washington clam and the butter that most Washington clams harvested in central Califor-
clam comprised 20 percent and 13 percent, respectively, nia are from four to eight years old. Occasional individuals
of the total estimated harvest of all species taken in that of both species up to 10 years old are found in California,
bay. In Bodega Bay, Washington clams are the predomi- while some butter clams over 20 years old have been
nant take, comprising an estimated 30 to 40 percent of
the total clam harvest, with an occasional butter clam
also taken.
Sport clammers may take 10 Washington clams per day
throughout the state except in Elkhorn Slough, where
the limit is 12 in combination with gaper clams, and in
Humboldt Bay, where the limit is 50 in combination with
no more than 25 gaper clams.
Skiffs are used to transport diggers to intertidal areas
where these clams occur, but some locations have popula-
tions accessible by foot. The clams are dug by shovels to a
depth of 12 to 18 inches near the low tide line. Washington
clams have excellent avor and texture and may be used
Washington Clam, Saxidomus nuttalli
in clam chowder, or fried and served as a main dish. Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 447
References
found in British Columbia. The Washington clam grows to
Washington Clams
a length of nearly seven inches and attains a weight of
Collier, P.C. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
about two pounds. The butter clam may attain a length
clam populations in Humboldt Bay, Humboldt County, Cali-
of ve inches.
fornia. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
Paralytic shellsh poisoning (PSP) is of widespread concern
Collier, P.C., and R. Warner. 1992. Sport clamming survey
to consumers of shellsh. Both the Washington clam and
of Humboldt Bay from 1975 through 1989. Calif. Dept. Fish
the butter clam have been shown to retain high levels
and Game, unpublished Report. 15 p.
of paralytic shellsh toxin in the viscera and in the dark
colored tips of the siphons for long periods of time after a Fitch, J.E. 1961. Common marine bivalves of California.
PSP event. California clammers can call a toll-free biotoxin Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 90. 102 p.
hotline at 1-800-553-4133 to obtain recorded information
Hardy, R.A. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
on PSP events and areas with posted biotoxin warnings.
clam populations in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County,
California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
Status of the Population Mello, J.J. 1981. A one year survey of recreational clam-
ming on the Morro Bay mudats for the period of April,
D ensities and distributions of these clams have been 1979 to March, 1980. Calif. Polytech. State Univ., Dept.
determined for some of the more frequently used Bio. Sci., San Luis Obispo, Calif. 18 p.
bay and estuarine intertidal areas, but knowledge is lack-
Spratt, J.D. 1982. Results of sampling clammers in Elkhorn
ing about subtidal densities and distribution. Estimates
Slough during 1978 and 1979. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
have not been made of the total population size of the
Mar. Resour. Admin. Rep. 82-11. 12 p.
Washington clam resource in California, however, the pres-
ent level of harvest can be easily sustained.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Thomas O. Moore
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
448
Geoduck
History of the Fishery ies, and sloughs, in bottom types ranging from mud to
Geoduck
pea-sized gravel, but mostly in unshifting mud or sand.
T he geoduck clam (Panope generosa) shery is entirely Shells are whitish and covered with a dull, yellowish-
a sport shery in California. Geoduck clams are the brown periostracum, which is often badly eroded in large
largest burrowing clam in the world and also the deepest- clams. Shells are sculptured with a number of unevenly
dwelling clam in California. The geoduck is an important spaced, concentric growth lines. Siphons are united to
sport and commercial species in Washington state and form a tube, extremely long and impossible to withdraw
British Columbia. It is considered uncommon throughout into the shells. Valves gap widely on all sides except on
California but is found in Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay, the hinge area. Flesh exposed between the gaping valves
Tomales Bay, and Drakes Estero. In the past, Bolinas is covered with a heavy reddish-brown epidermis or skin.
Lagoon and Morro Bay had beds of geoducks which sup-
Geoducks are long-lived and slow growing. Growth is rapid
ported a sport shery; however, geoduck and other clam
for the rst four years then greatly decreases. In prime
species have declined signicantly in abundance in these
habitat in Washington state, geoducks can reach an aver-
locations over the past decade.
age weight of 1.9 pounds in ve years. Both male and
Very few clammers in California take a sport limit of female geoducks are usually sexually mature by age ve.
geoducks. Their rarity in most California bays and estuar- Maximum shell size is over nine inches, with a total body
ies usually causes them to be taken incidently when clam- length (from foot to extended siphon) of 59 inches, and a
ming for gaper clams. As with gaper clams, they are weight of over 20 pounds.
often located on the mudats by the streams of water
The sexes are separate and spawning takes place in late
they shoot several feet into the air. They differ from the
spring to early summer. Fertilization is external and takes
gaper clams by not having chitinous aps or pads at the
place in the water column. Larvae remain in the water
siphon tip, no fringing tentacles on the inner edge of
column for several weeks before metamorphosing into
each siphon, and are a light brown in color. Clammers can
juveniles and settling to the bottom. Larval clams eat
check undisturbed clams by their siphons at the surface
phytoplankton while juveniles and adults lter-feed on
for this feature. The bulk of the geoduck population
plankton and detritus.
is subtidal which makes it harder to locate a geoduck.
Predators include moon snails and spiny dogsh, which
Only the lowest tides provide the chance of encountering
prey on small individuals. Juveniles and adults are eaten
many geoducks. In Tomales Bay, less than one percent of
by pink seastars , sunstars, and various crab species. Sea
the catch consists of geoducks; about one out of three
otters are a major predator on geoduck clams within their
hundred clammers takes a geoduck while clamming in
range in California. Siphon tips are eaten by cabezon and
this location.
starry ounder.
Geoducks can reach a weight of 10 pounds or more.
Because of their size, a limit of three clams is considered
an adequate bag limit throughout the state. Geoducks
Status of the Population
are one of the nest food clams in California. They are
W
highly esteemed for their ne avor and large size and are hile larvae of geoduck clams experience extremely
considered a trophy clam to sport diggers. high mortality, resulting in a low recruitment rate,
the natural mortality rate of adults is low. Information on
Skiffs are generally used to transport clammers to inter-
distribution and density of these clams comes from stud-
tidal areas where these clams live buried in sandy mud
ies in Washington state and British Columbia, where com-
at depths of four feet or greater. Lengths of PVC pipe or
metal tubes, approximately 12 to 15 inches in diameter
and about three feet in length, are needed to shore up the
sides of the deep holes required to take these clams.
Geoduck clams may be ground for use in fritters or clam
chowder, or pounded and fried and served as a main dish.
Status of Biological Knowledge
G eoduck clams are distributed from Forrester Island,
Alaska to Scammon’s Lagoon, Baja California and in
the northern Gulf of California. They are found from the Geoduck Clam, Panope generosa
Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
lower intertidal zone to depths of 360 feet in bays, estuar-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 449
References
mercial and sport sheries exist; very little is known about
Geoduck
geoduck beds in California. These studies showed that
Brean, P.A. and T.L. Shields. 1983. Age and size structure
geoduck clams are contagiously distributed or clumped.
in ve populations of geoduc clams (Panope generosa) in
In a Washington state study, the average geoduck density
British Columbia. Canadian Technical Report of Fish and
was 1.4 clams per square yard with a range of zero to 18
Aquat. Sci. No. 1169. 62 p.
clams per square yard. In British Columbia, clam densities
as high as 31 clams per square yard were found. Intertidal Goodwin, C.L. and B. Pease. 1987. The distribution of
clam densities in California would be expected to be geoduck (Panope abrupta) size, density, and quality in
considerably less than one clam per square yard. Fluctua- relation to habitat characteristics such as geographic area,
tions in population size result from natural mortality and water depth, sediment type, and associated ora and
appears not to be inuenced by sport clammers, whose fauna in Puget Sound, Washington. Technical Report 102,
take is very low. Geoduck populations in California will be State of Washington Dept. Fisheries. 44 p.
impacted by the expansion of the southern sea otter over
Spratt, J.D. 1982. Results of sampling clammers in Elkhorn
its historic range.
Slough during 1978 and 1979. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Mar. Resour. Admin. Rep. 82-11. 12 p.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Thomas O. Moore
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
450
Littleneck Clams
History of the Fishery occurs within six inches of the surface and deep digging is
Littleneck Clams
not required for harvesting. Clam beds known to resident
T here are seven species commonly known as “littleneck sport diggers receive relatively heavy exploitation during
clams” or “chiones”: banded chione (Chione californi- minus tides. Other clam beds remain underutilized due
ensis), smooth chione (Chione uctifraga), wavy chione to difculty of access or lack of public awareness. This is
(Chione undatella), rough-sided littleneck (Protothaca one of the most abundant clams on the West Coast and is
laciniata), common littleneck (Protothaca staminea), thin- highly esteemed for food.
shelled littleneck (Protothaca tenerrima) and Manila clam The Manila clam continues to expand its range on the
or Japanese littleneck (Tapes philippinarum). They are West Coast and now occurs from southern California to
grouped here because they are regulated by an aggregate British Columbia. It is particularly abundant in San Fran-
bag and size limit. All are members of the family Veneri- cisco Bay and other estuaries to the north in the intertidal
dae (Venus clams) and all but the Manila clam are native zone. It is easily dug, as it generally occurs within two
to California. The Manila clam is a native of the Orient inches of the surface. It prefers a substrate of coarse,
and was introduced unintentionally into California waters sandy mud with a mixture of larger gravel and cobbles and
in the 1930s. may attach itself with byssal threads to any suitable sub-
Although seven species have been aggregated for regulat- strate, including broken glass or ceramics. It also occurs
ing molluscan resources, only four (smooth chione, wavy sub-tidally in the extensive oyster shell beds of south San
chione, common littleneck and Manila clam) are of major Francisco Bay.
importance; they comprise more than 95 percent of the Maximum length of the three species of chiones is approx-
littleneck clam harvest in California. Since commercial imately 2.5 inches. Of the four types of littlenecks, the
clammers are restricted to the same daily bag and size thin-shelled is the largest, attaining a length of 4.3 inches.
limits as sport shers (50 clams, all species combined; The other three species reach approximately three inches
minimum length 1.5 inches), it is not feasible for them in length.
to make a living harvesting these bivalves. Thus, most
Of the seven species, life history information is best
exploitation is by sport diggers.
known for the Manila clam population in San Francisco
All digging is by hand (with rake, shovel, garden hand fork, Bay. By examining the length-frequency distribution of
or trowel) and is carried out in intertidal areas during a strong year class over time, minimum legal size was
daylight hours, generally at low tides of 0.0 feet or less. estimated to be reached in two and a half to three
years. This was veried by examining internal and external
growth rings on the shells formed each year in the fall as
Status of Biological Knowledge growth slows down or ceases. Maximum age is estimated
T
to be eight or nine years.
he three species of chiones occur south of Point Con-
ception on mud and sand ats of sloughs and bays, Manila clams have a three-week planktonic larval period.
primarily in the intertidal zone. Banded and wavy chiones They are rst recognizable in the substrate at about 0.04
may, however, occur subtidally to a depth of 165 feet. inch. At 0.75 to 1.0 inch, they are capable of reproducing
and are repeat spawners. The primary spawning period
Thin-shelled and rough-sided littlenecks are both uncom-
is late spring to early summer, and they are known as
mon in California except in Alamitos Bay (Los Angeles
dribble spawners, releasing eggs and milt over a prolonged
County) where the latter species is abundant. Thin-shelled
time period. A secondary spawning period is thought to
littlenecks occur throughout the state in rm, sandy mud
of bays, in the low intertidal zone, and offshore to a depth
of 165 feet. They occupy burrows up to 16 inches deep.
Rough-sided littlenecks occur in California from Monterey
Bay south to the Mexican border in sand or muddy sand
in bays, the low intertidal zone, and in adjacent shallow
subtidal areas. Larger individuals may burrow up to 12
inches below the surface. The locally abundant population
in southern California is in water too deep for stand-up
diggers, and the underwater visibility is too poor for skin
divers to harvest them.
The common littleneck occurs throughout California in
bays, coves and cobble patches along the outer coast in
Common Littleneck Clam, Protothaca staminea
the middle and low intertidal zones. This species generally
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 451
occur in the winter. Sexes are separate, as they are in all Small beds of common littleneck clams are generally the
Littleneck Clams
littleneck clams. rule in northern California. One bed in San Mateo county
has sustained an annual harvest estimated to exceed
Natural mortality of sublegal Manila clams may be as
10,000 clams. San Onofre, in southern California, contains
high as 50 percent per year. Known predators include bat
an intertidal cobble bed over one mile in length and at
rays, mud crabs, lined shore crabs, Cancer crabs, chan-
least 115 feet wide. A 1967 population estimate yielded
neled whelks and scoter ducks. Large clams are capable
4.5 million legal-size clams; however, the bed had never
of movements of up to three feet during a single tidal
been open to the public before the survey. In terms of
cycle, although marking studies have shown virtually no
legal limits, this bed could have furnished 90,000 user days
net movement over a several-month period.
of recreation.
Common littleneck clams have a similar early life history
The cobble beach at San Onofre probably is the most pro-
and are capable of reproducing at about one inch in
ductive bed of littleneck clams in the state. However, the
length. In southern California, they may reach the mini-
population is unstable and uctuates greatly even when
mum legal size in one to 1.5 years. External growth checks
unexploited. Heavy runoff from a nearby creek in 1969
are prominent on the shell, but these are not annual rings.
caused expansive sanding-in of the cobbles and destroyed
The spawning season in southern California is generally
much of the bed. Recovery time was estimated at
from March through July.
ve years.
Meat yield from harvested littleneck clams has been esti-
Little is known about the populations of the other lit-
mated. A limit of 50, 1.7-inch common littlenecks yields
tleneck species. The smooth chione is in danger of extinc-
9.5 ounces of meat, while a limit of 2.5-inch clams would
tion in areas where harbors are being developed. Habitat
provide 24.5 ounces. In contrast, a limit of 50 Manila clams
loss or degradation, particularly by man-induced or natu-
from San Francisco Bay with a typical mean length of 1.6
ral siltation, can cause permanent population reductions.
inches would yield 6.4 ounces of meat.
Extreme variations in physical conditions, such as rainfall,
In the past, littleneck clams have been cultivated and
can depress populations dramatically.
transplanted. Aquaculturists have reared the Manila clam
from 0.25 inches to 1.5 inches in 10 months with 64
percent survival. Manila clams were transplanted in 1953 Paul N. Reilly
from San Francisco Bay to several southern California bays California Department of Fish and Game
and sloughs. Many of the transplants survived for more
than a year, but there was no natural reproduction.
References
Status of Population McAllister, R.D. and T.O. Moore Jr. 1982. Selected shellsh
resources of San Francisco Bay: their distribution, abun-
I n 1981, population estimates of Manila clams were dance, use, public access, and recommended management
derived for beds in San Francisco Bay. In the 10 most alternatives. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Prepared for
important beds, the peak estimate in the summer was San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board,
19.3 million clams with 3.4 million of legal size. One bed Oakland, 168 p.
in south San Francisco Bay, covering approximately 75,000 Tasto, R.N. 1974. Marine bivalves of the California coast.
square feet, was surveyed annually for several years in Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources Leaet No.
the 1980s; population estimates have ranged from 80,000 6. 23 p.
to 1,525,000. For the highest estimate, only two percent
of the population was of legal size. Maximum density of
legal-sized clams in this bed was 2.5 per square foot.
Densities of juvenile Manila clams may exceed 100 per
square foot in the most productive intertidal beds. Typi-
cally, intertidal densities in San Francisco Bay range from
20 to 40 per square foot during years of good recruitment.
In the subtidal shell beds, density averages one-tenth of
that in the intertidal zone.
Surveys of clammers in San Francisco Bay in 1981 resulted
in an estimated annual total effort of 900 user days.
However, water quality problems have limited and still
limit recreational harvest opportunities.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
452
Commercial Landings -
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
Bay
Bay
Shrimp1
Shrimp1
Year Pounds
Year Pounds
1980 127,968
1916 411,847
1981 178,363
1917 605,004
1982 211,697
1918 722,178
1983 148,115
1919 747,023
1984 142,012
1920 817,091
1985 132,578
1921 907,467
1986 107,304
1922 990,349
1987 103,088
1923 1,113,358
1988 132,951
1924 1,551,086
1989 122,599
1925 1,460,234
1990 151,382
1926 1,431,511
1991 140,725
1927 1,697,365
1992 114,923
1928 2,280,871
1993 155,891
1929 3,054,748
1994 95,328
1930 2,687,831
1995 98,053
1931 1,684,763
1996 113,398
1932 2,681,807
1997 69,231
1933 2,087,952
1998 89,348
1934 1,783,663
1999 98,086
1935 3,445,091
1936 2,240,849
- - - - No landings data available.
1937 1,108,761
1938 1,847,926
1
Presented data represents the commercial landings from
1939 1,175,979
San Francisco Bay
1940 1,080,190
1941 952,152
1942 800,958
1943 253,215
1944 291,974
1945 382,147
1946 432,145
1947 841,086
1948 926,707
1949 800,441
1950 913,181
1951 931,323
1952 913,908
1953 732,308
1954 744,768
1955 682,731
1956 718,968
1957 192,814
1958 45,955
1959 35,011
1960 1,580
1961 2,050
1962 1,075
1963 1,225
1964 ----
1965 10,765
1966 4,165
1967 19,771
1968 10,465
1969 8,041
1970 65,761
1971 59,721
1972 73,067
1973 62,308
1974 79,797
1975 99,708
1976 98,789
1977 82,797
1978 81,715
1979 92,213
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 453
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
454
Bay and Estuarine
Finfish Resources: The nsh species found in the state’s bays and estuaries
Bay and Estuarine Finfish Resources: Overview
serve as an index of the overall health of these important
Overview ecosystems. California’s estuaries are heavily inuenced
by urbanization. While the more severe human impacts
of such urbanization (lling of wetlands, for example) can
F insh species utilizing California’s bays and estuaries
be seen throughout the bay and estuarine ecosystems,
include the sturgeons, gobies, cow sharks, smelts,
the more subtle impacts tend to be chronic. Some of the
striped bass, Pacic herring, and California halibut. Many
chronic impacts are identied though long-term studies
of these sh move between bays and estuaries and open
of specic indicator species. For example, while some
Pacic waters. Several are dependent on bay and estua-
impacts of increased diversions of water from the San
rine systems for their entire life histories. While numerous
Francisco Bay Delta to the state and federal water proj-
shery resources, such as salmonids, Dungeness crab, and
ects during the 1970s, could be determined through a
many of the marine mammals also occur in or utilize the
decrease in freshwater outow through the estuary, the
state’s bay and estuarine habitats, only the species that
impacts on sh were not immediately known. However,
are principally dependant on this ecosystem for reproduc-
studies by the California Department of Fish and Game
tion, or life stage development are discussed in this chap-
noted a decline in annual striped bass sports catch
ter. Surf and night smelts, which are not dependent on
rates from over 750,000 in the early 1960s to approxi-
bay and estuarine habitats are included in this chapter
mately 52,000 sh in 1994. The DFG determined that the
due to the layout of the document which combined true
reduction in adult striped bass population was due to
smelts into a single paper. Coastal nsh species which
reduced recruitment of young sh and a decline in adult
utilize bays and estuaries as nursery grounds or for other
survival rates. This decline also correlated directly with
purposes, but are discussed elsewhere in this document,
the increase in Delta pumping. By 1998, catch rates had
include the salmonids, leopard shark, bat rays, some of
rebounded to approximately 295,000 sh, most likely as a
the croakers, many of the surfperches, brown rocksh,
result of increased sh abundance and renewed interest in
and several atshes.
the shery. In recent years, recruitment has continued to
Bay and estuarine species support important commercial increase as a result of improved survival of striped bass
and/or sport sheries. It is estimated that California’s between the ages of zero and three.
striped bass sport shery has an annual economic value
Other measures of bay and estuarine health can be
of more than $45 million. Add to this, the commercial
inferred through analysis of bioaccumulation of chemicals
value of sheries for Pacic herring and the commercial
in sh species such as white sturgeon. Although this chap-
passenger shing vessel eet targeting shark and other
ter does not directly address contaminant concerns, it
bay and estuarine species, and the overall annual value of
remains that the overall health and abundance of bay and
sheries specic to California’s bays and estuaries range
estuarine nsh species can serve as a looking glass into
into the hundreds of millions of dollars. On the basis
this often troubled environment.
of economics alone, California’s bay and estuary nsh
species are very important resources.
Eric J. Larson
In addition to being a food source and nancial resource
California Department of Fish and Game
for human populations, many of the nsh species
included here are an important food source for a diverse
group of foraging marine sh, birds and mammals. Herring
spawning, in particular, provides a highly utilized opportu-
nity for feeding by other marine organisms. As herring
move into shallow bay waters to spawn, a feeding frenzy
often occurs which can last for several days. Gulls, cormo-
rants, pelicans and other marine birds, California sea lions
and harbor seals, a variety of sh, including sturgeon, and
invertebrates feast on the adult herring and the develop-
ing embryos. Fish species such as Pacic herring and many
of the smelt are a principal food source for marine organ-
isms at the higher trophic levels. Fluctuation in the health
and abundance of these higher trophic level species often
can be traced to the population uctuations of plankton
feeders such as herring and smelt.
Sportfishing at Golden Gate Bridge for striped bass.
Credit: Chris Dewees, California Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 455
Pacific Herring
History of the Fishery California sac-roe herring landings peaked in the 1996-1997
season at 23.6 million pounds, and then fell to a record
P acic herring (Clupea pallasi) landings peaked three low harvest of four million pounds the following season.
times during the past century in response to market Ocean conditions due to the 1997-1998 El Niño produced
demands for shmeal, canned sh, and sac-roe. During the herring in poor condition which were less susceptible to
intervening years, herring catches were low, when most of gillnet gear resulting in reduced landings. In addition,
the herring catch was used as pet food, bait, or animal herring may have been displaced by changes in ocean
food at zoos. The herring reduction shery peaked in 1918 currents, which are also attributed to El Niño, resulting
at eight million pounds, but this shery ended in 1919 in downswings of stock size. Stocks showed signs of
when reduction of whole sh into shmeal was prohibited. rebuilding in the 1998-1999 season but declined again
From 1947 to 1954 herring were canned to supplement in 1999-2000 in spite of favorable La Niña conditions.
the declining supply of Pacic sardines; landings peaked Landings increased, however, to 6.8 million pounds in
in 1952 at 9.5 million pounds. Canned herring, however, 1999-2000 season due to much improved physical condi-
proved to be a poor substitute for sardines and limited tion of sh from the previous season.
demand led to the demise of this shery by 1954. The sac-roe shery is limited to California’s four largest
In 1973, sac-roe sheries along the West Coast of North herring spawning areas: San Francisco Bay, Tomales Bay,
America from Alaska to California developed to supply Humboldt Bay, and Crescent City Harbor. San Francisco
the demands of the Japanese market. This occurred after Bay has the largest spawning population of herring and
domestic Japanese stocks crashed and Japan and the produces more than 90 percent of the state’s herring
Soviet Union agreed to ban the harvest of sac-roe herring catch. The four spawning areas are managed separately by
in the Sea of Okhotsk. The ban was enacted after these the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG); catch
stocks were depleted by overshing. The Japanese gov- quotas are based on the latest population estimates from
ernment also liberalized import quotas, which opened the acoustic surveys and spawning-ground surveys. Quotas are
sac-roe market to United States and Canadian exporters. adjusted annually and are generally set at about 15 per-
Since then, herring in California have been harvested cent of the amount of herring expected to return to
primarily for their roe, with small amounts of whole her- spawn at each spawning area. Since quotas are set before
ring marketed for human consumption, aquarium food, the start of the spawning season, they are conservative
and bait. and allow for potential declines in herring biomass. If
the herring biomass declines, and spawning escapement
Herring ovaries (commonly referred to as “skeins” by
is less than expected, the landings may approach the
those in the shing indusrty) are brined and prepared as
department’s recommended maximum harvest rate of
a traditional Japanese New Year’s delicacy called “kazu-
20 percent.
noko.” Brined skeins are leached in freshwater overnight
and served with condiments or as sushi. Most herring The sac-roe shery is managed through a limited-entry
taken in California are trucked from the port of landing system, which was implemented in the 1973-1974 season
to a processing plant for removal of skeins and brining with 17 permits issued. Since 1983, only ve new permits
and grading. Skeins are graded by size, color and shape, have been issued, and the number of annual herring per-
packed in plastic pails, exported for sale, and auctioned. mits has stabilized at just over 450. Approximately 400
Some herring are frozen and exported to China for pro- of the permits are for the San Francisco Bay shery in
cessing where labor costs are low. Herring skeins from which an estimated 120 vessels participate. During the
San Francisco Bay are typically smaller in size than those 1979-1980 season, the Fish and Game Commission decided
produced in British Columbia and Alaska but are highly not to issue any new round haul permits for the San
valued for their unique golden coloration. Francisco Bay shery with the intent of converting the sac-
roe shery to gillnet only by attrition. When it was clear
that the number of round haul permits would not decline
further due to the transferability of permits in 1988,
the DFG developed a ve-year conversion plan, which
was implemented in the 1993-1994 season. The 1997-1998
season marked the completion of the San Francisco Bay
sac-roe shery conversion to a gillnet only shery.
The sac-roe shery, like many quota sheries, is extremely
competitive among shermen and buyers for a share of
the catch. Competition tends to breed innovation, espe-
Pacific Herring, Clupea pallasi
cially with respect to gear, boats, and shing practices
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
456
Pacific Herring
30
millions of pounds landed
25
Pacific Herring
20
15
10 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Pacific Herring
5
Data Source: DFG Catch
0 1916 Bulletins and commercial
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
in this potentially lucrative and high-pressure shery. One permittee received a permit on an experimental basis to
of the more noticeable changes has occurred in boat harvest roe-on-kelp using unenclosed oating rafts from
design. The composition of the San Francisco eet slowly which fronds of giant kelp are suspended. This product
evolved from converted wooden and berglass stern pick- known as “komochi kombu” or “kazunoko kombu” is
ing salmon trollers to fast state-of-the-art welded alumi- also a Japanese delicacy and prepared similarly to kazu-
num bow pickers, many outtted with multiple jet drives noko. There are 11 roe-on-kelp permits for the 2000-2001
and the latest in sh nding electronics. One piece of shery in San Francisco Bay. Permits are available to
equipment that increased the efciency of the gillnet permittees willing to trade their sac-roe permits for
eet was the net shaker, a hydraulically driven drum with roe-on-kelp permits.
ns, working in concert with the net drum. This device Currently, giant kelp is harvested from the Channel Islands
shakes the net free of sh, eliminating the need to shake off southern California or Monterey Bay, brought to San
the net by hand. As a result of these and other changes, Francisco Bay, suspended from oating rafts or longlines
the sac-roe eet has become very efcient. hung beneath piers. Rafts are positioned in locations
Herring buyers pay shermen based on the percentage of where herring spawning is expected to occur and then
ripe skeins in the catch. This is calculated from several anchored. Once spawning has commenced, suspended
random 10-kilogram samples per landing taken by roe kelp is left in the water until egg coverage is sufcient,
technicians. Each sh sampled is sexed and ripe skeins or spawning has ended. In some instances, suspended
are extracted, placed on a scale and weighed. The total kelp is harvested prematurely with less than optimum
weight of the ripe skeins is then divided by 10 kilograms, coverage because freshwater surface runoff may cause
resulting in the “roe count” or roe percentage. A typical product deterioration.
“roe count” for the San Francisco shery in January is 13 Preliminary roe-on-kelp product grading is conducted by
to 14 percent. The ex-vessel price paid is based on 10 the permittee prior to harvest to determine if coverage
percent yield, and is adjusted for percentage points above is ample enough to warrant harvesting. Once the product
or below. A yield of 10 percent or higher is considered the is harvested, grading criteria such as the dimensions of
minimum acceptable by the sac-roe buyers. In the year the kelp blade, uniformity of egg coverage, thickness or
2000, the base price for California herring with 10 percent number of egg layers, kelp condition, presence of eyed
roe yield was an estimated $500 per ton of whole sh. embryos, and the presence of silt are all used to deter-
The base price for 10 percent roe count sh peaked at mine the price paid to the sherman. Roe-on-kelp has a
an estimated $2,000 per ton in 1979, when landing values per pound value much higher than herring roe. Ex-vessel
reached as high as $4,000 per ton when adjusted for roe prices range from $4 to $20 per pound.
percentage. In recent years, the base price has ranged
Herring regulations changed yearly as the shery
between $500 and $2,000 per ton. Since 1980, the ex-
expanded and new conicts or issues were addressed.
vessel seasonal value of the sac-roe catch in California has
Management concepts new to commercial shing in Cali-
ranged from two million to 19.5 million dollars.
fornia were introduced as the herring shery developed,
Another aspect of California’s herring industry is the roe- such as limited entry, permits issued by lottery, individual
on-kelp shery. Beginning in 1965, scuba divers harvested vessel quotas, quota allocation by gear, the platoon
species of algae with herring eggs attached from Tomales system used to divide gillnet vessels into groups, the
and San Francisco Bays. In the 1984-1985 season, a sac-roe transferability of sac-roe shery permits, and the conver-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 457
sion of round haul permits to gillnet permits. Many of During the incubation period (about 10 days) embryos are
Pacific Herring
these were controversial management decisions, but they vulnerable to predation by marine birds, sh, and inverte-
have proven to be effective solutions to socioeconomic brates. They may also die from desiccation or freezing
conicts in a congested shery. if exposed during low tidal cycles. Normally, between 50
and 99 percent of herring embryos die before hatching.
Human induced causes of mortality at this stage include
Status of Biological Knowledge smothering caused by suspended sediments from dredg-
ing, and anti-fouling agents such as creosote.
P acic herring occur within the coastal zone (waters of
Herring embryos hatch into larvae, which eventually
the Continental Shelf) from Baja California to Alaska
metamorphose into juvenile herring. The distribution of
and across the Pacic rim to Japan and China. Known
larval herring in bays and estuaries is not well known,
spawning areas in California include San Diego Bay, San
but juvenile herring from San Francisco Bay have been
Luis River, Morro Bay, Elkhorn Slough, San Francisco Bay,
found as far inland as the Delta Pumping Plant at Tracy.
Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, Russian River, Noyo River, Shel-
Juveniles may remain in the bay until summer or early fall,
ter Cove, Humboldt Bay, and Crescent City Harbor. Califor-
when they migrate to the open ocean.
nia’s largest spawning population of herring utilizes San
Francisco Bay. Most spawning areas are characterized as Some herring reach sexual maturity at age two when they
having reduced salinity, calm and protected waters, and are about seven inches in length; all are sexually mature
spawning-substrate such as marine vegetation or rocky at age three. California herring may live to be nine or
intertidal areas; however, man-made structures such as 10 years old and reach a maximum length of about 11
pier pilings and riprap are also frequently used spawning inches, although sh older than seven are rare. Adult her-
substrates in San Francisco Bay. ring leave the bay immediately after spawning, and their
distribution while in the ocean is not well known. Herring
Results of tag and recovery studies from Canada indicate
are sometimes caught in Monterey Bay in the summer,
that 25 percent of the herring may stray between adjacent
and are also caught by groundsh trawlers off Davenport
spawning areas in British Columbia. The problem of stock
(north of Santa Cruz) just prior to the spawning season.
identication has not been resolved in California, and it
is not known whether adjacent spawning areas contain While in the ocean, adult herring feed on macroplankton
genetically distinct stocks. However, each spawning area such as copepods and euphausiids. Larval and juvenile
in California where herring shing is allowed is managed herring are believed to feed on molluscan larvae and
on the assumption that its spawning population is a sepa- other zooplankton while in bays and estuaries. Herring
rate stock. are a forage species for a diverse group of marine shes,
birds, and mammals. Spawning events in particular pro-
During the spawning season (November through March),
vide an opportunity for feeding. As herring move into
schools of herring enter bays and estuaries, where they
shallow water to spawn, a feeding frenzy may commence
may remain up to three weeks before spawning. School
which can last for several days. Gulls, cormorants, peli-
size varies but can be as large as tens of thousands of
cans and other marine birds, California sea lions and
tons and miles in length in San Francisco Bay. Salinity
harbor seals, a variety of shes (including sturgeon in San
is an important factor in the success of fertilization and
Francisco Bay) and invertebrates feast on adult herring
embryonic development, and reduced salinity may act as a
and embryos.
cue for spawning. When a school is ready to spawn, male
herring initiate spawning by releasing milt. A pheromone
in the milt triggers spawning by females which lay their
Status of the Population
adhesive eggs on suitable substrate. Fecundity is 220 eggs
T
per gram of body weight, and a large female herring may he size of herring spawning populations in Tomales
lay 40,000-50,000 eggs. Female herring come in contact and San Francisco Bays is estimated annually from
with the substrate while spawning, extruding a strip of hydroacoustic and spawning-ground surveys. Abundance
adhesive eggs that is two to three eggs wide. Repeated uctuates widely due to variations in recruitment (the
passes by thousands upon thousands of females can build rst appearance of young sh, primarily two-year-olds,
the eggs up to a thickness of four to ve layers. Spawn in the spawning population) caused by environmental fac-
depth distribution generally is shallower than 30 feet tors that affect primary productivity, especially El Niño
deep, but has been found to a depth of 60 feet in San events. Since 1979, the San Francisco Bay herring biomass
Francisco Bay. A large spawning run may last a week and has ranged from a high of 99,050 tons to a low of 20,000
can result in 20 miles or more of the shoreline being tons, with peaks occurring in 1982 (99,600 tons), 1988
covered by a 30-foot-wide band of herring eggs. (68,900 tons), and 1996 (99,050 tons). The lowest biomass
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
458
estimates have occurred during or just after El Niño events that appear. Because of the shing methods used and
Pacific Herring
– 40,800 tons in 1984, 21,000 tons in 1993, and 20,000 large local populations of harbor seals and sea lions, it
tons in 1998. The lack of upwelling and associated warm is very difcult for shermen to catch sh from small
water conditions that occur during El Niño events reduces schools.
the production of food for herring, which can affect their
condition and survival. It also may displace herring to
Management Considerations
areas of colder water. San Francisco Bay’s population has
not yet recovered from the affects of the 1997-1978 El
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Niño; spawning biomass was estimated at 27,400 tons
further information.
in 2000.
The Tomales Bay spawning biomass estimates have ranged
Diana L. Watters, Kenneth T. Oda and John Mello
from a high of 22,163 tons in 1978 to a low of 345 tons
California Department of Fish and Game
in 1990 with a 26-year average of 4,671 tons per season.
The season following the 1983 El Niño spawning biomass
declined about 90 percent suggesting the herring popula-
References
tion had not escaped the effects of that strong oceanic
event. The next four years the population remained unsta-
Grifn, Frederick J., M.C. Pillai, C.A. Vines, J. Kaaria, T.
ble with spawning escapement in Tomales Bay alternating
Hibbard-Robbins, R. Yanagimachi, and G.N. Cherr. 1998.
between average and very poor. During the California
Effects of Salinity on Sperm Motility, Fertilization, and
drought, which lasted from 1987 to 1992, the herring
Development in the Pacic Herring, Clupea pallasi. Biol.
spawning population severely declined in Tomales Bay.
Bull. 194:25-35.
Consequently, the department closed the Tomales Bay
Miller, D.J. and J. Schmidkte. 1956. Report on the distribu-
commercial herring shery from 1990 through 1992 to
tion and abundance of Pacic herring, Clupea pallasi,
hasten the recovery of the stock. Spawning biomass in
along the coast of central and southern California. Calif.
Tomales Bay averaged approximately 2,817 tons per season
Fish and Game. 42:163-187.
from 1993 through 1997; however, during the intense
1997-1998 El Niño, spawning biomass dropped to 586 tons. Reilly, P.N. 1988. Growth of young-of-the-year and juvenile
Although the Tomales Bay population rebounded to near Pacic herring from San Francisco Bay, California. Calif.
normal levels the following season, the spawning biomass Fish and Game. 74:38-48.
fell to 2,011 tons in 2000. Preliminary aging of Tomales
Spratt, J.D. 1992. The evolution of California’s herring
Bay herring, caught during the 1999 and 2000 seasons,
roe shery: catch allocation, limited entry, and conict
shows ve- and six-year-old herring under represented
resolution. Calif. Fish and Game. (78)1:20-44.
in the spawning population. Because the Tomales Bay
Spratt, J.D. 1981. The status of the Pacic Herring, Clupea
herring eet has had a very low exploitation rate since
harengus pallasii, resource in California 1972 to 1980.
the 1997-1998 season, the scarcity of older sh in the
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 171. 107 p.
population is most likely related to oceanic conditions –
not overshing. Trumble, R.J. and R.D. Humphries. 1985. Management
of Pacic herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) in the
Humboldt Bay’s spawning population has not been
eastern Pacic Ocean. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42(Suppl.
assessed since the 1990-1991 season, when 400 tons was
1):230-244.
estimated to have spawned. This population supported a
small, but successful shery with a 60-ton quota for many Ware, D. M. 1985. Life history characteristics, reproduc-
years. However, over the last 12 years shermen have tive value and resilience of Pacic herring (Clupea haren-
observed a decline in the spawning population, and in the gus pallasi). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42 (Suppl. 1):127-137.
last ve years shing effort has also declined. Only one of
the four permits issued for Humboldt Bay has been used to
sh in the last three seasons. It has been suggested that
aquaculture impacts to eelgrass, the primary spawning
habitat for herring in Humboldt Bay, may have contributed
to the observed decline.
Individual spawning runs have been estimated in Crescent
City Harbor, but no seasonal population estimates have
ever been made for the area. The success of the small
shery that occurs there depends on the size of schools
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 459
Striped Bass
History of the Fishery Bay, and the Pacic Ocean in the summer. The proportion
entering the ocean varies from year to year. These sh
I n 1879, 132 young striped bass (Morone saxatilis) from begin returning to the delta in the fall.
the Navesink River, New Jersey were released into the The distribution of shing effort and catch has changed
San Francisco Bay estuary at Carquinez Strait. A second substantially over the years. Before the late 1950s, little
plant of 300 sh from the Shrewsbury River, New Jersey shing occurred in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
followed in 1882. Shortly after these introductions, striped Ocean. Most of the catch came from San Pablo and Suisun
bass experienced a population explosion in the estuary. bays, the delta, and rivers upstream. From the late 1950s
Commercial harvesting started in the early 1880s, and to early 1980s, however, post-spawning striped bass gener-
by the turn of the century, exceeded one million pounds ally migrated farther downstream and stayed there longer.
annually. The greatest recorded commercial catch, over Thus, shing improved in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
two million pounds, occurred in 1903. Subsequently, Ocean and declined in the delta. Also, the use of the
annual catches declined due to increased restrictions on Sacramento River as a spawning area appeared to have
the shery. increased, improving shing there in the spring. In the
In 1935, the commercial shery for striped bass was 1980s and much of the 1990s, the migrations shifted
closed, although the stock was not depleted. The closure upstream again with Suisun Bay and the delta providing
stemmed largely from a social conict between sport the bulk of the catch. However, in 1998 and 1999, shing
and commercial shing interests which culminated in the once again improved substantially in San Francisco Bay
closure of the commercial gillnet sheries for chinook and the ocean. While signicant environmental changes
salmon and American shad in 1957. Thousands of striped have occurred, data are insufcient to develop con-
bass that could not be legally marketed were killed annu- clusions regarding causes of these changes in striped
ally in nets shed for these two species. Closure of the bass migrations.
salmon and shad sheries reduced shing mortality for Based on tag returns, in the 1970s private boat anglers
striped bass, but the magnitude of the reduction cannot accounted for about 63 percent, shore anglers for 19 per-
be estimated because the precise extent of the incidental cent, and commercial passenger shing vessels for 18 per-
harvest is unknown. Some illegal netting continues today. cent of the annual striped bass catch. By the 1990s, the
The striped bass sport shery has become the most impor- private boat portion of the catch changed little (64 per-
tant shery in the San Francisco Bay estuary and one cent), but the commercial passenger shing vessel portion
of the most important sheries on the Pacic Coast. decreased to nine percent and the shore catch increased
From 1969 to 1996, a general decline in catch was associ- to 27 percent of the total.
ated with a decline in striped bass abundance. Over this Striped bass are generally caught by bait shing or troll-
period, the annual catch varied from about 444,000 sh ing, although under some conditions y-shing or casting
in 1975 to 52,000 sh in 1994. During the early 1960s, plugs or jigs is effective. Common dead baits include
the annual catch of striped bass was even larger, probably threadn shad, anchovies, cut sardines, staghorn sculpins
around 750,000 sh. In 1985, an economist estimated the (bullheads), gobies (mudsuckers), shrimp, blood worms,
annual value of the striped bass shery to exceed 47 and pile worms. Drift shing with live anchovies or shiner
million dollars. perch is popular in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
Striped bass angling occurs year-round, but shing locali- Ocean, and live golden shiner minnows or theadn shad
ties vary seasonally in accordance with the striped bass are sometimes are used in the delta. Trolling methods are
migratory pattern. Tag recoveries indicate that many specialized. Many types of plugs, jigs, and spoons are used
adults inhabit salt water San Pablo Bay, San Francisco in trolling, frequently in double combinations.
Present shing regulations include an 18-inch minimum
length and a daily bag limit of two sh. From 1956 to 1981,
the minimum length was 16 inches and the bag limit was
three sh. Prior to 1956, regulations were more liberal.
A 12-inch minimum length and ve-sh bag limit generally
was in effect.
Exploitation rates have been estimated almost annually
since 1958. They have varied from nine percent (1989,
1992, and 1994) to 28 percent (1963) except for an unusu-
ally high 37 percent in 1958. Exploitation in the San Fran-
cisco Bay estuary is lower than for historic exploitation
Striped Bass, Morone saxatilis
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
460
on commercially shed Atlantic Coast stocks, which were On one occasion, DFG biologists observed several thou-
Striped Bass
exploited at rates as high as 50 to 70 percent annually sand striped bass at the surface along the bank of the
before a severe population decline in the 1980s led to very Sacramento River above Knights Landing. Small groups
restrictive regulations, included shing moratoriums. of from three to six bass were observed splashing and
churning in the main current of the river in the act of
While the primary California population of striped bass is
spawning. At times, ve or more groups of bass were
located in the San Francisco Bay estuary, striped bass also
observed spawning at one time. Usually a large female
have been introduced into many other areas including the
was accompanied by several smaller males.
lower Colorado River, several reservoirs, and the Pacic
Ocean in southern California. Conditions are generally not During the spawning act, eggs and milt are released into
suitable for striped bass spawning in the reservoirs or in the water. The milt contains microscopic sperm cells
marine waters off southern California, so those sheries that penetrate the eggs and cause them to begin to
usually depend on maintenance stocking from hatcheries. develop. While the eggs are still in the female they are
However, at least two reservoir populations, Millerton and only about 0.04 inch in diameter, but upon their release
New Hogan, do reproduce successfully. A striped bass sh- they absorb water and increase to about 0.13 inch in diam-
ery also has developed in reservoirs which are part of the eter. At this time, they are so transparent that they are
State Water Project (SWP) and the federal Central Valley virtually invisible.
Project (CVP), such as San Luis Reservoir, O’Neill Forebay, Striped bass eggs are only slightly heavier than water; so
and Pyramid and Silverwood lakes. These reservoirs are a moderate current will suspend them while they develop.
unintentionally stocked by young bass contained in water Without any water movement they sink to the bottom and
diverted from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, and their die. The larval bass hatch in about two days, although the
sheries have also declined in response to the decline of the length of time depends upon the temperature. Develop-
“source” San Francisco Bay estuary population. ment is faster when the water is warmer.
The newly hatched bass continue their development while
Status of Biological Knowledge being carried along in the water. At rst, the larval bass
subsist on their yolk, but in about a week they start feed-
Spawning and Early Nursery Period. Striped bass begin ing on tiny crustaceans, which are just visible to the naked
spawning in the spring when the water temperature eye. After several weeks, they begin feeding on larger
reaches 60˚ F. Most spawning occurs between 61˚ and 69˚ invertebrates, such as opossum shrimp and amphipods.
F, and the spawning period usually extends from April At this time, they generally inhabit the delta and Suisun
to mid-June. They spawn in fresh water where there is Bay. By late July or August, the young bass are about two
moderate to swift current. The section of the San Joaquin inches long.
River between the Antioch bridge and the mouth of the
Middle River, together with the other channels in the
Status of the Population
area, is one very important spawning ground. Another is
the Sacramento River from Sacramento to Colusa. About
one-half to two-thirds of the eggs are spawned in the Young Striped Bass Abundance
Sacramento River and the remainder in the San Joaquin
Reduced juvenile production was the principal cause of
River system. Female striped bass usually spawn for the
the adult striped bass population decline between the
rst time in their fth year when they are 22 to 25 inches
early 1970s and the early 1990s. Since 1959, the DFG
long. Many males mature when two years old and only
has sampled young-of-the-year striped bass each summer
about 11 inches long. Most males are mature at age three.
(except 1966). An extensive survey is conducted every
Stripers are very prolic. A ve-pound, ve-year-old second week from late June to late July or early August
female may spawn as many as 250,000 eggs in one season, throughout the nursery habitat. The sh are measured,
and a 12-pound, eight-year-old sh is capable of producing and when their mean fork length reaches 1.5 inches,
over a million eggs. Some striped bass live for more than a young-of-the-year index is calculated on the basis of
20 years; these sh may exceed 50 pounds in weight catch-per-net-tow and the volume of water in the areas
and spawn several million eggs. Because of this great where the sh are caught.
reproductive potential, striped bass were able to establish
Young-of-the-year striped bass abundance has suffered
a large population within a few years after their introduc-
an erratic but persistent decline from high index levels
tion in California.
sometimes exceeding 100 in the mid-1960s to the all time
Striped bass typically spawn in schools at night during low of only 1.4 in 1998. From 1959 to 1976, average
periods of warm weather when water temperatures rise.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 461
abundance of young striped bass was more than three
Striped Bass
60
times the subsequent average abundance.
thousands of fish landed
50
Substantial effort has gone into evaluating factors control- 40
Striped Bass
ling young striped bass production. Initially (1959-1970), 30
annual uctuations in young bass abundance could be
20
explained by a simple model based on delta freshwater
10
outow which indicated that young bass production was
0 1947
much greater in years with high spring-early summer ows 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
than in years with low ows. The mechanism causing Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Striped Bass
the most abundant year classes to occur under high ow CPFV = commercial passanger fishing vessel (Party Boat); Recreational catch from CPFV
conditions was unknown. However, one potential explana- Logs for Ocean and San Francisco Bay (Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta catches are not
tion was that when ows were high, a lower percentage included until 1964), CPFV catch was not reported prior to 1960.
of the ow to the delta was diverted by the combination
of major water projects (CVP and SWP) and local delta importance of various factors that may be at the root of
agriculture. Hence, under those conditions, fewer young the problem. These factors include losses of young sh
bass would be entrained in diverted water and removed to water exports, shortages of important food organisms
from the estuary. Other potential explanations for the possibly limiting survival of young bass, toxic chemicals
greater abundance in high ow years included: 1) expan- and trace metals inhibiting reproduction and reducing
sion of the nursery area resulting in greater habitat avail- survival, and a shift in global climate possibly resulting
ability and less competition; 2) higher food production; in adults straying from the estuary. It has also
3) dilution of toxicity; and 4) reduction in predation losses been suggested that the effect of water exports and
due to more turbid conditions. adverse factors associated with salinity encroachment
may be reduced by density-dependent mortality after the
In the early 1970s, production of young bass began to fall
rst summer.
below the levels expected based on the initial models,
and this decline was most acute in the delta portion
Adult Striped Bass Abundance
of their nursery. During this period the SWP and CVP
The decline of the striped bass shery in the San Francisco
substantially increased their water export from the delta,
Bay estuary between the early 1960s and the present
resulting in greater diversion rates being associated with
is a direct result of a substantial decline in the striped
any particular ow. Minimum estimates of losses, which
bass population. The California Department of Fish and
do not include sh smaller than 0.8 inches, in these
Game (DFG) has measured adult (larger than 18 inches,
water exports were approximately 10 to 30 million young
about three years old) striped bass abundance with mark-
striped bass annually. Maximum loss estimates approached
recapture (tagging) population estimates since 1969.
or exceeded 100 million young bass in some years. Con-
trasting these losses with estimates of abundance at the According to the estimates, the striped bass population
1.5-inch stage of about 15 to 30 million sh indicates averaged about 1.7 million adults between 1969, when the
that signicant population impacts could be expected. estimates began, and 1976. Abundance declined to as little
Potential effects were taken into account by developing as 600,000 adults in the early 1990s, but had increased to
a new model which considered the delta and Suisun Bay about 1.3 million in 1998. A combination of much greater
separately and included both outow and diversion terms catches by the shery and tag returns suggest that the
in the delta portion of the model. This model yielded striped bass population had about three million adults in
reasonable predictions of young bass abundance from 1959 the early 1960s. The reduction in the adult stock through
to 1976 and provided additional evidence that losses of the early 1990s was principally due to reduced recruit-
young sh to diversions were an important factor regulat- ment of young sh. Increased abundance in the late 1990s
ing striped bass abundance. is unexplained, but may be due to factors allowing greater
survival of young sh until they are recruited to the shery.
However, since 1977, abundance of young striped bass has
been considerably lower than predicted by the 1959-1976
Fishery Restoration
model. Scientists representing various interests, including
the DFG, water user groups, universities, and the Oak As a result of the initial decline in estimated legal-sized
Ridge National Laboratory, have extensively evaluated striped bass abundance in the late 1970s, and also in
potential causes of this decline in abundance, and gener- response to public pressure for supplementation stocking,
ally agree that reduced egg production by the smaller the DFG began a hatchery program starting with the 1980
population of adults likely is part of the explanation. year class that were stocked as yearlings in 1981. The
However, consensus has not been reached on the relative number of sh stocked increased from about 63,000 for
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
462
the 1980 year class to almost 3.4 million for the 1990 ence suggests that in spite of efforts to ensure a sufcient
Striped Bass
year class. supply of sh, stocking goals will not always be met.
The hatchery program changed substantially in 1992 as Sufcient quantities of these stocked striped bass will
the result of concern over potential predation by striped be marked to allow evaluation of their contribution to
bass on threatened and endangered species, such as subsequent adult populations and the relative benets
Sacramento River winter-run chinook salmon and delta of: 1) conventional aquaculture and pen rearing; and
smelt, and all stocking of hatchery-reared striped bass 2) stocking age-one and age-two sh.
was suspended (age-one sh from the 1991 year class Other actions by the DFG include: 1) working through the
were not stocked in the estuary). Instead, 22,000-284,000 CALFED Bay-Delta program to plan and implement ecosys-
sh obtained from sh screens in the southern Sacra- tem restoration measures that will benet a spectrum of
mento-San Joaquin Delta and reared in oating pens have species, including striped bass; 2) negotiating for mitiga-
been stocked annually, beginning with the 1992 year class tion from owners of power plants in the estuary for losses
released as yearlings in 1993. Most years, a fraction of caused by power plant operations and for mitigation from
the stocked sh have been externally marked or coded- the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) and
wire tagged to allow estimation of their contribution to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) for losses at their
the population. pumping plants; and 3) increasing study effort to improve
Hatchery sh have contributed measurably to the popula- understanding of processes controlling striped bass abun-
tion of each year class in the estuary, especially at the dance, with study funding coming from several sources
higher stocking levels. Estimated percentage of hatchery- including the DWR, USBR, State Water Resources Control
reared striped bass in each year class increased from Board, Federal Aid to Sport Fish Restoration funds, and sales
about one percent for the 1981 year class to about 31 of striped bass stamps required of all striped bass anglers.
percent for the 1989 year class. More recently, sh reared
in oating pens have contributed about four percent of
Management Considerations
the 1994 year class and about 13 percent of the 1996
year class.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Greater stocking of age-one and age-two striped bass (up further information.
to 1.275 million age-one equivalents) reared in hatcheries
and pens began in summer 2000. This stocking is the
Donald E. Stevens and David W. Kohlhorst
focus of a Striped Bass Management Conservation Plan
California Department of Fish and Game
prepared according the federal Endangered Species Act
requirements. It is designed to maintain the striped bass
population and sport shery at the present level and to be
References
consistent with recovery of listed species.
Due to the greater genetic diversity of naturally produced Arnold, J. and T. Heyne. 1994. Seasonality and quality of
sh, the DFG’s priority is to stock sh salvaged at the eggs produced by female striped bass (Morone saxatilis)
SWP and CVP sh screens in the southern delta and reared in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Interagency
for one or two years in net pens oating in the estuary. Ecological Program Technical Report 39. 13 p.
However, it is unlikely that numbers of salvaged sh will
Bennett, W. A. and E. Howard. 1997. El Niños and the
consistently be sufcient to fully support the program, so
decline of striped bass. Interagency Ecological Program
in most years, net-pen-reared sh will be supplemented
Newsletter 10(4):17-21.
with sh produced by aquaculture.
Bennett, W. A. and E. Howard. 1999. Climate change
Striped bass spawn primarily during May, but salvaged sh
and the decline of striped bass. Interagency Ecological
are not available until late May through July. Thus, each
Program Newsletter 12(2):53-56.
year, the number of salvaged sh available for pen rearing
California Department of Fish and Game. 1987. Factors
will not be known until after articial spawning would
affecting striped bass abundance in the Sacramento-San
have to occur. The DFG will attempt to ensure sufcient
Joaquin River system. Interagency Ecological Study Pro-
availability of sh each year by contracting with private
gram Technical Report 20. 147 p.
aquaculturists to begin raising sufcient sh for most
of the allotment. After the number of salvaged sh is California Department of Fish and Game. 1989. Striped
known, excess aquaculture sh would be disposed of, or bass restoration and management plan for the Sacra-
perhaps used elsewhere by the DFG or aquaculturists (e.g., mento-San Joaquin Estuary Phase I. 39 p.
reservoir stocking or food market). However, past experi-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 463
Chadwick, H.K. 1967. Recent migrations of the Sacra-
Striped Bass
mento-San Joaquin River striped bass population. Trans-
actions of the American Fisheries Society 96:327-342.
Chadwick, H.K. 1977. Effects of water development
on striped bass. Pages 123-130 in: H. Clepper, editor.
Marine Recreation Fisheries 2. Sport Fishing Institute,
Washington, D.C., USA.
Collins, B.W. 1982. Growth of adult striped bass in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and Game
68:146-159.
Orsi, J.J. 1971. The 1965-1967 migrations of the Sacra-
mento-San Joaquin Estuary striped bass population. Cali-
fornia Fish and Game 57:257-267.
Raquel, P. 1988. Estimated entrainment of striped bass
eggs and larvae at State Water Project and Central Valley
Project facilities in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
1987. Interagency Ecological Program Technical Report 15.
11 p.
Scoeld, E.C. 1931. The striped bass of California (Roccus
lineatus). California Department of Fish and Game, Fish
Bulletin 29.
Stevens, D.E. 1977. Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) moni-
toring techniques in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary.
Pages 91-109 in W. Van Winkle, editor. Proceedings of
the conference on assessing the effects of power-plant-
induced mortality on sh populations. Pergamon Press,
New York, NY.
Stevens, D.E., D. W. Kohlhorst, L.W. Miller, and D.W. Kelley
1985. The decline of striped bass in the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary, California. Transactions of the American
Fisheries Society 114:12-30.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
464
Green Sturgeon
History of the Fishery California green sturgeon grow rapidly when young, prob-
Green Sturgeon
ably reaching 12 inches fork length in one year. Juvenile
H istorically, the green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris) green sturgeon raised in captivity grow substantially faster
resource has been of minor importance to Califor- than white sturgeon raised under similar conditions. Rela-
nians, although they may have been more important to tively rapid grow continues until they reach 51-55 inches
American Indians in the north coast area. An early com- in about 15-20 years. Maximum size in the Klamath River
mercial shery developed for sturgeon in the San Fran- in recent years has been about 90 inches and about
cisco Bay estuary between the 1860s and 1901, stimulated 180 pounds, but historical accounts report sh up to
by a growing acceptance of smoked sturgeon and caviar on 350 pounds. Like white sturgeon, their growth is likely
the East Coast of North America. However, green sturgeon affected by water temperature and dissolved oxygen con-
probably were a minor component of that shery, as they centration. The largest recently captured sh from the
were considered to be of inferior quality and were actually Klamath River were estimated to be about 40 years old.
claimed by some people to be poisonous. The commercial Compared with most freshwater or anadromous shes,
shery was closed in 1901, then reopened from 1909 green sturgeon are quite old (15-20 years) when they
to 1917. Commercial sturgeon shing in California ceased become sexually mature. Fecundity varies with female
in 1917. size, ranging from 60,000-140,000 eggs per female. These
Sport shing for green sturgeon was legalized in 1954, values are lower than for white sturgeon, both because
with a 40-inch total length minimum size limit and a one green sturgeon are smaller than white sturgeon and
sh per day per person creel limit. In 1956, snagging for because green sturgeon eggs are larger than white stur-
sturgeon was outlawed and the minimum size limit was geon eggs.
raised to 50 inches through 1963. The sport shery for Spawning occurs in the Sacramento River between March
green sturgeon in California is small, being overshadowed and June; it may extend slightly longer, into July, in
by the sport shery for white sturgeon in the San Fran- the Klamath River. Water temperature during spawning is
cisco Bay estuary and its tributaries and by the tribal likely 50° to 70°F. Little is known about spawning behav-
green sturgeon shery in the Klamath River. Exact sport ior. Spawning occurs in deep, fast water. The fertilized
catch data are not available. However, concern about eggs are slightly adhesive and hatch after four to 12
potential over-harvest of white sturgeon in the late 1980s days. Larvae stay close to the bottom and appear to
led to angling regulation changes starting in 1990 that rear primarily in rivers well upstream of estuaries. Under
instituted a 72-inch maximum size limit and increased the hatchery conditions, larval green sturgeon remain near the
minimum size limit by two inches per year until a new bottom and do not move up into the water column where
minimum size of 46 inches was reached in 1992. These they could be transported downstream. Most young green
regulation changes have also benetted green sturgeon. sturgeon migrate from river to ocean when they are one
to four years old, which may partly explain their relative
scarcity in the San Francisco Bay estuary.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Green sturgeon feed on a variety of bottom-dwelling ani-
G reen sturgeon are generally found in marine waters mals. Sturgeon feed by suction with their ventral, pro-
from the Bering Sea to Ensenada, Mexico. However, trusible mouths. Dense aggregations of taste buds on their
spawning populations have been found only in medium- four barbels presumably assist in identication of food
sized rivers from the Sacramento-San Joaquin system on the bottom. Young sturgeon (eight inches) feed pri-
north; spawning has not been documented in either the
Columbia or Fraser rivers. Green sturgeon apparently
spend much less time in the San Francisco Bay estuary
than white sturgeon, either as young or adults. Adult
green sturgeon probably enter the estuary and move up
the Sacramento River in early spring. Spawning occurs as
far upstream as the area above Red Bluff Diversion Dam,
which is now open to allow sh passage during part of
the green sturgeon spawning period. Anecdotal evidence
suggests that spawning may also occur in the Feather
River but has not yet been documented there. Almost all
recoveries from a tagging program in the San Francisco
Bay estuary have come from outside the estuary, primarily
Green Sturgeon, Acipenser medirostris
from rivers and coastal areas in Oregon and Washington.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 465
References
marily on small crustaceans such as amphipods and opos-
Green Sturgeon
sum shrimp. As they develop, they take a wider variety
Chadwick, H.K. 1959. California sturgeon tagging studies.
of benthic invertebrates, including various species of
California Fish and Game 45:297-301.
clams, crabs, and shrimp. Larger green sturgeon diet
includes shes. Emmett, R.L., S.L. Stone, S.A. Hinton, and M.E. Monaco.
1991. Distribution and abundances of shes and inverte-
Little is known about predators on green sturgeon. Smaller
brates in west coast estuaries, volume 2: Species life
sh are undoubtedly taken by various sh and bird preda-
histories summaries. ELMR Report No. 8, NOS/NOAA Stra-
tors, although the ve lines of sharp, bony scutes along
tegic Environmental Assessment Division, Rockville, Mary-
their bodies probably make them less desirable prey than
land.
most other species. Information from the Columbia River
suggests that total mortality of green sturgeon is less than Miller, L.W. 1972a. Migrations of sturgeon tagged in the
for white sturgeon. Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and Game
58:102-106.
Status of the Population Moyle, P.B., R.M. Yoshiyama, J.E. Williams, and E. Wikra-
manayake. 1993. Fish species of special concern of Califor-
B nia. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento,
ecause green sturgeon spend most of their lives in
California.
the ocean and are not readily available to the sport
shery or sampling programs in estuaries or rivers, their U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Green sturgeon.
population status is difcult to determine. Although green Pages 83-95 in: Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta native
sturgeon have never been abundant, limited evidence sug- shes recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
gests that the overall population may have declined in Portland, Oregon.
California. This is supported by the apparent extirpation
of the species from some rivers, such as the Eel and
South Fork Trinity, leaving the Sacramento, Klamath, and
mainstem Trinity rivers as the only documented spawning
streams in California, along with the Rogue and Umpqua
rivers in Oregon. However, abundance estimates in the
San Francisco Bay estuary, based on mark-recapture esti-
mates of white sturgeon abundance and the ratio of white
to green sturgeon in tagging catches, do not suggest that
the population has declined in that system. Additionally,
the recent opening of the Red Bluff Diversion Dam gates
during much of the spawning period has provided green
sturgeon with access to additional spawning area upstream
of Red Bluff. Catches of juvenile green sturgeon during
sampling for downstream-migrant chinook salmon smolts
at the dam in midsummer indicates that they have taken
advantage of this additional spawning habitat. The
number and size distribution of green sturgeon caught
incidental to a commercial salmon shery in the lower
Columbia River leads Oregon biologists to suggest that
“tens of thousands” of green sturgeon inhabit the
ocean offshore of Oregon
and Washington.
David W. Kohlhorst
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
466
White Sturgeon
History of the Fishery Spawning may also occur in the Feather River, but has not
White Sturgeon
yet been documented there. A small number move up the
H istorically, the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmon- San Joaquin River. The Klamath River supports the other
tanus) resource has been very important to Califor- California subpopulation of white sturgeon. Although most
nians. Sturgeon scutes and skull plates are found in Native recoveries from a tagging program in the San Francisco
American middens in the San Francisco Bay, Sacramento- Bay estuary have come from the estuary and its tributar-
San Joaquin delta, and Elkhorn Slough areas, indicating ies, a few sh (less than one percent of total recoveries)
that these large sh were important sources of tribal have moved along the Pacic Coast and been recovered in
nutrition. An early commercial shery developed for white Oregon and Washington.
sturgeon between the 1860s and 1901, stimulated by a California white sturgeon grow rapidly when young, reach-
growing acceptance of smoked sturgeon and caviar on ing 12 inches fork length in one year. This rapid growth
the East Coast of North America. The California harvest slows thereafter and they reach the present minimum
was concentrated in the San Francisco Bay and delta. legal size of 46 inches after nine to sixteen years. Subse-
Fishing gear included gillnets, longlines, and multiple quently, they grow one to 2.5 inches per year. Ages and
unbaited hooks for snagging sturgeon. The commercial growth rates of eld-caught sh have been determined
catch peaked at 1.65 million pounds in 1887, declined from the number and spacing of annular rings, visible in
to 0.3 million pounds in 1895, and to 0.2 million pounds sections of rst pectoral n rays. Laboratory experiments
in 1901, when the commercial shery was closed. Small have shown that young-of-the-year white sturgeon growth
commercial catches in a reopened shery from 1909 to is affected by water temperature and dissolved oxygen
1917 indicated that white sturgeon populations were still concentration. They grow signicantly faster at 68°F than
low, and commercial shing ceased in 1917. at 59°F, but an increase to 77°F does not signicantly
Sport shing for white sturgeon was legalized in 1954, increase growth rate. When dissolved oxygen concentra-
with a 40-inch total length minimum size limit and a one tions drop to 56 percent of air saturation at any of
sh per day per person creel limit. In 1956, snagging for these three temperatures, juvenile sh show a signicant
sturgeon was outlawed and the minimum size limit was decrease in growth rate, presumably due to reduced
raised to 50 inches through 1963. The small sport shing food consumption. The white sturgeon’s rapid growth rate
catch increased dramatically in 1964 when the minimum has attracted the interest of some California aquacultur-
size reverted to 40 inches and bay shrimp were discovered ists, who grow sturgeon in freshwater tanks which have
to be effective bait. By 1967, 2,258 sturgeon were landed consistently moderate temperatures and high dissolved
by party boat anglers. Possibly due to reduced stocks of oxygen concentrations.
other estuarine and coastal marine species such as striped The largest sturgeon were caught before 1900 when size
bass, angling for white sturgeon has become very popular. records were vague. However, the largest of these sh
Although exact sport catch data are not available, the was probably more than 13 feet long and weighed more
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) estimates than 1,300 pounds, making white sturgeon the largest
that the harvest rate during the 1980s was 40 percent freshwater-inhabiting sh in North America. This sh may
greater than it was during the previous two decades. have been 100 years old. The largest white sturgeon cap-
In 1990, a 72-inch maximum size limit became law and tured in California waters during the past 40 years was
the minimum size limit was increased by two inches per a 468-pound sh caught by a sport angler in Carquinez
year until a new minimum size of 46 inches was reached Strait in 1983. This sh is the present world record sport-
in 1992. caught white sturgeon. In a University of California, Davis
(UCD) study of white sturgeon during the 1980s, many sh
were caught, measured, examined for sex and stage of
Status of Biological Knowledge maturity, and released. Median male size was 3.6 feet and
W
median female size was 4.6 feet in San Francisco Bay.
hite sturgeon are generally found in estuaries, and
their range extends along the Pacic Coast of North
America from Ensenada, Mexico, to the Gulf of Alaska.
However, spawning populations have been found only
in large rivers from the Sacramento-San Joaquin system
north. Indeed, most California white sturgeon are found in
the San Francisco Bay estuary. Some white sturgeon move
into the delta and lower Sacramento River during late-fall
and winter. Some of these sh move up the Sacramento
White Sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus
River to the Knights Landing-Hamilton City area to spawn.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 467
Status of the Population
Compared with most freshwater or anadromous shes,
White Sturgeon
white sturgeon are quite old when they become sexually
T he 19th century history of white sturgeon shing
mature, but they evidence impressive fecundity at this
in California waters shows this species’ vulnerability
large size. In the UCD study during the 1980s, sexually
to overshing. Delayed sexual maturity and infrequent
mature males were 3.6 to 6.0 feet long (nine to 25
spawning by the females exacerbates this vulnerability
years old), whereas mature females were generally 4.6 to
compared to many other shes. DFG tagging studies indi-
6.6 feet (14 to 30 years old). However, high natural vari-
cated that angler harvest was high during the 1980s and
ability in the size at sexual maturity was noted, especially
new size limits (including initiation of a rst-ever maxi-
among females. For example, the smallest pre-spawning
mum size limit in 1990) reect DFG’s management con-
female white sturgeon weighed only 25 pounds, whereas a
cerns. Annual harvest rate estimates indicate that the
120-pound female was caught which, from gonadal analy-
angling regulation changes begun in 1990 have had the
sis, was determined to have not yet spawned. Studies sug-
desired effect: harvest rates have been reduced by at
gest that white sturgeon females do not spawn every year.
least half from the levels of the mid- to late 1980s
Several years may lapse between successive spawnings
in an individual female. In the study on San Francisco Adult (at least 40 inches total length) white sturgeon
Bay sh, approximately 50 percent of the males captured abundance, as estimated from tagging studies, varied
were approaching spawning condition for that year, com- greatly between 1967 and 1998. The abundance estimate
pared with only about 15 percent of the captured females. reached its highest level (142,000) in 1997. This abundance
Fecundity varies with female size. Smaller females (under pattern is largely the result of irregular recruitment to the
ve feet) contain about 100,000 eggs, whereas a 9.2-foot, adult population by highly variable year classes. Strong
460-pound female contained 4.7 million eggs. year classes are produced in years with high spring fresh-
water outows from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
Spawning occurs in the Sacramento River between mid-
so much of the present high white sturgeon abundance is
February and late May when water temperatures are 46°
attributable to the very wet 1982-1983 period.
to 72°F. Little is known about spawning behavior. White
sturgeon spawn their eggs onto deep gravel rifes or rocky Unfortunately, the severe drought that gripped California
holes in the Sacramento River. The fertilized eggs are very from 1987 to 1992 will soon begin to affect the adult
adhesive and hatch after four to 12 days on the bottom. white sturgeon population, because reproductive success
Larvae stay close to the bottom and rear in both the river was low in most of those years. The strong year classes
and the estuary downstream. Rearing location is at least from the early 1980s were recruited starting in about 1994
partly determined by river ow; more larvae are washed and, by 1997 and 1998, few sh smaller than the minimum
into the estuary when freshwater ows are high. Young size limit of 46 inches were caught. Thus, the population
juvenile sturgeon become increasingly tolerant of brackish should decline substantially as recruitment almost ceases
water as they grow and develop. and growth and mortality reduce the abundance of sh
now in the shable population. However, another cycle
White sturgeon feed on a wide variety of bottom-dwelling
of strong recruitment can be expected when sh from a
animals. Sturgeon feed by suction with their ventral, pro-
series of wet years starting in 1993 begin to enter the
trusible mouths. Dense aggregations of taste buds on their
shery late in the next decade.
four barbels presumably assist in identication of food
on the bottom. When their mouths are blocked by food, The present low exploitation rates, past rapid recoveries
white sturgeon can ventilate their gills by ushing water from population lows in the mid-1970s and early 1990s,
in via the dorsal part of the gill slit and out via the and current protection of the most fecund females by the
ventral part. Young sturgeon (eight inches) feed primarily 72-inch maximum size limit suggest that no further angling
on small crustaceans such as amphipods and opossum restrictions are needed at this time.
shrimp. As they develop, they take a wider variety of
benthic invertebrates, including various species of clams,
David W. Kohlhorst
crabs, and shrimp. Larger white sturgeon diet includes
California Department of Fish and Game
shes and, during winter in San Francisco Bay, herring roe.
Joseph J. Cech, Jr.
Little is known about predators on white sturgeon. Smaller
University of California, Davis
sh are undoubtedly taken by various sh and bird preda-
tors, although the ve lines of bony scutes along their
bodies probably make them less desirable prey than other
estuarine species. Anglers undoubtedly mount the largest
predatory effort on adult sh.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
468
References
White Sturgeon
Cech, J.J. Jr., S.J. Mitchell, and T.E. Wragg. 1984. Com-
parative growth of juvenile white sturgeon and striped
bass: Effects of temperature and hypoxia. Estuaries
7:12-18.
Chapman, F.A. 1989. Sexual maturation and reproductive
parameters of wild and domestic stocks of white sturgeon,
Acipenser transmontanus. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
California, Davis.
Chapman, F.A., J.P. Van Eenennaam, and S.I. Doroshov.
1996. The reproductive condition of white sturgeon,
Acipenser transmontanus, in San Francisco Bay, California.
Fishery Bulletin 94:628-634.
Kohlhorst, D.W. 1980. Recent trends in the white stur-
geon population in California’s Sacramento-San Joaquin
Estuary. California Fish and Game 66:210-219.
Kohlhorst, D.W., L.W. Botsford, J.S. Brennan, and G.M.
Cailliet. 1991. Aspects of the structure and dynamics
of an exploited central California population of white
sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). Pages 277-293 in:
P. Williot, editor. Acipenser. Actes du premier colloque
international sur l’esturgeon, Bordeaux, France.
Kohlhorst, D.W., L.W. Miller, and J.J. Orsi. 1980. Age and
growth of white sturgeon collected in the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary, California: 1965-1970 and 1973-1976. Cal-
ifornia Fish and Game 66:83-95.
Miller, L.W. 1972a. Migrations of sturgeon tagged in
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and
Game 58:102-106.
Miller, L.W. 1972b. White sturgeon population character-
istics in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary as measured
by tagging. California Fish and Game 58:94-101.
Schaffter, R.G. 1997. White sturgeon spawning migrations
and location of spawning habitat in the Sacramento River,
California. California Fish and Game 83:1-20.
Schaffter, R.G. and D.W. Kohlhorst. 1999. Status of
white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary.
Angler holding a white sturgeon
California Fish and Game 85:37-41.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 469
Cow Sharks
History of the Fishery Bay. The sevengill shark has a worldwide distribution in
most temperate seas, the only notable exception being its
T wo species of cow sharks (Family Hexanchidae) occur absence from the temperate waters of the North Atlantic.
along the California coast, the sixgill shark (Hexanchus Sevengill sharks are ovoviviparous, with 80 to 100 young
griseus) and sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus). being born per pregnancy. The young are born during the
Sevengill sharks were among the most common species spring following a two-year reproductive cycle. Humboldt
taken during shark sheries of the 1930s and 1940s. Even Bay and San Francisco Bay serve as important pupping and
after this shery collapsed, these sharks were taken in nursery grounds. The young remain within the vicinity of
considerable numbers during shing competitions in San these nursery grounds for the rst few years of life, before
Francisco Bay in the 1950s and 1960s. The popularity of ranging aeld upon entering adolescence. Males mature
Jaws movies in the mid-1970s brought renewed interest between ve and six feet, and grow to a maximum size
in shark shing. Several operators in the San Francisco of 8.25 feet. Females mature between 7.25 and 8.25 feet
Bay area targeted their charters on sevengill sharks, and and grow to at about 10 feet. The size at birth is between
as recently as the mid-1980s, these sharks were still 14 and 18 inches.
the object of a popular sport shery in San Francisco
Juvenile sevengills grow quite rapidly during the rst two
Bay. This shery declined in the late 1980s and early
years of life, more than doubling their length. This rapid
1990s, as charter boats began to target other species.
growth rate by juveniles in the nursery ground enhances
Although caught primarily by recreational anglers, seven-
their chance of survival since a sevengill over 28 inches
gills are caught incidentally in commercial sheries for
has fewer predators than a newborn half its size. In con-
other species.
trast to the rapid growth of juveniles, once maturation
The sixgill shark is also an incidental catch, especially in begins their growth rate slows down considerably.
trawl and gillnet sheries. It frequently appears in sh
The sevengill shark is an active predator that feeds at
markets and at dining establishments, but exact data on
or near the top of the food chain. The main prey items
the extent of this shery is lacking. Both species are
include other sharks, skates, rays, bony shes, and marine
typically either discarded or sold as “shark, unidentied,”
mammals. Sevengills have been observed to employ a
making it difcult to quantify landings.
variety of foraging strategies when hunting for food. As
a solitary hunter, they will use stealth to ambush smaller
Status of Biological Knowledge prey items, but while hunting larger prey, these sharks
will hunt cooperatively in packs to subdue seals, dolphins,
T he sevengill shark is a fairly common coastal species other large sharks and rays. White sharks are one of the
that frequently enters bays and, although rarely occur- few known predators on adult sevengill sharks and have
ring below depths of 330 feet, is found occasionally to been observed to attack them on occasion. In most areas
depths of over 660 feet. It seems to be most abundant where it occurs, the sevengill shark is displaced only by
where the water temperature lies between 54˚ and 64˚F. the white shark and killer whale as the top nearshore
It tends to prefer rocky reef habitats where kelp beds marine predator.
thrive, though it is commonly caught over sandy and mud The sixgill shark is one of the widest ranging of all shark
bottoms. Although relatively common at times of the year species, with a circumglobal distribution from northern
in Humboldt and San Francisco bays, very little is known and temperate areas to the tropics. In the eastern North
about movement patterns along the open coast. Pacic, this species occurs from the Aleutian Islands to
In the eastern North Pacic, sevengill sharks range from southern Baja California. This is a deepwater shark; adults
southeast Alaska to the Gulf of California, with their are found along the continental shelf and upper slopes
distribution becoming sporadic south of San Francisco down to at least 8,250 feet deep. They are known to
move up to a thousand feet off the bottom, occasionally
coming to the surface. Juveniles are often caught close
inshore, including enclosed bays such as Humboldt and
San Francisco, while adults are normally taken in deeper
water. These sharks seem to associate themselves with
areas of upwelling and high biological productivity.
Sixgill sharks are ovoviviparous with observed litters of
47 to 108. Adult females move onto the continental shelf
during the spring to drop their litter following a two-year
reproductive cycle. Young sixgills usually remain on the
Sixgill Cow Shark, Hexanchus griseus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
470
References
shelf and uppermost slopes until they reach adolescence,
Cow Sharks
at which time they move further down the slope and into
Ebert, D.A. 1986. Biological aspects of the sixgill shark,
deeper water. It is the newborns and juveniles that typi-
Hexanchus griseus. Copeia, 1986(1): 131-135.
cally seem to stray close inshore and occasionally occur in
bays and harbors. Adult males typically remain in deeper Ebert, D.A. 1986. Aspects on the biology of hexanchid
water, where mating and courtship takes place. Males sharks along the California coast. In: Indo-Pacic sh biol-
mature at about 10 feet, while females mature at about ogy: Proceedings of the second international conference
14 feet. This is a large shark with males reaching at least on Indo-Pacic shes (T. Uyeno, R. Arai, T. Taniuchi, and
11.5 feet and females at least 15.8 feet. The size at birth K. Matsuura, eds.), p. 437-449. Ichthyol. Soc. Jpn., Tokyo.
is between 24 and 29 inches. Little is known about their
Ebert, D.A. 1989. Life history of the sevengill shark,
growth rate, although juveniles held in captivity will grow
Notorynchus cepedianus Peron, in two northern California
quite rapidly, nearly doubling their size in the rst year
bays. Calif. Fish Game, 75(2): 102-112.
of life.
Ebert, D.A. 1991. Observations on the predatory behaviour
The sixgill shark is a large, active, powerful predator
of the sevengill shark, Notorynchus cepedianus. S. Afr. J.
that feeds on a wide variety of prey species including
mar. Sci. 11: 455-465.
other sharks, rays, chimaeras, bony shes, and marine
mammals. Larger sixgills will actively forage on quite
large prey items including swordsh, marlin, dolphinsh,
seals, and dolphins. They have also been observed to con-
sume whales as carrion. Juveniles held in captivity have a
voracious appetite.
Status of the Population
T he main concentrations of sevengill shark populations
in California appear to be in Humboldt and San Fran-
cisco Bays, both of which serve as nursery grounds for
newborns and juveniles. Damage to either of these areas
could have an adverse effect on the population. Outside
these bays there is very little reliable information regard-
ing the status of sevengill shark populations.
There is no information on the population status of the
sixgill shark.
David Ebert
U.S. Abalone
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 471
True Smelts
General whitebait and night smelt were lumped into the category
“true smelt.” However, it is unlikely that whitebait smelt
T he true smelts of the family Osmeridae are small were ever harvested in very large numbers. Furthermore,
shes found in cold coastal, estuarine, and freshwater “whitebait smelt” was the only smelt category available to
habitats in the Northern Hemisphere. The term “true sh processors who lled out the required DFG pink slips
smelt” identies these shes from similar-looking species on which catch is recorded. Therefore, it is quite likely
of the silverside family (Atherinopsidae, recently changed that “whitebait smelt” in the historical sheries statistics
from Atherinidae) whose common names often include the includes all species of smelt harvested (but mainly surf
word “smelt” (such as jacksmelt, or topsmelt). Smelt life and night smelt).
history strategies range from completing all life stages in Since 1977, landings of smelts have been recorded in
freshwater, migrating from marine or estuarine habitats to their own species categories; however up to one third of
freshwater to spawn (anadromous), or living entirely in the the landings were still reported as “true smelt” and not
marine environment and spawning in the surf or subtidal identied to species. After 1989, the percentage of land-
zone. Like salmonids, the true smelts have an adipose n ings reported in the “true smelt” category has averaged
and some have a curious cucumber odor. less than 0.5 percent of the total landings. Therefore,
Most of the 12 species in the family support either sport while the total smelt catch can be estimated for the
or commercial sheries due to their highly prized delicate past several decades, landings by species can only be
avor. They are also a major forage sh for marine mam- determined since 1990.
mals, birds, and predatory shes such as salmon and In addition to commercial landings, there is a large, but
cod. Seven of the 12 species occur in California: delta largely unreported, sport shery for surf smelt and night
smelt, found only in the upper portions of the Sacra- smelt. The Marine Recreational Fishery Statistical Survey
mento-San Joaquin estuary; surf smelt, commonly known (MRFSS), established by the National Marine Fisheries Ser-
as day smelt, found along most of California’s coast but vice (NMFS) in 1979, estimates the impact of recreational
spawning only from Santa Cruz northward; wakasagi, a shing on marine resources. Estimates of annual recre-
Japanese freshwater species introduced into California ational smelt catches (1980 to 1998), based on phone and
reservoirs which has also taken up residence in the Sac- intercept surveys, range from nearly 200,000 pounds in
ramento-San Joaquin estuary; night smelt, found from 1998 to less than 5,000 pounds in 1983. Nearly all of these
Pt. Arguello, northward; longn smelt, an estuarine spe- recreational catches are reported as surf smelt.
cies found mainly in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary;
eulachon, an anadromous species found mainly in the
Delta Smelt
Klamath River; and whitebait smelt, a rather uncommon
marine species ranging from San Francisco Bay northward,
about which little is known.
History of the Fishery
The six native smelts have all supported commercial sh-
In the 19th century, delta smelt (Hypomesus transpaci-
eries in the past, but only surf and night smelts contribute
cus) and longn smelt were the object of a commercial
signicantly to the sheries today. The combined sheries
shery that supplied markets in San Francisco. Much of the
vary from year to year, with catch ranging from 0.5 to
market seems to have been for dried sh for the Chinese
2.1 million pounds per year (1970 to 1999). In 1995, for
community. In the 20th century, delta smelt have not been
example, over 2.0 million pounds of smelt were landed,
the target of a shery, however other bait sheries in the
with a wholesale value of over $600,000. The average
Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (e.g., shrimp, threadn
wholesale price per pound ranges from $0.20 to $0.30.
shad) often collect delta smelt as bycatch.
Smelts are sought commercially not only for human con-
sumption but also as feed for marine mammals, birds and
Status of Biological Knowledge
shes in aquariums, and as bait for shing.
Our understanding of delta smelt life history has increased
Unfortunately, most of the historical commercial landing
dramatically just prior to and since the delta smelt was
records for smelt, gathered by the California Department
listed as a threatened species in 1993 by both the federal
of Fish and Game (DFG), were lumped together, so the
government and the state of California. Since then, it
relative importance of each species in the past sheries
has been the target of focused research to determine
cannot be determined. The catch records for 1916 through
the factors affecting its abundance and to develop water
1969 are for “smelt” and “whitebait smelt.” The term,
management strategies to protect it. It is endemic only
“smelt” included not only surf smelt but jacksmelt, top-
to the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, which also serves
smelt, and grunion. After 1969, the silverside catch was
as the major water conduit for two-thirds of the state’s
removed from the “smelt” statistics and all smelts except
human population. Hence, under protections set forth
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
472
in both the federal and state endangered species acts, Since the wakasagi has become established in more brack-
True Smelts
the condition of the delta smelt population can play a ish portions of the estuary, the potential for interbreeding
major role in how water is managed throughout the state. as well as for increased competition for food, spawning
The delta smelt is considered environmentally sensitive areas, etc., has increased and may pose a signicant
because it resides mainly in the brackish water portion of threat to delta smelt recovery.
the estuary, is primarily an annual sh (i.e., completes its Unlike many shes with similar life histories in the estu-
life cycle, for the most part, in one year), is exclusively ary, delta smelt abundance is not strongly affected by
planktivorous and dependent on a zooplankton community freshwater outow or by the position of the low salinity
that has been greatly altered by exotic species, has a very zone; however, population levels are only high in years
low fecundity for a sh with planktonic larvae, is fragile with moderate to high outows. Distribution, however,
and easily stressed, and is a very poor swimmer. is strongly related to freshwater outow. In low outow
The delta smelt is one of the smaller smelts. It reaches years, the population is concentrated above the conu-
adult sizes at two to three inches and rarely lives more ence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers in the
than one year. It is translucent with a silvery steel-blue narrow channels of the delta where it becomes more
streak along its sides and it exudes a strong odor of vulnerable to entrainment in water diversions, predation,
cucumbers. Most of the year, it resides in the open surface pollutant exposure, and competition with wakasagi and
waters of the low salinity portions of the estuary where other planktivorous shes. Delta smelt do not exhibit
fresh and salt water mix. They are usually found at salini- a strong stock-recruitment relationship that would be
ties between two and seven parts per thousand (ppt) expected for a near annual sh, therefore, environmental
although are not uncommon in salinities between zero and factors may strongly contribute to population success
18 ppt. Delta smelt migrate to freshwater areas of the
Status of the Population
estuary that are under tidal inuence to spawn from late
winter to early summer. Spawning usually takes place in Delta smelt were once one of the most common shes
shallow water where the eggs are demersal and attach to in the estuary. Historically, delta smelt abundance uctu-
the substrate. Females produce between 1,200 and 2,600 ated from year to year, but from the early 1980s to the
eggs depending on size. Most adults die after spawning, mid-1990s, the population was consistently low. In recent
however a few survive to a second year. In recent years, years, abundance has varied dramatically even though
fewer smelt have survived to a second year and the aver- stringent measures are now in place to provide better
age size of the rst-year sh has signicantly decreased. habitat conditions for delta smelt. The causes of the delta
Larger sh may contribute signicantly more to the egg smelt decline are multiple and synergistic and vary from
supply and may be responsible for better success of the year to year. These include: reductions in freshwater out-
population when environmental conditions are favorable. ow caused by drought and by the diversion and upstream
storage of large amounts of water by the state and
Delta smelt feed primarily on planktonic copepods, cla-
federal water projects, entrainment losses to water diver-
docerans, and amphipods. Recent dramatic shifts in the
sions, high outows in extremely wet years, exposure to
zooplankton community, both in terms of species inva-
toxicants, disease, competition, predation, and loss of
sions and total abundance, may affect delta smelt sur-
genetic integrity.
vival. Historically, the most common food item was the
euryhaline copepod, Eurytemora afnis; however, this
copepod has since been replaced by Pseudodiaptomus
forbesi, as the primary prey item, although E. afnis
is still strongly preferred. In recent years, the exotic
Asian clam, Potamocorbula amurensis, has greatly reduced 2.0
zooplankton densities in the estuary.
Delta Smelt Abundance
1.6
thousands of fish
Genetic studies indicate that delta smelt are more closely
1.2
related to surf smelt than to wakasagi even though they
0.8
look more like the latter. Many of the traditional external
characteristics used to identify different species (e.g., n 0.4
ray counts) overlap between delta smelt and wakasagi;
0.0
however, the number of melanophores on the mandible 1967 1970 1980 1990 1999
(delta smelt has zero or one, wakasagi usually has ve
Fall Midwater Trawl Abundance Indicies
to many) is often used to separate the species. Hybrids
1967-1999, Delta Smelt
between delta smelt and wakasagi, as well as delta and
Data Source: DFG Central Valley Bay-Delta Branch. Indices for 1974 and 1979 were
longn smelt hybrids, have been observed in the estuary.
not available.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 473
Surf Smelt Status of Biological Knowledge
True Smelts
Surf smelt are the most widely distributed smelt in Cali-
fornia but are only common north of San Francisco Bay.
History of the Fishery
They are schooling, plankton feeding sh that can reach
The fact that surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) spawn on
10 inches in length. Females typically grow the largest and
selected beaches at predictable times of the day and year
live the longest (up to ve years), while males rarely live
has made them a favorite sport sh. The standard A-frame
longer than three years. Females are mature, however, in
dip net used to catch this smelt is based on one used by
one to two years, producing 1,300 to 37,000 eggs. In Cali-
American Indians in the aboriginal shery. It consists of a
fornia, most spawning occurs in June through September,
three- to four-foot long triangle of netting with poles on
in the surf zone of beaches, especially during high tides.
two sides and bag at the apex, into which, sh can be
The spawning smelt congregate in the surf during the day,
ipped by tilting the net upwards. About 95 percent of all
usually while the tide is falling. The biggest congregations
commercial landings are taken with this gear. The other
occur when high tide is in the late afternoon. The fertil-
ve percent are captured using purse seines, trawls, or
ized eggs adhere to sand and pebbles. The most favored
beach seines. This species was thought to be the dominant
spawning beaches are those made up largely of coarse
species in the commercial smelt catch; however, since
sand and pea-sized gravel, with some freshwater seepage.
all species categories have been reported, surf smelt
During periods of heavy spawning, some beaches are liter-
average only one third (33.0 percent) of the smelt catch
ally coated with eggs. The eggs hatch in two to three
(1990 through 1999). Landings averaged 478,000 pounds
weeks. Little is known about their larval life or of the
between 1990 and 1999 with 70 percent being reported
habits of juvenile and adults in the ocean environment.
from Eureka and Arcata. Another 25 percent of the land-
They presumably spend their lives in waters close to
ings were reported in the Crescent City area. Surf smelt
shore, however, as smelt are a common bycatch in the
(and night smelt) are sold fresh in the coastal markets or
shrimp shery.
sold to aquariums as feed for sh and marine mammals.
The sport shery primarily uses techniques and A-frame Status of the Population
nets similar to the commercial shery. Beach seines
The shery for surf smelt may be decreasing while
(“jump nets”) up to 20 feet long (with mesh sizes of at
landings for night smelt have increased. Landings have
least 7/8 inch) are also legal in the sport shery, as are
dropped from over 800,000 pounds (1995 to 1997), to
cast nets (Hawaiian throw nets). The sport catch limit for
100,000 pounds in 1998, to just over 12,000 pounds in
smelt is 25 pounds per day, a regulation that has been in
1999. Environmental factors such as seawater temperature
place for many years.
changes (e.g., El Niño) may dramatically affect population
Unfortunately, we have no historical records of the recre- levels. However, given their short life-cycle, excessive
ational catch, although it was estimated to be 400,000 shing could cause smelt populations to plummet in just
pounds, roughly four million smelt, in 1958. Since 1980, two or three years. Heavy recreational use of the beaches
the MRFSS estimate of recreational surf smelt landings in may also compact gravels and crush recently spawned
California averages 86,000 pounds and ranges from 4,500 eggs. It is also possible that the developing eggs may
pounds in 1982 to 197,000 pounds in 1998. These recent depend on water percolating through the gravels from
estimates are less than half the 1958 estimate, perhaps above, so alterations of inowing streams or lagoons may
suggesting that either changes in recreational effort or affect the suitability of the spawning habitat for egg
changes in surf smelt abundance has occurred. It should survival.
be noted that surf smelt was the only smelt to be reported
in any numbers and very few night smelt landings were
Wakasagi
reported. This is unusual since night smelt currently make
up over 50 percent of the commercial shery.
History of the Fishery
In Japan, wakasagi (Hypomesus nipponensis), are a
favored food sh, supporting a highly specialized shery.
Intensive commercial shing and reduced catches stimu-
lated the development of articial propagation techniques
that led to large-scale aquaculture facilities producing mil-
lions of wakasagi annually. This long history of articial
propagation of wakasagi is what made it so easy to trans-
Surf Smelt, Hypomesus pretiosus
port them to California.
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
474
True Smelts
3.0
millions of pounds landed
2.5 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Smelts
2.0 Commercial landings include the
Smelts
combined landings of smelts
1.5 and white bait smelts for 1916
through 1969 and the combined
1.0 landings of true smelts, surf
smelts, white bait smelts, and
0.5 night smelts for 1970-1999.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 and commercial landing receipts.
Status of Biological Knowledge limited food supply. In Japan, most individuals from anad-
romous stocks apparently live one year, spawn, and die,
The wakasagi was imported from Japan to California in
while some freshwater populations may live up to four
1959 by the Department of Fish and Game as a forage
years. In California, wakasagi can live at least two years
sh for salmonids in lakes and reservoirs. At the time, it
and may reach lengths of up to ve inches. They usually
was believed to be the same species as delta smelt. It
spawn from February to May. The presence of hybrids in
was apparently easier to ship wakasagi eggs from Japan
the estuary indicates that wakasagi can interbreed with
than it was to collect and transport live delta smelt from
delta smelt; however, no backcrossed individuals have
the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Its current range in
been observed. The high degree of genetic divergence
California is from Shastina Reservoir, Siskiyou County, in
between the two species suggests that the hybrids may
the northern part of the state to San Luis Reservoir and
be infertile.
parts of the California Aqueduct in the central part of
the state. An initial introduction in southern California
Status of the Population
at Big Bear Lake, San Bernardino County, apparently did
The wakasagi is still expanding its range in central Califor-
not survive. It is common in Lake Oroville on the Feather
nia and the consequences of this introduction may not yet
River and Folsom Lake on the American River, two large
be fully realized. It is a threat to delta smelt not only
water storage facilities in which water is released in
because it can interbreed; it may also compete for the
large amounts for transport down the Sacramento River
same food items and spawning locations, and possibly prey
to the water diversions in the southern delta. Since 1995,
on its larvae. The rst known observation of a wakasagi
wakasagi, in small numbers, have been widely distributed
in the estuary was in 1974. Since then, the number of
throughout the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary.
observations of individuals has increased although large
The wakasagi has been well studied in Japan due to its
densities of wakasagi are still rare.
demand as a favored food item, but little was known
Now that wakasagi are rmly established in the estuary,
about it in California until recently. Once the wakasagi
protective measures for delta smelt have become much
became established in the estuary and its potential as a
more difcult to manage due to the physical similarity
threat to delta smelt realized, research on the species
of the two species, particularly at small sizes. Regular
increased dramatically. In Japan, it can be either anad-
accounting of delta smelt catch is required of projects
romous or resident in fresh water. In California, it has
that export water out of the delta so they do not exceed
been well established in cold-water reservoirs and now
a “take limit” (i.e., allowable number of delta smelt
appears to survive in estuarine conditions as well
that can be killed which is established to limit project
as in the warm-water reservoirs of the California Aque-
impacts). At the state and federal water diversions, which
duct. Wakasagi are able to tolerate a wider range of
may draw in and kill tens of thousands of young-of-
salinities and temperatures than delta smelt. They are
the-year smelts (delta smelt, wakasagi, longn smelt)
also faster swimmers and are much more tolerant of
daily in the spring, “real time” identication of small
stressful conditions.
smelt becomes nearly impossible. Regulated water diver-
Wakasagi are opportunistic planktivores, feeding mainly
sions are allowed until the established take limit is
on planktonic copepods. In the Sacramento-San Joaquin
exceeded. Then diversions are further restricted reducing
estuary, they feed on the same food items as delta smelt
the amount of water that is exported. Thus, timely identi-
and represent a competitive threat to the delta smelt’s
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 475
cation of delta smelt is a necessity since reductions in apparently spawn repeatedly during the season, dashing
True Smelts
exports may be very costly. in to release their eggs among crowds of eager males.
The fertilized eggs stick to the gravel and hatch in about
two weeks.
Night Smelt
Status of the Population
History of the Fishery While night smelt has become the predominant smelt
in the commercial landings in the 1990s, averaging over
Night smelt (Spirinchus starksi) are also taken in large
800,000 pounds per year, we know very little about the
numbers, both in the commercial and sport sheries, in
status of the population. Given the short life-cycle, exces-
much the same ways as surf smelt. Although night smelt
sive shing could cause smelt populations to plummet in
are smaller in size and spawn only at night, they represent
just two or three years. Heavy recreational use of the
over 50 percent of the total commercial smelt landings
beaches may also compact gravels and crush recently
valued at over two million dollars in the 1990s. Landings
spawned eggs. It is also possible that the developing eggs
averaged over 1.2 million pounds annually from 1994 to
may depend on water percolating through the gravels
1996. Like surf smelt, night smelt are caught mainly with
from above, so alterations of inowing streams or lagoons
A-frame dip nets. Most are caught in the area around
may affect the suitability of the spawning habitat for
Eureka, which accounts for about 60 percent of all com-
egg survival.
mercial smelt landings. Crescent City landings make up
an additional 33 percent. Night smelt are either sold for
consumption as fresh sh or shipped to aquariums for
Longfin Smelt
consumption by sh, birds, and mammals.
Catches of night smelt in the sport shery, as reported
History of the Fishery
in the MRFSS data, are surprisingly small since they now
Longn smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys) were once har-
make up the bulk of the commercial smelt catch. This may
vested along with delta smelt in the Sacramento-San Joa-
be due to limited angler contact at night when the major-
quin estuary for Chinese markets in San Francisco. There
ity of landings takes place. The largest catch estimate was
is currently no longn smelt shery in California, however
131 pounds in 1986, less than one-tenth of one percent of
it is often bycatch in the bay shrimp shery.
the total sport smelt catch for that year.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Status of Biological Knowledge
The longn smelt is a pelagic, estuarine sh, which ranges
Night smelt range in distribution from Point Arguello in
from Monterey Bay to Alaska. In California, it has histori-
central California to Alaska. Like surf smelt, night smelt
cally been collected in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estu-
are schooling, plankton-feeding sh that are important
ary, Russian River estuary, Humboldt Bay, and the Eel,
prey for other shes as well as marine mammals and birds.
Klamath, and Smith rivers. It is also often collected in the
They rarely exceed six inches in length or three years
coastal waters of the Gulf of the Farallones particularly
in age.
during late summer and fall.
Spawning has been recorded from January through Sep-
tember on the same beaches as those used by surf smelt.
Much of the spawning takes place earlier in the season
than the spawning of surf smelt; so it is likely that most of
the smelt catch before June is night smelt, with surf smelt
90
the predominant species in the summer. However, both
Longfin Smelt Abundance Indicies
80
species have been observed using the same beaches on 70
thousands of fish
the same day, with night smelt spawning at night and surf 60
50
smelt spawning during the day. Peaks of spawning occur
40
between dusk and midnight on outgoing tides, although 30
night smelt spawning seems much less tied to tidal height 20
10
than is the spawning of surf smelt. A distinguishing feature
0
of night smelt spawning aggregations is the prevalence of 1967 1970 1980 1990 1999
males close to shore (and in the shore shery). The male Fall Midwater Trawl Abundance Indicies
to female ratio early in the season is eight-to-one, but by 1967-1999, Longfin Smelt
the end of the season it is nearly 100-to-one. The ratio is Data Source: DFG Central Valley Bay-Delta Branch. Indices for 1974 and 1979 were
close to one to one in offshore catches of smelt. Females not available.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
476
In the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, longn smelt are increases in predation, reductions in food availability sub-
True Smelts
widely distributed in the brackish parts of the estuary sequent to invasions by exotic species.
ranging in salinities from 14 to 28 ppt. Adults feed mainly Resident populations in coastal estuaries along the north-
on the opossum shrimp, while juveniles prefer copepods. ern coast of California have declined dramatically or all
Longn smelt live up to three years and reach lengths of but disappeared since the 1970s. Once common in Hum-
six inches, but most spawning adults are two years old and boldt Bay, longn smelt have only been observed in very
about four inches in length. Longn smelt are anadromous small numbers in the mid-1990s. In addition, sporadic col-
and spawning takes place in the freshwater or slightly lections of longn smelt from the Eel River estuary and
brackish portions of the estuary from December through the Klamath River occurred in the mid-1990s. There have
April. Females produce between 5,000 and 24,000 eggs, been no recent observations in the Smith River. Although
which are adhesive and attach to the substrate. Hatching the causes of these declines in these northern estuaries
takes place in up to 40 days depending on the water are not known, they may be similar to the causes of the
temperature. This winter to early spring spawning period decline in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary.
results in larvae hatching at times when freshwater out-
Because of the severe decline in abundance of longn
ows out of the estuary are highest. Early-stage larvae
smelt in California in the early 1990s, the USFWS was
are surface oriented and are transported long distances
petitioned to list the longn smelt as a threatened spe-
by surface currents generated as these high freshwater
cies. The petition was denied in 1993, largely on the
ows mix with more saline water. As larvae mature, they
basis that the California populations were not genetically
move to lower portions of the water column at salinities
distinct from abundant and stable populations found
of about 15 ppt where they can maintain their position in
in Washington.
the estuary. Potential predators of longn smelt include
striped bass and inland silversides (eggs and larvae).
Eulachon
The annual abundance of longn smelt in the Sacramento-
San Joaquin estuary is signicantly and positively cor-
related with the amount of freshwater outow during
History of the Fishery
spawning and larval periods. Potential mechanisms for this
The eulachon (Thaleichthys pacicus) is the largest of
strong relationship include a reduction in predation during
smelts found in California. It is also known as candlesh,
periods of high ows, increased habitat availability which
because they are so oily that American Indians once dried
may increase survival by reducing interspecic competi-
them to burn like candles. They are highly prized as a
tion, and increases in nutrient levels which are transferred
food sh, being considered one of the tastiest of the
up the food chain.
smelts. Until the mid-1970s or so, eulachon supported a
Hybrids between longn and delta smelt have been col-
fairly consistent river sport dipnet shery, as well as a
lected in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. However, it
dipnet shery by American Indians. The commercial catch
is unlikely that offspring are fertile since these species are
in California has apparently never been large (maximum
not closely related and no genetic introgression has been
reported landings are 3,000 pounds in 1987), but eulachon
observed. Under certain hydrologic conditions longn and
are important commercially in British Columbia.
delta smelt apparently overlap in their spawn times and
locations. However, it appears that these circumstances
Status of Biological Knowledge
are rare since only a few of these hybrids have been
Eulachon range from central California to Alaska. In Cali-
observed.
fornia, they are found along the coast as far south as
Monterey Bay and seem to prefer the outer continental
Status of the Population
shelf, where they school at depths of 150 to 750 feet.
Longn smelt was once one of the most common shes
They reach a length of up to twelve inches and may live to
in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary; however, abun-
be ve years old. They feed mainly on euphausid shrimps,
dance reached an all time low in 1992, following seven
copepods, and other crustaceans and can reach maturity
years of drought. In the late 1990s, population levels have
in two to three years. They are a very important food for
increased as hydrologic conditions have become wetter
predatory marine animals, including salmon, halibut, cod,
and freshwater outows have increased, however popula-
and sturgeon.
tion levels have not fully recovered to expected levels
Eulachon are anadromous, spending most of their life in
based on the abundance-outow relationship. Additional
the open ocean then migrating to lower reaches of coastal
factors potentially affecting abundance include reductions
streams to spawn in fresh water. The principal spawning
in outows through water exports, entrainment losses
run in California is in the Klamath River, but runs have also
to water diversions, climatic variations, toxic substances,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 477
Status of Population
been recorded in the Mad and Smith Rivers and Redwood
True Smelts
Creek. They spawn in gravelly rifes close to the stream This species seems to be locally abundant and rarely
mouths, rarely ascending more than six or seven miles. enters the shery. However, we have no idea if it was
Most eulachon die after spawning, but a few apparently more abundant in the past or whether current populations
live to spawn a second time. Each female lays about are stable or not.
25,000 eggs which stick to the gravel and hatch in two
to three weeks.
Discussion
Status of Population
C alifornia smelts provide examples at two ends of the
In recent years, eulachon numbers seem to have declined
spectrum of California sheries. At one end are the
drastically; so they are now rare or absent from the Mad
surf smelt and night smelt, which together support a fairly
River and Redwood Creek and scarce in the Klamath River.
large commercial and sport shery. Although the shery is
However, the eulachon and its shery have been largely
one of the largest in California in terms of numbers and
ignored in the past, and so we do not known if the sh are
pounds of sh caught, its value is relatively low. It is
at a low point in a natural population cycle or if they have
also a shery about which surprisingly little is known and
been reduced by human related factors.
could conceivably decline or collapse from a combination
of overexploitation and alterations to the 19 or 20 princi-
Whitebait Smelt pal spawning beaches, which are receiving increasingly
heavy recreational use. At the other end of the sheries
spectrum are delta smelt, longn smelt, eulachon, and
History of the Fishery
whitebait smelt, all species, which once supported sher-
Although about half the commercial smelt catch was ies but that are now in relatively low numbers. One of
called “whitebait smelt,” the species itself (Allosmerus these species has been listed as a threatened species,
elongates) is apparently uncommon throughout its range another was petitioned to be listed, and the other two
or only locally abundant and so it probably infrequently we know so little about that we do not know if these
taken in the shery. populations are in trouble. Three of these species require
fresh water for spawning and their declines are probably
Status of Biological Knowledge all related to alterations of the spawning and rearing
One indication of the scarcity of whitebait smelt is that habitats. It is clear that we need to know much more
comparatively little is known about its biology. Like other about all of California’s smelt, so that they can be man-
smelt, they live in large schools and are voracious feeders aged for sheries of the future and to maintain their
on zooplankton. They tend to favor productive inshore important roles in coastal and estuarine food webs.
areas and bays; however they are only rarely caught in
estuaries or coastal waters. They are collected sporadi-
Management Considerations
cally in San Francisco and San Pablo bays primarily during
winter and spring. Spawning is thought to take place in
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
sandy, subtidal areas. The Sacramento-San Joaquin estu-
further information on all the true smelts.
ary does not appear to be a spawning area since only
post-larval to adult individuals have been collected there.
Young-of-the-year remain translucent and are considered Dale A. Sweetnam and Randall D. Baxter
“post-larval” until they are almost three inches in length. California Department of Fish and Game
They live one to three years and reach lengths of seven
Peter B. Moyle
inches. The succession of even year classes in San Fran-
University of California, Davis
cisco Bay may suggest a two-year maturity schedule.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
478
References Moyle. P.B., B. Herbold, D.E. Stevens, and L. Miller.
True Smelts
1991. Life history and status of the Delta smelt in the
Aasen, G.A., D.A. Sweetnam, and L.M. Lynch. 1998. Estab- Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc
lishment of the wakasagi, Hypomesus nipponensis, in the 121:67-77.
Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. California Fish and Game
Stanely, S.E., P.B. Moyle, and H.B. Schaffer. 1995. Allozime
84:31-35.
analysis of delta smelt, Hypomesus transpacicus, and
Baxter, R.D. 1999. Osmeridae. Pages 179-215 in James longn smelt, Spirinchus thaleichthys in the Sacramento-
Orsi, editor. Report on the 1980-1995 sh, shrimp, and San Joaquin estuary. Copeia. 1995: 390-396.
crab sampling in the San Francisco estuary, California.
Sweetnam, D.A. 1999. Status of delta smelt in the Sacra-
Interagency Ecological Program Technical Report 63.
mento-San Joaquin estuary. California Fish and Game 85
Bennett, W.A. and P.B. Moyle. 1995. Where have all the 22-27.
shes gone? Interactive factors producing sh declines in
Trenham, P.C., H.B. Shaffer and P.B. Moyle. 1998. Bio-
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. In, San Francisco Bay
chemical identication and population subdivision in mor-
the urbanized ecosystem. J.T. Hollibaugh, editor. AAAS
phologically similar native and invading species (Hypome-
Symposium volume. 519-542.
seus) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary, California.
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1971. Marine food and Transaction of the American Fisheries Society 27:417-424.
game shes of California. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press. 177
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Sacramento-San Joa-
pp.
quin Delta Native Fishes Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and
Moyle, P.B. in PRESS. Inland shes of California, 2nd edi- Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon. 195 pp.
tion. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 479
Bay and Estuarine Finfish
Commercial Landings Recreational Catch
Bay and Estuarine Finfish
Pacific True Pacific True Striped
Smelts1 Smelts1
Herring Herring Bass
No. of Fish1,2
Year Pounds Pounds Year Pounds Pounds Year
1916 2,928,591 1,153,306 1980 17,447,200 560,437 1960 30,856
1917 7,435,997 1,107,349 1981 13,442,600 425,506 1961 42,357
1918 7,938,280 932,841 1982 23,433,040 698,396 1962 39,682
1919 4,289,899 762,895 1983 17,825,400 310,726 1963 58,551
1920 274,364 744,865 1984 8,973,600 482,563 1964 34,163
1921 542,124 770,302 1985 16,943,800 1,075,513 1965 16,488
1922 341,621 914,147 1986 16,816,400 633,716 1966 44,869
1923 383,950 874,198 1987 18,569,200 928,798 1967 23,794
1924 435,620 844,395 1988 19,369,600 867,271 1968 23,058
1925 862,974 822,637 1989 20,339,200 745,147 1969 20,091
1926 453,607 968,680 1990 17,944,200 900,527 1970 15,269
1927 1,168,321 1,100,070 1991 15,942,800 1,345,154 1971 13,381
1928 1,139,682 1,061,302 1992 13,476,400 903,908 1972 31,690
1929 957,563 1,176,214 1993 9,552,200 1,112,876 1973 21,120
1930 717,634 1,229,582 1994 6,496,600 1,912,447 1974 41,561
1931 685,759 1,216,305 1995 10,256,600 2,032,352 1975 17,561
1932 765,724 1,032,756 1996 14,551,200 2,075,415 1976 10,677
1933 601,445 825,453 1997 20,117,400 1,741,649 1977 8,263
1934 801,601 838,173 1998 5,347,200 503,118 1978 2,609
1935 933,285 1,039,825 1999 4,834,400 563,369 1979 7,370
1936 840,530 1,038,969 1980 1,391
1937 631,330 768,247 1981 2,985
1938 504,884 674,585 1982 3,646
1
1939 302,242 641,819 True smelts includes the combined commercial land- 1983 14,206
1940 453,193 576,809 ing categories of smelt and white bait smelt for 1984 13,524
1941 789,753 583,841 1916 through 1969 and the combined commercial 1985 9,686
1942 190,815 603,197 landing categories of true smelts, surf smelts, white 1986 8,572
1943 630,358 1,707,640 bait smelt, and night smelt for 1970 through 1999. 1987 8,858
1944 422,255 1,810,469 1988 10,415
1945 460,465 2,660,732 1989 2,167
1946 481,776 1,137,813 1990 2,356
1947 1,654,850 1,039,926 1991 4,427
1948 8,002,692 1,004,595 1992 5,274
1949 379,311 957,380 1993 1,687
1950 1,425,351 798,575 1994 2,247
1951 4,923,655 1,257,719 1995 3,102
1952 9,495,386 798,794 1996 6,096
1953 7,801,928 849,408 1997 7,368
1954 911,906 876,508 1998 19,720
1955 1,946,521 994,730 1999 10,774
1956 1,735,776 615,153
1957 1,188,080 615,072
1
1958 1,726,966 856,669 All data presented in number of fish caught.
2
1959 1,727,013 826,353 Ocean and San Francisco Bay recreational catch;
1960 1,800,672 597,757 Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta receational catches
1961 1,401,248 827,117 are not included until 1964.
1962 1,305,569 527,855
1963 630,087 506,536
1964 349,270 605,254
1965 516,319 517,547
1966 241,973 684,716
1967 271,902 791,669
1968 357,869 681,123
1969 170,532 574,910
1970 315,968 811,364
1971 240,936 495,153
1972 115,748 703,656
1973 2,813,267 1,307,180
1974 5,252,676 768,844
1975 2,433,676 648,325
1976 4,858,113 627,416
1977 9,301,000 878,206
1978 11,387,000 372,317
1979 9,373,600 546,843
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
480
Bay and Estuarine
Plants: Overview The economic value of bay and estuarine wetlands and
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview
subtidal habitats is considered to be among the highest
of all natural resources. Such habitats support commercial
F rom a biological perspective, no other complex is more
harvests of sh and shellsh and provide millions of days
important to bay and estuary ecosystems than their
of recreational shing and waterfowl hunting each year.
plant communities. Whether discussing tidal wetlands,
On a global level, such plant communities help stabilize
shallow subtidal habitat, or marine algae, plant communi-
available nitrogen, atmospheric sulfur, carbon dioxide, and
ties and the habitats they form are vital to the function
methane. In the crowded urban environment, where many
and health of bays and estuaries. Two important plant
remnant populations of bay and estuary plant communities
components within the bay and estuary setting are the
exist, such habitats contribute to open space and are a
tidal wetland, and the subtidal eelgrass (Zostera marina)
valuable aesthetic asset. A recent economic assessment of
and Gracilaria spp. communities. While these two plant
California’s wetlands conducted by the California Coastal
groupings are small fractions of the bay and estuarine
Commission established annual benets valued at between
plant assemblage and do not occur in all bays and estu-
$6.3 billion and $22.9 billion.
aries of the state, they are signicant contributors to
the overall productivity and species diversity of these
ecosystems. Other commonly occurring bay and estuarine Eric J. Larson
plant communities, such as phytoplankton, algal mats, California Department of Fish and Game
and sea lettuce are not addressed by this report, but are
important food contributors and principal components of
these ecosystem carbon budgets.
Bay and estuary ecosystems are the probably the most
impacted and altered environments of the California
coastline. Most of the state’s bay and estuary ecosystems
are intensively urbanized, serving as centers for industry,
agriculture, and commerce. The impacts of such anthropo-
genic activities are acutely evident within the bay and
estuarine plant communities. The loss of tidal and sub-
tidal wetland habitats on a statewide level is substantial.
Where once vast mosaics of tidal wetlands predominated,
agriculture, housing, or other developments have been
formed from lands diked from the bay or lled. Similarly,
losses of subtidal plant communities are accelerating
worldwide. In southern California, it has been estimated
that as little as ten percent of the historical distribution
of eelgrass remains. In the majority of cases, once bay
and estuary plant communities are destroyed they are lost
forever. Some restoration has occurred throughout the
coastal region of California with signicant efforts focused
on southern California, particularly within Mission and San
Diego bays and the reopening of Bataquitos Lagoon to
tidal ow. However, in most cases, the goal remains one
of preservation.
Bay and estuary plant communities provide critical habi-
tats, which support a diverse array of sh and wildlife
including species that are in danger of extinction. The
diverse structure of bay and estuarine plants also helps
to improve water quality, protect lands from ooding,
provide energy to the marine and estuarine food web,
and stabilize shorelines against erosion. Studies have
found that subtidal plant communities are also principal
contributors to primary productivity within bay and
estuary ecosystems.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 481
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
482
Coastal Wetlands -
Emergent Marshes the lowest zone of a salt marsh. This lower marsh zone
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
occurs from approximately mean sea level to the line of
mean high tide.
General Description
The middle zone of a tidal marsh occurs from approxi-
Wetlands are broadly dened as the transitional lands mately the line of mean high tide to the mean higher high
that occur between the terrestrial and aquatic systems tide line and is characterized by the occurrence of pickle-
where the water table is usually at or near the surface, weed (Salcornia sp.). Pickleweed is less tolerant of tidal
or the land is covered by shallow water. There are ve inundation than cordgrass, but is the most dominant plant
major systems of wetlands — marine, estuarine, riverine, of California tidal wetlands. Jaumea (Jaumea carnosa) also
lacustrine (lake), and palustrine (freshwater marsh). This occurs, but to a lesser extent within the middle zone of
paper discusses California’s marine and estuarine wetland California’s coastal marshes.
systems. However, it should be noted that all ve systems
The upper zone of a tidal marsh is dened by the line of
occur in the state, all of which serve important roles as
mean higher high tide to extreme high tide. This upper
sh and wildlife habitat and in many ways are ecologically
zone of a salt marsh may only be inundated infrequently,
tied to one another.
in some locations as little as once or twice annually. Such
One of the most widely used and comprehensive wetland innundation usually occurs during the spring tide cycle
classication system was developed for the U.S. Fish and (highest annual tides) and during severe storm events.
Wildlife Service and is referred to as the Cowardin deni- The upper zone of the tidal marsh is characterized by
tion. This classication system denes wetlands as having the dominance of salt grass (Distichlis spicata) which toler-
one or more of the following three attributes: 1) at ates only occasional tidal inundation. This upper area
least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydro- of marshes contains the largest plant species diversity
phytes; 2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric of the three zones. Species such as fat hen (Atriplex
soil; and 3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with patula), sand spurrey (Spergularia marina), marsh rose-
water or covered by shallow water at some time during mary (Limonium californicum), brass buttons (Cotula cor-
the growing season of each year. Although this system nopifolia), can be found within the upper zone of salt
is commonly used to classify wetlands, regulatory agen- marshes throughout California. In the southern portion of
cies such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the the state, species such as Australian salt bush (Atriplex
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and other public semibaccata), sea-bite (Suaeda californica and Suaeda fru-
agencies use varying denition when regulating the dis- ticosa), shoregrass (Monanthochloe littoralis), and salt
charge of dredged or ll material or other alterations to marsh bird’s beak (Cordylanthus sp.) can be found within
wetland areas. the upper salt marsh zone.
The term “tidal wetland” refers to areas that are covered The zonation of marshes in southern California is some-
with shallow intermittent tidal waters. Coastal tidal wet- what more complex than that described above. Southern
lands in the California include a number of natural com- California salt marshes lack expansive stands of cordgrass;
munities that share the unique combination of aquatic, instead they are dominated by succulents. Within the
semi-aquatic, and terrestrial habitats that result from Mugu Lagoon, Anaheim Bay, Newport Bay, Mission Bay,
periodic ooding by tidal waters, rainfall, and runoff. San Diego Bay, and the Tijuna River estuary, zones of
These coastal wetlands, also referred to as salt marshes, saltwort (Batis maritima) and annual pickleweed (Salcor-
provide a vital link between land and open sea, exporting
nutrients and organic material to ocean waters. Wetlands
also help to improve water quality, protect lands from
ooding, provide energy to the estuarine and marine food
webs, and help stabilize shorelines against erosion.
Tidal wetlands are dominated by a community of plants
that are tolerant of wet, saline soils, and are generally
found in low-lying coastal habitats which are periodically
wet and usually saline to hypersaline. In fact, no other
feature denes a salt marsh better than the plant com-
munities that form there. The location of plant species
within a salt marsh is dened by zone, with cordgrass
(Spartina foliosa) forming the most seaward edge of the
emergent marsh plant community. Of the thousands of Carpinteria Salt Marsh, Santa Barbara Co.
plant species in North America, only cordgrass thrives in Credit: USEPA, 1995
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 483
Status of Biological Knowledge
nia bigelovii) integrate with cordgrass in the lower zone
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
and perennial pickleweed (Salcornia virginica) and other
Literature on wetland science addresses a broad range
middle zone plant species occur at higher than normal
of topic and setting, and much has also been written
elevations in these and other southern California marshes.
specic to California’s estuarine and coastal wetlands.
In addition to the plant communities, other dening char-
Programs such as the San Francisco Bay National Estuary
acteristics often associated with California’s tidal wet-
Project, San Francisco Bay Baylands Ecosystem Habitat
lands include mudats, tidal creeks, intertidal channels
Goals Project, and organizations such as the Pacic Estua-
and sloughs, salt ats, and shallow pannes. Fresh water
rine Research Laboratory, state and private universities,
inows are also often found in many of the state’s coastal
and numerous state and federal resource agencies have
wetland areas, adding to the diversity of habitat types and
contributed extensively to the knowledge base of Califor-
associated species use.
nia’s coastal wetland ecosystems. This is not to say that
Many of California’s coastal wetlands are estuarine salt
questions do not remain about the functions and science
marshes. These salt marshes, associated mudats, and
of the state’s coastal wetlands.
eelgrass beds develop along the shores of protected estua-
Scientic study in the eld of wetland science is ongoing.
rine bays and river mouths, as well as in more marine-
The role that the state’s coastal wetland habitats play
dominated bays and lagoons. Overall, the state’s tidal
in the support of sh and wildlife resources is an area
and estuarine wetland ecosystems provide some form of
of extensive research, particularly in the effects of, and
food, shelter, or other benets to nearly a thousand spe-
techniques for enhancement and restoration. Many of the
cies of sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and a
coastal wetland restoration projects undertaken within
multitude of invertebrates. During peak annual migration
the state include research and monitoring aspects within
periods, hundreds of thousands of birds migrating along
the project designs. Such analyses are vital to the overall
the Pacic Flyway descend upon the state’s estuarine
knowledge base of wetland science and are critical to the
wetlands in search of refuge and food.
improvement of subsequent wetland restoration activities.
California’s tidal wetlands also provide habitat for an array
of endangered species, including the salt marsh harvest
Status of the Habitat
mouse, California clapper rail, certain runs of salmon, and
wetlands plants such as a species of salt marsh birds peak.
Human inuence along California’s coastline has a long
Wetlands produce an abundant yield of vegetation, which
history. The effect of this history is evidenced by the
in turn provides the basis for a complex food chain nour-
profound alteration of the natural environment, most pro-
ishing a rich assortment of living organisms. The diversity
nounced of which are the modication of the shallow-
and abundance of organisms in coastal wetlands is remark-
water habitats within the state’s bays and estuaries and
able, given the often extreme and variable conditions
the staggering loss of coastal wetlands. The total loss
that can occur. Bacteria, protozoa, algae, vascular plants,
of California coastal wetlands is estimated at ve million
invertebrates, amphibians, sh, birds, and mammals can
acres. This represents some 91 percent of the historic
all be found within the state’s coastal wetland ecosys-
wetland acreage present before 1850. Although the entire
tems, and together comprise the biotic community of the
coastline of the state has experienced losses of coastal
wetland. Many of these organisms are dependent on the
wetland habitat, the largest losses are believed to have
wetland for their existence, either spending their entire
occurred in the San Francisco Bay estuary and along the
lives in the wetland, or spending a critical portion of their
southern coast of the state.
life cycle in the wetland.
A variety of activities have contributed to the dramatic
loss of California’s wetlands. These include diking, lling,
draining, and vegetation removal for agricultural uses;
Estimated Estimated Estimated
Original Remaining Percent
diking and lling for residential, commercial, and indus-
Acreage Acreage Reduction
Region
trial development; placement of ll material for road and
Northern Coast unknown 31,300 unknown
pad construction associated with oil and gas exploration
Central Coast unknown 3,800 unknown
and development; lling and other associated construction
San Francisco Bay 93,000 54%
for roads, highways, and railways; dredging and lling
(tidal and mudflat)
200,000
for port and marina development; and channelization and
Southern Coast 53,000 13,100 75%
lling for ood control purposes. Coastal wetland losses,
Statewide 5,000,000 450,000 91%
including those historically occurring within bays and estu-
Historic Losses of California Coastal Wetlands
aries, throughout the state are primarily attributed to
Historic Losses of California Coastal Wetlands
Source: Procedural Guidance for the Review of Wetland Projects in California’s
Wetland Projects in California’s Coastal urban development. Although state and federal regula-
Source: Procedural Guidance for the Review of Zone, California Coastal Commision.
Coastal
Zone, California Coastal Commission.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
484
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
Principle Coastal Wetlands of California
tions, as well as social pressures have reduced activities alteration of natural fresh and salt water inows to the
that cause wetland losses, many are still occurring. Much state’s estuaries and wetland areas.
of the current loss of wetlands is attributed to a lingering The Bolsa Chica wetlands in the Huntington Beach commu-
legacy of past development, such as continued use of nity is a site of recent controversy over wetland develop-
wetland areas for agriculture, or expansion of existing ment and is an example of one of southern California’s
urban and industrial complexes within wetland habitats. continuing struggles with the preservation of remnant
Secondary or indirect impacts also have contributed to coastal wetlands. The Bolsa Chica wetlands are the largest
the continued loss of coastal wetlands, including point and stretch of unprotected coastal marshland south of San
non-point source storm and wastewater discharges, and Francisco, and provide 1,100 acres of wetland habitat, sup-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 485
porting many species of plants, sh, and wildlife, includ- them, and as aesthetic, functional, environmentally nec-
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
ing several endangered species of birds, such as the Cali- essary elements. In fact, tidal wetland protection and res-
fornia least tern, light-footed clapper rail, Belding’s Savan- toration activities have become front-page news in many
nah sparrow, and peregrine falcon. Southern California areas of the state and funding sources, once unobtainable,
once had over 53,000 acres of coastal wetland areas. are now becoming increasingly available. Even with such
This number is now down to approximately 13,000 acres. changes in the political, economical, and environmental
Such wetland losses have contributed to a decline in settings, much work needs to be done to recapture
California’s wintering bird population. Once estimated to and protect California’s tidal wetland habitats. Additional
be about 60 million, yway populations now uctuates research and continued monitoring of existing wetland
between two and four million waterfowl, one and two restoration projects are needed to build and contribute to
million shorebirds. For the Pacic Flyway as a whole, the database on how best to address and undertake these
there has been some improvement in recent years, partly activities. Additionally, methods need to be developed to
because of the end of a multi-year drought in the northern address problems which could lead to the further loss of
breading areas, but also because of the efforts made at coastal wetland areas due to the anticipated rising sea-
restoring California’s coastal and inland wetlands. level, and other factors such as invasive species. Further
public education, community involvement, and political
In many ways, the degree and type of tidal wetland
action are needed.
habitat losses within the San Francisco Bay estuary reect
what has occurred in the state. Early reclamation activi-
ties resulted in the draining and diking of tidal, freshwa- Eric J. Larson
ter, and brackish marshes in the San Francisco Delta, as California Department of Fish and Game
well as around Suisun Bay and San Pablo Bay. Much of this
reclaimed land was cultivated for agricultural purposes.
References
Additionally, the construction of salt production facilities
resulted in the conversion of thousands of acres of tidal
California Coastal Commission. 1987. California coastal
marsh to permanent salt pond operations. At the end of
resources guide. 384 pp.
World War II, urbanization of the San Francisco Bay Area
resulted in the conversion of intertidal and subtidal habi- Faber, P.M. 1990. Common wetland plants of California: a
tats to urbanized uplands. As a result of these wetland eld guide for the layman. Pickleweed Press. 110 pp.
conversion activities, it is estimated that 95 percent of
Goals Project. 1999. Baylands ecosystem habitat goals. A
the estuary’s tidal marshes have been leveed or lled.
report of habitat recommendations prepared by the San
Some of the converted wetland areas, such as salt ponds
Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project.
and diked lowlands, remain as wetland habitat, but of
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, CA.
a different type, offering substantially altered functions
and San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
than that which existed before conversion. At present,
Board, Oakland, CA.
it is estimated that less than 38,000 acres of tidal wet-
Josselyn, M. 1983. The ecology of San Francisco Bay tidal
lands remain in the San Francisco Bay estuary, with an
marshes: a community prole. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
additional mudat habitat of approximately 65,000 acres,
vice, Biological Services Program. Washington D.C. FWS/
diked seasonal wetland habitat of approximately 58,000
OBS-82/23.
acres, and salt ponds and salt crystallization facilities of
approximately 36,500 acres of non-tidal wetland habitat. Josselyn, M., L. Handley, M. Quammen, and D. Peters.
1994. The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitat
Losses and alteration impacts of tidal wetland habitat
in San Francisco Bay Region. NWRC Open File 94-04. U.S.
associated with coastal inlets and riverine estuaries along
Department of Interior National Biological Survey, Wash-
the California coast have also been great. Many of the
ington D.C.
state’s historical wetland areas of this type have been lost
or reduced in size due to direct impacts such as channel- Resources Agency of California. 1997. California’s ocean
ization, dredging and continued breaching of outer sand- resources: an agenda for the future. State of California,
bars for ood control, and marina and harbor construc- Resources Agency, Sacramento.
tion. However, off-site activities including water diversion
Zedler, J.B. 1982. The ecology of southern California
and sediment inputs associated with watershed alterations
coastal salt marshes: a community prole. U.S. Fish and
including logging and agricultural cultivation also have
Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program. Washington
signicantly impacted California’s coastal tidal wetlands.
D.C. FWS/OBS-81/54.
California’s remaining coastal wetlands are highly valued
as habitat for the multitude of species that depend on
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
486
Submerged
Aquatic Plants nutrients. Organic material from natural decomposition
Submerged Aquatic Plants
processes or human inuences are ltered and collected
by eelgrass leaves and turions, providing a nutrient source
Eelgrass for the eelgrass bed community. Nutrients that otherwise
would accumulate in the sediments or be ushed out
to sea may thereby be retained and recycled within the
Introduction estuarine ecosystem.
Worldwide there are more than 50 species of vascular
The decline in eelgrass communities during the 1930s
plants capable of inhabiting the shallow saline waters of
and 1940s encouraged the initiation of studies to gain a
the estuarine environment. The most common of these
better understanding of this vital estuarine habitat. In
species, occurring in full-strength seawater, are the sea-
recent years, the importance of eelgrass communities has
grasses. One of the most studied seagrasses in temperate
resurfaced as a signicant measure of the health of bays
and tropical regions is eelgrass (Zostera spp.). The eel-
and estuaries. Some protection of this ecosystem has been
grass commonly found in North America, Z. marina, is
afforded over the years through management practices
widely distributed in the temperate zones of both coasts.
that protect it through disturbance avoidance or in-kind
Along the U.S. Pacic Coast, Z. marina occurs from Alaska
replacement mitigation. In southern California further pro-
to Baja California. Another species, Z. asiatica, is also
tection as also been provided by the implementation of
found in a number of locations on the west coast of North
the multi-agency Southern California Eelgrass Mitigation
America including offshore of the Santa Barbara area in
Policy of 1991 which is routinely included within permit
California at depths up to 45 feet.
conditions of both the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
Eelgrass beds are generally regarded as highly productive California Coastal Commission. While this policy was spe-
habitats that support a rich assemblage of sh species cically designed to address eelgrass impacting projects
and provide a refuge area for larval and juvenile shes. in southern California, its principals have, at times, also
Eelgrass habitat is also a very important resource for been applied permit conditions for projects occurring in
a variety of birds. It is associated with rich bottom
fauna important to waterbirds, especially diving birds
and mollusc-eaters. In California’s bays and estuaries
north of Monterey Bay, eelgrass provides spawning habi-
tat for Pacic herring. Large numbers of waterbirds
such as scoters, bufehead, scaup, goldeneyes, Ameri-
can coots, eat eggs deposited onto eelgrass by Pacic
herring during the mid-winter spawn. In addition, many
birds such as surface-feeding ducks and other waterfowl,
including the black brant, feed directly on eelgrass.
The location, abundance and health of eelgrass appear
to be highly sensitive to changes in environmental condi-
tions. For example, in the decade of 1935 to 1945,
eelgrass beds on the north coasts of America and Europe
suffered a substantial decline in abundance. The cause
of this decline remains unknown but has been ascribed
to a variety of causes ranging from parasitic infection by
slime mold and fungus to greater than normal changes in
rainfall or seawater temperature. A population decline
in a wide variety of marine organisms dependent on
eelgrass habitat was also seen during this period. Addi-
tionally, changes in bottom topography occurred in the
affected eelgrass bed areas as currents and wave action
reworked formerly stable bottom sediments. Recovery
occurred slowly, due to the diminished and scattered
distribution of individual plants resulting in reduced
vegetative propagation and seed production.
Aside from its interaction in the marine and estuarine
Eelgrass, Zostera marina
food webs, eelgrass assumes an important role in cycling
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 487
northern California. The continued decline of important in Agua Hedionda Lagoon in southern California has
Submerged Aquatic Plants
sh species may serve to offer additional protection for also demonstrated the ability of an invasive species to
the state’s eelgrass communities by designation of this displace eelgrass.
habitat type as critical habitat under federal laws, admin- Once disturbed, eelgrass bed recovery or recolonization is
istered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the slow and may not be possible without reestablishment
National Marine Fisheries Service. of favorable growth conditions. The decline of seagrass
and related aquatic vegetation has reached and alarming
Status of Biological Knowledge state worldwide. Studies show documented plant losses
in the United States that have approached or exceeded
The recognition of the importance of eelgrass within the
three-quarters of the historic distribution. Further, the
bay and estuarine ecosystem has provided a focus of
importance of genetic distribution in the population
scientic research and resource management for several
dynamics of aquatic plants has in the past largely been
decades. Early last century researchers on both coasts col-
ignored in restoration and conservation efforts. Studies
lected an array of information on water and air tempera-
in southern California found signicantly reduced genetic
tures along with plant data over a several year period.
diversity in eelgrass beds that were reestablished through
Additionally, measurements of eelgrass standing stock
transplants or that otherwise became established in previ-
have been conducted throughout the Northern Hemi-
ously disturbed locations. Reduced genetic diversity in the
sphere including the West Coast of North America.
transplanted sites corresponded in general to a smaller
The distribution of eelgrasses within bay and estuarine size and younger plant age than in undisturbed sites,
ecosystems is dependent on a variety of parameters, although this characteristic effect on the eelgrass com-
including light, temperature, salinity, substrate, waves and munity is not fully understood. However, there was no
currents, nutrients, and availability of seed. Most com- evidence that genetic diversity increased in transplanted
monly, estuarine seagrasses are found in soft sediments sites over time. It is likely that this genetic diversity
of semi-sheltered areas where depth and turbidity condi- problem occurs in many areas of the state where eelgrass
tions allow sufcient light. The typical depth distribution bed disturbances commonly take place.
of eelgrass is throughout the inter- and subtidal-zones.
The maximum standing crop occurs just below mean low
Status of the Beds
water. Maximum biomass occurs at depths corresponding
to 20 to 30 percent surface-light intensity. Distribution Along the Pacic coastline of California, eelgrass is found
and abundance of eelgrass also appear to be inuenced to some degree in all of the larger bays and estuaries,
along the land-sea axis of estuaries by the relative abun- from the Oregon border to San Diego, including Humboldt
dance of nutrients. Nutrient availability is higher at the Bay, Tomales Bay, San Francisco Bay, Monterey Bay, Morro
riverine end of an estuary. However, the mixing zone Bay, and San Diego/Mission Bay. Additionally, eelgrass is
within estuaries also tends to be more turbid. Thus, well established in several of the smaller open estuarine
the relationship between light penetration and nutrient embayments along the state’s coastline. The historical
availability acts with other factors to dene the areas presence of eelgrass along the California coast was much
within estuaries where eelgrass beds become established greater than it is today. Although few records exist that
and thrive. measure the areal extent of eelgrass within the state’s
small coastal estuaries, the condition that existed prior to
Eelgrass is a owering marine plant that grows from rhi-
human disturbances in many of these locations were no
zomes in soft sediment. The establishment and expansion
doubt favorable to eelgrass bed communities.
of eelgrass beds occur through seed production and asex-
ual rhizome propagation. Although their roots and rhi-
Humboldt Bay
zomes help to stabilize sediments where they are estab-
lished, eelgrass beds are highly susceptible to anthro-
Measurements of eelgrass standing stock in Humboldt Bay
pogenic disturbances, particularly substrate disturbances
were conducted in 1972. Distribution was determined
and reduced light penetration. Eelgrass beds are also
by mapping the eelgrass beds through eld surveys and
susceptible to adverse impacts from non-native invasive
light aircraft. Eelgrass standing stock values determined
species. Studies looking at the response of eelgrass to a
through density analyses ranged from 3.1 million pounds
non-indigenous mussel (Musculista senhousia) found that
dry weight in April 1972, to 15.2 million pounds dry weight
eelgrass beds showed a negative response to colonization
in July 1972, with South Humboldt Bay accounting for 78
of this invasive bivalve, particularly where the eelgrass
to 95 percent of the total eelgrass stock. These results
bed was sparse or fragmented, or in beds that
were similar to an earlier assessment in 1962.
had been reestablished. The recent discovery of the
invasive algae Caulerpa taxifolia (Mediterranean strain)
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
488
The differences in densities between the north and south The general locations of the Tomales Bay eelgrass beds
Submerged Aquatic Plants
bays appear to be persistent. A wet-weight density range appear to have been consistent since the early 1970s,
(depending on location) of 0.06 to 0.43 pounds per square although there is some annual uctuation. The density
foot for Humboldt Bay winter eelgrass was estimated in of eelgrass during the winter of 1987-1988 was 0.04 0.55
1979. The study attributed eelgrass density differences pounds per square foot. Similar densities were observed
between the two regions of the bay to variations in sedi- 1973 and 1976. Such densities represent between 70 and
ment composition, and dredging activities in North Hum- 100 percent bottom-coverage. The long-term evaluation of
boldt Bay associated with the commercial cultivation and Tomales Bay eelgrass beds indicates that one bed near the
harvest of oysters, rather than light availability or tidal mouth of the estuary is more ephemeral than any other.
ushing. Localized eelgrass bed density surveys conducted
San Francisco Bay
by the Department of Fish and Game in an effort to
evaluate the biomass of Pacic herring utilizing Humboldt
San Francisco Bay, the largest of California’s estuaries,
Bay eelgrass beds for spawning substrate also noted sig-
is also the most impacted by human development. An
nicantly lower eelgrass densities in North Humboldt Bay
estimated one third of the historic extent of the bay
compared to South Bay during the 2000-2001 commercial
has been lost to ll and development. While estuarine sys-
herring season. Total eelgrass coverage within Humboldt
tems are by nature highly turbid, poor water clarity within
Bay was determined to be 3,053 acres in 1984. Since that
San Francisco Bay is further exacerbated by human activi-
time, a detailed bay-wide eelgrass survey has not been
ties including direct treated industrial and wastewater dis-
conducted. However, the California Department of Fish
charges, non-point source runoff, urban-associated atmo-
and Game, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Humboldt State
spheric deposition, and riverine inow containing urban
University, and others have proposed initiating biannual bay-
and agricultural discharges. Data on the historic areal
wide eelgrass surveys to begin during the summer of 2001.
extent of eelgrass within San Francisco Bay are limited,
although it is believed that it supported extensive eelgrass
Small North Coast Estuaries meadows in the past. Reduced light penetration due to
It is likely that at one time eelgrass predominated along extremely high bay turbidity has been found to limit the
the seaward edge of many of the small estuaries at development of eelgrass and may be the principal cause
the mouth the north coast river systems. Today, due to of its decline in San Francisco Bay. Eelgrass beds in the
human alterations, such as channelization, dredging, and bay today are limited to relatively small patches located in
upstream disturbances that cause increase turbidity and the central bay, Richardson Bay, and the eastern northern-
siltation, eelgrass is limited to but a few such ecosystems. most portions of the south bay. In 1989, the areal extent
Remnant populations are documented within the North of eelgrass beds in San Francisco Bay was estimated to
Coast estuaries that remain open to seawater inuence be 316 acres. Since that time, some eelgrass beds have
year-round, such as the Big River estuary where eelgrass increased in size and new patches have been sited.
forms large beds along muddy banks within the rst three Eelgrass densities are far lower than those of the larger,
miles of the estuary, and the Albion River Estuary, which healthier beds found in Tomales and Humboldt Bays.
also has a well-established eelgrass community. Although the eelgrass beds appear to be stressed, they
have remained persistent in the bay and are heavily uti-
Tomales Bay lized by estuarine organisms.
Eelgrass is the most abundant marine ora in Tomales Bay.
Southern California
Surveys conducted by the California Department of Fish
and Game in 1985, determined the areal extent to be 965 The eelgrass communities found south of San Francisco
acres. Although eelgrass distribution is relatively stable are more heavily impacted by human alteration than those
from year to year in Tomales Bay, densities of eelgrass in northern California. Historical records suggest that eel-
beds are highly variable within and between individual grass was a predominant plant species in the state’s south
beds seasonally. The density and distribution of eelgrass coast estuaries. However, the majority of southern Cali-
within Tomales Bay are determined annually by the Cali- fornia’s remaining eelgrass habitat exists primarily due
fornia Department of Fish and Game as part of the sea- to replanting or recolonization of eelgrass beds in new
sonal herring spawning-ground surveys. Extensive eelgrass or historic locations. Patchy eelgrass communities found
beds are located within Tomales Bay throughout the inter- within the Monterey Bay Area and Morro Bay are two
tidal and subtidal areas, generally in waters less than 12 exceptions. The eelgrass beds within the Monterey Bay
feet mean lower low water between Sand Point and Nicks Area are limited to the estuarine environment of Elkhorn
Cove, and around the immediate bay perimeter on both
shorelines to the vicinity of Millerton Point.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 489
References
Slough and its entrance to the bay. These areas make up a
Submerged Aquatic Plants
total of approximately 50 to 75 acres of eelgrass habitat.
Harding, L.W. and J.H. Butler. 1979. The standing stock
Eelgrass remains the dominant plant in the beds of Morro
and production of eelgrass, Zostera marina, in Humboldt
Bay. The beds there are the largest and least impacted
Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 65(3): 151-158.
of any in the southern portion of the state. Nevertheless,
Hoffman, Robert F. 1986. Fishery utilization of eelgrass
there are wide uctuations in areal extent. By 1997, eel-
(Zostera marina) beds and non-vegetated shallow water
grass distribution reached a historic low of 50 total acres.
areas in San Diego Bay. National Marine Fishery Service,
Further studies in 1998 showed an improvement in eel-
Southwest Region. Administrative Report SWR-86-4.
grass distribution ranging from 81 to 120 acres, depending
Merkel, K.W. and R. S. Hoffman. eds. 1990. Proceedings of
on the season of survey.
the California eelgrass symposium: May 27 and 28, 1988,
Eelgrass bed communities also exist in Los Angeles Harbor,
Chula Vista, California. Sweetwater River Press. 78pp.
Huntington Harbor, and in adjacent coastal areas. Many of
Thayer, G. W, D.A. Wolfe, and R.B. Williams. 1975. The
these have been established through transplant activities
impact of man on seagrass systems. Am. Sci. 63: 288-296.
associated with specic development mitigation require-
ments. Due primarily to suitable light conditions, many Williams, S.L., and C.A. Davis. 1996. Population genetics
of the reestablished areas have met their intended miti- analyses of transplanted eelgrass (Zostera marina) beds
gation goals. However, some reestablishment attempts reveal reduced genetic diversity in southern California.
have been unsuccessful. A complete survey of the areal Restoration Ecology. 4 (2), pp. 163-180.
extent of eelgrass and associated density assessments
Wyllie-Echeverria, S., A.M. Olson, and M.J. Hershman
within this location of the state has not been conducted.
(eds). 1994. Seagrass science and policy in the Pacic
The National Marine Fishery Service and other state and
Northwest: proceedings of a seminar (SMA 94-1). U.S. EPA,
federal resource agencies have conducted cursory surveys
Water Division, Wetlands Section. EPA 910/R-94-004. 63 pp.
of eelgrass in these locations. While formal surveys and
Zimmerman, R. C., J. L. Reguzzoni, S. Wyllie-Echeverria,
reports have not been completed, areas that support
M. Josselyn, and R. S. Alberte. 1991. Assesment of envi-
eelgrass have been identied.
ronmental suitability for growth of Zostera marina L. (eel-
The eelgrass bed communities within San Diego County
grass) in San Francisco Bay. Aquatic Botany. 39: 353-366.
coastal areas have been heavily impacted by urbanization.
All of the bays in this area of the state have been inten-
sively modied. Attendant stresses are evidenced by very
low eelgrass densities. Additionally, many of the eelgrass
communities in San Diego County coastal areas have been
derived through reestablishment efforts or, as in Mission
Bay, through natural colonization of dredged sediments.
The most comprehensive survey conducted for eelgrass in
the San Diego Bay was completed in 2000. This survey fol-
lowed an early bay-wide survey conducted in 1994. Similar
surveys have been completed for Mission Bay, Batiquitos
Lagoon, and Agua Hedionda. The location of eelgrass pres-
ent within Oceanside Harbor has also been documented by
the National Marine Fishery Service.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
ther information.
Eric J. Larson
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
490
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis appear to be among the preferred spawning substrates for
Submerged Aquatic Plants
Pacic herring in California waters and may be essential
to herring when other aquatic vegetation is not available.
History of Harvest These beds with herring eggs are an important feeding
area for a variety of marine animals.
Although species in the red algal genera Gracilaria and
Gracilariopsis have been harvested throughout the world
Management Considerations
for agar production and as a food source for humans
and cultured shellsh, only small amounts have been har- See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
vested from the wild in California during the last few ther information.
decades. Between 1965 and 1970, several applications
were made to the Fish and Game Commission for permis-
John Mello
sion to harvest Pacic herring eggs deposited on edible
California Department of Fish and Game
seaweeds for export to Japan, where it is considered a
luxury food item. In 1970, Department of Fish and Game
References
divers conducted a survey to determine the quantity and
composition of the aquatic vegetation in Tomales Bay.
Abbott, I.A. and G.J. Hollenberg. 1976. Marine Algae of
The commission decided to establish one ve-ton harvest
California. Stanford University Press. Stanford.
permit each for Tomales and San Francisco bays. However,
Hardwick, J.E. 1973 Biomass estimates of spawning her-
siltation, which occurs in both bays during the winter
ring. Clupea harrengus pallasii, herring eggs, and associ-
months, lowered the market quality of a large portion
ated vegetation in Tomales Bay. Calif. Fish Game, 59(1)
of the eggs-on-seaweed harvest; as a result, the ve-ton
:36-61
quota was never reached in either bay. The harvest of
herring eggs on wild edible seaweed in Tomales and San Langtry, S.K. and C.A. Jacoby. 1996. Fish and decapod
Francsico bays is now prohibited. crustaceans inhabiting drifting algae in Jervis Bay, New
South Wales. Aust. J. Ecology, v. 21,( n. 3),: 264-271.
Status of Biological Knowledge Spratt, J.D. 1981. The status of the Pacic herring, Clupea
harrengus pallasii, resource in California 1972 to 1980.
Gracilaria pacica and Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis are
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.171. 107 p.
commonly found in California’s bays and estuaries. Both
species have numerous brownish-red thin branches loosely
connected to the substrate by a small holdfast and grow
to a maximum height around three feet. Because they
are so similar in appearance and frequently found growing
in the same area, they are often difcult to distinguish.
Gracilaria pacica is commonly found in sheltered inter-
tidal to subtidal locations from Alaska to the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, Mexico. Gracilaria lemaneiformis occurs in areas
exposed to ocean currents as well as protected intertidal
and subtidal areas from Vancouver Island, British Colum-
bia, Canada, to Santa Catalina Island in the Southern
California Bight. Both species are fast growing and, when
detached from the substrate, often form large dense
mats in estuarine areas protected from strong currents. In
Tomales and San Francisco bays, where annual vegetation
density studies are conducted in conjunction with Pacic
herring spawning surveys, Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis
densities uctuate considerably from year to year.
Little is known about the signicance of these species
in bay and estuary ecosystems. One study conducted in
Jarvis Bay, Australia, found relatively low numbers of sh
and decapod species inhabiting drifting Gracilaria spp.
beds when compared to adjacent seagrass beds, suggest-
ing that these beds may not be a critical habitat for estua-
rine macrofauna. However, Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 491
Submerged Aquatic Plants
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
492
Aquaculture:
Overview by a signicant summer-time mortality of unknown cause.
Aquaculture: Overview
Abalone production has been inuenced by mortality
T
from withering syndrome and hampered by regulatory
he commercial culturing of marine species in Califor-
requirements intended to prevent the spread of an exotic
nia is limited primarily to the production of shellsh
parasitic worm. Large numbers of juvenile white seabass
such as oysters, mussels, and abalone. While the culturing
have been destroyed to address disease concerns. In
of nsh for enhancement purposes is well established
each instance, the industry made positive contributions
in California, commercial culturing has been limited in
to cooperative efforts among resource agency disease-
scale and remains focused on solving technical questions
management researchers.
through research. The commercial production of most
cultured shellsh has declined from recent peaks. Oyster Taken as a whole, the industry has ardent entrepreneurial
production is down from a peak in 1994; abalone produc- support, has great economic potential, and has been
tion is down from a peak in 1996; and mussel production a source of signicant positive societal benet. If not
is down from a recent peak in 1997. In several instances, conducted in a resource-sensitive manner, aquaculture
demand exceeded production and the declines reected can also cause negative environmental impacts, by intro-
several ongoing challenges faced by these industries in ducing exotic species, by introducing or contributing to
their efforts to maintain production. More information on the spread of disease, or by altering the natural systems
production levels can be found in the specic sections within which production facilities are located. The key
that follow. to achieving the positive aspects of aquaculture while
minimizing negative ones rests in how effectively the
Developing and maintaining production of cultured marine
industry, the research community, and regulatory agen-
species is still inuenced by technical problems, in some
cies can work together. Industry leaders are now focusing
cases in spite of a well-established production history.
on developing best management practices to ensure that
Fledgling industries, such as those engaged in scallop
shellsh culture does not impact the health of ecosystems
and nsh production, face technical challenges in devel-
upon which they depend. A common goal will be to ensure
oping breeding and rearing techniques. The well-estab-
that the industry achieves its successes in resource sensi-
lished industries, such as oyster and abalone culture, face
tive ways without having to do so under an undue regula-
technical challenges in maintaining production when faced
tory burden. Our ability to achieve that goal may hinge on
with environmental change or disease impact. Human-
developing trust through effective communication.
caused changes in water quality, for example, present
signicant challenges to culture facilities that are sited
in bays and estuaries. In order to address product safety Fred Wendell
concerns in these areas, the production of mussels, oys- California Department of Fish and Game
ters, and clams are often subject to closures or depura-
tion requirements. The presence of a shellsh aquaculture
facility in an area can, as a consequence, provide a con-
tamination early-warning system for sport-harvest of shell-
sh and an assessment of the biological conditions in the
general area. With the exception of concerns related to
the accumulation of biotoxins, changes in water quality do
not present signicant technical challenges in the cultur-
ing of scallops because of the tendency in that industry
to site in offshore areas. Natural changes in water quality
have also hampered shellsh production. Much of the
recent decline in production can be attributed to El Niño-
related impacts, particularly in the culturing of mussels
and abalone. A broader discussion of these technical chal-
lenges can be found in the specic sections that follow
this overview.
Development of a technical response to disease, and con-
forming to regulatory requirements related to disease
control have both inuenced production in the oyster
and abalone industry and have inuenced the success of
white sea bass enhancement efforts. Oyster production
in Tomales Bay, for example, continues to be inuenced
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 493
Culture of Abalone
History production then declined slightly through 1998 when 22
aquaculturists produced 162,000 pounds of product valued
P ioneering efforts to mass cultivate abalone in Califor- at $2.4 million. Only 13 of the 22 abalone aquaculturists
nia began about 35 years ago. Three abalone species, registered in 1998 were actively producing abalone and
the red (Haliotis rufescens), the green (H. fulgens), and most of the production came from four or ve growers.
the pink (H. corrugata) have been farmed, and research The decline in participation and production since 1996
into cultivation techniques has been conducted on the is attributable, at least in part, to disease impacts exac-
black (H. cracherodii) and white abalone (H. sorenseni). erbated to some extent by a signicant El Niño event.
The red abalone, however, is the mainstay of the industry Until recently, cultivated abalone had been considered
and comprises more than 95 percent of total production. relatively disease-free. The bacterium Vibrio sp. infected
Abalone are grown in either land-based tanks or in cages larval cultures, but it was typically suppressed by using
suspended in the water column. The cages are typically ltered, ultraviolet treated seawater. That perspective
tethered from a raft but have also been suspended changed with the introduction of a parasitic sabellid poly-
beneath a wharf. Aquaculturists that operate these in- chaete worm from South Africa. By the mid-1990s, the
water systems typically obtain small seed abalone from parasite had spread to virtually every abalone aquaculture
land-based hatcheries for grow-out. facility in the state. The worm induces the infested aba-
In a typical hatchery operation, ripe brood stock abalone lone to form a tube for it out of nacreous material. With
are induced to spawn using hydrogen peroxide or ultravio- heavy infestations, the abalone shell is brittle and very
let light treated seawater. Fertilized eggs that successfully deformed and abalone growth is stunted. Impacts to the
develop to the veliger swimming stage are transferred to industry included loss from voluntary stock destruction
through-owing larval rearing tanks. In about six days at and reduced income from marketing deformed product.
59° F, larvae are ready to settle from the planktonic to Cooperative efforts by the industry, the Department of
the benthic stage. They are transferred to nursery tanks, Fish and Game (DFG), and Sea Grant sponsored university
and commence to feed on diatoms. After six months of researchers have almost completely eradicated the worm
growth, half-inch abalone are then transferred to plastic from California.
mesh baskets suspended in larger tanks. At this point, the Unfortunately, the industry also started experiencing ele-
abalone begin feeding on macroalgae. An additional six vated losses of cultured product from withering syndrome
to eight months are required before they reach the size (WS) during this same time frame. This disease, caused
where they are transferred to grow-out tanks or in-water by a rickettsia-like prokaryote, is characterized by a dras-
systems. After growing in these tanks or in-water systems tic shrinkage of the abalones’ foot and is always fatal.
for 20 months or longer, they attain the typical three- to However, red abalone can be infected by the bacterium
four-inch shell length preferred by the market. without showing clinical signs of disease. Research sug-
The number of participants in this industry and their total gests that a stress trigger is necessary to induce clinical
production have increased through time, peaking in 1996. signs of the disease in this specie. The only recognized
In 1991, 15 registered abalone aquaculturists in California stress trigger is elevated water temperature. With the El
produced an estimated 175,000 pounds of abalone in the Niño event, many facilities experienced elevated water
shell. By 1996, 27 registered abalone aquaculturists pro- temperatures that triggered WS, resulting in elevated
duced over 292,000 pounds of product. Participation and mortality in their cultured stock.
The dedicated entrepreneurs at the core of this industry
have achieved their successes despite these challenges
and interest in abalone aquaculture remains high,
prompted in part by the closure of the commercial aba-
lone shery in 1997. Presently, abalone are available to
meet market demands only through importation or the
purchase of cultured abalone. Consequently, there is a
high market demand and a good price to growers for the
farmed product.
A more recent positive development in abalone aquacul-
ture is the production of cultured abalone pearls. The
product is produced by inserting a nucleus into the aba-
lone. Given time, nacre is laid over the nucleus to form
a semi-spherical pearl that has all the lustrous hues of
the shell interior. Once extracted, these pearls are set in
Red abalone being grown out on plastic substrate.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
494
References
jewelry and the meat is processed for sale to restaurant
Culture of Abalone
trade as either a fresh or frozen product.
Ebert, E.E. and J.L. Houk. 1984. Elements and innova-
tions in the cultivation of red abalone Haliotis rufescens .
Status of Biological Knowledge Aquaculture 39:375-392.
Ebert, E.E. 1992. Abalone aquaculture: a North Amercial
A considerable amount of research on abalone aquacul-
regional review. In, Abalone of the World: Biology, Fish-
ture has been accomplished by the private sector,
ereis, and Culture. S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner, and S.A.
particularly with respect to systems design and overall
Guzman del Proo (eds.) Pp. 571-582. Fishing News Books,
technology. University and DFG scientists have also
Oxford, United Kingdom.
made major contributions. Sea Grant-funded research has
Hahn, K.O. (Editor). 1989. Handbook of culture of aba-
greatly increased our understanding of abalone develop-
lone and other marine gastropods. CRC press, Inc., Boca
mental biology. Spawning induction procedures, larval set-
Raton, FL.
tlement inducers, and larval rearing systems were devel-
oped by researchers funded through this program. Sea Leighton, D.L. 1989. Abalone (genus Haliotis) mariculture
Grant-funded research has also contributed signicantly to on the North American Pacic coast. Fish. Bull., U.S.
our understanding of abalone diseases. 87:689-702.
The DFG began abalone culture investigations in 1971 McBride, Susan C. 1998. Current status of abalone
at its Granite Canyon Laboratory near Monterey. That aquaculture in the Californias. Jour. Of Shellsh
effort led to the development of a through-owing larval Research, Vol. 17, No. 3, 593-600.
rearing system and the development of a ush-ll tank
system that have been adopted by the industry. The DFG
subsequently developed a pilot production hatchery at
Granite Canyon that provided training opportunities and
resulted in the production of seed abalone for enhance-
ment research.
The DFG’s Marine Region shellsh pathology laboratory in
Bodega Bay has expanded our knowledge of the biology
of the parasitic sabellid worm that has contributed signi-
cantly to the success that has been achieved in the coop-
erative eradication efforts. That laboratory also identied
the causative agent for WS and has conducted extensive
research into questions related to transmission and control
of this pathogen.
Two principle areas for research, nutrition and genetics,
may provide signicant benets to the industry in the
future. Prepared diets have been developed and are being
used widely for juvenile stages. However, most prepared
feeds are expensive and not readily accepted by adult
abalone in comparison to giant kelp. Less progress has
been made in genetics research. Most growers use a
selection process where brood stock is selected based on
growth rates. Wild broodstock is also used to maintain
genetic diversity in cultured stocks. Some research has
been done with triploidy as a means of enhancing abalone
growth rates. While encouraging, the results have not
been applied broadly within the industry.
Earl Ebert
US Abalone
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 495
Culture of Mussels
History lagoon and relatively fast growth of juveniles, the shellsh
rm began to culture mussels in 1985. It obtained a
M ussels of the genus Mytilus have uctuated in ve-acre lease for use of the lagoon and began a com-
importance in California’s commercial and sport mercial operation following modied Italian longline tech-
shellsh sheries for food and bait since the early niques. Mussel seed was placed in a tubular net “stock-
1900s. Experiments in culturing wild seed stock and ing” designed specically for mussel growing. The stock-
in developing hatchery and grow-out methods in the ing or “reste” was originally imported from Italy, but is
1980s have increased the economic potential of mussels, now available to growers from U.S. suppliers. The stock-
particularly Mytilus galloprovincialis (the Mediterranean ings were suspended from longlines fty yards long and
mussel), which occurs primarily in southern and south- supported by small buoys to keep the stockings off the
central California. bottom. Mussel production at the Carlsbad farm peaked
in 1989, second only to the offshore platform harvest in
A related species, Mytilus trossulus (the “foolish mussel”)
the Santa Barbara Channel. However, the following year
is sport-harvested in northern California and hybrids of
the State Department of Health decertied the shellsh
M. trossulus and galloprovinciallis are commonly found
growing area due to rising coliform counts in the lagoon.
between Cape Mendocino and Monterey Bay.
Production ceased in 1990 and remained static until a
The sea mussel, Mytilus californianus, is of minor eco-
certied depuration system, required by the state, was
nomic importance in California at present, though it is
put into operation in 1992.
taken by sport harvesters and it is periodically sold by a
In 1985, approximately 104,000 pounds of mussels were
southern California harvester to restaurants. It is primarily
harvested, primarily from offshore platforms, but by this
used as bait along the West Coast, but in the 1980s, wild
time a farm in Tomales Bay also had begun to utilize
harvested sea mussels, highly esteemed by gourmet chefs
European longline methods to grow mussels. Over the
in Oregon, were sold to ne restaurants in Portland and
next seven years, three to ve other Tomales Bay oyster
still may have a future in California.
growers diversied into mussel production. These growers
Between 1916 and 1927, a total of over 470,000 pounds
utilized wild-caught and hatchery reared seed, with the
of mussels, ranging from 9,000 to 69,000 pounds per
latter being relied upon more in the late 1980s, as natural
year, were landed in California. After 1927, most areas
recruitment during this period was often erratic and unre-
were closed to harvest by the California Department of
liable. After a brief period of expansion, several Tomales
Health Services due to a major outbreak that year of
Bay growers ceased all but minimal production in the mid-
paralytic shellsh poisoning. Mussel landings declined to
1990s to concentrate on oyster culture. By the fall of
1,610 pounds in 1928 and stayed depressed until 1972,
2000, only one company was producing commercial quan-
when a record 111,000 pounds were landed, primarily
tities of mussels. These are sold exclusively to local
for bait. Bait sales continued to be the most signicant
restaurants around Tomales Bay. At least three other
commercial activity for California mussels until improved
growers have the capability to produce commercial quan-
methods of harvesting wild stocks were developed, new
tities and may scale up their operations again if market
culture methods were adopted, and West Coast markets
conditions improve.
began developing for this tasty shellsh in the early 1980s.
On the north coast, an oyster grower operating in Mad
Research on harvesting wild-set Mediterranean mussels
River Slough, Humboldt County, began farming mussels in
from offshore oil-production platforms for food was initi-
1992 using the oating raft culture method. Seed mussels,
ated in the Santa Barbara Channel in 1979. Divers rou-
attached to a line inside exible plastic mesh netting, are
tinely removed fouling organisms from the submerged
suspended from the raft during grow-out. Cultured mus-
support structures of offshore platforms at considerable
sels from Humboldt Bay were initially used, but since the
expense to oil companies. An ecological consulting rm,
mid-1990s, wild juvenile mussels collected from the bay
hired to suggest ways to control the biofouling, found that
have been the primary source of seed. The mature
various stages of the succession of organisms included
mussels are sold locally at farmers’ markets and restau-
settlement and growth of edible mussels, both M. gal-
rants. One other Humboldt Bay operation began experi-
loprovincialis and M. californianus. Recognizing the poten-
menting with mussel grow-out in 2001, using wild seed
tial for food production and increasing market demand for
stock and following the raft culture method used in Mad
high quality shellsh, the owners of the rm contracted
River Slough.
with various offshore oil companies to test the feasibility
The total state mussel production tripled in 1986, reach-
of harvesting and marketing the mussels.
ing more than 334,000 pounds, with over 90 percent
Experimental mussel, oyster, and clam culture also began
harvested from platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel
in 1983 in Aqua Hedionda Lagoon near Carlsbad. Taking
and the remainder from Tomales Bay. Statewide produc-
advantage of excellent natural mussel spatfalls in the
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
496
tion dropped slightly in 1987 to approximately 286,000 a cooperative effort was initiated by a Humboldt County
Culture of Mussels
pounds and decreased further in 1988 to 151,000 pounds, shellsh nurseryman to produce the rst commercial
due to major winter storms, which dislodged market-ready quantities of hatchery-reared mussel seed on the West
mussels from platform structures. Production jumped to Coast. Growers utilized a variety of substrates and set
over 300,000 pounds in 1989 but dropped to 130,000 the spat at different densities. A wide range of results,
pounds in 1990 when the Carlsbad rm ceased production, from zero survival to excellent survival and growth were
continuing a slide in 1991 to a low of only 47,000 pounds. reported. The methods of growing out seed evolved and
During the next six years (1992 through 1997), with the matured in Tomales Bay and in the Puget Sound area of
Carlsbad rm back in production, increasing harvest from Washington state but were not proven on a commercial
offshore platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel, and scale in south-central and southern California as growers
steady production in Tomales Bay, the statewide total rose continued to utilize natural seed.
from 187,000 pounds to 471,000 pounds. Strong winter The ve participating growers in Tomales Bay purchased
storms following warm El Niño seawater conditions in the larger (0.5-1.0 inch) seed, which could be grown to market
fall of 1997 caused havoc to mussel production throughout size in six to nine months. Excessive predation on matur-
the state the following year. An economically devastating ing mussels by scoter ducks and on small natural-set seed
drop in production of nearly 50 percent, to 256,000 by schools of perch over time proved burdensome to
pounds, occurred in 1998. One of the large southern Cali- most of the shellsh growers who were concentrating on
fornia growers stated that spawning and recruitment were oysters as their primary product. All but one company in
both affected by these events. A colder water regime in Tomales Bay ceased or minimized their mussel operations,
1999 - 2000 improved the recruitment situation and has citing competition from low-cost imported mussels as
been encouraging to growers. the reason.
Mussels harvested during the ve years between 1986 Southern California mussel companies also face stiff com-
and 1990 provided a return of $1.17 million to California petition from imports, and also must cope with water
growers. Steady expansion of production during the fol- quality uctuations, especially in nearshore areas or
lowing ve years between 1991 to 1995 increased state- embayments. One south-coast aquaculturist has built a
wide returns to $2.06 million. Return to growers dipped depuration system for bivalve shellsh, one of the rst in
in 1996 and 1997 to about $500 thousand per year with a California. The grower has been able to use a protected
critical drop in 1998 to $280 thousand. lagoon to grow mussels, which are relayed to the onshore
The wholesale price has not changed signicantly over the depuration system prior to sale. By utilizing seawater
past 15 years still ranging from $1.10 to $1.25 per pound. treated with ultraviolet violet light to eliminate harmful
Retail/restaurant prices have increased slightly from $2.00 bacteria, he can produce wholesome, high quality mussels.
in 1990 to $2.25 in 2000. Direct sale prices to the public at
farmers markets and retail shellsh farms has increased,
Status of Biological Knowledge
varying between $2.50 per pound in southern California
and $4 per pound in the Tomales and San Francisco Bay
G enetic studies utilizing protein electrophoresis in the
area. The retail/restaurant price in Humboldt County is
late 1980s showed that there were two distinct forms
slightly higher at $2.50 per pound and direct sales at
of edulis-like mussels on the West Coast that are mor-
farmers’ markets are intermediate at $3.00 per pound.
phometrically similar. One of these forms is electropho-
California growers continue to face stiff competition from retically indistinguishable from M. galloprovincialis, the
mussels imported from eastern Canada, New Zealand, Mediterranean mussel, which is known to have recently
Maine, and Washington due to the advent of low cost air colonized many disparate shores around the world. The
transport of fresh shellsh and individual ash freezing other form is also distinct from the Atlantic M. edulis
methods. Competing on the world market is a challenge and was designated M. trossulus, the Pacic Northwest
to California producers, because of massive production mussel. It was found from Alaska to central California.
of mussels in China, Korea, New Zealand, Australia, and The two forms occur together and are reported to hybrid-
other Pacic Rim countries. Expansion of the industry is ize with one another. Several genetic studies in the late
dependent on the maintenance of clean growing areas, 1990s have conrmed that M. galloprovincialis is found
a supportive regulatory environment, aggressive market- principally south of the Monterey Peninsula and M. tros-
ing, and dependable sources of seed. Climatic and oceano- sulus is found primarily north of Cape Mendocino. A zone
graphic events have also had signicant impacts on the of hybridization has been documented between these two
economic health of this industry. distinct coastal features.
Until 1986, all mussels grown commercially in California
were set or collected as wild or natural seed. In 1985,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 497
The hybridization and geographic range issues regarding considered to be the main food item providing energy for
Culture of Mussels
M. trossulus in central and northern California confound rapid growth.
the interpretation of earlier life history studies of mussels Competition for space is an important factor inuencing
taxonomically classied as M. edulis, but, regardless of growth and survival of mussels, both in wild and cultured
the taxonomic issue, all mussels share many common bio- populations. Mytilids of the same and different species
logical traits as they are all members of the bivalve class compete for limited space in the rocky intertidal and
Pelecypoda (hatchet feet). Mussels have separate sexes, subtidal growing areas. Cultured mussels on articial sub-
though some hermaphrodism occurs. There is evidence strates also can become overcrowded if seed stocking den-
that changes in water temperatures, physical stimulation sities are too high. Crowding causes instability of mussel
(such as disturbance by winter storms), variation in light masses and, when coupled with high current speeds, tur-
levels, or phytoplankton blooms may stimulate spawning. bulence, and drifting materials, losses frequently occur.
Spawning in M. californianus occurs throughout the year Barnacles and sea anemones also compete for space
at a very low level, with peaks in July and December. with mussels.
The spawning and recruitment of M. galloprovincialis also Predators of California mussel species are abundant. They
occurs year round, although it is heaviest in February, include two sea stars, ve species of muricid gastropods,
March, and April and again in September and October in and three crabs. Scoter ducks, the black oyster- catcher,
southern California. Mussels reaching 1.6 inches are found shiner perch, and the sea otter are also important preda-
to have gonads in various stages of development and are tors in coastal waters.
able to spawn.
An invasive species of algae, Caulerpa taxifolia, recently
When spawning occurs in the natural environment, eggs found in a southern California lagoon is another concern of
and sperm are discharged through the excurrent chamber both mussel growers and resource managers. Known for its
and fertilization takes place in the open ocean or estuary. progressive smothering of the Mediterranean seaoor, the
Within 24 hours, the embryo develops into free-swimming alga is the focus of an intensive effort by state and federal
trochophore larva that grows into a more advanced veliger regulators to eradicate the species before it spreads.
stage, again, within 24 hours. The development of the
Mussels are used in California and other parts of the world
ciliated velum (approximately 48 hours after fertilization)
as sentinel species in “mussel watch” programs to monitor
gives the larvae more control in swimming and in gather-
various organic and inorganic pollutants. As lter feeders,
ing food. The veliger is also known as the “straight-hinge”
mussels also ingest and concentrate toxin-producing spe-
stage, denoting the appearance of the rst shell. In two
cies of phytoplankton that periodically bloom along
to three weeks, veligers begin metamorphosis, a stage
the Pacic coast. The California Department of Health
preceded by the development of an eyespot (a photo-
Services utilizes mussels as bio-toxin indicators in a state-
sensitive organ) and a foot. This is the pediveliger stage,
wide monitoring program staffed by volunteers. A quaran-
during which the veliger changes from a swimming larva to
tine on sport harvest is imposed between May 1 and
a bottom dwelling juvenile mussel or spat (seed).
October 1 when the probability of toxic phytoplankton
Newly settled mussels attach to substrates with protein- uptake in mussels is high. However, commercially grown
aceous threads (byssus or byssal threads) that are secreted mussels may continue to be harvested during this period
by the postlarvae. Young mussels have the unique ability as long as constant testing assures that only a safe, whole-
to detach their byssus, crawl to a different location, or some, and non-toxic product is available to the consumer.
drift away in a current to seek a more favorable substrate,
and reattach. This trait is considered to be a signicant
problem for growers, as postlarvae have disappeared from
various substrates soon after placement in open water.
Growth rates of both M. galloprovincialis and M. califor-
nianus have been reported to be at least 0.25 inch per
month and as high as 0.5 inch per month in the Santa
Barbara Channel. Growth rate is inuenced primarily by
the quantity and quality of food, rather than temperature,
and mussels achieved a two-inch shell length in six to
eight months.
Food consumed by mussels includes dinoagellates,
organic particles, small diatoms, zoospores, protozoa, uni-
cellular algae, bacteria, and detritus. Phytoplankton is
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
498
Culture of Mussels
500
thousands of pounds harvested
400 Commercial Harvest
Cultured Mussels
1986-1999, Cultured Mussels
Annual pounds of cultivated
300
mussels landed by State aquacul-
ture producers. Harvest data for
200 1997-1999 include only mussels
cultivated in Tomales Bay and
Drakes Estero. Data Source:
100
California State Tax records
(royalties reports) and DFG Aqua-
0 1986 1990 1999 culture Harvest Survey Database.
References
Management Considerations
Coan, E.V., P.V. Scott, and F.R. Bernard. 2000. Bivalve
See the Management Considerations Appendix for further
seashells of the western North America: marine bivalve
information.
mollusks from Arctic Alaska to Baja California. Santa Bar-
bara Museum of Natural History Monographs No 2; Studies
John B. Richards in Biodiversity No. 2 Santa Barbara, CA. 746 p.
University of California, Santa Barbara
McDonald, J.H. and R.K. Koehn. 1988. The mussels Mytilus
George A. Trevelyan galloprovincialis and M. trossulus on the Pacic coast of
Abalone Farms, Inc. North America. Mar. Biol. 79: 117-176.
Revised by: Price, R.J. 1989. Paralytic shellsh poisoning and red
John B. Richards tides. California Sea Grant Extension Program 89-1, Univer-
University of California, Santa Barbara sity of California, Davis. 2 pp.
Rawson, P.D., V. Agrawal, T.J. Hilbish. 1999. Hybridization
between Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus along
the Pacic coast: evidence for limited introgression. Mar.
Biol. 134(1):201-211.
Suchanek, T.H.; J.B. Geller, B.R. Kreiser, and J.B. Mitton.
1997. Zoogeographic distributions of the sibling species
Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus (Bivalvia: Mytili-
dae) and their hybrids in the North Pacic. Biol. Bull.
193(2): 187-194.
Trevelyan, G.A. 1991. Aquacultural ecology of hatchery-
produced juvenile mussels, Mytilus edulis L. Ph.D. Dis-
sertation, University of California, Davis.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 499
Culture of Oysters
History California by sailing ships. Successful transport of oysters
was achieved only after the completion of the trans-
C alifornia’s oyster shery and oyster aquaculture indus- continental railroad in 1869. Shipments of juvenile and
try have had a rich and colorful tradition. American market-sized oysters were transported by rail in barrels of
Indians harvested the oyster resource for thousands of sawdust and ice and transplanted into San Francisco Bay.
years before Spanish, Tsarist Russian, and European set- Cool summer water temperatures, however, prevented
tlers occupied the West Coast. A substantial commercial successful natural reproduction of the Eastern oyster.
oyster shery began in the 1850s, when settlers from Transcontinental trade for Eastern oyster seed was fully
the East Coast attracted to California by the prospect established by 1875. Small, one-inch seed was trans-
of gold and new opportunities created larger markets for planted in San Francisco Bay for further growth. The
oysters. The increased population and market pressure Shoalwater Bay trade for Olympia oysters was gradually
for oysters had an immediate impact on the state’s shell- terminated, and from 1872 until the early 1900s Califor-
sh resources. The only available oyster was the Native nia’s San Francisco Bay Eastern oyster industry was the
oyster (Ostreola conchaphila; previously O. lurida; also largest oyster industry on the West Coast. Maximum pro-
called Olympia oyster in the Pacic Northwest), which was duction was reached in 1899 with an estimated 2.5 million
intensively shed, causing a rapid decline in the natural pounds of oyster meat.
population. In response, Native oysters were transported
With California’s population and industrial growth came
from Shoalwater Bay, Washington (Willapa Bay), and later
a degradation of water quality in San Francisco Bay. By
from other bays in the Pacic Northwest and Mexico,
1908, Eastern oyster production had fallen by 50 percent.
representing the initial attempts at oyster culture on the
By 1921, oyster meat quality declined to the extent that
West Coast. Oysters were transplanted into San Francisco
shipments of seed from the East Coast were terminated,
Bay, where they were maintained on oyster beds and then
and by 1939 the last of the San Francisco Bay oysters were
marketed throughout central California. The Shoalwater
commercially harvested. Oysters were still transported
Bay trade of Olympia oysters dominated the California
and held in Tomales Bay until they could be marketed
market from 1850 through 1869. Market demand for a
in San Francisco, but the industry based on the Eastern
larger, half-shell product stimulated experiments in trans-
oyster did not recover. The industry and state began re-
porting the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) from the
examining earlier experimental plantings using the Pacic
Atlantic states to the West Coast. Several failed attempts
oyster (Crassostrea gigas), which originated in Japan.
were made to establish transport of the Eastern oyster to
The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) and
commercial growers conducted experimental plantings of
Pacic oysters in Tomales Bay and Elkhorn Slough in 1929.
Experimental plantings continued in a number of bays,
including Drakes Estero, Bodega Lagoon, and Morro, New-
port, and San Francisco bays, throughout the 1930s. Hum-
boldt Bay was excluded from plantings while the DFG
tried to re-establish natural populations of Native oysters.
Several Pacic oyster plantings proved successful, dem-
onstrating that imported Pacic oyster seed could be
grown commercially in California. Shipments of seed from
Japan were made through the 1930s, suspended from 1940
through 1946, and increased signicantly in 1947. The
imported seed was inspected in Japan by both DFG per-
sonnel and commercial producers prior to shipment. DFG
personnel examined the shell for organisms considered
harmful if introduced into state waters.
Boxes containing oyster shell with attached young oysters
(spat) were transported by ship in wooden crates kept
moist with seawater. With the inux of seed oysters, the
industry began its recovery in California and on the West
Coast. The DFG lifted its restriction on Pacic oyster seed
in Humboldt Bay in 1953, and in the next 30 years, the
California industry showed rapid growth with production
Growing Oysters in Tomales Bay
Credit: Fred Conte
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
500
Commercial Harvest*
Culture of Oysters
2.00 1960-1999, Cultured Oysters
millions of pounds harvested
Annual pounds of cultivated
1.75
oysters harvested by State aqua-
1.50
Cultured Oysters
culture producers. Data Source:
California State Tax records
1.25
(royalties reports) and DFG Aqua-
1.00 culture Harvest Survey Database.
* Packed weight is estimated to
0.75
be 15.5 percent of live weight
0.50
for C. gigas and 10.9 percent for
C. virginica. Shucked gallons are
0.25
calculated as 8.6 pounds/gallon
0.00 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 for C. gigas and 8.5 pounds/gallon
for C. virginica. Cultchless oysters, C. sikamea and a large portion of C. gigas are sold as shellstock.
centered in Humboldt Bay, Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay, water. Other less prominent species produced by hatcher-
Elkhorn Slough, and Morro Bay. ies have included the European oyster (O. edulis) and
some Eastern oyster (C. virginica). The ability to ship
The West Coast oyster industry initiated other signicant
oyster larvae long distances and set the spat at the
changes in the early 1980s, which have had a signicant
growout areas has signicantly reduced the cost of seed.
impact on the industry nationally. These changes include
The last shipment of Japanese seed to California was
the development of U.S. based shellsh hatcheries for the
in 1989.
domestic production of Pacic oyster seed, and the ability
to ship advanced hatchery-produced oyster larvae (swim- The level of oyster production within the various bays
ming stage) to growout sites where the larvae are placed has uctuated throughout the years, primarily because of
in tanks containing cleaned shell and heated seawater for water quality, the bay’s ability to produce good standing
spat production. In this process called remote setting, crops of algae on which oysters feed, the adequacy of
the larvae settle on clean oyster or scallop shell, called selected sites, and the nancial viability of the various
mother shell or cultch, attach and metamorphose into the oyster operations. All growing areas are classied and
more familiar at young oyster called spat. Spatted cultch certied by the California Department of Health Services
ultimately results in about nine to 13 market-sized oysters (CDHS) based on health-related water quality standards
clustered on remnants of the old mother shell. established and regulated by the Interstate Shellsh Sani-
tation Conference (ISSC) and the National Shellsh Sanita-
Another hatchery product is cultchless oyster seed that
tion Program (NSSP). Water-bottom and offshore growout
are grown out as individual oysters exclusively for the half
areas are leased from the state through the Fish and Game
shell market. Cultchless seed are produced by setting the
Commission, harbor and recreation districts, or belong to
larvae on sand or nely crushed oyster shell, resulting
private corporations.
in unattached, individual oysters. Many California growers
purchase cultchless seed from California-based advanced The industry uses a variety of oyster culture methods
seed producers. These producers receive 3.0 to 5.0 depending on the targeted market, the physical character-
mm cultchless seed from a hatchery, then use oating istics of the production bay and the need to protect the
upweller systems (FUS) to hold the seed in ow-through younger oysters from predators such as bat rays, rock
containers receiving bay water containing algae. The crabs, and drills (snails). Culture methods are also inu-
oyster seed increases in size and is more easily handled in enced by factors such as substrate type, current velocity,
mesh bags used by the end producer. Individual growers tidal range, and phytoplankton productivity. California
are also adopting and expanding their own land-based FUS oysters are grown from spat to market size in about 13
and downwellers to cut the cost of seed and assume the to 18 months, depending on the bay and the culture
responsibility of early seed growth. All oysters grown in method used.
California currently are produced from hatcheries located California oyster production is currently centered in four
in Washington, Oregon and Hawaii. areas, Arcata Bay located in the North Humboldt Bay
The hatchery systems primarily produce two species of complex, Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay and Morro Bay. Morro
Pacic oysters; the Pacic oyster (C. gigas) and the Kuma- Bay oyster production has declined in recent years, but
moto oyster (C. sikamea) which also originated in Japan techniques have included bottom, rack-and-bag, and stake
and does not reproduce in California’s cooler summertime culture. Shellsh producers in the Santa Barbara Channel
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 501
have used a system of longlines with attached bags of to an anchored line which suspends the bags vertically in
Culture of Oysters
European oysters suspended from offshore rafts in the the water or secures the bags on a stable, hard bottom,
deep waters, but have discontinued production in recent intertidal area. Bags can also be maintained horizontally
years. Shellsh producers also cultured cultchless oysters at the surface using oats. To maintain the prime oyster
in Agua Hedionda Lagoon, located north of San Diego, but shape for the half shell market, the bags must be moved
have switched to mussel production which was considered frequently to prevent the individual oysters from growing
more suitable to the area. together and resulting in an irregular shape.
Humboldt Bay growers use a variety of oyster culture Total annual oyster production for California has uctu-
methods, but the predominate method has been bottom ated throughout the industry’s history, reecting cyclic
culture of Pacic oysters. In bottom culture, cultch with shellsh mortalities (“Summer Mortality Syndrome”, SMS),
attached spat is spread over leased areas in the bay, availability of seed oysters, economic conditions, and the
the oysters are grown to about four inches and are then nancial stability of individual companies. With the advent
harvested by hand picking and hydraulic dredge. Most of of hatchery technology and remote setting of oyster seed,
California’s shucked oyster product is from bottom culture the industry demonstrated signicant growth from the
in Humboldt Bay. Because of environmental concerns and mid-1980s to a second post-1960s peak in the mid-1990s.
the impact of hydraulic dredging on eelgrass, growers Reduced production after 1994 directly reects several
are currently changing about 85 percent of their bottom industry setbacks, which include nancial restructuring
culture production over a period of about three years after the 1990s recession, extended bay harvest closures
to off-bottom, longline culture of the Kumamoto oyster. due to sanitary degradation and oil spills, and recurrence
The Kumamoto oyster derives a higher market price as of cyclic SMS. Several of these factors have been resolved,
non-shucked shellstock, and the remaining bottom culture and production increases are expected. The data repre-
will be targeted for the peak shucked-oyster market in sents a conversion of all oyster products to a common
November and December. Environmental and economical denominator of shucked pounds of oysters expressed as
studies are being conducted to determine the impacts of packed weight. Total production in recent years is primar-
these changes on both the health of the bay and the ily Pacic and Kumamoto oysters. Annual Eastern oyster
economic health of the industry. production has been 20 pounds or less for the past
three years.
Longline culture primarily consists of a series of notched
PVC pipe set in the substrate with twisted line stretched Oyster products are marketed as shucked meat in gallons
over the apex of the poles. Spatted cultch is inserted and 10-oz jars, and as shellstock for the half-shell and bar-
at intervals between the strands of the line which hold becue markets. The shucked product is marketed as small
the growing oysters above the substrate. The lines con- (200/gallon), medium (140/gallon), and large (100/gallon).
taining the clustered oysters are harvested on a ood tide, Shellstock is marketed as small (2.5-3.5 inches), medium
thereby reducing disturbance to the substrate or associ- (3.5-4.5 inches), large (4.5+ inches) sold by the dozen,
ated eelgrass. Other forms of culture are off-bottom tech- and clusters (attached, mixed). The demand for oyster
niques, including bags of cultchless oysters supported by products far exceeds the state’s production level, and the
low racks and oating oyster bags attached to longlines. majority of shellsh products consumed in the state are
imported from the Pacic Northwest and the Atlantic and
Drakes Estero has one of the largest off-bottom, rack
Gulf states. California’s product is considered prime, and
culture systems in the west. Like all off-bottom culture,
its production areas are among the best in the country.
the method is used primarily to avoid predators, use more
of the water column, and avoid siltation that occurs when The CDHS has regulatory responsibility over shellsh prod-
the oysters rest on the substrate. The rack culture system uct safety and periodically conducts sanitary surveys with
uses spatted mother shells strung on short lines with a the Federal Food and Drug Administration under worst-
tube spacer separating each mother shell. The short lines case scenarios such as heavy rain to determine growing
are hung in an inverted u-shape over the horizontal rails of area water quality and sanitation conditions. Two essential
wooden racks set in the bay. programs are the monitoring of the bays for indications
of contamination, including human sewage, and for the
Tomales Bay growers also use a variety of off-bottom tech-
occurrence of natural biotoxins such as paralytic shellsh
niques including rack-and-bag, stick and bag, and bag and
poison produced by toxic phytoplankton. The programs
longline culture. Rack-and-bag culture uses cultchless seed
are designed to provide a safe product for the consumer
that is rst grown in trays, upwellers and downwellers, or
and an early warning system for people sport-harvesting
oating, rotating, mesh cylinders. After initial growth, the
shellsh in noncommercial areas. The water and meat
small oysters are transferred to a series of different sized
quality monitoring programs conducted by the CDHS also
mesh bags positioned on low racks in the bay. Bag and
provide an assessment of the biological condition of the
longline culture use cultchless seed in mesh bags attached
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
502
bays, which is essential information used by all agencies blades and incubate for about 10 days before release.
Culture of Oysters
to prevent a reoccurrence of events which led to the Once expelled, the advanced larvae swim freely and feed
contamination of San Francisco Bay. on phytoplankton before settlement and metamorphosis
(Native, 14-18 days; European, 10-14 days).
The Pacic, Kumamoto and Eastern oysters are alternative
Status of Biological Knowledge hermaphrodites; sex change occurs, but its timing is
O
erratic. They have a tendency for protandry in their
ysters are bivalve mollusks that exhibit a variety of
rst year, but the tendency is not as strong as that of
sizes, shapes, shell textures and colors, and vary in
Native and European oysters. They are oviparous (broad-
their mode of reproduction and sexual expression. These
cast spawners); the eggs are immediately released and
biological and physical features inuence where they grow
fertilization takes place in the environment. Mature, egg-
and how they reproduce, which in turn inuence com-
carrying females spawn at about 63-77˚ F, depending on
mercial aspects such as culture practices and marketing
the species, variety, and latitude. Water temperatures
strategy. The depth of the shell cup and the shape of
required to establish a natural population are higher
the oyster inuence market price of shellstock. Individual
than those consistently found in California. Since natural
oysters conform to the shape of the substrate to which
spawning and successful reproduction rarely take place in
they are attached and are therefore highly variable in
California, the oysters are spawned and reared in shellsh
shape. In addition, shell shape, texture, and color are all
hatcheries at about 77˚ F. The eggs hatch into free-swim-
inuenced by the oyster’s genetics and physical environ-
ming trochophores, then become veliger larvae. Within
ment such as salinity, attachment substrate, crowding
three to ve days these larvae settle, attach to a sub-
by other oysters and food. They feed on phytoplankton
strate, and metamorphose to spat.
and nutrient-bearing detritus by pumping water over
their gills, ltering the food material and passing it into The Native oyster is California’s only indigenous oyster
the mouth. species and occurs along the Pacic coast from Sitka,
Alaska to Cape San Lucas, Baja California. The largest con-
All oysters have a typical molluscan trochophore larva
centrations occur in the Pacic Northwest along the coast
that develops into a veliger larvae capable of ltering
of Washington’s Puget Sound and in Willapa Bay. Although
food, swimming, and selecting a suitable substrate for
still grown commercially in Washington in specially con-
attachment. The microscopic veliger settles, cements its
structed beds, natural concentrations are not abundant
left valve to the substrate, and undergoes metamorphosis
enough to support commercial endeavors. Populations of
into an oyster spat. For the rest of its life the attached
the Native oyster are still relatively low in California.
spat will compete for space and nutrients and, if it sur-
Some protection of existing populations is provided by
vives, will grow into the adult form. The ve oysters
sport shing regulations, which allow a daily harvest of 35
now found in California belong to the family Ostreidae.
native oysters under the general invertebrate bag limit.
They represent two groups characterized by biological
The adult is about one to three inches in length and more
variations, including different modes of sexual expression,
often irregular in shape. Shell textures vary from smooth
reproduction, and dispersal of young. The exact tempera-
to rough with concentric growth lines, and the exterior
ture at which the oysters will spawn and the rate of larval
has purple-brown to brown axial bands. The two shell
development and growth depend on a variety of factors,
valves are symmetrical; their interior is shades of olive-
including species, genetics and latitude of the breeding
green and can have a metallic sheen. The internal shell’s
population. Natural spawning is also inuenced by lunar
muscle scar in adults is usually centrally located and
periodicity and tides.
unpigmented.
The Native and European oysters are rhythmical consecu-
The Native oyster is found in many of California’s coastal
tive hermaphrodites; they can change sex either annually
inlets, especially mudats and gravel bars located near
or at closer intervals. In their rst year, they are strongly
the mouth of small rivers and streams. It cannot withstand
protandric; the rst expression of sex at maturity is male.
high temperatures or frost when exposed, and does not
They may become female in the same year or in the
survive low salinity or turbid water. The natural beds
following year if environmental conditions are good and
are invariably located in the low intertidal and subtidal
food is plentiful. They are also larviparous (brooders);
zone of bays, where the oyster is better protected from
fertilization of eggs is internal, and the larvae are held
both prolonged hot summer surface water temperatures
for a period of time before release. Mature, egg-carrying
and extreme cold winter water conditions. The oysters
females spawn at about 59-63˚ F. The eggs are released
are often found clinging to rocky outcroppings or other
into the female’s own mantle cavity and are fertilized as
structures that offer protection from rays and other
she takes in water containing the male’s sperm. When
predatory sh.
the eggs hatch, the veliger larvae are held by the gill-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 503
Adult European oysters are about three to four inches in ciated oyster diseases are usually conned within the
Culture of Oysters
length, with a poorly developed beak that gives the valves hatchery. When identied, the stocks are destroyed and
an oval to round shape. The left or attachment valve systems disinfected. This is a protective measure for the
is larger and more deeply cupped than the right valve, natural resource and considered the most economically
with 20 to 30 ribs and irregular, concentric lamellae. The practical approach by the industry.
upper, smaller valve is at, with numerous concentric Field-associated oyster diseases are not common, but they
lamellae but no ribs. The hinge ligament consists of three do occur. Two examples of the most signicant of these
parts: a middle, at part on the left valve and two projec- diseases for the West Coast are “Summer Mortality Syn-
tions on the right. The internal valves are white, and the drome” (SMS) of Pacic oysters, and “Bonamiasis” of Euro-
muscle scar is eccentrically positioned and unpigmented. pean oysters. Summer mortality of Pacic oysters was rst
Adult Eastern oysters may vary in length from two to six reported in the 1960s with mortality levels as high as 65
inches. The shells are asymmetrical, highly variable in percent of adult Pacic oysters. Oyster losses attributed
texture and shape, and greatly inuenced by environmen- to SMS have uctuated over the years, and studies have
tal conditions. The external shell is usually a shade of addressed the initiating agent as possible unknown patho-
gray, and the internal valves white with a variable-colored gens, environmental factors and impacts, and stressors
muscle scar, usually deep purple. The left valve is longer such as the combination of depleted energy reserves and
than the right, not deeply cupped, and the beak is usually attempted gonadal maturation. SMS was researched for
elongated and strongly curved. The shell margins are usu- decades without resolving the cause. In 1993 and 1994,
ally straight or only slightly undulating, and the inner summer mortalities of Pacic oyster seed in Tomales Bay
margins of the valves are smooth. reached 52 and 63 percent respectively, and were associ-
ated with elevated water temperatures above 20˚C and
The adult Pacic oyster ranges from about four to six
a dinoagellate bloom. Pathological examination and his-
inches in length. The shell is coarse, with widely spaced
tology suggested that these mortalities were related to
concentric lamella and ridges. The shell is thinner than
environmental causes and not an infectious agent. SMS
that of Eastern oysters yet more deeply cupped. The
appears to be cyclic, may be related to decadal cycles,
Kumamoto oyster is smaller but is prized for its deeper
and is the most signicant mortality-related event experi-
cup. It spawns in the fall in nature and grows more
enced on the West Coast of the United States. In addition,
slowly than the Pacic. The Miyagi is the principal variety
as the losses are a “syndrome” and are not caused by a
of Pacic oyster grown on the West Coast. The Pacic
specic pathogen, multiple etiologies may result in oyster
oyster’s shape may be highly variable and greatly inu-
deaths during the summer. The type of stress that results
enced by environmental conditions. The upper, at, right
in losses may also uctuate over time, making diagnosis of
valve is smaller than the left, and the inner surface of
the cause(s) and management of losses difcult. Growers
the valves is white with a faint purple hue over the
are attempting to circumvent the problem by not planting
muscle scar.
Pacic oyster seed during the warmer months from May
Oyster disease and shellsh pests are a major concern
to October. However, seed availability during the cooler
to the state resource agencies and the oyster industry.
months has been a problem. Growers report that cooler
Because the West Coast industry depends on the move-
bay water temperatures in 1999 appear to have moderated
ment of animals across state lines, the industry is subject
the mortality rate from that experienced previously.
to regulations established through cooperative agree-
Bonamiasis of the European oyster, caused by a parasite,
ments between resource agencies. All oyster seed and
has impacted the oyster industry to the same extent as
shellstock not destined for a terminal market that cross
SMS, as it has contributed to the inability to establish
state lines are examined for the presence of disease and
European oyster culture in California. The parasite infects
exotic “hitchhikers” (pests) which could be harmful to nat-
the oyster’s blood cells, destroys its immune system, and
ural resources and commercial interests. Seed and shell-
impacts other physiological processes.
stock that do not pass certication are destroyed through
cooperative agreements with the state and the industry. Of recent concern is the 1980s discovery in California
The various state natural resource agencies have a coop- of a haplosporidium similar to that which causes MSX
erative program which regulates the interstate movement or Delaware Bay Disease on the East Coast. West Coast
of shellsh seed and seedstock. producers have not experienced the cyclic, catastrophic
haplosporidia diseases that have occurred on the East
Oyster diseases on the West Coast most frequently occur
Coast, despite movement of Eastern oysters between the
in hatcheries, but a few signicant oyster diseases have
coasts. It has been conrmed that the organism is the
been reported from the eld. Hatchery conditions are
causative agent of MSX of Eastern oysters. The organism
articial environments which can stress oysters and render
is found among Pacic oysters in one bay in California
them susceptible to an array of infections. Hatchery-asso-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
504
Future Trends
but is not associated with signicant mortalities. Morpho-
Culture of Oysters
logically similar haplosporidians have also been reported
O yster hatchery and production seed technology has
from Washington state. Recent studies suggest a common
rapidly expanded in the past ten years. This has
ancestry for the organism on both coasts and that the
included application of remote setting of oyster seed as an
haplosporidian was not endemic to the East Coast but
industry standard, and the production and use of triploid
originated in Pacic oysters from Japan. Hypotheses for
(3n) oysters containing an extra set of chromosomes. The
the introduction of the disease to Eastern oysters include
3n condition prevents the onset of maturation and results
importation of infected Pacic oysters to the East Coast,
in oysters characterized by year-round production of high
ballast water containing the infective agent, or intro-
quality meat. Although triploid production was a positive
duction of an unknown intermediate host. In any event,
technical breakthrough, the sterile 3n oyster does not
the ultimate result has been catastrophic for the Eastern
reproduce and therefore can not be improved through
oyster and the East and Gulf coast industries. The result of
genetics. To overcome this, the industry now applies
these studies demonstrates the rst molecular conrma-
high pressure following fertilization to retard both polar
tion of the introduction of an exotic marine pathogen
bodies. The resultant tetraploids (4n) are then articially
and emphasizes the need to adhere to strict importation
crossed with diploids (2n), thereby producing sterile trip-
guidelines as established by the International Council for
loids (3n) that are used as production oysters while main-
the Exploration of the Seas (ICES).
taining a viable genetic line in the diploid broodstock.
This technology, coupled with the more recent establish-
Shellfish and the Environment ment of broodstock genetic programs, will be a major
industry thrust.
O ne of the more signicant challenges to aquaculture
Oyster genomic research is an industry priority and a
in the next decade will be the industry’s ability to
regional cooperative effort involving university and indus-
position itself within the environmental framework and
try geneticists and oyster hatchery managers.
philosophy of natural resource management. Environmen-
The establishment of a national Molluscan Broodstock Pro-
tal issues are a concern nationally and are paramount
gram (MBP) and the Molluscan Broodstock Center on the
in California.
West Coast mark the true beginning of an oyster genetics
Immediate environmental concerns relative to shellsh
program which fosters cutting edge genetics research.
culture are the potential biological and physical impacts of
Using a mix of regional and national grants, geneticists are
culture technology on sensitive components of the marine
utilizing cooperative regional research to develop geneti-
ecosystem. These sensitive components include eelgrass
cally marked family lines that are tested and selected for
as essential habitat for salmonid and other nsh, and
high yield and survival. Scientists are exploring the alter-
the invertebrate assemblage present on and within the
native strategy of crossbreeding and have demonstrated
substrate that is essential to the food web of birds and
at the larval and market sizes that hybrid Pacic oysters
other marine species. Also included are the impacts on
have dramatically higher yield and superior metabolic per-
the life habits of birds and marine mammals and on the
formance than their inbred parents. This striking hybrid
physical structure of the bay. It will be essential that
vigor or heterosis suggests that crossbreeding, in addition
shellsh technology not have signicant impact upon the
to traditional selection as practiced by the MBP, could
health of the ecosystem on which it also depends. Shell-
improve oyster yield dramatically and quickly. Technology
sh culture and our living marine resources depend upon
is also being developed to measure and more readily
excellent water quality and a healthy environment and,
dene “future performance” at the larval stage, thereby
therefore, these concepts are not mutually exclusive.
avoiding costly growout trials and stock maintenance.
In response to these concerns, long-term federal and state
Current and future trends of the oyster industry are
supported regional research has been initiated to study
reected throughout the West Coast and the Pacic Rim
shellsh culture impacts. This research is being conducted
because of the industry’s regional infrastructure and mar-
by university and state research agency personnel, focuses
kets. Industry shellsh hatcheries which were concen-
on the industry in California, Washington, and Oregon,
trated in the Pacic Northwest have opened in Hawaii,
and is monitored continuously to identify areas that
thereby taking advantage of stable water quality and con-
may need immediate alteration. In addition, federal and
sistent solar radiance used in energy-efcient algal cul-
state funding, coupled with industry resources, is being
ture. The primary markets for seed are West Coast pro-
directed toward the development of industry best man-
ducers who will expand into more international markets.
agement practices to guide the industry in its present and
The industry is rapidly expanding Kumamoto oyster pro-
future development.
duction because of its higher value and half-shell market
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 505
References
demand, and greater market attention will be given to
Culture of Oysters
value-added shellsh products such as ash-frozen half-
Barrett, E.M. 1963. The California Oyster Industry. Calif.
shell products for international Pacic Rim markets.
Dept. Fish and Game Bull. No. 123, 103 pp.
The oyster industry will concentrate on developing more
Bonnot, P. 1935. The California Oyster Industry. Calif.
efcient methods of off-bottom culture and culture tech-
Dept. Fish and Game. 21(1):65-80.
niques that are less intrusive and result in fewer environ-
mental impacts. The greater adaptation of off-bottom cul- Burreson. E.M., N.A. Stokes and C.S. Friedman, 2000.
ture, coupled with the higher valued half-shell Kumamoto Increased virulence in an introduced pathogen: Haplospo-
oyster, is a potential that may offset the loss of shucked ridium nelsoni (MSX) in the Eastern oyster Crassostrea
product produced in bottom culture. The development virginica. J. Aquatic Animal Health12:1-8.
and adaptation of more environmentally sound practices
Conte, F.S. and J.L. Dupuy. 1982. The California Oyster
will remain an industry priority.
Industry. Proc. North American Oyster Workshop, World
Mariculture Society, Special Publication No. 1: 43-63.
Fred S. Conte Conte, F.S., S.C. Harbell and R.L. RaLonde. 1994. Oyster
University of California, Davis Culture: Fundamentals and Technologies of the West Coast
Industry. WRAC Publication No. 94-101 Sectional: 1994 and
Tom Moore
1996.
California Department of Fish and Game
Elston, R.A. 1990. Mollusc Diseases: Guide for the shellsh
farmer. University of Washington Press. 73 pp.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
506
Culture of Salmon
History culturists, whereas coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Culture of Salmon
and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) eggs or ngerings were
D ifferent methods are used for aquaculture production imported from out of state to California farms. Salmon
of salmon. The three major techniques are salmon culture has not been a major component of the state’s
ranching, land-based tank operations, and net-pen rear- private aquaculture sectors and never contributed as
ing. At salmon ranch hatcheries, adult sh are spawned, much as ve percent to the total value of the
the eggs are hatched, and the young are reared in tanks to industry’s production.
increase their size and chances of survival in the wild. The Conversely, public salmon hatchery operations play a key
salmon smolts are then released and grow to market size role in the management of California’s natural resources.
while at liberty in the ocean. After maturing at sea, the Hatcheries are built and operated to supplement natural
salmon return to the hatchery, where they are harvested. salmon resources or to mitigate for the loss of natural
If at least three to ve percent of the released salmon production that occurs when water and power generation
return to be harvested, a private salmon ranch may be projects eliminate salmon spawning habitat. Thus, hatch-
protable. However, it is not uncommon for 98 to 99 eries help provide for the multiple benecial use of the
percent of the salmon to be lost to natural and shing state’s water resources. Public hatcheries produce approx-
mortality before they can return to the hatchery. imately 40 million sh each year and are critical to main-
Land-based tank operations maintain all of the sh at taining the state’s sport and commercial salmon sheries.
the facility until harvest. Fish are kept in tanks made of Over ninety percent of California’s salmon harvest comes
concrete, berglass, or other materials. Round tanks are from south of Point Arena, where hatchery-produced sh
often in the range of 30 to 40 feet in diameter. Water is generally make up over half of the catch.
pumped through the tanks to maintain good water quality, Public hatchery production of salmon in California dates
and growth comes from manufactured feed provided by back to 1872 with the establishment of Baird Hatchery
the aquaculturist. on the McCloud River in the upper Sacramento River
Net pen facilities use young sh produced in hatcheries, drainage. Several other salmon hatcheries and egg taking
which are then placed into pens where they are fed until stations also began operations in the late 1800s and
grown to market size. The pens are made from exible early 1900s. Baird originally operated as an independent
netting material suspended from oats and are generally hatchery, then as an egg collecting station for salmon
a few hundred square feet at the surface. Pens are often and trout reared at Mount Shasta Hatchery (then called
linked together to form large units of up to many acres. Sisson Hatchery). After the construction of Shasta Dam,
The net-pens are usually placed in sheltered salt-water Mount Shasta Hatchery and the upper Sacramento spawn-
areas where protection from ocean storms is provided and ing grounds were separated from the lower Sacramento
good water quality is maintained by natural currents. River and the Pacic Ocean. Coleman National Fish Hatch-
ery was built in 1942 to mitigate for those losses. It
Salmon have been produced in California by both private
replaced many of the early hatcheries, including most of
and public hatcheries. While the history of private trout
the salmon operations at Mount Shasta. Coleman Hatchery
production in California is strong and dates back to the
is on Battle Creek, a tributary of the Sacramento River
1800s, private commercial production of salmon in Cali-
at Anderson (south of Redding). It is the only federally
fornia has been intermittent and never very substantial.
operated sh hatchery in California.
The beginning of recent interest in commercial salmon
production was the authorization by the California Legis- Today there are seven California Department of Fish
lature in 1968 for the rst (and only) private salmon and Game-operated salmon mitigation hatcheries and
ranching operation. In 1979, the legislature authorized the two state-operated salmon restoration and enhancement
operation’s move to its current site on Davenport Landing hatcheries. All nine of these state-operated hatcheries
Creek (Santa Cruz County), where the operation has been have been built since 1955. The mitigation hatcheries
inactive for several years. are located on central valley and north coast rivers
downstream from dams constructed for water or
In California, land-based tank operations were tried in
power development.
the 1980s and 1990s, and accounted for some limited
private aquaculture production of salmon. Most commer-
cially produced salmon were from tank-rearing operations
located in northern California, where cold water suitable
for salmon culture is more readily found. Fish were grown
to market size in tanks using either fresh or salt water.
Steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were produced
from domestic brood stock maintained by California aqua-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 507
Hatchery Location not cause signicant negative impacts on adjacent native
Culture of Salmon
sh and wildlife. Private salmon culture may be permitted
Iron Gate ...............................On the Klamath River
throughout California where negative impacts will not
below Copco Lake
result, except that commercial salmon farming is prohib-
Trinity...................................On the Trinity River
ited from the Smith River watershed.
below Clair Engle Lake
The lone California commercial salmon ranching project
Feather River ..........................Below Lake Oroville
(Davenport Landing) is required to operate under an
Mokelumne River Fish Installation .Below Camanche annual permit from the Fish and Game Commission.
Reservoir Commission authority to issue the salmon ranching
permit is granted by the California Legislature. The legis-
Nimbus..................................On the American River
lature reviews the authorization periodically and in 1995
below Folsom Lake
extended authority to issue the permit to January 1, 2001.
Van Arsdale Fisheries Station .......On the Eel River below
While the project does not have a current permit, it
Van Arsdale Reservoir
historically has been authorized to ranch chinook salmon,
Warm Springs ..........................On a tributary to the coho, and steelhead.
Russian River below
State and federal hatcheries produce chinook and coho
Lake Sonoma
salmon and steelhead using the same production tech-
niques as other salmon ranching operations. Returning
adults are articially spawned and the offspring are reared
The DFG’s two restoration and enhancement hatcheries
to smolt or yearling size before they are released at the
are the Mad River Hatchery near Eureka and the Merced
hatchery (or at other freshwater sites) to migrate to the
River Fish Installation below Lake McClure. There is also
ocean where they grow to adults. Chinook salmon return
a non-prot salmon and steelhead enhancement hatchery
to be spawned, usually three or four years after release.
in California on the Smith River. The Rowdy Creek Fish
Coho generally spend one year in freshwater and return
Hatchery is located in the town of Smith River and began
from the ocean to spawn as three-year olds. Hatchery
in 1967 as a Kiwanis Club project. It operates under an
steelhead spend one or two seasons in fresh water and
individual category in the California Fish and Game Code.
one to three seasons in the ocean and can repeat spawn
In addition, public or privately funded nonprot salmon
after release.
restoration and enhancement projects use a variety of
Public hatchery production remains relatively constant;
habitat improvement, articial spawning, and rearing
therefore, years of low natural production result in
techniques to improve runs of wild sh or to contribute
harvests with a larger proportion of hatchery sh.
additional sh to the shery. Most are located on coastal
Depending upon the success of each year’s natural produc-
streams in northern and central California. Saltwater pen-
tion, Department of Fish and Game biologists estimate
rearing operations have been located at Tiburon, Port San
that hatchery-produced sh generally contribute from
Luis, and Ventura. In 1998-1999, a total of twelve projects
50 to 60 percent of California’s sport and commercial
planted an average of 30,000 sh per project.
salmon harvests.
Most of the public hatchery production of salmon in Cali-
Status fornia is intended to mitigate for the loss of habitat caused
by construction of dams for water and power develop-
C urrently, there is no private for-prot aquaculture pro-
ment. The concept of providing mitigation for losses to
duction of salmon in California. Nationally, and inter-
sh and wildlife caused by the building of a government
nationally, net pen rearing of salmon has proven to be the
project was originally established by the U.S. Congress
most successful method of private aquaculture production
when it enacted the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of
of salmon for the seafood market. The only net-pen rear-
1934. The need to replace the natural shery resources
ing of salmon in California has been some small sport
eliminated by these projects continues to have high prior-
shing salmon enhancement projects. Commercial net-pen
ity with the people of California.
rearing is not prohibited, in part because no suitable sites
have been identied or developed which do not conict
with other established uses. Bob Hulbrock
California Department of Fish and Game
Every private aquaculture operation in California is
required to register with the Department of Fish and
Game. Before approving an application for registration,
the department must determine that each facility will
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
508
References
Culture of Salmon
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead
Trout. 1988. Restoring the balance: 1988 Annual Report.
84 pp.
Leitritz, E. 1970. A history of California’s sh hatcheries
1870-1960. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 150. 86
pp.
Leitritz, E. and R.C. Lewis. 1976. Trout and salmon cul-
ture-hatchery methods. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull.164. 197 pp.
Thorpe, J.E. (Editor). 1980. Salmon Ranching. Academic
Press, New York, New York. 441 pp.
Weighing and spawning of Chinook salmon at Rowdy Creek Hatchery, a community-run hatchery near Crescent City.
Credit: CA Sea Grant Extention Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 509
Culture of
Marine Finfish The species described in this chapter are native to Cali-
fornia and have historically represented important sher-
ies to the region. Detailed descriptions of the natural
History of Finfish Culture history and sheries for each are provided elsewhere in
this volume.
T he impetus to develop marine aquaculture in the U.S.
is strong. In 1998, the U.S. imported $8.2 billion in
edible shery products. During the past 15 years, produc-
Culture, Facilities and Systems
tion of food sh by capture sheries reached a plateau
I
of 66 million tons per year. Similarly, FAO statistics report n California, land-based research facilities (hatcheries)
that 60 percent of marine sheries are fully or over- are used for broodstock holding and maturation, and for
exploited. Under these conditions, and with a growing larval rearing of marine nsh. Juvenile culture has been
human population, it is estimated that aquaculture pro- conducted on a limited scale for white seabass in cages,
duction will have to increase by 140 percent from 1995 pools and raceways, and with California halibut in race-
levels by the year 2025. ways. Seawater is pumped into land-based facilities from
nearshore areas, (typically lagoons, harbors, or embay-
Marine nsh farming in California and the United States
ments) where water quality may be highly variable.
is in its infancy. In California, with the exception of anad-
romous species, no marine nsh are being produced Broodstock maturation systems are typically recirculated
on a commercial scale. In the United States, specically so that water temperature can be controlled and used
Texas, only red drum are cultured in large numbers. How- to induce spawning. Pool volumes range from 5,000 to
ever, the red drum ngerlings being produced are used 11,500 gallons. Egg hatching and early larval rearing sys-
primarily for stock enhancement and not grown out and tems require ne control over water quality parameters.
marketed for direct human consumption. Like the Texas Low ow requirements make ow-through systems practi-
stocking program for red drum, California has been evalu- cal, but recirculating systems are generally recommended.
ating the efcacy of marine stock enhancement since the Pool volumes for egg hatching and early larval rearing
early 1980s. This research has been conducted largely range from 80 to 450 gallons. Juvenile growout has been
under the auspices of the Ocean Resources Enhancement conducted in ow-through systems (pools and raceways)
and Hatchery Program (OREHP). In recent years, the stock up to 8,000 gallons in volume and nearshore cages up to
enhancement research has lead to projects designed to 145,000 gallons.
evaluate the feasibility of commercial growout in near-
California’s OREHP maintains one of the largest breeding
shore cages. The two primary species that have been
populations of a single species of marine nsh, white
investigated in California are the white seabass (Atrac-
seabass, in the world. More than 250 adult sh are main-
toscion nobilis) and the California halibut (Paralichthys
tained in captivity either in breeding pools or support
californicus). Giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) have also
facilities. The need for this large number of individuals
been studied but to a much lesser extent.
stems from the stock enhancement objectives of the
program and the desire to ensure genetic diversity of
released animals. However, the large broodstock popula-
History of the Ocean Resources Enhance- tion also results in a surplus of egg production that could
ment and Hatchery Program (OREHP) help support a developing commercial culture industry.
Spawning of marine nsh, including white seabass and
T he OREHP began in 1982 and has since been reautho-
California halibut is often allowed to occur naturally or is
rized with minor modications. This program funds
induced semi-naturally using photo-thermal manipulation.
research through the sale of recreational and commercial
That is, seasonal cycles are either natural (ambient water
marine enhancement stamps for all saltwater anglers
temperature and photoperiod) or controlled to promote
south of Point Arguello. The California Department of Fish
spawning out of season. Hormone-induced spawning has
and Game manages the OREHP with the assistance of an
not been investigated thoroughly and the few attempts
advisory panel that consists of academic and management
to induce spawning have been largely unsuccessful. The
agency scientists, representatives of both commercial and
disposition and general hardiness of California halibut and
recreational shing groups, and the aquaculture industry.
giant sea bass makes them potentially better suited to
Since 1995, OREHP has supported operation of the Leon
the extra handling required for hormone injections, while
Raymond Hubbard, Jr. Marine Fish Hatchery in Carlsbad,
white seabass are not.
California. This research facility is dedicated to improving
Female white seabass and California halibut are reported
our understanding of marine sh culture.
to mature in the wild at four to ve years. For white
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
510
seabass, this represents a size of 27 inches and for Califor- Cannibalism can be a signicant problem among younger
Culture of Marine Finfish
nia halibut, 18.5 inches. Eggs from each of these species life stages of marine sh before grading is practical. Can-
are pelagic. Females are batch-spawners, with each batch nibalism can be reduced by optimizing feeding and nutri-
typically yielding hundreds of thousands to more than a tion and by grading the sh. In outdoor rearing pools,
million eggs. birds such as herons are known to prey on cultured sh.
These predators can effectively be excluded using inex-
Growth of each of these species is highly dependent
pensive netting. In cages, marine mammals such as Cali-
on water temperature. White seabass and California hali-
fornia sea lions and harbor seals can be a problem if given
but are physiologically adapted to estuarine conditions
the opportunity. Birds, both diving and non-diving, can
as juveniles and therefore can tolerate (and may prefer)
also prey on caged sh. To prevent predation on caged
higher temperatures (71-81º F) associated with embay-
sh, extra netting (i.e., in addition to the sh containment
ments. Furthermore, the southern range for these species
net) should be employed above and below the water.
near Magdelena Bay in Baja California, Mexico where
water temperatures can be expected to be even warmer
than those in California.
Aquaculture Potential
White seabass have been cultured in raceways to a size
T
of 3.3 pounds in two years at temperatures of 56-79º F. A he aquaculture potential for white seabass and Califor-
similar growout period in cages yielded only a 1.75 pound nia halibut should be excellent. The potential for giant
white seabass, but water temperature was considerably sea bass culture appears to be less promising, although
lower (52-72º F). California halibut cultured in raceways further research is warranted for this species. White sea-
exhibited slow growth, reaching a maximum of 0.9 pound bass and California halibut are popular, high-value species.
in two years under conditions of 55-77º F. It should be Wild white seabass are available seasonally and at a large
noted that these data are preliminary and that growth size of more than six to seven pounds. Wild halibut are
will likely be improved as the nutritional requirements available year-round and there is a growing market for
and the potential for selective breeding are investigated live sh.
more fully. In other regions, species similar to white seabass and
White seabass begin feeding at an age of four to ve California halibut are being cultured successfully -- in
days (post hatch). Their relatively large size allows them some cases on a truly commercial scale. Among some of
to feed successfully on newly hatched Artemia. California the croaker species (related to white seabass), red drum,
halibut and giant sea bass both require smaller prey items and seatrout are being cultured in the United States.
such as rotifers for the rst week of feeding, before Totoaba, corvina, and maigre (all members of the croaker
transitioning to Artemia nauplii. Beginning at 20 days, dry family) are being evaluated for culture in Mexico, Argen-
feed is offered to the sh along with the Artemia. In order tina, and the Mediterranean, respectively. Several species
to help the sh wean from a live prey diet to dry feed, of atsh are also being cultured. On the East Coast
frozen zooplankton (adult Artemia, krill or mysids) is also of the United States, the summer ounder and southern
fed to the sh. The amount of live food (Artemia nauplii) ounder are being evaluated for culture. In Japan, a oun-
and frozen feed is slowly reduced as sh begin feeding on der has been cultured on a commercial scale for many
the dry feed. Once on dry feed, the feed size is increased years, and two species of ounders are being cultured in
as the sh grow. The feed type, characterized by the South America.
protein and fat content, may also be adjusted to reduce
costs and improve llet quality.
Conclusions
Among the more common infectious diseases affecting
A
white seabass and California halibut are: 1) protozoans; quaculture of marine nsh is in its infancy in the
2) bacteria; and 3) invertebrate parasites. Among these United States, and California has not contributed
pathogens, the bacterium Flexibacter maritimus is the signicantly to its development. With 1,200 miles of
most common and difcult to eradicate. Infections by this coastline, opportunities to farm the ocean should be
organism occur frequently after handling the sh and may readily available. Unlike the agriculture industry in Califor-
result in lesions and n rot. Among the non-infectious nia, which consistently ranks number one in the nation
diseases, gas bubble disease is often severe among white (greater than $26 billion in 1997), mariculture opportu-
seabass cultured in shallow water systems that are not nities in California are impeded by competing uses for
adequately degassed, including oating raceways in natu- coastal resources and a restrictive regulatory environ-
ral water bodies. Nutritional deciencies are also likely ment. In addition to the typical burdens associated with
in cultured marine sh, although the effects are not bureaucracies, California regulatory agencies often over-
well understood.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 511
References
lap in authority, lack a clearly dened process, and are
Culture of Marine Finfish
often poorly educated about the need for aquaculture and
Bartley, D. M., D. B. Kent, et al. 1995. Conservation
what is involved with mariculture activities.
of genetic diversity in a white seabass hatchery enhance-
There is a clear need for aquaculture development world-
ment program in southern California. Uses and effects
wide and California has access to the coastal resources
of cultured shes in aquatic ecosystems, Bethesda, MD,
and high value marine species necessary to compete
American Fisheries Society.
in the world seafood market. A proactive approach is
Drawbridge, M. A., D. B. Kent, et al. (in review). Commer-
required to make this a reality.
cialization of White Seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) Aqua-
culture in Southern California: Biological and Technical
Mark A. Drawbridge and Donald B. Kent
Feasibility of Cage Culture. Aquaculture.
Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute
Kent, D. B., M. A. Drawbridge, et al. 1995. Accomplish-
ments and roadblocks of a marine stock enhancement
program for white seabass in California. Uses and effects
of cultured shes in aquatic ecosystems, Bethesda, MD,
American Fisheries Society.
New, M. B. 1997. Aquaculture and the capture sheries -
balancing the scales. World Aquaculture: 11-30.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
512
Invasive Species
History Bay has increased from an average of one every 55 weeks
Invasive Species
before 1960, to one every 14 weeks between 1961 and
I nvasive species are the number two threat to rare, 1995. Invasive species that have been positively identied
threatened or endangered species nationwide, second as permanent residents of the Bay include Asian clam,
only to habitat destruction. Commercial shermen nation- the European green crab, the New Zealand sea slug, the
wide are seeing signicant impacts on local sh popula- Chinese mitten crab, and several species of sponges, jelly-
tions from invasive marine life. Indeed, coastal systems, sh, sh, anemones, snails, mussels, clams, and barnacles.
including tidal ats and salt marshes, have been particu- Indeed, San Francisco Bay is likely the most invaded estu-
larly susceptible, possibly because they are typically high- ary in the world.
stress, species-poor environments. California water agen- The discharge of ships’ ballast water from foreign ports
cies have expressed alarm at the “potentially devastating” is currently the single largest source of coastal, aquatic
impacts that invasive species can have on California’s invasive species. A recent survey found that 53-88 percent
waters. Unlike threats posed by most chemical or other of the aquatic invasive species introduced into San Fran-
types of pollution, biological pollution by invasive species cisco Bay in the last decade originated in ballast water
normally will have permanent impacts, as they are virtu- discharges, and there is evidence that the number of
ally impossible to eradicate once established. ballast-related introductions of aquatic invasive species
Specic environmental threats from invasive organisms is steadily growing. According to estimates by the San
include consumption of natives and their food sources, Francisco Estuary Institute, between half a billion and a
genetic dilution of native species through cross-breeding, billion gallons of ballast water are discharged into the San
alteration of the physical environment, introduction of Francisco Bay/Delta Estuary each year by ships arriving
non-native parasites and diseases, and poisoning of native from foreign ports. Aquaculture, unintentional introduc-
species through bioaccumulation of toxics that are passed tions via recreational vehicles, deliberate introductions
up the food chain. For example: (i.e., to establish a shery), and importation of live marine
organisms for human consumption, bait, pets or research
• In the former Soviet Union, a species of comb jelly
are other important vectors of aquatic invasive species.
was introduced into the Black and Azov Seas through
ships’ ballast and played a signicant role in virtually
destroying an entire shery. Since the introduction
Examples of Significant Invasive Species
of this species, shing harvest in those seas dropped
200,000 tons in a ve-year period.
N umerous invasive species threaten the health of
• Microscopic neurotoxin-producing organisms called marine life both directly and indirectly through altera-
dinoagellates have been transported in the sedi- tion of coastal ecosystems and habitats. This section
ments carried with ballast water and discharged into highlights three of the more signicant species, which
new regions of the world, where they have produced are a particular problem in the San Francisco Bay and
toxic red tides, including red tides in southern Austra- surrounding areas, and reviews the status of invasions
lia that probably originated in ballast water. elsewhere in the state.
• Scientists have warned that a non-native goby now
The European Green Crab
found in the Great Lakes raises toxin levels in indig-
enous sh and could pose a serious health risk to
(Carcinus maenas)
humans who eat game sh.
The green crab, native to the Atlantic coasts of Europe
• Microbial studies conducted in Canada on ships arriv-
and northern Africa, occupies protected rocky shores,
ing in winter from Europe found that more than 50
sandats and tidal marshes. In 1989-1990, it was dis-
percent of the ships carrying ballast water violated
covered in San Francisco Bay, and has since spread as
water discharge standards with fecal coliform bacte-
far north as Washington and southern British Columbia
ria. The authors surmised that ships arriving in the
and south to Morro Bay. It may have entered California
summer, or from Asian ports, would be likely to have
through the discharge of ballast water from trans-oceanic
substantially higher rates of contamination.
ships, although spread is also possible through discard of
Here in California, numerous studies indicate that San seaweed packing material used in shipping live shellsh
Francisco Bay is already severely impacted by harmful and the interstate transport of shellsh aquaculture prod-
non-native species. These studies have identied at least ucts and equipment.
234 nonindigenous plant and animal species that now live
The green crab is a voracious predator that feeds on
in San Francisco Bay. Moreover, the rate at which aquatic
many types of organisms, particularly bivalve mollusks,
invasive species are becoming established in San Francisco
polychaetes, and small crustaceans. The green crab is
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 513
A single female can carry 250,000 to a million eggs. After
Invasive Species
hatching, larvae are planktonic for one to two months.
The small juvenile crabs settle in salt or brackish water
in late spring and migrate to freshwater. Young juvenile
mitten crabs are found in tidal freshwater areas, and usu-
ally burrow in banks and levees between the high and low
tide marks. In China and Europe, older juveniles have been
reported several hundred miles from the sea. Maturing
crabs move from shallow areas to the channels in late
summer and early fall and migrate to salt water in late fall
and early winter to complete the life-cycle.
Mitten crabs are adept walkers and readily move across
banks or levees to bypass obstructions such as dams or
weirs. They are omnivores, with juveniles eating mostly
European Green Crab, Carcinus maenas
Credit: DFG vegetation, but preying upon animals, especially small
invertebrates, as they grow.
capable of learning and can improve its prey-handling
Mitten crabs pose several possible threats. Their bur-
skills while foraging. The crab is quicker, more dexterous
rowing activity may accelerate the erosion of banks and
and can open shells in more ways than other types of
levees, disturbing local habitat. In addition, the crab can
crabs. In its native range, the green crab feeds heavily on
disrupt needed water deliveries to estuarine habitats by
mussels. On the East Coast, the crab is believed to have
clogging the pumps that deliver the water. The mitten
played a role in the demise of Atlantic soft-shell clam sh-
crab also has become a nuisance for commercial bay
eries in the 1950s. In Bodega Harbor, California, records
shrimp trawlers in south bay, who have reported mitten
show a signicant reduction in clam and native shore crab
crabs damaging nets and killing shrimp. The crab may
population abundance since the arrival of green crabs in
also compete in the delta with an exotic craysh that is
1993. Furthermore, laboratory studies show that the green
the basis for a small commercial shery. The mitten crab
crab preys on Dungeness crab of equal or smaller size.
may also be the secondary intermediate host for the Ori-
Dungeness crab spend part of their juvenile life in the
ental lung uke, with mammals, including humans, as the
intertidal zone, and may therefore be at risk from green
nal host.
crab predation. Besides its threat as a predator, the green
crab may carry a parasite, the acanthocephalan worm, The ecological impact of a large mitten crab population
which can infect local shore birds. is the least understood of all the potential impacts. It
could reduce populations of native invertebrates through
The Chinese Mitten Crab predation and change the structure of the estuary’s fresh
and brackish water benthic invertebrate communities.
(Eriocheir sinensis)
The Chinese mitten crab is native to the coastal rivers
and estuaries of the Yellow Sea. It was rst collected in
the San Francisco estuary in 1992 by commercial shrimp
trawlers in South San Francisco Bay and has since spread
rapidly throughout the estuary. Mitten crabs were rst
collected in San Pablo Bay in fall 1994, Suisun Marsh in
February 1996, and the delta in September 1996. The
Chinese mitten crab now extends at least from north of
Colusa in the Sacramento River drainage, east to eastern
San Joaquin County near Calaveras County, and south in
the San Joaquin River near the San Luis National Wildlife
Refuge. The most probable mechanism of introduction to
the estuary was either deliberate release to establish a
shery or accidental release via ballast water. In Asia, the
mitten crab is a delicacy and crabs have been imported
live to markets in Los Angeles and San Francisco.
The mitten crab is catadromous - adults reproduce in salt
Chinese Mitten Crab, Eriocheir sinensis
water and the offspring migrate to fresh water to grow. Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
514
An Asian Clam
Invasive Species
(Potamocorbula amurensis)
In October 1986, the rst Asian clams found in California
were collected in San Francisco Bay by a community col-
lege biology class. Just nine months later, the Asian clam
had become the most abundant clam in the northern part
of the bay, averaging over 2000 clams per square meter.
The clam is a highly efcient lter feeder, ingesting bacte-
ria and small zooplankton as well as phytoplankton. At
year 2000 densities in the bay, virtually the entire water
column may pass through the ltering apparatus of these
clams between once and twice a day. Since its arrival, Asian Clam, Potamocorbula amurensis
the clam has eliminated annual phytoplankton blooms that Credit: DFG
had previously characterized this ecosystem, disrupted
The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has
food webs, reduced the populations of native zooplankton
established inspection requirements for abalone stock
species, and possibly increased the vulnerability of the
transfers, required detailed clean-up plans from all
ecosystem to invasions by exotic zooplankton, many of
infested aquaculture facilities, prohibited out-planting,
which have since occurred. This clam is also thought
and added the sabellid to the Fish and Game Commission’s
responsible for a reduction in particulate organic carbon.
signicant disease list. Such controls appear to be having
With less food available for larval and other benthic
some effect, as most abalone culture facilities report
lter feeders, the relative populations of native species
some level of control and eradication of this worm. How-
could shift.
ever, there have been reports of re-infestation by abalone
The clam may also be acting as an accumulator of con-
shipments that had been inspected and certied by the
taminants, concentrating selenium in bottom-feeding sh
DFG. The inspection protocols used have been mathemati-
and birds at levels that are high enough to cause reproduc-
cally demonstrated to be unlikely to detect a low level
tive defects. This magnication of selenium concentra-
of infestation in transferred abalone, such as one to ve
tions in the food chain could also affect sh- and shellsh-
percent or lower. Moreover, the mesh on the screens of
eating marine mammals such as harbor seals, sea lions,
the discharge pipes of onshore culturing facilities are far
and the sea otters, which are returning to the bay.
too large to prevent the release of eggs or larvae, and
the openings in offshore barrel and cage culture are even
A South African Sabellid Worm larger. Subtidal inspection of possible release sites for the
(Terebrasabella heterouncinata) sabellid worm has been very limited, and the locations of
some of these possible release sites are simply unknown.
The South African sabellid worm is a parasitic polychaete
Further work is needed to ensure that all infestations are
worm that infests mollusks. It was introduced into Cali-
removed and effective controls are in place to prevent
fornia waters in the mid-1980s with abalone imported
reinfestation.
into a California aquaculture facility. The worm spread
rapidly among abalone facilities through the transfer of
A Tropical Seaweed
infested seed stock and proved difcult to control once
(Caulerpa taxifolia)
established. The worm infests only the abalone’s shell,
signicantly reducing the growth rates of cultured aba-
An invasive green algae dubbed the “killer algae,” was
lone. A heavy infestation can cause shell deformation,
discovered in the waters of southern California off Carls-
elevate mortality as the shell becomes brittle, and reduce
bad in early 2000. Native to tropical waters, it became
reproductive capacity as more energy is channeled into
popular in the aquarium trade in the late 1970s and either
shell production.
escaped or was released into the Mediterranean Sea in
Introduction in state waters is highly likely, given the spe-
the mid-1980s. It is now widespread throughout much of
cies’ broad host specicity. Sabellids have been detected
the northwestern Mediterranean. It appears that the algae
in a native gastropod mollusk, in the intertidal zone adja-
found off southern California is a clone of the released
cent to the discharge pipe from an abalone facility in
Mediterranean plant, and can grow in deeper and colder
central California. Attempts to eradicate this invasive spe-
waters than the tropical populations. Its impacts have
cies at this site and at culture facilities are ongoing.
been compared to unrolling a carpet of Astroturf across
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 515
the sea bed. In areas where it has become well-estab- years, there are currently no criteria in the statute or
Invasive Species
lished, it has caused economic and ecological devastation accompanying regulations to guide that decision. More-
by overgrowing and eliminating native seaweeds, seagrass over, it addresses only vessels entering the U.S. from
reefs, and other communities. outside the EEZ, and ignores, for example, coastwise traf-
c from areas contaminated with problematic invasive
In southern California, the algae poses a signicant threat
species (such as the San Francisco Bay area).
to eelgrass meadows and other benthic environments that
are essential to the survival of native invertebrates, sh NISA requires annual reporting to assess the ongoing effec-
and aquatic birds. If the algae spread from the coastal tiveness of the program. The rst interim report by
lagoons to the nearshore reefs, it could inhibit the estab- the National Ballast Information Clearinghouse, issued in
lishment of juveniles of many species, including kelp and October 2000, found that over the rst 12 months (July
the biota associated with kelp beds. Efforts to destroy 1999-2000) that the rule was in effect, only 20.8 percent
this patch of algae have involved tarping off the area and of the vessels that entered U. S. waters from outside the
injecting chlorine under the tarp. EEZ led the mandatory reports required under NISA and
pursuant to U.S. Coast Guard regulations. For the entire
Other Invasives U.S., compliance with reporting improved only slightly
over the 12-month period, remaining between 23 percent
Invasive species are present not only in San Francisco and 29 percent from October 1999 through June 2000.
Bay but are common as well in other harbors and bays Only for the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. did compli-
in California and along the Pacic Coast. For example, ance with the reporting requirement increase markedly
recent compilations list about 25 invasive species in Morro over time, primarily from an increase in California, which
Bay in central California, and about 80 invasive species receives the most ship arrivals. This increase coincided
in the bays and harbors of southern California. One such with implementation of a 1999 California state law that
organism is an Australasian isopod that signicantly erodes requires submission of copies of the federal ballast water
the banks of salt marsh channels and marsh edges in management reports to the State Lands Commission,
San Diego Bay, resulting in reduction of already-limited authorizes monetary and criminal penalties for noncompli-
coastal habitat. ance, and utilizes an active boarding program that targets
Once established in one area, exotic organisms may 20-30 percent of arrivals. As a result, compliance with
quickly spread to another through either natural or reporting in California increased over the past 12 months
anthropogenic transport. Invasive species initially estab- to approximately 75 percent.
lished in bays may subsequently invade the open coast. The report concluded that due to the poor nationwide
A predatory New Zealand sea slug that was collected reporting rate (20.8 percent), it is difcult to estimate
in San Francisco Bay in 1992 may have spread north to reliably (a) the patterns of ballast water delivery and
Bodega Bay and south to near San Diego, though further (b) the compliance with NISA’s voluntary guidelines for
taxonomic work is needed to identify which of the two ballast water management. Based on the information that
to four species of invasive sea slugs are involved and the was submitted, the report found that nationwide, approx-
locations of their spread. imately 42 percent (10.2 million metric tons) of the for-
eign water reported discharged into the U. S. had not
been exchanged completely as requested in the voluntary
Existing Regulatory Regime and guidelines. The report also noted that although it is clear
Regulatory Gaps that many vessels that discharge ballast water in the U.S.
are not in compliance with voluntary guidelines, based
upon their reports, the extent of non-compliance with
National Invasive Species Act of 1996 these guidelines simply cannot be estimated accurately
due to the very low rate of reporting.
Existing regulation of the major vector of invasive species
introduction - ballast water discharges - is generally lim-
Clean Water Act
ited in its reach. The primary federal law regulating
ballast water discharges, the National Invasive Species
The Clean Water Act prohibits the discharge of “any pol-
Act (NISA), calls primarily for voluntary ballast water
lutant by any person” into waters of the United States,
exchange by vessels entering the U.S. after operating
unless done in compliance with specied sections of the
outside of the EEZ (mandatory ballast water exchange
Act, including the permit requirements in Section 402.
requirements exist only in the Great Lakes). Some of
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
the limitations of NISA are that while it states that the
permits issued to discharges into the territorial sea also
voluntary program could become mandatory after several
must comply with “ocean discharge criteria” specically
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
516
Endangered Species Act
designed to prevent the degradation of those waters,
Invasive Species
pursuant to Clean Water Act Section 403.
Under Section 7 of the federal Endangered Species Act
Currently, an EPA regulation adopted in the 1970s speci-
(ESA), federal agencies must ensure that their actions
cally exempts ballast water from the NPDES permit pro-
are “not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
gram. In January 1999, a petition was made to the EPA
any endangered species or threatened species or result
by the Pacic Environmental Advocacy Center, on behalf
in the destruction or adverse modication of habitat of
of conservation groups, commercial and recreational sh-
such species…” In addition, federal agencies must consult
ing interests, American Indian tribes and California water
with the Secretary of the Interior and/or Commerce, as
agencies, to regulate ballast water discharges under the
appropriate, “on any agency action which is likely to jeop-
NPDES permit program in Section 402, arguing that the
ardize the continued existence of any species proposed to
regulatory exemption adopted by EPA exceeded their
be listed…or result in the destruction or adverse modica-
authority and violated the mandates of the Clean Water
tion of critical habitat proposed to be designated for
Act. Moreover, the assumption that ballast discharges are
such species.”
harmless is clearly no longer the view of the EPA or other
Section 7 of the ESA should be used to examine
federal agencies. After two years of waiting, the petition-
the impacts of a federal project that may result in
ers led suit against EPA in January 2001 to respond to
increased discharges of ballast containing invasive spe-
the 1999 petition.
cies, where such discharges may affect endangered or
If a pollutant is threatening or impairing use of a water
threatened species.
body, the water body violates water quality standards
and must be listed under Section 303(d) of the Clean
Presidential Executive Order 13112
Water Act as “water quality limited” for that pollutant.
EPA or the state then must establish the “total maximum On Feb. 3, 1999, President Clinton issued an Invasive
daily load” (TMDL) of the offending pollutant that can be Species Executive Order creating a Cabinet-level National
released into the water body and still ensure that the Invasive Species Council. The Council was charged with
water meets water quality standards, within a “margin of creating a National Invasive Species Management Plan that
safety.” A water body whose use is impaired by aquatic would address all types and sources of invasive species,
invasive species could be “listed” under Section 303(d); including aquatic invasive species in ballast water. An
if so, EPA or the state must identify the maximum load Invasive Species Advisory Committee made up of a range
of problem aquatic invasive species that can be safely of stakeholders has been working with the Council on a
discharged into that water body. Given the signicant and draft management plan. The draft management plan was
ongoing impacts associated with numerous aquatic inva- released for review in October 2000 and was nalized in
sive species, it may be difcult for the applicable agency early 2001.
to set a TMDL for aquatic invasive species other than
zero and still meet Section 303(d)’s “margin of safety”
California Environmental Quality Act
requirement. Currently, many reaches of the San Fran-
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires
cisco Bay are listed as impaired by invasive species under
appropriate mitigation of projects that contain signicant
Section 303(d).
environmental impacts. A “signicant” impact is a “sub-
stantial, or potentially substantial, adverse change in any
National Environmental Policy Act of the physical conditions within the area affected by the
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires Project including land, air, water, minerals, ora, [and]
that federal agencies prepare an Environmental Impact fauna…” The documented adverse impacts associated
Statement (EIS) for “major federal actions signicantly with invasive species appear to t this broad denition. In
affecting the quality of the human environment.” NEPA addition to meeting the general denition of “signicant
may be used to require further examination of federal effect,” the impacts associated with increased discharges
projects that may result in increased discharges of ballast of invasive species may require a mandatory nding of
water containing invasive species. At least one circuit signicance under CEQA, thus mandating feasible mitiga-
court has recognized that NEPA requires federal agencies tion of those impacts or an alternative project.
to evaluate a project’s indirect impacts on the spread and
introduction of aquatic invasive species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 517
California Porter-Cologne Water Quality Public Resources Code
Invasive Species
Control Act In 1999, California became the rst state in the nation
to enact legislation mandating exchange of ships’ ballast
Under California’s Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
water in an effort to control the introduction of invasive
Act “any person discharging waste, or proposing to dis-
species. The Public Resources Code requires vessels carry-
charge waste, within any region that could affect the qual-
ing foreign ballast to exchange that ballast in open seas. It
ity of the waters of the state” must le with the appropri-
also requires specied state agencies to analyze the status
ate Regional Water Quality Control Board a report of the
of invasions, the effectiveness of the ballast exchange
discharge. Pursuant to the act, the regional board then
program, and alternatives for ballast treatment; sets pen-
prescribes “waste discharge requirements” related to con-
alties for noncompliance; and levies fees on regulated
trol of the discharge. The act denes “waste” broadly and
vessels to pay for the program. Washington state passed a
the term has been applied to a diverse array of materials.
mandatory ballast water exchange law modeled on Califor-
The San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
nia’s law in 2000. California’s mandatory law, clear penal-
Board has determined that “ballast water and hull fouling
ties, and an active ship boarding program has resulted in
discharges cause pollution as dened under the Por-
its taking the lead in the nation on the control of ballast
ter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act,” raising the pos-
water, as the Clearinghouse report conclusively found.
sibility that the act may be actively used to regulate
Controlling the introduction of invasive species is well
such discharges.
within the traditional police powers of the states. As
long as the proposed legislation does not dictate the
California Fish and Game Code specic type of ballast water treatment techniques that
State sh and wildlife laws contain provisions that relate vessels must use and does not favor “local” shipping
to the control of aquatic invasive species from a variety over “foreign,” then state ballast water management laws
of vectors. Some examples in the California Fish and Game do not appear to be preempted by constitutional law or
Code include the following: by NISA.
• Section 2271. “No live aquatic plant or animal may
Local Application of State and
be imported into this state without the prior written
approval of the department.”
Federal Laws
• Section 6603. “All sh, amphibia, or aquatic plants
Place-based management of invasive species introductions
which the department determines are merely delete-
can occur where agencies implement state and federal
rious to sh, amphibia, aquatic plants or aquatic
laws on a local level. For example, in response to a
animal life, shall be destroyed by the department,
petition from conservation groups, the San Francisco Bay
unless the owner or the person in charge . . . ships
Regional Water Quality Control Board identied invasive
them out of the state . . . .”
species as “pollutant stressors” subject to Clean Water
• Section 6400. “It is unlawful to place, plant, or cause
Act Section 303(d) in lower, south and central San Fran-
to be placed or planted, in any waters of this state,
cisco Bay, Richardson Bay, Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay,
any live sh, any fresh or salt water animal, or any
Carquinez Strait and the delta. The regional board ranked
aquatic plant, whether taken without or within the
invasive species as a high priority for action in all affected
state, without rst submitting it for inspection to,
water bodies. The listing was approved by the State Water
and securing the written permission of, the depart-
Resources Control Board and U.S. EPA (see above discus-
ment.”
sion of TMDL requirements).
• Section 15200. “The commission may regulate the
The regional board approved a resolution to transmit to
placing of aquatic plants and animals in waters of
U.S. EPA an Exotic Species TMDL Report on impairment of
the state.”
the San Francisco Bay estuary by invasive species. Among
• Section 15600. “No live aquatic plant or animal may other things, the regional board asserts in its report that
be imported into this state by a registered aqua- a water quality-based endpoint to achieve the estuary’s
culturist without the prior written approval of the water quality standards is no exotic species introductions.
department pursuant to the regulations adopted by In other words, an acceptable TMDL of exotic species or
the commission.” organisms is zero.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
518
Conclusions
Invasive Species
The legal frameworks that apply, and may apply, to con-
trol of aquatic invasive species introductions are broad
and varied. Many of these legal tools are just beginning
to be utilized. As the costs associated with aquatic inva-
sive species continue to mount, it appears likely that
additional research and regulatory actions will be taken to
reduce such discharges. To maximize the effectiveness of
regulatory regimes, stakeholder input - from the conser-
vation, shipping, port, shing, utility and other communi-
ties - should be encouraged and carefully considered.
In spite of the signicance of the impacts of invasive
species, relatively little research has been done to date
on the status of current invasions (particularly outside
of San Francisco Bay). Research is also needed on the
potential for new invasions and on methods for preventing
and addressing invasions. California’s 1999 ballast water
exchange law requires the state to complete, by 2002,
research and reports on existing coastal aquatic invasions,
the effectiveness of ballast water exchange in controlling
invasions, and the potential for other methods to control
the discharge of invasives in ballast water.
The San Francisco estuary Institute, under an array of
federal and state grants, is taking a lead on needed
research. They have received funding to investigate and
report on invasions in southern California marine waters
and to sample ballast water coming into the San Francisco
estuary for invasive species. They are examining ballast
water treatment through two projects: one with the city
and county of San Francisco and the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering to research treatment of ballast water in
municipal wastewater systems, and one to analyze more
generally the potential for onshore treatment of ballast
water in municipal and industrial treatment plants and
ballast-specic treatment plants.
Linda Sheenan
The Ocean Conservancy
Francis Henry
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 519
Invasive Species
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
520
Marine Birds and
Mammals: Overview normally, such places provide easy access to the sea and
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview
have no naturally occurring land predators.
For as long as humans have lived along the California (or
U sing a loose denition of deriving some of their annual
any) coast, seabirds have been important and are part of
needs from the ocean, marine birds comprise an
the culture. Initially, they were used as sources of food
abundant and diverse group in California waters. Included
and clothing (feathers) during the short times annually
would be about 70 regularly-occurring species: divers
when thousands gather to breed and lay eggs. Nowadays,
(loons and grebes), albatrosses, shearwaters, fulmars,
most human uses are recreational although since seabirds
storm-petrels, certain waterfowl (scoters, brant), phala-
nd sh more quickly than humans do, their feeding con-
ropes, skuas, gulls, terns, and auks (murres, pufns, guil-
centrations serve as beacons to commercial shermen.
lemots, auklets, and murrelets). Infrequently occurring
The slow reproductive rates of seabirds make them vulner-
species would bring the total near 100. And that does
able to human factors that lead to mortality - especially
not include any estuarine species, which certainly feed on
of adults and subadults (pollution, entanglement in shing
“marine” sh and invertebrates (herons, egrets, curlews,
gear). The fact that they mostly eat the same sh prey
godwits, plovers, and sandpipers). Peregrine falcons, bald
as humans makes them vulnerable to over-exploitation of
eagles, and ospreys could also be considered as marine
sh populations, showing signs of prey depletion (reduced
species as their prey often are marine organisms.
growth of populations) before humans do.
A true seabird never comes to land except to raise its
The marine mammals of California include cetaceans
young (incubate eggs, bring food to chicks), and most
(whales, dolphins, and porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, fur
spend about 90 percent of their lives at sea. Using such
seals, and sea lions), and sea otters. Some are residents,
a denition reduces the California species list of marine
while others pass along the coast during great migrations.
birds to a few dozen. Notable examples are albatross,
Gray and humpback whales, for example, feed in Alaskan
storm-petrels, murres, and murrelets. Most divers, water-
waters and migrate along the coast on their way to Mexi-
fowl, and gulls would drop from the list. Unlike most
can waters to breed and calf. Blue whales visit during
marine sh and invertebrates, true seabirds are long lived
summer to feed on rich concentrations of krill.
and produce very few offspring. They lay but one or
Marine mammals have been an important part of the
two eggs each year or every other year, and guard them
coastal commerce off California for centuries. Native
closely. Their strategy, unlike sh and invertebrates, is
tribes used furs, teeth, and bones in different ways, and
to take care of a few young for a long time until they
ate the esh of various species of marine mammals. By
become independent and have a pretty good chance for
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the harvest
future survival. For many, care of young continues after
of seals, whales, and sea otters was such a protable
departure from the nest. The reason for being so careful
undertaking that many populations of marine mammals
of young is that it is difcult for air-breathing vertebrates
became depressed to levels from which some are still
(including humans) to derive food from the sea.
recovering. Off California, New England and Russian hunt-
Seabirds are highly evolved to exist at sea. They are
ers captured sea otters for their furs until, on the brink
among the most efcient yers of all birds, and derive
energy not just from food but also, in a way, from the
winds. In fact, many species prefer to sit on the water
if there is no wind. Using the wind, they can search huge
expanses of ocean for prey and consume very little energy
in the process. By and large, they take the most abundant
and energy rich prey available, including small sh (ancho-
vies, sardines, smelt, herring, and the juveniles of much
larger prey: salmon, rocksh), squid, and crustaceans.
For most species, the preferred prey are found in large
schools near the surface. Some marine birds, however, can
dive to depths greater than 300 feet (auks, loons). In their
ights, marine birds seek areas where ocean processes
concentrate their prey, for example where ocean waters
of differing properties (warm vs. cold) meet (fronts).
Another unusual characteristic of seabirds is that they
have almost no defense against land mammals. This is
California Sea Lions, Zalophus califonianus
because they evolved using offshore islands for nesting;
Credit: Lillian Smith
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 521
of extinction, the International Fur Seal Treaty protected Endangered Species Act. The Guadalupe fur seal, believed
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview
them in 1911. Now they have repopulated most of the until 1926 to be extinct, is making a very gradual recov-
California coast north of Point Conception. For a number ery. Among baleen whales, the humpback, blue, and n
of years in the 1900s, whaling was a protable business whales have shown little recovery and are listed. On
in parts of California, but the loss of whales and, sub- the other hand, the gray whale was the rst marine
sequently, their protection made whaling unprotable. mammal species to be removed from the list of endan-
Nowadays, boat excursions carrying enthusiasts to view gered and threatened wildlife. The sperm whale, the only
whales are more protable than direct exploitation in past non-baleen great whale is still listed as endangered.
days. As examples of current use of marine mammals, Meanwhile, populations of some pinniped species have
the passage of gray whales by the Point Reyes Headlands ourished from their protection to the extent that their
during early winter requires shuttle buses by the National interactions with humans again have become controver-
Park Service to avoid the trafc jams that otherwise sial. The state depleted their populations signicantly
would ensue. The Año Nuevo State Reserve attracts many during the early 1900s through direct slaughter. Now, the
thousands of visitors annually to observe the elephant seal individual sea lion that feasts on the sherman’s catch
rookery there. Hundreds of tourists each weekend stop and/or destroys gear can be shot only when caught in
at turnouts along California Highway 1 to observe harbor the act. Unintended entrapment or hooking of pinnipeds,
seals hauled out nearby on Bolinas Lagoon mud ats, sea otters, and porpoises has become a problem in some
and other thousands observe sea lions at Pier 45 in San areas, where subsequently the use of gillnets has been
Francisco. Sea otter exhibits at such places as Monterey restricted or stopped. The population increase and spread
Bay Aquarium and displays of other marine mammals at of sea otters have impinged on the sheries for abalone
Sea World are major attractions. and sea urchins, which are commercially protable only
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 placed a mora- in the absence of the otters. Whether or not the otter
torium on taking marine mammals. The act has since been population will be allowed to recover further is a source of
amended several times to better dene how it should conict that needs continual attention.
function in concert with other legislation. The focus now
is to reduce the incidental take of some species. In
David Ainley
response to protection, many populations of marine mam-
Point Reyes Bird Observatory
mals have increased to levels that existed prior to their
William S. Leet
exploitation. Some populations, while expanding, are still
National Marine Fisheries Service (retired)
listed as endangered or threatened under the federal
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
522
Pinnipeds
History pinnipeds in spite of the damage and economic losses
Pinnipeds
they cause.
T here are six pinniped species inhabiting the California It is unclear whether foraging by pinnipeds is impacting
coast and offshore islands: the California sea lion the abundance of marine species harvested by man. Cur-
(Zalophus californianus californianus), Steller (or north- rent research data are insufcient to answer this ques-
ern) sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus), Pacic harbor seal tion. Ecological interactions between pinnipeds and sh-
(Phoca vitulina richardsi), northern elephant seal (Mir- ery resources are complex and poorly understood. Food
ounga angustirostris), northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursi- habits studies on California sea lions and Pacic harbor
nus) and Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus townsendi). seals indicate a broad range of prey species are consumed.
The ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata) and the hooded seal (Cys- The opportunistic feeding nature of pinnipeds means food
tophora cristata) have been reported in California waters, habits can change dramatically between areas and years
but these were extremely rare events and they are not in response to changes in the abundance of different prey
considered normal California visitors. species. Research in this area is difcult because of the
The California sea lion and Pacic harbor seal are prob- great complexities of interactions. Though we do know
ably the best known and most often seen pinnipeds in their diets often include sh such as anchovies, mackerel,
California waters. Californians and visitors from around herring, hake, rocksh, salmon, and cephalopods, such as
the world enjoy watching the playful behavior of these squid and octopus.
animals cavorting in the water near shore or hauled out In the 1860s and 1870s, many pinnipeds were killed for
to rest on buoys, rocks, and other solid objects. They also their oil or body parts and many females were captured
enjoy seeing them in public display aquaria or as perform- for displays or animal acts. Pinnipeds were hunted com-
ers in animal shows at zoos and parks. Pinnipeds are mercially until 1938, when California law gave them com-
amusing and intelligent entertainers, but there is another plete protection from hunting. Nevertheless, sport and
aspect of the pinniped story which is related to their diet commercial shermen were free to kill sea lions and
of sh and their expanding populations. harbor seals that were destroying gear or otherwise inter-
In recent years, California sea lions and, to a lesser fering with shing operations. In 1972, the Marine Mammal
degree, Pacic harbor seals have gained notoriety by Protection Act was passed by Congress prohibiting the
taking over portions of marinas, bathing beaches and by take (pursuit, harassment, capture, or kill) of marine
eating endangered or threatened salmon and steelhead mammals except under special permitted conditions. The
moving upstream to spawn. Marina operators and boat act was renewed and revised in 1994. From its inception,
owners consider them a major nuisance, and potentially the act specied that marine mammals should be pro-
dangerous. Some seals react aggressively when people tected as functioning elements of the ecosystem. The
approach. Some who sh commercially or for sport believe 1994 amendments to the act established a new system
that pinnipeds compete for sh and are costly pests con- to reduce the injuries and mortality of marine mammals
suming tons of valuable sh, destroying valuable shing involved incidentally in commercial shing operations to
gear and interfering with shing operations. They com- insignicant levels approaching zero.
plain that any sea lion is attracted to shing operations Research has been conducted in the past on methods of
and that the mere presence of a sea lion scares sh away reducing the impacts that pinnipeds have on certain sh-
from the shing area. Research biologists speculate that eries (e.g., various taste aversion substances and acoustic
most of those problems are caused by a relatively few harassment devices), but with little success. In most
“rogue” pinnipeds. The rogues have learned that a sh cases, the animals appeared to acclimate to the deter-
caught in a net or hooked on a line is an easier meal rents, and sometimes used the purported scare devices as
than a free-swimming sh, and some actually target these “dinner bells” signifying active shing boats and an easy
sheries on a regular basis. A major concern is that this food source. Long-term solutions remain illusive.
behavior will spread as the pinniped populations grow.
Resolving pinniped conicts with human activities is a con-
Status of Biological Knowledge
troversial issue. Faced with decreasing catches, increasing
marine mammal populations, and increasing shery inter-
actions, some sport and commercial shermen contend
California Sea Lion
that some pinniped populations have reached the point
where population control and management efforts should The California sea lion ranges from British Columbia south
be implemented. This would include the lethal removal to Tres Marias Islands off Mexico. Breeding grounds are
of nuisance animals. Others will argue for protection of mainly on offshore islands from the Channel Islands south
into Mexico. Breeding takes place in June and early July
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 523
from the Pribilof Islands to Año Nuevo Island. The largest
Pinnipeds
breeding colonies in California are at Point St. George, Año
Nuevo, and the Farallon Islands. Breeding is in late June,
after which the animals migrate northward. This species is
a tawny or yellowish-brown color in contrast to the darker
reddish color of the California sea lion. Grown males are
1,500 to 2,200 pounds and reach a length of 13 feet.
Females usually weigh between 600 and 900 pounds and
reach a length of nine feet. Food of the Steller sea lion
consists primarily of squid and sh.
Pacific Harbor Seal
The Pacic harbor seal ranges along the northwest coast
California Sea Lion, Zalophus californianus of America from the Gulf of Alaska to Cedros Island off
Credit: Phil Schuyler Baja California. In California, harbor seals are abundant
along the entire coast. Adult male Pacic harbor seals
within a few days after the females give birth. The pups
reach a length of six feet and weight of up to 240 pounds,
are weaned at six months to a year or more. Males
and females reach sexual maturity between four and ve
years, although males normally do not achieve territorial
status until age eight or nine. Males weigh between 500
and 1,000 pounds and reach seven to eight feet in length.
Females weigh between 200 and 600 pounds and reach
six feet. Adult males have a pronounced sagittal crest (a
ridge on top of the skull extending from the forehead to
the rear of the skull), a characteristic distinguishing this
species from the Steller sea lion. Food of the California
sea lion consists largely of squid, octopus, and a variety
of shes (anchovies, mackerel, herring, rocksh, hake,
and salmon).
Steller Sea Lion
The Steller sea lion’s distribution partially overlaps that
of the California sea lion. It ranges from the Bering Strait
Pacific Harbor Seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi
off Alaska to southern California. Breeding grounds extend
Credit: Phil Schuyler
while females reach 5.5 feet and 275 pounds (when preg-
nant). The coloration patterns of adults vary from black
with white spots to white with black spots. Breeding
season varies with latitude, starting in March to May on
the Channel Islands of southern California and continuing
later up the coast. Age at sexual maturity is three to
four years for females and ve years for males. Newborn
pups are approximately 32 inches long and weigh about
22 pounds. They are weaned at ve to six weeks at an
average weight of 50 pounds. Adult females ovulate and
mate at the end of weaning, with a two-month delayed
implantation of the developing embryo. Their diet consists
of sh such as ounders, herring, tomcod, hake, and
lampreys, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus.
Steller Sea Lion, Eumetopias jubatus
Credit: Phil Schuyler
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
524
Northern Fur Seal
Pinnipeds
The northern fur seal is one of the best-known seals in the
world because of its valuable fur, for which it was hunted
to near extinction. Historical populations, centered on
the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, are estimated at two million
animals, but in 1911, when international treaties were
established to protect and manage this species, there
were fewer than 125,000 animals. San Miguel Island, off
Santa Barbara, California, hosts a small breeding colony
and is the southernmost extent of its range. It is a rem-
nant of a much larger population that existed in California
in the early 1800s. The peak breeding and pupping period
is in July. After breeding, the males migrate out to sea
where they spend as many as 10 months. The pups are
weaned at four months of age and are left to travel
in the northward migrations on their own. Fur seals are
Guadalupe Fur Seal, Arctocephalus townsendi
distinguished from sea lions by their pelage, composed
Credit: Phil Schuyler
of a very dense undercoat and a thinner, coarser layer
only occasionally at islands in the Southern California Bight
and the Farallon Islands. They breed only on Guadalupe
Island. They are identied by a “collie-like,” long pointed
muzzle. Males reach up to six feet in length; females are
slightly smaller.
Northern Elephant Seal
The comeback of the northern elephant seal, the largest
of all the seals, is one of the great success stories for
an animal threatened with extinction. Male elephant seals
reach a length of 15 to 16 feet and weight of about 4,000
to 5,000 pounds. Females reach a length of 11 feet and
weigh about 1,700 pounds. The male develops a bulbous
enlargement of the snout from which, along with its size,
it gets its common name. Breeding colonies exist on San
Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Island, San Nicolas Island,
San Simeon Island, Año Nuevo Island, Southeast Farallon
Northern Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus
Island, and Point Reyes Peninsula. They have also begun
Credit: Phil Schuyler
hauling out at several other mainland sites where histori-
cally they did not haul out. The breeding season is from
of guard hairs, and by their relatively long ippers. The
December through March. Breeding groups, or “harems,”
northern fur seal is closely related to the Guadalupe fur
consist of one male and eight to 40 females. The gestation
seal and is distinguished from its close relative by its very
short muzzle. Males reach a length of eight feet and weigh
up to 700 pounds. Females are only four to ve feet long
and weigh about 130 pounds. Sexual maturity is attained
between three and seven years, with longevity reported
to be up to 26 years.
Guadalupe Fur Seal
The Guadalupe fur seal was presumed extinct until 1926,
when a group of 60 animals was discovered on Guadalupe
Island, Mexico. The population is recovering slowly from
near extinction brought about by sealers in the last cen-
Northern Elephant Seal, Mirounga angurstirostris
tury. This is a rare pinniped in California waters, seen
Credit: Phil Schuyler
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 525
period is about 11.5 months. Pups are weaned by four of Steller sea lions throughout most of its range has
Pinnepeds
weeks but remain on the rookery another eight to 10 prompted its listing as endangered under the Endangered
weeks, sleeping during the day and gradually starting to Species Act and depleted under the Marine Mammal Pro-
enter the water at night. Departure from the rookery tection Act.
occurs at an age of approximately three months. Females
Pacific Harbor Seal
begin breeding as young as two years of age. Males reach
sexual maturity at ve years; but older, larger males
From aerial census data, the harbor seal population along
prevent young and socially immature males from mating
the California coast appears to be increasing, and con-
until they are at least eight or nine years old. Males and
currently, the number of occupied sites has increased.
females both live about 14 years.
From the last aerial survey (1995), the population was
Elephant seals do most of their feeding at night and prob-
estimated at 30,293 animals after using correction factors.
ably in deep water as evidenced by the fact that they have
The population appears to be growing and shery mortal-
been caught in nets at 2,000-foot depths. Time-depth
ity is declining.
recorder experiments show that elephant seals can dive to
5,200 feet, and stay beneath the surface for up to an hour.
Northern Fur Seal
Stomach content analyses indicate that they feed on small
sharks, rays, ratsh, rocksh, and squid. The eastern North Pacic population of fur seals is esti-
mated at over one million animals. The population at San
Miguel Island was estimated in 1999 at 4,336 animals after
Status of the Populations correction factors. The San Miguel Island population has
increased steadily since the 1970s. An annual increase
The Marine Mammal Protection Act recognizes marine
of eight percent occurred from 1965 through 1996. How-
mammals as components of the marine ecosystem and
ever, the eastern North Pacic stock of fur seals is
requires maintenance of stocks above levels at which they
formally listed as depleted under the Marine Mammal
would lose their function in the ecosystem. In practice,
Protection Act.
marine mammal management is directed toward maintain-
ing the optimum sustainable population size (OSP) for
Guadalupe Fur Seal
each species within its geographical range. To be optimal,
the population size should be between the rate at which The historical distribution and abundance of the Guadal-
maximum growth occurs and the carrying capacity of the upe fur seal are unknown because commercial sealers
environment. A variety of procedures are used to assess and other observers failed to distinguish between it and
population status. the northern fur seal in their records. This species, once
thought to be extinct, has an estimated population of
California Sea Lion 7,408 animals. The population is growing at approximately
13.7 percent per year. Although the primary breeding
California sea lions breeding on U.S. rookeries are
colony is on Guadalupe Island, recent sightings of adult
assumed to comprise a single stock. The population of
and juvenile seals on some of the Channel Islands suggest
newborn pups is determined from an aerial census. The
that recolonization of that area may occur in the future.
size of the entire population is estimated from the number
The Guadalupe fur seal is listed as threatened under the
of new births and the proportion of pups in the popula-
Endangered Species Act and depleted under the Marine
tion. Their status was last assessed in 2000. At that time,
Mammal Protection Act.
the population size was estimated at 204,000 to 214,000
animals. Recent estimates place the population growth
Northern Elephant Seal
rate at 6.2 percent per year. Fishery mortality is increasing.
The exploitation and subsequent recovery of the northern
Steller Sea Lion elephant seal population is a remarkable story. Biologists
Population estimates for northern sea lions are based on estimate that only 100 to 500 animals were left on Gua-
counts of animals hauled-out during the breeding season. dalupe Island before protective legislation was passed.
A decline of this species is occurring throughout its range, They claim that the entire current population may have
including the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands, which originated from this small group of animals. Based on
support 75 percent of the world’s population. The current pup counts, the California breeding stock was estimated
West Coast population of northern sea lions is estimated at 84,000 animals in 1996. The apparent growth rate
at 39,031 animals, which is less than half of the population since 1980 has been about eight percent annually. Annual
level from 1956 to 1960. The dramatic decline in numbers surveys indicate that this species has reoccupied most or
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
526
all of its historical rookeries and hauling grounds. The Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the Pacic harbor seal popula-
Pinnipeds
population is continuing to grow and shery mortality is tion on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin.
relatively constant. Rep. LJ-88-06. 43 pp.
Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the California sea lion popula-
tion on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin.
Doyle Hanan
Rep. LJ-88-07. 26 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game
Hanan, D.A., L.M. Jones, and M.J. Beeson. 1992. Harbor
Joyce Sisson
seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi, census in California, May-
National Marine Fisheries Service
June 1991. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin. Rpt. LJ-92-03. 68
Revised by:
pp.
Robert Read and Carrie Wilson
Hanan, D.A. and S.L. Diamond. 1989. Estimates of sea lion,
California Department of Fish and Game
harbor seal, and harbor porpoise mortalities in California
set net sheries for the 1986-87 shing year. Final Rpt.
Cooperative agreement No. NA-86-ABH-00018. Submitted
References NOAA/NMFS SWR, January 1989. 10 pp.
Antonelis, G.A., S. Leatherwood, and D. K. Odell. 1981. Lowry, M.S., C.W. Oliver, C. Macky, and J.B. Wexler. 1990.
Population growth and censuses of the northern elephant Food habits of California sea lions Zalophus californinus at
seal, Mirounga angustirostris, on the California channel San Clemente Island, California, 1981-86. Fish. Bull., U. S.
islands, 1958-1978. Fish. Bull., U.S. 79:562-567. 88:509-521.
Anonymous. 1999. Report to Congress: Impacts of Califor- Miller, D., M. Herder, and J. Scholl. 1983. California marine
nia Sea Lions and Pacic Harbor Seals on Salmonids and mammal-shery interaction study, 1979-1981. NOAA/NMFS
West Coast Ecosystems. DOC/NOAA/NMFS. 18 pp. SWFC Admin. Rep. LJ-83-13C. 233 pp.
Barlow, J., et al. 1997. U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock
Assessments: 1996. NOAA/NMFS-SWFSC Tech. Mem. 248.
223 pp.
Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the northern elephant seal
population on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC
Admin. Rep. LJ-88-05. 35 pp.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 527
Pinnipeds
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
528
Whales, Dolphins,
Porpoises did not join. Several international agreements followed
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
which attempted to improve upon this initial document.
In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was
History established, both to ensure the development of the whal-
M
ing industry and to conserve the worlds whale stocks for
arine mammals played an important role in shaping
the interests of future generations. For many years, the
the early history of California. By the late 18th cen-
IWC concentrated its efforts on maximizing the level of
tury, English whale ships had voyaged to the waters of
removal of whales rather than on whale conservation.
California in search of sperm whales. Portuguese immi-
However, in recent years, the IWC has attempted to move
grants from the Azores and Cape Verde followed in the
towards whale conservation.
1840s, manning and operating the rst shore-based whal-
In 1972, the United States Congress enacted the Marine
ing industry. Shore whaling was distinct from nineteenth
Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), which established a com-
century Yankee pelagic whaling, because whales were
plex and comprehensive federal policy of marine mammal
pursued from a vessel launched from a nearby coastline.
management. The MMPA made it unlawful to take (dened
Deploying rowboats from shore and using harpoons, whal-
as kill, capture, pursue, or harass) marine mammals in the
ers typically pursued, captured, and towed whales back
waters of the United States and it also prohibited U. S.
to the whaling stations. At shore-based whaling stations,
citizens from taking marine mammals on the high seas.
workers extracted oil from the whale’s blubber. The
Under limited circumstances, exceptions may be autho-
lure of gold and quick prosperity brought numerous crew-
rized for the taking of some marine mammals, provided
men from New England’s whaling industry in the late
that the level of removal will not cause the population
1840s and early 1850s. After the gold rush abated, many
to decline below sustainable levels. For instance, marine
returned to their previous occupations on whaling ships.
mammals may be removed for public display and scientic
The early shore-based whaling industry in California pri-
research, or incidental to activities such as shipping and
marily caught gray and humpback whales, because trips by
commercial shing.
shore whalers were limited to within 10 miles of the coast-
line. However, whalers occasionally took the right, blue,
and n whales, more highly prized due to the greater oil
Current Management
content of their blubber. Until 1901, at least 15 stations
operated at various locations between Crescent City and
S ince the enactment of the MMPA in 1972, the focus of
San Diego.
concern has shifted to the incidental capture of marine
After more than 40 years of whaling along the California mammals during commercial shing operations. Due to the
coast, whale populations and the demand for expensive rapid expansion of several of California’s coastal sheries,
whale oil declined, and subsequently the whaling industry there has been an increase in the incidental capture of
became less protable in the late 1800s. Nevertheless, marine mammals in recent years. Nonetheless, in Califor-
modern whaling vessels caught some gray whales and nia, the level of take of cetaceans is lower than it is
many humpback whales in California waters after the for other marine mammals (e.g., pinnipeds). The National
turn of the century. Powered by engines, modern whaling Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is currently implementing
vessels hunted whales more efciently through the use a management regime to govern the incidental taking of
of explosives, mounted cannons, and grenades. Whalers marine mammals in commercial shing operations. Under
would deliver carcasses to oating processing plants this program, some marine mammal species may be inci-
where the oil was extracted. Modern catcher boats origi- dentally taken during commercial shing operations or
nating from shore stations also periodically took whales during other human-caused activities so long as the level
during this period. The last remaining whaling station of take will allow the stock to reach and maintain its
in the United States, near Richmond, California, closed optimum sustainable population. Moreover, the California
in 1971. Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has developed regula-
tions to help minimize the incidental take of marine mam-
In 1931, 50 nations, including the United States, agreed
mals in the coastal gillnet shery.
upon the International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling. This agreement was the rst international effort Due to the recovery of the gray whale population and
to control the decimation of the world’s whale popula- accessibility of migrating gray whales along the California
tions. The primary protection measures included full pro- coastline, a large and diverse whalewatching industry has
tection for right whales and, for all other species, a developed. Since the 1970s, commercial whalewatching
ban on the killing of calves, suckling whales, immature has become an important recreational, educational, and
whales, and females with calves. The agreement was economic activity. The 1983-1984 whalewatching season
ineffective, however, because the major whaling nations alone generated an estimated total gross income of
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 529
$2.6 million. This estimate did not include regional eco-
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
nomic benets from the sale of meals, fuel, lodging,
whale paraphernalia and other whale-related activities.
In 1985, the commercial whalewatching industry in Califor-
nia was the largest in the United States, with 74 boats
in operation.
The rapid growth of commercial whalewatching, and
increased interest by private boaters in observing
and approaching whales in the wild, have been accom-
panied by concerns that these activities could cause
adverse biological impacts to whales. In California, NMFS
Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae
adopted whalewatching guidelines that established mini-
Credit: Phil Schuyler
mum approach distances (100 yards) for vessels and air-
to its breeding grounds in Hawaii and offshore islands in
craft, as well as additional operational guidelines for ves-
Mexico. The California, Oregon, and Washington feeding
sels. Nevertheless, each year there are numerous reports
populations migrate to coastal Mexico and Central Amer-
of harassment of whales by commercial whalewatching
ica to breed. During their seasonal migrations, humpback
vessels and private boaters. NMFS is currently developing
whales may frequently be seen along the California coast
regulations that will provide mechanisms to enforce mini-
from April through November. Some individuals appear to
mum approach distances.
remain in California year-round. In the Gulf of the Faral-
Partly as a result of the protection and management
lones, humpbacks may be observed feeding during May
achieved from regulatory measures, and partly because
and November. Off southern California, humpbacks often
of increased public awareness and appreciation of marine
migrate along submarine ridges (e.g., Santa Rosa-Cortez
mammals, some populations have rebounded since the
Ridge) and occasionally enter the coastal waters of the
years of commercial exploitation. Marine mammals that
San Pedro and Santa Barbara Channels. They obtain their
inhabit the coastal waters of California now represent
food by straining krill (small shrimp-like crustaceans) and
resources that enhance both the wealth and recreational
schools of small sh with their baleen. Humpback whales
benets of the state. For many people, a commercial
are well known for their complex songs, thought to be
whalewatching cruise is their rst contact with the marine
used in courtship or competition between males, and their
environment. Thus, the value of observing marine mam-
leaping out of the water, or breaching behavior. The songs
mals in the wild not only increases public awareness of
on their breeding grounds can last up to several hours.
these animals but also contributes to increased public
Near the turn of the century, an estimated 15,000 hump-
appreciation of the diversity and abundance of other living
back whales inhabited the North Pacic Ocean. Com-
marine resources.
mercial whaling reduced this population to dangerously
The waters of California provide essential habitat to a
low levels, and in 1966 the IWC established a moratorium
large variety and abundance of whales, dolphins, por-
on harvesting them. With this protection, the population
poises, and other marine mammals. These animals play
has recovered to a size of 8,000 individuals. The California
an important role in maintaining the balance of marine
feeding population is thought to consist of about 1,000
ecosystems. Consequently, protecting California’s marine
animals. The California population appears to be growing
mammals is an integral part of the conservation of all
at about eight percent per year. The humpback whale has
living marine resources in California.
been listed as an endangered species under the United
States Endangered Species Act (ESA) since 1970.
Status of Biological Knowledge and
Blue Whale
Populations
Blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) are the largest ani-
mals in the world, sometimes attaining a size of over 90
Humpback Whale feet. An individual blue whale may consume up to eight
tons of krill in a single day. The majority of the eastern
Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are distin-
North Pacic population spends the summer on feeding
guished by their exceptionally long ippers up to 1/3 of
grounds between central California, the Gulf of Alaska
body length, and robust body that may reach a length
and the Aleutian Islands. Like all baleen whales, the blue
of over 45 feet and weigh up to 37.5 tons. There appear
whale seasonally migrates to lower latitudes in the winter
to be two distinct populations of humpback whales in
to calve and breed. Migratory routes generally follow the
the North Pacic. The Alaska feeding population migrates
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
530
month of the year in California. Approximately 1,000 n
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
whales are estimated to be off California. There is some
indication that n whales have increased in abundance
in California coastal waters. This species uses its baleen
to lter krill, capelin, sand lance, squid, herring, and
lantern sh from the water. They have been listed as an
endangered species under the ESA since 1970.
Minke Whale
Blue Whale, Balaenoptera musculus
Credit: Phil Schuyler Minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) inhabit both
continental shelf and slope, but blue whales are occasion- the high seas and nearshore waters where they are known
ally found in deep oceanic zones and shallow inshore to enter bays, inlets, and estuaries. This species is the
areas. Blue whales are usually seen off the California coast smallest of the baleen whales in California waters, attain-
traveling alone or in pairs, from May to January, although ing a size of up to 32 feet, and is distinguished by a
they have been observed in every month of the year. They transverse white band on its ippers and its relatively tall
frequently may be seen feeding in the Farallon Islands and falcate (hooked) dorsal n. In the summer months,
between July and October and occasionally are sighted in minke whales feed on krill, copepods, sand lance, and
Monterey Bay and over deep coastal submarine canyons herring in the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean. During the
off central and southern California. Historically, the North
Pacic population may have been comprised of over 5,000
individuals before its severe depletion by modern whaling
operations. An estimated 1,700 to 1,900 blue whales cur-
rently inhabit the eastern North Pacic Ocean. It is esti-
mated that the California feeding population is comprised
of at least 1,700 whales. No information exists on the
rate of growth of blue whale populations in the Pacic.
Minke Whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata
The blue whale has been listed as an endangered species
Credit: Phil Schuyler
under the ESA since 1970.
winter months, they migrate south along the North Amer-
Fin Whale ica coastline to Mexico. There are some year-round resi-
dents off California. An estimated 400 minke whales live
The n whale (Balaenoptera physalus) is a common, large
off California. Minke whales are occasionally seen from
cetacean occurring off the California coast. Fin whales
whalewatching and sport shing vessels and from shore in
can reach a size of up to 87 feet and weigh up to 76
California.
tons. These whales may be distinguished by the white
coloration of their lower right lip and V-shaped head.
Gray Whale
They are distributed throughout the world’s oceans, but
Gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) are distinguished by
their mottled gray body, narrow head and absence of a
dorsal n. They can reach a length of over 45 feet. The
gray whale undergoes one of the longest migrations in
the animal kingdom. Perhaps the best known of the great
Fin Whale, Balaenoptera physalus
Credit: Phil Schuyler
little is known of their seasonal movements in the North
Pacic. The North Pacic population reportedly winters
between central California southward to 20o N latitude and
summers from Baja California to the Chukchi Sea north of Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus
the Bering Strait. Fin whales have been observed in every Credit: Phil Schuyler
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 531
whales off California, the eastern North Pacic gray whale sperm whale has been listed as an endangered species
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
migrates from its feeding grounds in the Bering Sea and under the ESA since 1970.
Arctic Ocean to its calving and breeding areas in the sub-
Killer Whale
tropical lagoons along the west coast of Baja California.
This population generally migrates along the coastline,
Killer whales (Orcinus orca), actually the largest of the
often within a few miles of shore. The gray whale migra-
dolphins, are year-round residents in California. They have
tion can be observed from several locations in California
been seen entering kelp beds, bays, or inlets, but are
such as Point Loma, Point Vincente, Point Sur, and Point
more common offshore. The killer whale is widely known
Reyes. They begin to enter California waters in late
due to its popularity in oceanaria. It is recognized by its
November and December on their southward migration.
striking black and white color pattern and erect dorsal n,
In mid-February, gray whales begin their return migration
which can be up to six feet tall in adult males. This spe-
north, passing through southern California waters until
late May or early June. Some immature whales reportedly
remain in kelp beds to feed over the winter months
off California. The northbound cow/calf migration usually
occurs during April through June. Gray whales use their
baleen to sift out crustaceans, molluscs, and other inver-
tebrates, which they suck up from bottom sediments.
The most recent population estimate is approximately
23,000 animals. In 1994, the gray whale became the rst
marine mammal species to be removed from the List of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. The number of gray
whales is above its unexploited stock size prior to whaling
Killer Whale, Orcinus orca
and is increasing at a rate of 2.5 to 3.2 percent per year. Credit: Phil Schuyler
Sperm Whale cies may reach a length of nearly 30 feet. Killer whales are
top predators in the ocean, using their sharp conical teeth
Unlike the other great whales, the sperm whale does not for grasping and tearing prey. They have been observed
feed with baleen, but is a toothed whale. It is the largest attacking the largest animal on Earth, the blue whale,
of the toothed whales with males reaching a length of and there is one documented kill of a white shark by
a killer whale. Killer whales were so named for their
habit of attacking seals and whales; however, sh are
the most important component of their diet. Small groups
of sometimes-related individuals (pods) often hunt in a
coordinated and cooperative manner. Some killer whale
pods have strong social bonds, remaining in pods of ve
to 30 individuals for decades. There are 600 to 800 killer
whales along the coast of California, Oregon and Wash-
ington. No information is available regarding trends in
abundance of eastern North Pacic offshore killer whales.
Sperm Whale, Physeter catodon
Credit: Phil Schuyler
60 feet and females 40 feet. Sperm whales are noted for
their ability to make deep dives, which can last up to an
hour and a half and can be as deep as two miles below
the surface. They feed mainly on squid, including the
giant squid. Sperm whales are widely distributed across
the entire North Pacic and are found year-round in Cali-
fornia waters. They reach peak abundance from April
through mid-June and from the end of August through
mid-November. Sperm whale abundance appears to be
fairly stable with approximately 1,000 to 1,200 sperm
Shortfinned Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus
whales estimated to be off the coast of California. The
Credit: Phil Schuyler
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
532
Shortfinned Pilot Whale phins often form groups of over 100 animals, sometimes
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
numbering in the thousands. Population surveys estimate
The shortnned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) that over 350,000 common dolphins inhabit the waters
can reach a size in excess of 17 feet, and is distinguished off southern California between summer and autumn.
by its bulbous forehead and broad based slightly falcate Common dolphins frequently engage in bow-riding and
dorsal n. In California, these whales are commonly found aerial acrobatics.
south of Point Conception, but there have been sightings
as far north as the Gulf of the Farallones off San Fran-
Bottlenose Dolphin
cisco. Following movements of local squid populations,
shortnned pilot whales may move seasonally nearshore in Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are readily recog-
the winter and offshore during other times of the year. nizable by the public due to their antics on television,
Before the El Niño event in 1982 and 1983, the number their performances in oceanaria, and because the coastal
of shortnned pilot whales was near 2,000 during peak form is occasionally seen surng in the waves along popu-
periods off southern California. However their numbers lated southern California beaches. This species may reach
declined during that El Niño, presumably due to emi- a size of over 12 feet and is distinguished by its gray color-
gration, and the population has not returned to its previ- ation, lightly colored belly, and moderately tall and falcate
ous level. One hypothesis for the population’s failure to
rebound is that it was competitively excluded by the
Risso’s dolphin population in California. Currently, the
population size is estimated to be between 700 to
1,000 individuals present in the nearshore waters of Cali-
fornia. This species was the rst “whale” displayed in
captivity and is still seen occasionally in oceanaria around
the world.
Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus
Common Dolphin Credit: Phil Schuyler
There are two different species of common dolphin in
dorsal n. South of Point Conception, bottlenose dolphins
California waters. One is called the short-beaked common
are common, whereas few animals are encountered fur-
dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and the other is called the
ther north. In California, both coastal and offshore forms
long-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus capensis). The
are found. The coastal form inhabits shallow water just
long-beaked has a relatively longer beak and more muted
beyond the surf zone, and is known to frequent bays and
coloration. It occurs from offshore southern California
estuaries. Groups of 10 to 25 animals may travel together
waters south to Islas Tres Marias and along the entire
and make regular migrations along the coastline. There
coast in the Gulf of California. The short-beaked has
are reportedly seasonal shifts in their distribution north-
a relatively shorter beak, more contrasting coloration,
ward to San Francisco County. It is estimated that the
and is more common offshore from Isla Cedros north.
coastal form is comprised of approximately 160 animals.
The population estimate for the offshore form is about
3,000 animals. This species often rides the bow wave of
vessels, and swims in the wake of large whales.
Risso’s Dolphin
Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus) are known to reach a
size of over 13 feet, usually have extensive scarring over
their white to light-gray colored body, and lack a beak.
Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis
The population is estimated to be about 29,000 Risso’s
Credit: Phil Schuyler
dolphins residing off California. Since El Niño (1982-1983),
their numbers are believed to have increased. Risso’s dol-
The common dolphin is the most abundant cetacean in
phins normally appear in pods of 25 to 50 individuals and
California. Common dolphins can reach nearly eight feet in
do not usually bow ride but will perform some acrobatics
length and can be distinguished by the unique hourglass
such as spy hopping and breaching. They are distributed
coloration on their sides which appears as a V-shaped
widely, frequently being found in deep water areas with
black or dark gray saddle when they are observed at sea.
warm temperate to tropical water conditions. Risso’s dol-
Among the most gregarious of cetaceans, common dol-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 533
may reach a size of at least seven feet. The species
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
is thought to be the second most abundant dolphin off
southern California, and the most common off northern
California. The Pacic white-sided dolphin is seen year-
round, frequenting the continental shelf and slope waters,
sometimes appearing in Monterey Bay. They may occur
in herds of over a few thousand individuals, but groups
Risso’s Dolphin, Grampus griseus
of several hundred are more common. Recent surveys
Credit: Phil Schuyler
indicate population sizes of 110,000 animals in California
phins are occasionally observed in central and northern waters. This species is known for its acrobatic behavior
California waters. and bow riding abilities. Pacic white-sided dolphins are
occasionally displayed in oceanaria.
Northern Right-Whale Dolphin
Harbor Porpoise
Northern right-whale dolphins (Lissodelphis borealis) have
no dorsal n and have a very slim and graceful black body The harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) is the smallest
that may attain a length of 10 feet. They appear to prefer cetacean found in California waters, rarely reaching a
offshore, cold temperate waters and only occur inshore length of over six feet. It may be distinguished by its lack
over deep submarine canyons. The northern right-whale of a beak and its triangular dorsal n. Harbor porpoises
dolphin is commonly found in the waters off central and frequent the cooler waters of central and northern Califor-
northern California, although they also appear in winter nia, seldom straying south of Point Conception. Locally
abundant concentrations exist between Cape Mendocino
and Point Reyes, and in Monterey Bay. They are not known
to migrate extensively, but may move between inshore
and offshore areas. The harbor porpoise occurs primarily
in relatively shallow nearshore water and, thus, is vulner-
able to human activities such as the coastal gillnet shery
in California. In response to the general increase in gillnet-
ting, DFG has implemented several management mecha-
Northern Right-Whale Dolphin, Lissodelphis borealis
Credit: Phil Schuyler
and spring off southern California. There appears to be
some seasonal north-south shift in their distribution as a
result of water temperature changes and prey availability.
Recent surveys indicate there are between 14,000 and
20,000 northern right-whale dolphins in California waters.
This gregarious species sometimes occurs in large herds
of up to several thousand and is noted for its eetness. Harbor Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena
Northern right-whale dolphins rarely approach vessels. Credit: Phil Schuyler
Pacific white-sided dolphin nisms to reduce the incidental take of harbor porpoises.
This species never approaches vessels or bow rides. The
The Pacic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliq- harbor porpoise population off California may consist of
uidens) has a short, thick beak, a falcate dorsal n and over 11,000 individuals.
Dall’s Porpoise
The Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) has a stocky
shape, and the striking white pattern on its belly, ank,
and tips of dorsal n and tail, contrasts with its generally
black body. This species may attain a size of over seven
feet. The Dall’s porpoise inhabits the cooler waters of
the continental shelf in central and northern California,
Pacific White-Sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens and also frequents a variety of other areas including near-
Credit: Phil Schuyler
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
534
shore deep-water canyons and the open sea. The Dall’s 1980-1983: Status, Abundance, and Distribution, Unpub-
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
porpoise can be found off northern California in autumn lished Report. MMS Contract #14-12-0001-29090. OCS
and winter, however individuals can also be found in Study MMS 84-0045. Pacic OCS Region MMS, Los Angeles,
southern California at this time. There appear to be near- California. 284 pp.
shore-offshore shifts in their distribution whereby they Forney, K.A., M.M. Muto, and J. Baker. U.S. Pacic Marine
remain inshore in autumn and move northward and off- Mammal Stock Assessments: 1999. U.S. Dept. of Com-
merce. NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-SWFSC-282.
Haley, D. 1978. Marine Mammals of Eastern North Pacic
and Arctic Waters. Pacic Search Press. 254 pp.
Jones, M. L., S. L. Swartz, and S. Leatherwood. 1984. The
Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus. Academic Press, Inc.,
Orlando. 600 pp.
Leatherwood, S., and R. R. Reeves. 1983. The Sierra Club
Handbook of Whales and Dolphins. Sierra Club Books, San
Francisco. 303 pp.
Dall’s Porpoise, Phocoenoides dalli
Leatherwood, S., B. S. Stewart, and P. A. Folkens. 1987.
Credit: Phil Schuyler
Cetaceans of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctu-
ary. National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic
shore in the late spring. Dall’s porpoises travel in small
Atmospheric Administration. 66 pp.
groups of 10 to 20 individuals and are known to bow ride
often creating a rooster tail wake when traveling at high Orr, R.T. and R.C. Helm. 1990. Marine Mammals of
speeds. Recent surveys indicate populations of between California. New and revised Edition. Calif. Natural History
82,000 to 118,000 individuals inhabit the eastern North Guides:29. U.C. Press, Berkeley. 93 p.
Pacic. Tilt, W. C. 1985. Whalewatching in California: An industry
prole. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies,
New Haven, CT. 17 pp.
Irma Lagomarsino and Tim Price
National Marine Fisheries Service
References
Barlow, J., K.A. Forney, P.S. Hill, R. L. Brownell, Jr., J.V.
Caretta, D.P. DeMaster, F. Julian, M.S. Lowry, T. Ragen,
and R.R. Reeves. 1997. U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock
Assessments: 1996. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Tech-
nical Memorandum. NMFS-SWFSC-282.
Barlow, J., P.S. Hill, K.A. Forney, and D.P. DeMaster. 1998.
U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 1998. U.S.
Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-
SWFSC-258.
Dohl, T. P., K. S. Norris, R. C. Guess, J. D. Bryant, and M.
W. Honig. 1980. Cetacea of the Southern California Bight,
In: Marine Mammal and Seabird Surveys of the Southern
California Bight Area, 1975-1978. Vol. 3 - Investigator’s
Reports, Part II. NTIS PB81-248-71. 414 pp.
Dohl, T. P., R. C. Guess, M. L. Dunman, and R. C.
Helm. 1983. Cetaceans of Central and Northern California,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 535
Sea Otter
History totaling perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 individuals, survived in
the North Pacic in 1911. Sea otters were widely regarded
S ea otters (Enhydra lutris) once ranged from extreme as extinct in California by 1900, but scientists and game
northern Japan through the Kuril Islands, southern wardens were aware of a surviving group near Point Sur
Sakhalin Island, southern Kamchatka Peninsula, Com- in Monterey County as early as 1914. Rough population
mander Islands, Aleutian Islands, southern Alaska, British estimates in the early 1900s ranged from less than 50 to
Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California, extending about 100 sea otters in California. Other remnant popula-
south to about the midpoint of the Pacic coast of Baja tions were known to exist in 1911 in Mexico, Canada,
California, Mexico. Prior to 1741, human contact with sea Alaska and Russia. The remnant populations in Mexico and
otters was limited to native cultures through much of the Canada were thought to be extinct by 1920.
range and to Spanish colonists in California and Mexico. The International Fur Seal Treaty was signed in 1911 by
Commercial utilization of sea otters followed the Bering Canada (for Great Britain), Japan, Russia and the United
Expedition of 1741 to the mainland of southern Alaska and States. The Treaty recognized the serious overexploitation
the Aleutian and Commander Islands. Reports of vast num- of northern fur seals and sea otters and provided full
bers of sea otters stimulated the fur trade and contributed protection for both species. State law has prohibited take
to the eventual settlement and economic development of or possession of sea otters or their pelts in California
the west coast of North America by non-native people. since 1913. With the termination of the trade in sea
Russian fur traders developed facilities at several loca- otter pelts, the California sea otter population began to
tions on the North American coast, most notably at grow in numbers and range. State Highway 1 was opened
Kodiak Island and Sitka. The southernmost outpost, at between Monterey and San Simeon in 1937, traversing a
Fort Ross, California, was established in 1812. Russian coastal segment previously not accessible by automobile.
hunters worked at least as far south as the islands off Highway access led to the much-publicized “rediscovery”
Santa Barbara, but the Russian presence in California was of California sea otters by the general public at Bixby
contested by Spanish colonists. Spanish trade in sea otter Creek in 1938. The sea otter population numbered roughly
pelts began in 1786 and was the most important industry 300 individuals at that time. The state of California pro-
in coastal California for several decades. vided additional protection for sea otters by creating the
Sea Otter Game Refuge, extending along 100 miles of
The early Russian otter traders utilized enslaved Aleut
coastline from the Carmel River, near Monterey, to Santa
natives as hunters. The Aleuts worked from native canoes,
Rosa Creek, near Cambria.
hunting with spears and clubs. Later, American and
European hunters entered the trade using rearms as Between the late 1930s and the late 1970s, the California
primary tools of capture. By the 1840s, the sea otter sea otter population grew at an average annual rate of
population in California was greatly reduced as a result about ve percent, extending its range to more than
of overexploitation. 200 miles of coastline from Santa Cruz to Pismo Beach.
Whether this growth occurred smoothly or in pulses is
Sea otters were approaching extinction at the beginning
not known. In the early 1980s, a cessation of population
of the twentieth century. Thirteen remnant populations,
growth was recognized, and some argued that the popula-
tion was declining in numbers. Studies by federal and state
agencies determined that the nearshore set-net shery for
halibut was causing signicant mortality of sea otters as a
result of incidental entanglement and drowning. Estimates
of annual mortality in nets ranged as high as 80-100 ani-
mals, a rate perhaps sufcient to account for the cessation
of population growth. Legislation by the state imposed
restrictions on set-net activity, greatly reducing incidental
take of sea otters in nets. By the middle 1980s, it was
apparent that population growth had returned to levels
previously observed. However, in the mid-1990s popu-
lation growth again ceased and by 1999 numbers had
declined by more than 10 percent over a four-year period.
The spring 2000 sea otter count erased most of the
decline of the previous four years and raised hopes that
the population had resumed expansion.
Sea otter pup
Credit: D. Varonjean
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
536
Status of Biological Knowledge come into estrus within a few days to a few weeks after
Sea Otter
weaning of pups. Gestation is four to six months and
T he subspecic status of various populations of the sea involves delayed implantation. After implantation, devel-
otter has been in dispute for many years. The most opment to birth normally requires about four months.
recent studies, based on skull morphology and DNA, sug- Virtually all births are single. Care of dependent pups
gest the California population is a separate subspecies. is entirely maternal. The period of pup dependency aver-
It is possible, if not likely, that subspecic differences ages six months in California, with a range of 4.5 to
have been magnied by separation of northern and south- 9.5 months. Studies suggest that pre-weaning mortality
ern populations brought about by near extermination. rate for rstborn pups may exceed 50 percent. Survival
Denition of the subspecies of sea otters will likely of dependent pups improves with the experience of the
remain controversial. mother. Most adult females produce one pup per year. In
cases of premature death of dependent pups, females may
While sea otters in California occur predominantly along
come back into estrus and be reimpregnated within a few
rocky shores supporting forests of the large kelps, in
weeks after loss of the pup.
the past decade it has become apparent that signicant
numbers can maintain themselves off sandy shores. Along In California, rates of pup birth apparently peak in late
the mainland coast, the kelps typically form extensive sur- winter, with a secondary peak in late summer or early
face canopies in waters less than 80 feet in depth where fall. Some pupping occurs year round. Sea otters typically
the substratum is rock. Sea otters commonly form resting weigh four to ve pounds at birth, and 20 to 30 pounds at
groups, known as rafts, particularly in kelp canopies. Rafts weaning. In most sea otter populations, maximum longev-
typically contain up to 10 individuals, but under certain ity probably is in the range of 11 to 15 years. Captive
circumstances may include more than 100 otters. Most sea animals are known to have lived as long as 28 years.
otters remain within one mile of shore, but in some situa- Known predators of sea otters include sharks, killer
tions, such as in Monterey Bay, Estero Bay and off Pismo whales, eagles, coyotes and bears. While attack by white
Beach, otters are regularly seen foraging and resting more sharks probably occurs at a low rate throughout the Cali-
than two miles offshore. Juvenile males tend to range fornia range, in areas north of Santa Cruz it accounts for a
farther offshore than other age/sex categories. Records signicant portion of the mortality. Predation generally is
from the fur trade suggest that sea otters once were regarded as less important than food limitation in control-
abundant in the soft-bottom habitats of San Francisco Bay. ling the size of sea otter populations. Patterns of activity
Adult male sea otters in California typically weigh 60 to vary widely among sea otter populations and among indi-
75 pounds, reaching a length of four to 4.5 feet. Adult viduals within sea otter populations. In California, most
females typically reach a weight of 40 to 55 pounds and otters forage during morning hours, rest from late morn-
a length of four feet. The largest sea otter recorded in ing through mid-afternoon and resume foraging in late
California was a male weighing 92 pounds. afternoon. Sometimes a third period of foraging occurs at
night, between about 11 p.m. and 2 a.m. Juvenile females
Sea otter pelage includes outer guard hairs and dense, ne
typically spend more time foraging than other age/sex
underfur. Density of sea otter fur is higher than that of
categories, often feeding during hours when other otters
any other mammal. Sea otter pelage provides the primary
are at rest.
thermoregulatory barrier between the animal and the
chilling effects of seawater. Most other marine mammals In California, home ranges of adult males during the prin-
rely on subcutaneous fat or blubber rather than pelage cipal breeding season (summer and fall) have a mean
for thermal protection. The effectiveness of the pelage as coastline length of about a half mile and an area of
a thermal barrier depends on frequent grooming and con- about 100 acres. During winter the range approximately
sequent cleanliness. Soiling of the fur largely eliminates doubles for those individuals that remain in breeding ter-
the insulative qualities, resulting in rapid heat loss. Food ritories. Long-distance movements among high-use areas
volume equivalent to 25 percent or more of individual range from 35 to 60 miles and often are seasonal. Males
body weight must be consumed daily to maintain the high may remain within a high-use area for months at a time,
metabolic rate typical of sea otters. but travel between such areas rarely requires more than
a few days. Females follow the same general pattern as
Male sea otters reach functional sexual maturity at ve to
males, but high-use areas are typically 1.5 to two times
six years. In California, adult males establish and defend
larger for females than for males. Females also travel
territories in areas of high female density, seasonally
long distances in short periods, but such travel is much
in some areas and year-round in others. Younger males
less frequent for females than for males. Substantial short-
typically are excluded from breeding areas by territorial
term movement of females among high-use areas often
males. Female sea otters become reproductively mature
occurs in association with pupping. Juvenile males tend
at three to ve years of age. Mature females typically
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 537
to utilize larger areas and travel greater distances than The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS) in Prince William
Sea Otter
other age/sex categories. Various studies have shown that Sound demonstrated the potential vulnerability of sea
sea otters are capable of homing from distances as great otter populations to catastrophic oil spills. As many as
as 300 miles. 781 spill related sea otter carcasses were recovered after
the spill. Total mortality of sea otters resulting from EVOS
Sea otters generally feed on large-bodied, bottom dwell-
was much higher. Over 350 sea otters, mostly oiled, were
ing invertebrates obtained during dives. They are able
captured alive after the spill, but survival was less than
to dive to at least 320 feet, but most foraging dives in
50 percent despite intensive efforts to treat and rehabili-
California are in waters less than 80 feet deep. Dive dura-
tate oiled animals. Oiled sea otters died primarily from
tion may be as long as four minutes, but more typically,
hypothermia resulting from matted pelage, toxic effects
is 50 to 80 seconds. Individual otters typically feed on
of oil fumes inhaled, oil ingested during futile grooming
a relatively few species of prey. At the population level,
efforts, and from stress.
however, sea otters are dietary generalists. More than 160
species have been reported as sea otter prey. Composition To deal with potentially catastrophic oil spills impacting
of sea otter diet relates to patterns of population growth. sea otters in California, the California Department of Fish
In California, diet is predominantly sea urchins, abalones, and Game’s (DFG) Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response
large crabs and large clams when otters have recently (OSPR) built and maintains the Marine Wildlife Veterinary
reoccupied a foraging area. As the period of occupation Care and Research Center in Santa Cruz. This facility can
increases, preferred prey decline in availability and the provide care for up to 120 sea otters as well as oiled
diet diversies. In cases of occupation by sea otters for birds and other marine mammals if necessary. It is part
more than a few years, the most common prey in Califor- of the larger Oiled Wildlife Care Network (OWCN) run by
nia are crabs and small snails. Other frequent prey include the Wildlife Health Center at the University of California,
octopus, mussels and clams, and at least some otters Davis, under funding from DFG-OSPR. Smaller numbers of
eat large quantities of market squid when available. Sea oiled sea otters may also be cared for at the Monterey
otters are well known for their abilities in using stones as Bay Aquarium, the Marine Mammal Center and Sea World,
tools while foraging. Stones may be used as hammers to which are afliated with the OWCN and OSPR.
dislodge prey from the substrate during dives and may be
used as anvils for breaking shells of prey during surface
Status of the Population
intervals. Fish are common prey for sea otters at certain
locations in Alaska and Russia. Consumption of sh by sea
T he sea otter population in California currently ranges
otters is rare in California.
along nearly 350 miles of coastline from approximately
Sea otters have important effects on the character of Half Moon Bay, San Mateo County to approximately Gavi-
nearshore biological communities. In a number of circum- ota, Santa Barbara County. Determination of trends in the
stances, it has been reported that otters substantially number of sea otters has been complicated by the variety
reduce prey abundance and individual size. The best- of survey techniques used, differing in accuracy and preci-
known cases involve species such as abalones and sea sion. However, few would argue that since the late 1960s
urchins that are sought in commercial or recreational sh- the population and range have more than doubled. In
eries. Such interactions have provided grist for intensive 1982, a standard survey method was adopted for assess-
political discord for many years regarding approaches to ments of the California population. The most recent count
management of sea otter populations. Such conicts rst in California, in the spring of 2000, totaled 2,317 animals,
arose in regard to the central California abalone 2,053 independent sea otters and 264 dependent pups.
shery in the 1960s. More recent conicts involve sea
Intensive investigation into the causes of sea otter mortal-
urchins, Dungeness crabs and several species of clams.
ity in California occurred throughout the 1990s and into
Human over-harvesting of shellsh populations sometimes
2000. Virtually every fresh dead sea otter received a
contributes to management difculties and political
detailed necropsy by a veterinary pathologist either from
controversies associated with conicts of sea otters
the National Wildlife Health Center or the DFG in partner-
and shellsheries.
ship with the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the
The control of herbivorous invertebrates by sea otters University of California, Davis. Several new disease agents
allows secondary development of dense algal populations, and disease processes were described. Some of the more
including kelps, which may substantially alter the struc- important diseases and parasites of sea otters in California
ture and dynamics of nearshore ecosystems. Proliferation include: 1) thorny headed worms of the genus Prolicollis,
of algae as a consequence of growing sea otter popula- which when present in high numbers penetrate the gut
tions has been reported at a number of locations through- wall causing peritonitis; 2) protozoal encephalitis; 3) bac-
out the range of the species. terial septicemia; 4) biotoxin poisoning from certain “red
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
538
tide” organisms; and 5) San Joaquin Valley fever. The The status and future of the sea otter colony at SNI
Sea Otter
prevalence of some of these pathogens may be inuenced remain uncertain.
by human activities within and adjacent to the marine The federal law (Public Law 99-625) that authorized the
environment of sea otters. If these diseases are translocation of sea otters to SNI also created a manage-
new to the sea otter population then serious conse- ment zone (aka the no-otter zone) as a concession to
quences may be in store. However, these may be old dis- the shellsh industry for sheries expected to be lost due
eases recently discovered. The inuence of contaminants, to sea otter foraging. This management zone includes all
immune system function, and malnutrition on patterns California waters south of Point Conception except for
of disease and overall mortality are being investigated. those surrounding SNI. All sea otters found in the manage-
Diseases and parasites of sea otters in California appear to ment zone were to be captured by FWS in cooperation
be largely different from those of Alaskan sea otters. with DFG and returned either to SNI or the mainland
The cessation of population growth centered around range. Over 20 sea otters were captured in the man-
1982-1983 and 1997-1998, both strong El Niño years, agement zone between 1990 and 1993 and returned to
suggests to some, that long term cyclic environmental the mainland range. However, shortly after, two separate
changes resulting in ups and downs in prey availability otters captured from the management zone and translo-
may be responsible. Others argue that increases in disease cated back to the Monterey area, were found dead. The
and/or parasite infection rates are primarily responsible FWS judged that the deaths might have been due to the
for population dips. Still others suspect that bycatch of stress of capture, transport and relocation. This brought
otters in net and trap sheries may be the major factor. an end to the “containment program,” as it was called,
It is likely that all of these play a role in regulating popula- because removals were to be by non-lethal means. Small
tion size. If long-term, more or less permanent, human numbers of otters remained in the management zone
caused and/or natural environmental change is occurring, through 1997 with relatively little outcry from opponents
then predicting the future for sea otter populations, or of this outcome. Then in 1998, over 100 sea otters moved
any living resource, is troublesome. into the area south of Point Conception. Since that time
the numbers counted in the management zone have sea-
sonally vacillated from less than ve to over 150. The
Current Management count south of Point Conception in May 2000 was 79 sea
otters. No action by FWS to remove sea otters from the
P assage of the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act
management zone has occurred since 1993.
(MMPA) of 1972 provided new authority for protection
At this writing (June 2000) the FWS is being sued by
of sea otters in all U.S. waters. With the passage of the
the shellsh industry for failure to enforce the manage-
MMPA, management authority for sea otters in California
ment zone as legally mandated by Public Law 99-625.
transferred from the state to the federal government. The
Meanwhile, the Friends of the Sea Otter, a sea otter
managing agency is the United States Fish and Wildlife Ser-
advocacy group, has vowed to sue the FWS if they attempt
vice (FWS). Sea otters were conferred “threatened” status
to enforce the management zone on the grounds that such
under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) in
action would violate the ESA.
1977. The ESA directed the formation of a recovery team
and the production of a recovery plan for California sea The draft revised recovery plan for sea otters in California
otters. A primary element of the plan, issued in 1982, was made available for public review in the spring of
was the establishment of a new colony of sea otters 2000. The primary goal of the new Plan, like the old,
by translocation within California. The colony was to be is attainment of a sea otter population with sufcient
well separated from the existing mainland range, thereby numbers and range to eliminate the possibility of disasters
reducing the possibility that a single large oil spill or such as the EVOS exposing all California sea otters to
similar disaster could contaminate all the sea otters contamination and possible injury or death. Interestingly,
in California. the draft revised plan no longer views the process of
translocation as a valuable tool to speed recovery, view-
Between 1987 and 1990, 139 sea otters were translocated
ing natural expansion of the population to be the appro-
from the mainland range to San Nicolas Island (SNI), off
priate approach. According to the recovery team, it will
southern California. The number of sea otters counted at
require the average of three consecutive standardized
SNI through most of the 1990s hovered around 15. The
spring counts to be 2,650 or greater for sea otters to be
most recent survey of the island, in April 2000, found
delisted under ESA (Friends of the Sea Otter is threatening
23 sea otters (21 adult and two dependent pups). While
to sue to increase this number).
over 50 sea otter pups are known to have been born
at the SNI, the population strangely has remained small. If the sea otter population in California does increase
to the level suggested for delisting, and should delisting
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 539
occur, it will still, in all likelihood, be accorded
Sea Otter
“depleted” status under the MMPA. Removal from
depleted status requires the “optimum sustainable popu-
lation” be attained which is generally regarded as 60 per-
cent of the “carrying capacity.” If the historical statewide
population size of 14,000 is used, then the count of sea
otters in California necessary for removal from depleted
status under the MMPA is 8,400. Only after this sea otter
population size and associated range size are achieved will
real zonal management (separation of sea otter and shell-
shing areas), which would require lethal take, become a
possibility. Unlimited expansion is the likely management
option that will be pursued for the foreseeable future.
Glenn R. VanBlaricom
U.S. Geological Survey
Jack A. Ames, Michael D. Harris and Robert A Hardy
California Department of Fish and Game
References
Estes, J. A. and G. R. VanBlaricom. 1985. Sea otters and
shellsheries. Pages 187-235 in R. Beverton, J. Bedding-
ton, and D. Lavigne (eds). Conicts between marine mam-
mals and sheries. Allen and Unwin, London, England.
Garrott, R.A., L.E. Eberhardt, and D.M. Burn. 1993. Mortal-
ity of sea otters in Prince William Sound following the
Exxon Valdez oil spill. Marine Mammal Science 9:343-359.
Kenyon, K. W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacic
ocean. North American Fauna 68. 352 pp.
Ogden, A. 1941. The California sea otter trade, 1784-1848.
University of California Press, Berkeley. 251 p.
Riedman, M. 1990. Sea otters. Monterey Bay Aquarium,
Monterey. 80 pp.
Riedman, M. L. and J. A. Estes. 1990. The sea otter
(Enhydra lutris): Behavior, ecology, and natural history.
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 90(14). 126 pp.
Watson, J. (ed). 1996 Conservation and management of
the southern sea otter. Endangered Species Update 13
(12), Special Issue. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Wendell, F.E., R.A. Hardy and J.A. Ames. 1986. An assess-
ment of the accidental take of sea otters, Enhydra lutris,
in gill and trammel nets. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar
Resour. Tech. Rep. 54. 31 pp.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
540
Marine Bird
Resources Islands (off San Francisco) and Castle Rock (near Crescent
Marine Birds
City). The Farallones are the most important single sea-
bird-breeding site in California; these islands are moni-
S eabirds are a diverse assortment of bird species that tored and studied each year by the Point Reyes Bird
inhabit salt or brackish water environments for most of Observatory and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Large
their annual cycle, but this is no clear denition. Some seabird populations there are associated with a high avail-
seabird species (such as the double-crested cormorant) ability of suitable and protected nesting habitat, coupled
have populations that are both saltwater or freshwater with strong and productive upwelling systems that provide
year-round (even with populations spending part of their for large prey resources in the same general area.
annual cycles in both environments). Other types of
Many other species are concentrated on the Channel
waterbirds found on salt water also include the classic
Islands, located south of Point Conception in the Southern
waterfowl (ducks, geese, coots, and shorebirds) as well as
California Bight. Most of these islands are within the
those that live on sandy beaches and in coastal marshy
Channel Islands National Park. The Channel Islands harbor
areas or that nest in arctic tundra or inland lakes and
important nesting colonies for some seabirds of northern
marshes (such as loons, grebes, wading birds, and even
afnity (such as Cassin’s auklets), but also the state’s
the well-known seaducks). Loons and grebes are, in fact,
entire nesting population of both brown pelicans (pres-
unique in many ways. They may be encountered during
ently a recovering endangered species under the Endan-
their non-breeding seasons foraging and living miles at
gered Species Act, ESA) and Xantus’s murrelet (about to
sea; yet, they nest inland in fresh water habitats. This dis-
be proposed for endangered species listing; a petition has
cussion is, however, limited to those species of birds that
been recently submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
have breeding populations on offshore islands, coastal
vice for listing under the ESA). Both species have southern
rocks, headlands, and certain coastal old-growth forests
breeding distributions and also nest on islands off Baja
and are part of the neritic (shallow marine waters less
California, but the brown pelican is of tropical afnity
than 200m deep) and pelagic food webs. Our California
(origin), whereas the Xantus’s murrelet is of subarctic
seabird avifauna can also be further divided into resident
afnity. Seabirds are monitored and studied each year
(breeding) and non-resident (non-breeding) species. Birds
in the Channel Islands by biologists from a number
in various ecological categories are very different
of government agencies, universities, and research
in how they affect or are affected by the natural
groups (e.g., University of California, Humboldt State Uni-
environment and human-related events offshore from
versity, U. S. Geological Survey, Channel Islands National
our coast.
Park, U.S. Minerals Management Service, California
There are 29 species of seabirds (according to our def- Department of Fish and Game, and California Institute of
inition) that breed in the state of California. Point Environmental Studies).
Conception is generally considered a major area of transi-
Most of the remainder of important seabird breeding sites
tion between characteristically temperate (such as those
are protected by the National Park Service at Point Reyes
found in the Gulf of Alaska and Washington) and subtropi-
National Seashore and by the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage-
cal seabirds (such as those found in the Gulf of California).
ment and State of California, which manage all offshore
North of Point Conception, marine waters are dominated
rocks as the new California Coastal National Monument.
by cold, nutrient-rich water upwelled along the coast.
The marbled murrelet nests on public and private land,
Waters south of Punta Eugenia, Baja California, are gener-
located within privately-owned forests.
ally subtropical. Between is an area of transition that
The marbled murrelet, in fact, is one of the most unique
varies in marine climate depending on the temporal
and interesting breeding seabirds off central and northern
extent and timing of upwelling. For example, well-known
California. It is a small seabird that nests inland on the
El Niño conditions often extend warmer waters northward,
branches of coastal, old-growth coniferous trees, often
while the opposite conditions known as La Niña often
over a hundred feet above the ground. This little bird spe-
move relatively colder waters more southward. Ecologi-
cies, listed as threatened under the Endangered Species
cally, (and including both breeders and non-breeders) this
Act, is very likely to be still declining (our table lists it as
makes California’s marine birds among the most interest-
unknown) because of the loss of its nesting habitat due
ing and taxonomically diverse (for the amount of coastline
to logging and mortality caused by oil spills and, previ-
and area of open ocean) in the Northern Hemisphere.
ously, gillnet shing. Fortunately, because of conservation
In California, many of our breeding seabirds, such as
measures, there has been no known mortality in gillnets
common murres, Brandt’s cormorants, and Cassin’s auk-
for the past 15 or so years, so there is cause for optimism.
lets (all primarily northern species) are concentrated at
Usually by the end of summer (after the upwelling period),
national wildlife refuges, for example, at the Farallon
the California Current system experiences an immigration,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 541
Table 1. Seabirds which breed off the California coast, their distributional status relative to areas north (Alaska) and
Marine Birds
south (Baja California) of California, the approximate sizes of their breeding populations in 1989-1991, and their probable
status in the early 2000s (X indicates presence, 0 indicates absence).
1989-91 Distribution in: Estimated CA
Common Name Breeding Pop. Current Status
(Scientific Name) Alaska California1 Baja Calif. in the early 2000s 2 in CA
Forked-tailed storm-petrel X X 0 300 Unknown
(Oceanodroma furcata)
Leach’s storm-petrel X X X 18,300 Declining
(Oceanodroma leucorhoa)
Ashy storm-petrel 3 0 X 0 <10,000 Declining
(Oceanodroma homochroa)
Black storm-petrel 0 X 0 150 Unknown
(Oceanodroma melania)
Brown pelican 3 0 X X 9,000 Stable
(Pelecanus occidentalis)
Double-crested cormorant X X X 1,900 Stable/Increasing
(Phalacrocorax auritus)
Brandt’s cormorant 0 X X 64,200 Stable/Increasing
(Phalacrocorax penicillatus)
Pelagic cormorant X X 0 15,900 Stable/Increasing
(Phalacrocorax pelagicus)
Western gull 0 X 0 51,000 Increasing
(Larus occidentalis)
Common murre X X 0 363,200 Stable/Increasing
(Uria aalge)
Pigeon guillemot X X 0 14,700 Stable
(Cepphus columba)
Marbled murrelet 3 X X 0 <10,000 Declining
(Brachyramphus marmoratus)
Xantus’s murrelet 3 0 X X <10,000 Stable/Declining
(Synthliboramphus hypoleucus)
Cassin’s auklet X X X 131,200 Declining
(Ptychoramphus aleuticus)
Rhinoceros auklet X X 0 400 Increasing
(Cerorhinca monocerata)
Tufted puffin X X 0 250 Stable/Declining
(Fratercula cirrhata)
Number species in common 10 - 7
Total breeding species 28 (30) 16 (29) 14 (22)
Note: The estimated total Alaskan breeding seabird population is about 40,200,000
Some species that breed in Alaska or Baja California are not listed above because
1
compared to about 700,000 for California. These numbers represent approximate
they do not usually breed along the California coast; these species usually occur
mean levels throughout the 1980s. Ten to 40 percent should be added to include
only as visitors, but in many cases can occur in very large numbers. Species in
non-breeders and immatures, a proportion that varies from year to year and species
this category include white pelicans, black skimmers, at least four other species
to species. Four species (common murre, Brandt’s cormorant, Cassin’s auklet, and
of gulls (Heerman’s, laughing, ring-billed, and California), and seven species of
western gull) comprise almost 90 percent of the total number of breeders. Population
terns (elegant, royal, Caspian, Forster’s, gull-billed, least, black); numbers in
numbers given in this column are from the most recent statewide breeding surveys
parentheses indicate such additions for each area.
(see Carter et al. 1992).
Indicates numbers of individuals.
2
Updated since 1991.
3
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
542
emigration, and reshufing of certain species of seabirds Pink-footed shearwater . . . . Pufnus creatopus
Marine Birds
from the north, south, and within California. The abun- Red-billed tropicbird. . . . . . Phaethon aethereus
dance and diversity of seabirds increases immensely at
Ringed-bill gull . . . . . . . . . Larus delawarensis
this time. One of the most abundant seabird species in
Royal tern. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna maxima
the world, the sooty shearwater, comes through California
waters by the hundreds of thousands, mostly from New Sooty shearwater . . . . . . . . Pufnus griseus
Zealand breeding colonies. Similarly, thousands of pink-
footed and Bullar’s shearwaters visit from Chile and New
History and Utilization
Zealand, respectively. During the summer and late fall,
large numbers of black-footed and smaller numbers of
S eabirds are the most conspicuous and familiar elements
Laysan albatrosses visit from their Hawaii nesting colo-
of marine communities and are a source of pleasure
nies. Occasionally, southern seabirds, such as boobies,
and enjoyment for people at sea or along the coast.
red-billed tropicbirds, and magnicent frigatebirds, will
They are unique and important biotic elements of marine
provide the highlight of an offshore birding trip. Usually,
ecosystems and in the practical sense are a good indicator
beginning in July, several species arrive from the Gulf of
of the general health of coastal offshore environments,
California, Mexico, dispersing northward along the Califor-
yet people working or recreating at sea often know little
nia coast; these include black-vented shearwaters, least
about them. Although often omitted from marine resource
storm-petrels, Heermann’s gulls, elegant terns, and many
reference works, seabirds require management and pro-
more brown pelicans than nest in California. Especially
tection, just as other elements of marine ecosystems do.
during late fall and winter, we witness the arrival of
northern seabirds, such as northern fulmars, horned puf- Seabirds are prominent elements in the biodiversity of
ns (plus other species of the “alcid” family), black-legged marine ecosystems. They perform what ecologist Paul
kittiwakes, and other species. Such diversity and abun- Ehrlich calls ecological services, such as nutrient cycling
dance certainly adds to the overall richness and ecological and scavenging of biological waste materials and debris
value of California’s total marine avian resources. from waters and beaches. They often guide shermen to
sh. They are a pleasure to watch, and consequently,
contribute signicantly to eco-tourism. A small industry
Table 2. Scientic names of birds mentioned in text but
of offshore nature cruises has, in fact, developed in many
not included in Table 1.
ports along the California coast. Healthy seabird popula-
tions give us the justied feeling that all is well at sea,
and a missing, sick, or oiled bird tells us that it might
Albatrosses . . . . . . . . . . . . Family Diomedeidae
not be.
Black-legged kittiwake . . . . Rissa tridactyla
Like most marine wildlife, marine birds have historically
Black skimmer . . . . . . . . . . Rynchops niger
suffered severe and relentless exploitations by man. In
Black tern . . . . . . . . . . . . . Childonias niger California this was especially true at the Farallon and
Black-vented shearwater . . . Pufnus opisthomelas other islands during and after the gold rush (from 1850
to about 1900), where common murres were heavily
Boobies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sula sp.
exploited for their eggs. There was no regulation of take
Bullar’s shearwater. . . . . . . Pufnus bullari
and the murre populations declined severely. Numbers
California gull . . . . . . . . . . Larus californicus had declined by an order of magnitude by the 1900s, and
only a few thousand individuals were left by the 1930s.
California least tern . . . . . . Sterna antillarum
The Farallon Islands murre population did not recover for
Caspian tern . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna caspia
several decades and even now is far below numbers of
Elegant tern . . . . . . . . . . . Thalasseus elegans the 1800s. Exploitation of seabirds or seabird products is
neither a local or recent phenomenon. Recall the ancient,
Forster’s tern . . . . . . . . . . Sterna forsteri
managed harvest of guano by the Incas of Peru, or the
Gull-billed tern . . . . . . . . . Sterna nilotica
harvest of guano for manufacturing gunpowder by the
Heermann’s gull . . . . . . . . . Larus heermanni imperialistic navies of Europe in the 16th-18th centuries.
Horned pufn . . . . . . . . . . Fratercula corniculata Empires were won or lost over control of seabird islands.
Early sailors and explorers often utilized seabirds or their
Least storm-petrel . . . . . . . Oceanodroma microsoma
eggs for food, driving some species to extinction. In gen-
Magnicent frigatebird . . . . Fregata magnicens
eral, however, there has been little success worldwide
Northern fulmar. . . . . . . . . Fulmarus glacialis in utilizing seabirds for sustainable food or other product
sources. The few exceptions include guano harvests in
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 543
Peru, harvest of eider down from seaducks in Iceland, (such as slops and oily bilge waste-water) have become
Marine Birds
and muttonbird (shearwater) harvests for food in New increasingly more frequent, and large numbers of seabirds
Zealand. There has been no successful sustainable harvest have been killed. An outstanding example of seabird losses
of seabirds or seabird products in California or along the by oil spills is the “Point Reyes Tar Ball Incident” in
West Coast. Since the early days of exploitation, man- which it is estimated that 10,000 to 20,000 seabirds died.
agement has usually involved putting the nesting islands Although acute oiling of seabirds from large oil spills
into a protection system. This is the case for all islands receives a great deal more attention, chronic oil fouling of
off California. the offshore environment might cause the most damage to
seabirds and other marine wildlife. Rehabilitation (washing
After World War II, California’s abundant seabird popula-
and captive care) of oiled birds has so far not been very
tions began to suffer from new problems. For example,
successful. Most birds die before rehabilitation can be
populations were depleted as a result of offshore chemical
attempted and many birds that receive care die anyway
pollutant discharges from industries in southern California.
either before or after their release. It is not likely that
Most recently, populations have declined as a result of
most birds surviving rehabilitation will go on to breed.
excessive mortality from entanglement in commercial gill-
Thus, prevention of both oil spills and chronic oiling is
nets. Bird populations in central and southern California
the best solution. And, in stepping-up prevention activi-
may have declined because of excessive sardine shing.
ties, California has changed several factors to reduce the
Most species of seabirds feed on or near the surface,
incidence and spread of spills: oil spill response schemes
schooling species that are also sought in commercial sh-
in all harbors, ship trafc control systems in all large
eries. The well-known decline of sardines off Monterey
ports, heavy nes of perpetrators of spills, and double-
is thought to have had deleterious effects on some spe-
hulls required of all new tankers. In 1994, a multi-million
cies of seabirds. It is not well known, however, how long
dollar, statewide oil-spill rehabilitation network was initi-
it takes to bring about a population decline of seabirds
ated by the Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response, Cali-
from prey depletion. Some species are able to switch
fornia Department of Fish and Game and Oiled Wildlife
effectively to other prey species, but often there are no
Care Network, University of California, Davis, to provide
other appropriate prey species to switch to. Since the
the immediate capability to clean oiled marine wildlife
1950s, large oil spills and chronic waste oil discharges
and to conduct research to improve rehabilitation tech-
niques and survival success. Rehabilitation of individuals
affected by diseases such as botulism or individuals that
have been hooked or otherwise injured by shing gear
have proven to be much more successful. Unfortunately,
funds to implement strategies to prevent birds from con-
tacting oil during the spill response, such as wildlife
hazing programs, have received limited support.
Population restoration and maintenance of populations
into the future are ultimate goals of wildlife managers.
Historically, most seabird conservation and management
measures have been through protection of critical nest-
ing, feeding, and roosting areas from human exploitation
and disturbance, eradication of small populations of intro-
duced predators, protection and recovery of prey species,
and reduction of contaminants (e.g., DDT and PCB com-
pounds). Now, however, more proactive efforts are being
utilized. For example, planned eradication of a large pop-
ulation of rats on Anacapa Island (by the Island Con-
servation and Ecology Group working with the Channel
Islands National Park, USFWS, NOAA, and CDFG) will
hopefully allow re-establishment of large populations
of formerly-abundant crevice-nesting seabird populations.
In another example, old-growth redwood forests have
been preserved because of their importance as nesting
habitat for marbled murrelets. Seabird recolonization is
being achieved through social attraction techniques (using
Adult Western Gull, Larus occidentalis
decoys, mirror boxes, and taped calls) to restore breeding
Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
544
populations of common murres along the central California nia Marine Life Protection Act, to help study, conserve,
Marine Birds
coast. Using these methods, breeding-age individuals were and manage marine wildlife. Trust funds established from
attracted to Devil’s Slide Rock in San Mateo County, the natural resource damage assessments resulting from oil
site of a previously extirpated breeding colony. Since the spills such as the Apex Houston, the American Trader and
,
project was initiated in 1996 (by the USFWS, Humboldt the Commend oil spills has already resulted in major
State University, and National Audubon Society), a small new initiatives for seabird conservation; restoration funds
breeding colony soon established itself and increased each of about $12.5 million have been committed to these
year to over 100 pairs in 2001. Proactive restoration efforts. And for the rst time, signicant marine bird pro-
and conservation efforts will undoubtedly expand in tection zones (mainly for nesting areas) are being consid-
the future. ered along with marine reserves, which address primarily
shery resources.
Since seabirds are visibly affected when people misuse
marine resources, the well-being of our seabird popula-
tions can tell us a great deal about the health of our
Seabird Ecology
oceans. Potential effects on seabirds from future develop-
A
ment are often examined to help evaluate overall pro- lmost all important adaptations in body form and
jected effects on the marine environment. Such activities behavior of seabirds reect specialization for either
include increased levels of offshore oil extraction and breeding or feeding. Methods of marine bird feeding
transport, mining of other ocean resources, development depend on types of foods and where these foods are found
of other forms of energy, use of new shing techniques, in the water column. Seabirds, therefore, are inuenced
sh farming and sh ranching at sea, and new marine by the environmental factors that inuence the marine
product development and exploitation. Additionally, “eco- environment. During the breeding season, seabirds are
tourism,” a rapidly growing industry, can itself lead to conned to feeding within range of their nesting islands.
unregulated intrusion onto islands that are important as In addition to providing suitable habitat, nesting islands
nesting sites for seabird populations. There is already must be free of predators and disturbances. Outside the
a long history of disappearance of seabird colonies on breeding season, when not constrained to tending off-
islands visited too frequently by unsupervised tourists. spring, many seabird species are highly mobile and can
Global warming may also have detrimental effects on move long distances to nd food while some species may
sh resources and, ultimately, seabirds. This may be seen remain in areas of abundant and predictable food sup-
in the form of population declines, changes in behavior, plies, just like shermen. At sea, distribution of seabirds
and/or shifts in distribution. Often predictive models, is heavily inuenced by physical oceanographic processes.
based on current research, will be necessary to more For example, plankton feeders will be found where ocean
adequately predict what changes might be expected from currents favor growth and accumulation of planktonic spe-
long-term and radical changes in environmental conditions cies. Such areas, in turn, provide food for shoals of spe-
due to global warming. cies such as northern anchovy, Pacic sardine, herring,
The heavy nes and natural resource damage assessments mackerel, or juvenile demersal shes such as rockshes.
that can be imposed on polluters, as well as recognition These midwater and epipelagic sh in turn are preyed
of the importance of seabirds as environmental indicators upon by sh-feeding seabirds.
and of the effects that human activities can have on
them, has led to a surge of activity and interest in seabird
conservation and management. In addition to many gov-
ernmental agencies that are concerned or charged with
seabird conservation, there are at least ve “seabird
groups” that are composed of interested professionals
worldwide who have become organized to study, help
conserve these important elements of marine wildlife, as
well as to educate the general public as to the value
of seabirds in the California area. The Pacic Seabird
Group focuses on the Pacic Coast from Baja California to
Washington, plus Alaska, Hawaii, British Columbia, other
parts of Mexico, and Japan. In California, state and federal
governmental agencies, sport and commercial shermen,
seabird biologists, and marine bird conservationists are
Juvenille Western Gull, Larus occidentalis
beginning to work together, guided in part by the Califor-
Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 545
Some seabirds feed at the surface and others y or paddle predators has left many seabirds with no defenses against
Marine Birds
underwater to extend their reach lower into the water predators, except to abandon their colonies. Undisturbed
column. Some California species can dive to a depth of roosting and loang sites are also critical to seabirds.
330 feet. Water clarity inuences which type of feeding Tourism and introductions of rats, cats, dogs, pigs, goats,
method will be most successful. For example, clear, tropi- and other feral animals has repeatedly led to exter-
cal waters typically best support species that catch sh by mination of seabirds from islands that were formerly
plunge-diving (boobies and pelicans). In contrast, north- predator-free.
ern waters are usually too turbid for aerial plungers to see
prey, but are better suited to underwater swimmers or
Management and Conservation
yers (like the murres, auklets, and cormorants).
T
While nesting, seabirds are largely bound to nest contents raditionally (up until about 1990), responsible govern-
that requires protection from predators. The breeding ment agencies had expressed almost no interest in
season is the period of time it takes from courtship, nest- funding basic seabird conservation research. Ofcial list-
building, and egg-laying to the point of edging, when ing under various categories and laws (the most outstand-
young leave the nest or become independent. During ing being both state and federal “endangered” species
breeding seabirds are strongly inuenced by local food acts) forced agencies to expend some limited funds on
supplies (i.e., prey available within the feeding range of such species as brown pelicans, least terns, and marbled
nesting birds), which are dependent upon oceanographic murrelets. Impending offshore oil development prompted
and meteorological conditions. Reproductive success is some federal agencies to begin basic surveys of marine
inuenced by the biomass, availability, and consistency of birds and mammals at sea and on the California coastline.
local food supplies. For instance, when El Niño weather Recent damage assessments guided by the Oil Pollution
patterns associated with reduced productivity occur, Act of 1990 have stimulated new directions in seabird
seabirds reproduce poorly or not at all because prey conservation and management. It is ironic that mainly
resources are less abundant and available. Decadal altera- because of impending threats to seabirds by various
tion of marine climate can also be important, for example, forms of oceanic pollution (Outer Continental Shelf devel-
the warm, nutrient-depleted period that existed during opments and marine contaminants), only then have sea-
the late 1800s and again in the last decades of the 1900s. birds begun to receive adequate research and conserva-
Since offshore islands with nearby, stable food supplies tion attention. Relative to other categories of marine
are in short supply for nesting seabirds in California, such resources, however, marine wildlife research and conser-
birds are almost always found concentrated into tightly- vation still has to be considered as minimal. Interestingly,
packed nesting colonies, with different species usually the non-game program of the California Department of
segregated onto different kinds of micro-habitat. As a Fish and Game (under the leadership of Howard Leach)
consequence, nesting colonies are vulnerable to destruc- pioneered on a national basis, investigations of seabird
tion by mammalian predators such as foxes, raccoons, resources in California. Also in the early-1970s, a non-
mink, and cats. Therefore, nesting islands must be free prot research organization, the Point Reyes Bird Observa-
from both terrestrial predators and human disturbance tory, initiated important research on the Farallon Islands.
to provide seabirds with successful nesting opportunities. Many federal and state agencies are now involved in the
Evolutionary development on islands lacking terrestrial management and conservation of marine birds, and many
statutory and regulatory provisions contribute to their
protection. In addition, California has one of the nest
systems of sanctuaries and refuges for seabirds in the
world, although coordination among the many agencies
and organizations involved has proven to be challenging.
However, our coastal wetlands now comprise only a small
percentage of their former extent, and these habitats are
critical to many species of seabirds. Offshore waters are
becoming increasingly occupied and utilized by people,
yet many offshore islands and rocks are as close to their
natural states as one might reasonably expect in our
modern world.
Nonetheless, some of California’s seabirds have been des-
ignated as threatened or endangered (e.g., California least
Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis
tern, California brown pelican, and marbled murrelet),
Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
546
Seabird and Fisheries Interactions
and others may already warrant such designations (e.g.,
Marine Birds
Xantus’s murrelet and ashy storm-petrel). Brown pelicans
S eabird-sheries interactions have been categorized as
may eventually be downlisted and delisted as an endan-
follows: 1) direct competition, with negative popula-
gered species because its populations have shown strong
tion implications either for sh or seabird populations;
recovery and are now self-sustaining; among seabirds this
2) mutualism, where the interaction is benecial, or com-
is one of the few true success stories of marine bird
mensalism, where there is neither benet nor detriment
conservation in recent times.
to the interaction; and 3) physical injury, where birds are
Seabird populations have a number of characteristics in
killed or injured by shing activities, or bird activities
common, which make them susceptible to harm from
affect operations or damage gear. Categories 1 and 3
environmental changes:
describe conicts in resource use that should be mini-
1) Resident seabirds concentrate their nesting efforts
mized. Extensive mortality of common murres and other
over several months at small areas, and they tradi-
seabirds in the 1980s and 1990s in gillnets has led to
tionally use the same nesting areas year after year.
extensive shing closures throughout most of California.
2) Some seabirds (e.g., pelicans, cormorants, and gulls) Multi-species or ecosystem management instead of man-
concentrate in roosts or resting sites. Night roosts agement that is single-species oriented may be the key to
provide protection from predators and disturbances minimizing many conicts. The management plan of the
and may have benecial thermal characteristics. Day Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC) for northern
roosts are located closer to food supplies and may anchovies was one of the rst in the nation to consider the
also have good plumage-drying properties, such as multiple uses of the anchovy resource, including prey for
sunny, cold-wind protected surfaces. both seabirds and marine mammals and bait for sport sh-
ermen. With recovering Pacic sardine populations (begin-
3) Many seabirds depend on concentrated food supplies,
ning in the late 1980s), the PFMC is revising its anchovy
often commercially valuable sheries resources.
plan to include multi-species management of small
Marine sheries biologists are beginning to work with
pelagic shes. Fishery management plans are beginning
marine wildlife biologists to balance recreational and
to include concepts such as forage reserves, multiple-
commercial sheries with other wildlife needs.
needs, ecosystem balance, and thresholds of minimum
4) Many seabirds tend to be long-lived with low
resource abundance.
annual reproductive rates. Thus, seabirds cannot
In recent years, there has been conict between seabird
usually recover very rapidly from large impacts on
needs for disturbance free nesting habitat and the market
their populations.
squid shery in the Channel Islands. This shery depends
5) Seabirds are often components of assemblages with
on the use of intense lighting during the night to attract
interdependent elements, which means that they are
squid. Much of the squid harvest occurs relatively close to
closely allied to other species in their system. Disrup-
the shorelines of islands where seabirds nest. As a result,
tion of one or more interacting elements may affect
smaller crevice-nesting nocturnal birds (e.g., Xantus’s mur-
the entire assemblage in some way.
relet and ashy storm-petrels) become highly vulnerable to
predators (such as gulls and owls) while attending nest
sites. These species are also attracted to light and can
become disoriented and crash into the boats, potentially
causing death or injury, or separating adults from their
young on the water. Additionally, there is concern over
the impacts of continuous light on the breeding success
of diurnal species such as brown pelicans and cormorants.
For these species, continuous light may affect hormonal
levels, which in turn may alter behavioral patterns impor-
tant in courtship, incubation, and chick care. Noise and
disturbance generated from shing activities may also
affect breeding success of vulnerable species. Measures
to resolve these conicts are currently (in 2001) being
considered and discussed by state and federal agencies
together with seabird biologists and shery managers, but
at this time (summer of 2001) there are no assurances of
a resolution.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 547
Overall, the future of shery-seabird interactions free Morgan, K. H., K. Vermeer, R. W. McKelvey. 1991. Atlas of
Marine Birds
of major conicts is improving. For example, since gill- pelagic birds of western Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service
netting has been banned in many areas, some shermen Occasional Paper 72:1-72.
have switched to alternate shing methods that do not National Geographic Society. 1999. Field guide to the
harm seabirds. Situations are more difcult to control birds of North America, 3rd edition. National Geographic
when commercial shing occurs outside areas of state or Society, Washington, DC. 480 pp.
federal jurisdiction, such as foreign waters where many of
Palmer, R. S. (ed.). 1962. Handbook of North American
our migratory seabirds reside part of the year. Interactions
birds, volume I. Yale University Press, New Haven CT. 567
between the recreational sherman and marine wildlife
pp.
also occur. While each individual interaction may involve
Spendelow, J. A., and S. R. Patton. 1988. National atlas of
only one angler and one bird (involving hook injuries,
coastal waterbird colonies in the contiguous United States:
monolament entanglements, and other injuries from han-
1976-82. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands
dling and struggle), recreational shermen as a group
Research Center, Washington, DC. 326 pp.
can have a signicant impact on some seabird popula-
tions. In most instances the best management approach is
Surveys and Status Reports
still education.
Ainley, D. G., and T. J. Lewis. 1974. The history of
Farallon Island marine bird populations, 1854-1972. Condor
Daniel W. Anderson and Franklin Gress
76:432-436.
University of California, Davis and California Institute of
Ainley, D. G., and G. L. Hunt, Jr. 1991. Status and conser-
Environmental Studies
vation of seabirds in California. International Council for
Harry R. Carter
Bird Protection Technical Publication 11:103-114.
U. S. Geological Survey and Humboldt State University
Carter, H. R., G. J. McChesney, D. L. Jaques, C. S. Strong,
Paul R. Kelly
M. W. Parker, J. E. Takekawa, D. L. Jory, and D. L. Whit-
California Department of Fish and Game
worth. 1992. Breeding seabird populations of California,
Alec D. MacCall 1989-1991. Unpubl. draft report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife
National Marine Fisheries Service Service, Dixon, CA.
Carter, H. R., A. L. Sowls, M. S. Rodway, U. W. Wilson,
R. W. Lowe, F. Gress, and D. W. Anderson. 1995. Pop-
References ulation size, trends, and conservation problems of the
double-crested cormorant on the west coast of North
Because this report focuses on the status of marine sher-
America. in: D. N. Nettleship, and D. C. Duffy (eds.).
ies, as required my the MLMA, the editors have had to
The double-crested cormorant: biology, conservation and
limit the space devoted to birds. Since marine birds are an
management. Colonial Waterbirds (Special Publication 1)
integral part of all the ecosystem divisions of this book we
18:189-207.
have included a comprehensive list of references.
Carter, H. R., U. W. Wilson, R. W. Lowe, M. S. Rodway, D.
General Seabird References A. Manual, J E. Takekawa, and J. L. Yee. In press. Popula-
Cogswell, H. G. 1977. Water birds of California, University tion trends of the common murre (Uria aalge californica).
of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 399 pp. In: D. A. Manual, H. R. Carter, and T. S. Zimmerman
(eds.). Biology and conservation of the common murre in
Fisher, J., and R. M. Lockley. 1954. Seabirds. Houghton-
California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Vol.
Mifin, Boston, MA. 320 pp.
1: Natural history and population trends. U. S. Geological
Grant, P. 1986. Gulls: a guide to identication, second
Survey, Information and Technology Report.
edition. Buteo Books, Vermillion, SD. 320 pp.
Everett, W. T., and D. W. Anderson. 1991. Status and
Haley, D. (ed.). 1984. Seabirds of eastern north Pacic and
conservation of the breeding seabirds on offshore Pacic
Arctic waters. Pacic Search Press, Seattle, WA. 214 pp.
islands of Baja California and the Gulf of California. Inter-
Harrison, P. 1983. Seabirds: an identication guide. Hough- national Council for the Protection of Birds Technical Pub-
ton-Mifin, Boston, MA. 448pp. lication 11:115-139.
Lockley, R. M. 1974. Ocean wanderers. Stackpole Books, Harrison, C. S. 1991. Seabirds of Hawaii: natural history
Harrisburg, PA. 188 pp. and conservation. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. 288
pp.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
548
Hunt, G. L., Jr., R. L. Pitman, and H. L. Jones. 1980. Ashmole, N. P. 1971. Sea bird ecology and the marine
Marine Birds
Distribution and abundance of seabirds breeding on the environment. Pp. 223-286, in: Farner, D. S., and J. R.
California Channel Islands. Pp. 443-459, in: Power, D. M. King (eds.), Avian Biology, volume 1. Academic Press, New
(ed.), The California Islands: proceedings of a multidisci- York, NY. 586 pp.
plinary symposium. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural His- Briggs, K. T., and E. W. Chu. 1986. Sooty shearwaters
tory, Santa Barbara, CA. 787 pp. off California: distribution, abundance and habitat use.
Ralph, C. J., G. L. Hunt, Jr., M. G. Raphael, and J. F. Piatt Condor 88:355-364.
(eds.). 1995. Ecology and conservation of the marbled Briggs, K. T., W. B. Tyler, D. B. Lewis, and D. R. Carlson.
murrelet. U. S. Forest Service, General Technical Report 1987. Bird communities at sea off California: 1975 to 1983.
PSW-GTR-152. Albany, CA. Studies in Avian Biology 11:1-74.
Sowls, A. L., A. R. DeGange, J. W. Nelson, and G. S. Burger, J. 1988. Seabirds and other marine vertebrates:
Lester. 1980. Catalog of California seabird colonies. U. competition, predation, and other interactions. Columbia
S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program University Press, New York, NY. 339 pp.
FWS/OBS-80/37, Washington, DC. 371 pp.
Burger, J., B. L. Olla, and H. E. Winn. 1980. Behavior of
Sowls, A. L., S. A. Hatch, and C. J. Lensink. 1978. Catalog marine animals, volume 4: marine birds. Plenum Press,
of Alaskan seabird colonies. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, New York, NY. 515 pp.
Biological Services Program FWS OBS.78/78, Washington,
Croxall, J. P. (ed.). 1987. Seabirds: feeding ecology and
DC. 166 pp.
role in marine ecosystems. Cambridge University Press,
Speich, S. M., and T. R. Wahl. 1989. Catalog of Washington New York, NY. 408 pp.
seabird colonies. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological
Furness, R. W., and P. Monaghan. 1987. Seabird ecology.
Report 88:1-510.
Chapman and Hall, New York, NY. 164 pp.
Seabird Ecology Nelson, B. 1979. Seabirds: their biology and ecology. A &
W Publishers, New York, NY. 224 pp.
Ainley, D. G. 1977. Feeding methods in seabirds: a com-
parison of polar and tropical nesting communities in the Sealy, S. G. (ed.). 1990. Auks at sea. Studies in Avian
eastern Pacic Ocean. Proceedings S.C.A.R. Symposium on Biology 14:1-180.
Antarctic Biology 3:669-685. Sydeman, W. J., M. M. Hester, J. A. Thayer, F. Gress,
Ainley, D. G. 1980. Birds as marine organisms: a P. Martin, and J. Buffa. 2001. In press. Climate change,
review. California Cooperative Ocean Fisheries Investiga- reproductive performance and diet composition of marine
tions Reports 21:48-52. birds in the southern California Current, 1969-1997. Prog-
ress in Oceanography.
Ainley, D. G., and R. J. Boekelheide (eds.). 1990. Seabirds
of the Farallon Islands: ecology, dynamics, and structure Warham, J. 1990. The petrels: their ecology and breeding
of an upwelling system community. Stanford University systems. Academic Press, New York, NY. 440 pp.
Press, Stanford, CA. 450 pp.
Conservation and Management
Ainley, D. G., H. R. Carter, D. W. Anderson, K. T. Briggs,
Anderson, D. W., and F. Gress. 1981. The politics of peli-
M. C. Coulter, F. Cruz, J. B. Cruz, C. A. Valle, S. I. Fefer,
cans. Pp. 117-143. In: Jackson, T. C., and D. Reische (eds.),
S. A. Hatch, E. A. Schreiber, R. W. Schreiber, and N. G.
Coast alert: scientists speak out. Coast Alliance Press, San
Smith. 1988. Effects of the 1982-83 El Niño-Southern Oscil-
Francisco, CA. 181 pp.
lation on Pacic ocean bird populations. Proceedings of
the International Ornithological Congress 19:1747-1758. Anderson, D. W., J. E. Mendoza, and J. O. Keith. 1976.
Seabirds in the Gulf of California: a vulnerable, interna-
Ainley, D. G. and G. J. Divoky. 2001. Seabirds: response to
tional resource. Natural Resources Journal 16:483-505.
climate change. in: Steele, J. et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of
ocean sciences. Academic Press, London. Balance, L. T., D. G. Ainley, and G. L. Hunt, Jr. 2001.
Seabirds: foraging ecology. In: Steele, J. et al. (eds.).
Anderson, D. W. 1983. The seabirds. Pp. 246-264, 474-481,
Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, London.
in: Case, T. J., and M. L. Cody (eds.), Island biogeography
in the Sea of Cortez. University of California Press, Berke- Bartonek, J. C., and D. N. Nettleship (eds.). 1979. Con-
ley, CA. 508 pp. servation of marine birds of northern North America.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wildlife Research Report
Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, and K. F. Mais. 1982. Brown
11:1-315.
pelicans: inuence of food supply on reproduction. Oikos
39:23-31.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 549
Croxall, J. P. (ed.). 1991. Seabird status and conservation: the Southern California Bight. Ph.D. dissertation. Univer-
Marine Birds
a supplement. International Council for Bird Protection sity of California, Davis.
Technical Publication 11:1-308. Gress, F., R. W. Risebrough, D. W. Anderson, L. F. Kiff,
Croxall, J. P., P. G. H. Evans, and R. W. Schreiber (eds.). and J. R. Jehl, Jr. 1973. Reproductive failures of double-
1984. Status and conservation of the world’s seabirds. crested cormorants in southern California and Baja Califor-
International Council for Bird Protection Technical Publica- nia. Wilson Bulletin 85:197-208.
tion 2:1-778. Manuwal, D. A. 1978. Effect of man on marine birds: a
Diamond, A. W., and F. L. Filion. 1987. The value of birds. review. Pp. 140-160 in: C. M. Kirkpatrick (ed.), Wildlife
International Council for Bird Protection 6:1-275. and people. Purdue Research Association, West LaFayette,
IN.
Furness, R. W. and Greenwood. 1993. Birds as monitors of
environmental change. Chapman & Hall, New York. Page, G. W., H. R. Carter, and R. G. Ford. 1990. Numbers
of seabirds killed or debilitated in the 1986 Apex Houston
Gress, F., and D.W. Anderson. 1983. California brown peli-
oil spill in central California. Studies in Avian Biology
can recovery plan. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Port-
14:164-174.
land, OR. 179 pp.
Risebrough, R. W. 1972. Effects of environmental pollut-
Nettleship, D. N. 1991. Seabird management and future
ants upon animals other than man. Pp. 443-463 in: L.
research. Colonial Waterbirds 14:77-84.
LeCam, J. Neyman, and E. L. Scott (eds.). Proceedings
Parker, M. J., J. Boyce, R. Young, N. Rojek, C. Hamilton,
Sixth Berkeley Symposium Mathematical Statistics and
V. Slowik, H. Gellerman, S. Kress, H. Carter, G. Moore, and
Probability. University of California Press, Berkeley.
L. Cohen. 2000. Restoration of common murre colonies
Takekawa, J. E., H. R. Carter, and T. E. Harvey. 1990.
in central California: Annual report 1999. Unpublished
Decline of the common murre in California, 1980-1986.
report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, San Francisco Bay
Studies in Avian Biology 14:149-163.
National Wildlife Refuge Complex, Newark, CA.
Sherman, K. 1991. The large marine ecosystem concept: Seabirds and Fisheries
research and management strategy for living marine
Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, K. F. Mais, and P. R. Kelly.
resources. Ecological Applications 1:349-360.
1980. Brown pelicans as anchovy stock indicators and their
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. California least tern relationships to commercial shing. California Cooperative
recovery plan. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports 21:54-61.
OR.
Anderson, D. W., and F. Gress. 1984. Brown pelicans and
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 11997. Recovery plan for the anchovy shery off southern California. Pp. 128-135
the threatened marbled murrelet in Washington, Oregon, in: D. N. Nettleship, G. A. Sanger, and P. F. Springer
and California. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, (eds.) Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
OR. sheries relationships. Canadian Wildlife Service Special
Publication CW66-65, Ottawa, ON.
Pollution and Other Perturbations
Furness, R. W., and R. T. Barrett. 1991. Seabirds and sh
Anderson, D. W. 1988. Dose-response relationship between
declines. National Geographic Research and Exploration
human disturbance and brown pelican breeding success.
7:82-95.
Wildlife Society Bulletin 16:339-345.
Nettleship, D. N., G. A. Sanger, and P. F. Springer (eds.).
Anderson, D. W., and J. O. Keith. 1980. The human inu-
1984. Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
ence on seabird nesting success: conservation implica-
sheries relationships. Canadian Wildlife Service Special
tions. Biological Conservation 18:65-80.
Publication CW66-65, Ottawa, ON. 220 pp.
Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, and D. M. Fry. 1996. Survival
Radovich, J. 1981. The collapse of the California sardine
and dispersal of oiled brown pelicans after rehabilitation
shery: what have we learned? Pp. 107-136 in: Glanz, M.
and release. Marine Pollution 32:711-718.
H., and J. D. Thompson (eds.), Resource management and
Anderson, D. W., J. R. Jehl, Jr., R. W. Risebrough, L. A. environmental uncertainty: lessons from coastal upwelling
Woods, Jr., L. R. DeWeese, and W. G. Edgecomb. 1975. sheries. Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. 491 pp.
Brown pelicans: improved reproduction off the southern
Wahl, T. R., and D. Heinemann. 1979. Seabirds and
California coast. Science 190:806-808.
shing vessels: co-occurrences and attraction. Condor
Gress, F. 1995. Organochlorines, eggshell thinning, and 81:390-396.
productivity relationships in brown pelicans breeding in
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
550
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 551
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
552
Appendix A:
Management tection of the resource, in order to apply these costs
Appendix A: Management Considerations
to the shery.
Considerations 6. A constituent involvement process that assists in eval-
uating the best uses of the resource. Such a process
would also enable information-exchange between the
DFG and interested parties.
This appendix of Management Considerations is pro- 7. An evaluation of the consequences of reoccupation of
vided for informational purposes only. These views, the sea otter into southern California waters.
submitted by the authors, do not necessarily represent
the views of either the California Department of Fish
Albacore
and Game or the California Fish and Game Commission,
and no endorsement of any of these views by these
Currently, North Pacic albacore sheries are not subject
agencies is implied.
to formal management measures, such as limited entry or
total catch restrictions for the commercial sheries, or
size or bag limits for the recreational sheries. However,
Abalone more structured management of the albacore population
is being considered by an international convention (Multi-
DFG’s goals for abalone include the recovery of the aba-
lateral High-Level Conference (MHLC) on the Conservation
lone resource throughout its historic range to sustainable
and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the
levels, pursuant to the mandates of legislation (Abalone
western and central Pacic Ocean) that includes nations
Recovery and Management Plan and the Marine Life Man-
that historically have supported sheries for the highly
agement Act).
migratory stocks of the Pacic Ocean. It is likely that
For reasons discussed above, many historic abalone shery
initial management approaches will include some form
management practices were ineffective in protecting the
of limited entry intended to minimize the detrimental
resource south of San Francisco. The state recognizes the
effects to the stock that commonly arise due to intensive
value and importance of abalone resources, and has made
shing over extended periods of time. One of the most
abalone recovery and management a high priority. Future
difcult tasks that the MHLC must address will be to
abalone management might likely include the following:
develop a strategic plan (research and management goals)
1. Marine protected areas that provide refuge and pro- for the North Pacic albacore stock that is applicable to
tection for breeding populations of abalones, and the population’s entire range. Such a plan must be sup-
other long lived, broadcast-spawning invertebrates. ported by each nation’s albacore management institution
Such areas need to have active and adequate enforce- and industry if it is to be successful.
ment. These areas are necessary early in the recov-
ery phase to enhance reproductive viability.
Angel Shark
2. Individual species management. The life history, hab-
itat needs, and population levels of each species
Though the angel shark shery is currently very minor
should be recognized and considered within the
in California (it is growing in Mexico), it can serve as a
framework of ecosystem management. Knowledge of
valuable case study of an emerging shery that grew to
the age class structure, frequency and rate of recruit-
be one of the most valuable elasmobranch sheries on the
ment, natural mortality rate, and growth is needed to
Pacic coast in the past 25 years. A number of shermen,
model the shery for each species and area.
both gill-netters and trawlers, who continue to harvest
3. Rapid response to environmental and human induced angel sharks, have expressed interest in working with DFG
stresses is needed to adjust or stop harvests when biologists to reassess the 1987 minimum size limit. They
unforeseen problems such as disease or unusual cli- cite the fact that the main angel shark habitat and popula-
matic events arise. tion centers have been protected by the Proposition 132
area closures for over six years and that the Marine Life
4. Fishery-independent data to determine the health
Management Act (MLMA) encourages “adaptive manage-
and sustainable harvest rate of the resource.
ment” to review and amend regulations if stocks improve.
5. An evaluation to identify the potential size of the
Participation of experienced shermen proved valuable
shery using biological data and an economic analysis
in the cooperative life history and population studies con-
to evaluate resource rent, i.e., the amount necessary
ducted on the research vessel Squatina in the 1980s and
to cover the cost of research, management, and pro-
the MLMA identies collaborative research as a priority
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 553
in obtaining cost-effective data for sheries management. opportunities. The length of time needed to rebuild the
Appendix A: Management Considerations
A future cooperative research study of the angel shark population depends on the frequency of rare large year
population could also shed light on the effectiveness of classes, but may require 40 years under conditions similar
a large “no-take” marine reserve, at least on this single to those seen in recent years.
resident species.
Further studies on the genetic variability of geographically
Bull Kelp
separated island and mainland stocks would provide
resource managers with valuable information in devel- In order to ensure a productive future for California’s
oping a sheries management plan. A review of the bull kelp resource and the species dependent on it, the
socio-economic impacts of the area closures on small following considerations are offered:
scale sheries, coastal communities, and local economies
1. Continue the present management system for the
could also provide managers with tools to assess the
300-series beds, including the harvest prohibition for
pros and cons of incorporating marine reserves in future
beds 303-307.
management strategies.
2. Modify the present 15 percent harvest-limit on the
The shing industry, university researchers, and resource
leasable 300-series beds to require distribution of
managers might seek to initiate a cooperative program
the harvest throughout the bed to minimize local
with Mexico to assure a sustainable angel shark
impacts.
shery that can continue to supply both Mexican and
3. Prohibit harvest of bull kelp in beds where the bull
U.S. markets.
kelp resource has been shown to be chronically dimin-
ished during the past several decades.
Barred Sand Bass 4. Encourage the use of alternative feeds, some of
which have already been developed for cultured spe-
This species seems to be a good candidate for the estab-
cies such as red abalone.
lishment of harvest refugia in some areas during peak
5. Fund more regular assessments and more research to
spawning times.
examine the impacts of various harvest strategies.
Bay Shrimp
Cabezon
The current lack of catch limits, closed seasons or
In recent years, federal groundsh management policy has
restricted areas is based upon the assumption that limited
resulted in drastic reductions in allowable take of many
demand for bay shrimp maintains effort at levels far below
groundsh species due to the overshed status of some
the level that would threaten long-term sustainability of
species such as lingcod, bocaccio, and canary rocksh.
the shery. Data is not available to test this assumption.
These reductions in turn have shifted effort to more lucra-
Because of this, the following measures are suggested:
tive markets, such as the live-sh shery. For bocaccio
1. Continue the compilation of bay shrimp logbook data
and canary rocksh, the efforts required to rebuild stocks
to get past and current catch per unit effort, as well
will restrict harvest levels for all associated species for
as maintaining logbook requirements for commercial
several years, so shing pressure on cabezon and other
shery participants.
nearshore groundsh species is not likely to decrease,
2. Monitor species composition in bay shrimp landings. and may increase further, without some intervention.
Currently, four species are known to be caught in the DFG developed interim management measures to further
shery with indications that a newly introduced fth address increasing demands on these nearshore sh popu-
species may also be of importance. Long-term shifts lations. Measures for cabezon include:
in species landed by the shery may be indicative of
1. An increase in the minimum size limit.
broader problems in the populations of each species.
2. A closed commercial and recreational shery during
spawning and nest guarding seasons.
Bocaccio In addition, the department is mandated to develop a
Nearshore Fishery Management Plan, which will include
Bocaccio have been managed under the Groundsh Man-
cabezon and may be adopted by the Fish and Game Com-
agement Plan of the Pacic Fishery Management Council
mission in January 2002.
since 1982. The bocaccio population is now under a formal
rebuilding program, requiring severe restrictions on shing
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
554
Calico Rockfish California Sheephead
Appendix A: Management Considerations
Calico rocksh are a minor component of commercial Implementation of the minimal size (12 inches) for the
rocksh landings in California, but they may comprise a sheephead may allow smaller females to reproduce prior
signicant portion of the undocumented bycatch of the to their entry to the shery. However, larger, more fertile
nearshore commercial sheries that target other nsh females are still at risk. Careful monitoring of catch and
or invertebrate species. The extent to which these near- effort data, if possible, is needed to allow early detection
shore shing operations increase calico rocksh mortality of a problem. A better understanding of reproduction
is not known and requires further study, including onboard would help set a more realistic minimum size limit.
observation and sampling of the bycatch of nearshore
commercial hook and line, trap, and trawl shing vessels
Coonstripe Shrimp
in southern and central California.
There is currently some onboard sampling of CPFVs in Information on biological parameters of coonstripe shrimp
California as part of the ongoing coastwide Marine Recre- off California is limited. A precautionary approach to man-
ational Fisheries Statistical Survey, but additional onboard agement should be employed until more is known about
sampling of CPFVs will be required to adequately assess the impacts of commercial harvest on this resource. Given
the mortality that is caused by sport anglers to calico this lack of knowledge, the following management mea-
rocksh stocks. Angler education and enforcement efforts sures should be considered:
to reduce the sport angler practice of high-grading would
1. Restrictions on access.
also help conserve the stocks of calico rocksh.
2. Limit the number of traps used by each sherman.
3. A season closure from November through April, during
California Barracuda the predominant egg-bearing period.
4. A mandatory logbook.
1. Establish equilateral regulations with Mexico based on
collaborative research. 5. Development of a shery dependent and independent
monitoring program to gather data on life history and
2. Maintain current commercial and recreational
population characteristics.
regulations.
6. Since sport harvest of this resource may increase in
the future, the issue of equitable allocation should be
California Corbina seriously considered.
1. Maintain the current sport sh regulations and the
ban on commercial take of corbina.
Coastal Cutthroat Trout
2. Ascertain size and age structure of populations.
Sportshing regulations in many waters have been
changed to catch-and-release, enabling sport shing to
California Halibut continue, at reduced harvest levels.
1. Catch and release regulations should be continued.
1. Maintain the current commercial and recreational
2. Data on abundance and distribution of coastal cut-
regulations.
throat trout should be collected in the context of
2. Protect nursery grounds in southern California’s
habitat conditions so that the relationship between
embayments and estuaries.
the sh and ecological processes can be understood.
3. Prohibit dredging operations in embayments and
3. Programs should implement conservation measures
estuaries during periods of peak abundance
and restoration of habitat to permit dispersal among
(March-May) of larval and newly settled halibut in
populations and different strains of coastal cutthroat.
southern California.
Dolphin
Continue to monitor the commercial and sport sheries
for catch and effort data. Work with the Pacic Fishery
Management Council to implement the Highly Migratory
Species Fishery Management Plan, which includes dolphin.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 555
Eel Grass Gaper Clam
Appendix A: Management Considerations
1. Carry out and maintain a comprehensive eelgrass Present sport bag limits for locations with large sport clam
inventory for the state. sheries seem adequate to protect the gaper clam popula-
tions in those areas and also in areas where declines in
2. Revise the Southern California Eelgrass Mitigation
populations have occurred. Population declines in other
Policy or develop and implement a new statewide
areas are most likely not caused by over-harvest since
eelgrass disturbance, avoidance, and mitigation policy
there remains a subtidal portion of the population that
that recognizes eelgrass as a vital living marine
acts as a spawning reserve. There are a number of reasons
resource whose presence is critical in nearshore
for reduced clammer success in formerly productive bay
food web.
and estuarine areas, including decreased tidal ushing
3. Evaluate the potential impacts of anticipated sea
and increased sedimentation reducing gaper clam habitat;
level rise and coastal erosion on remnant and re-
increased foraging on gaper clams within the range of
established eelgrass bed communities. Because the
southern sea otters; and environmental effects, both long-
natural, often gently sloping shorelines around many
term and those associated with shorter-term El Niño
of California’s bays have been replaced by revet-
events. Poor clammer success and take of small-sized
ments, a study of the potential loss of eelgrass habi-
clams tend to limit effort in areas where this occurs and
tat due to the lack of intertidal refuge from increased
should preclude the necessity of having a large number of
water depth and reduced light penetration should be
differing bag limits for gaper clams throughout the state.
undertaken. The results of such a study would then
be added to the analyses of potential impacts and
Geoduck Clam
preparations for the anticipated rise in sea level.
4. Include maintaining plant stock genetic diversity as
The present sport bag limit is adequate to protect the
an important parameter within mitigation-based eel-
resource from overharvest. In areas where foraging by sea
grass re-establishment requirements.
otters has reduced populations, the extremely low sport
take presents no threat to the populations, since reduced
Flatfish clam density usually leads to reduced clammer effort.
The author of the 1992 arrowtooth ounder assessment
Giant Kelp
recommended a conservative management approach,
especially until new data and models could estimate abso-
For the purpose of management, the kelp beds off Cali-
lute biomass and exploitation rates. Management of this
fornia represent more than just a single species of inter-
species falls under the jurisdiction of the Pacic Fishery
est. They represent an important nearshore ecosystem.
Management Council (PFMC). The Pacic halibut shery
Giant kelp forests provide essential habitat for a diverse
is regulated by the International Pacic Halibut Commis-
assemblage of marine shes and invertebrates and their
sion, made up of members from the United States and
loss would reduce the populations of many marine spe-
Canada. For the other minor atshes, the most recent
cies. Kelp forests are also important to sport and com-
recommendations of the Groundsh Management Team of
mercial shermen, kelp harvesters, recreational divers,
the PFMC suggest no change in the coastwide acceptable
photographers, and sightseers, and for their general aes-
biological catch.
thetic value. During the latter half of the 20th century,
Because of tighter restrictions on the primary federally-
throughout California and in southern California in par-
managed groundsh species (notably members of the
ticular, kelp forests have been subjected to increasing
Sebastes complex and lingcod), it is reasonable to assume
environmental stresses. Some are natural, such as the
that more shing effort may be placed on other species of
warm water El Niños. Other stresses are clearly the result
sh in the immediate future as shermen seek alternate
of human activity. These include sources of pollution and
sheries, including the minor atshes. If so, it is impera-
sedimentation resulting from coastal development and the
tive that this group of sh be included in shery manage-
increasing inuences of human population growth. While
ment plan development.
the causes of decline are complex and are masked by
seasonal uctuations, there is general agreement that
there is much less kelp along the southern California coast
than there was when we rst began conducting surveys,
shortly after the turn of the century.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
556
At least three areas of management offer some hope for bays and estuaries, a proactive management recommen-
Appendix A: Management Considerations
reversing this trend of decline: dation would continue to prohibit harvest of wild stocks of
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis species at this time.
1. Reduce harvest rates of urchin predators. These
include California sheephead and spiny lobster. The
Southern sea otter may eventually return to southern
Grunion
California areas which would result in less dense pop-
ulations of urchins. Proactive investigations to enhance knowledge of this spe-
2. Coastwide kelp photographic ights should be cies for future management should include estimates of
increased. The causes for the apparent declines in relative abundance of spawning sh and human take along
kelp beds, particularly in southern California cannot the sandy beaches of the Southern California Bight. This
be thoroughly analyzed or understood without a would reveal trends in abundance, distribution, beach
better time series of data. Once gathered, the data preference, and shing mortality. On-site observations at
should be incorporated into a statewide Geographic several locations, over several nights of each run, could
Information System (GIS). A similar database should add quantitative data on abundance and human take.
be gathered on coastal development. Once estab- This information would be valuable for resource damage
lished the GIS should be frequently reviewed for evi- assessment in the event of widespread petroleum spills
dence of kelp bed damage tied to onshore activities. during the spawning season.
3. Provide additional substrate (constructed reefs) over The only current aspect of grunion management that
widespread areas for establishment of new kelp beds. should be a candidate for revision is the lack of a bag
These may also serve as spore sources for re-estab- limit. The case for establishing a bag limit is not based
lishment of former natural kelp communities. on current harvest rates but on the potential impact of
a constantly growing human population in California. A
nominal bag limit of, perhaps, 50 sh would not restrict
Giant Sea Bass current legitimate recreational harvesting but could serve
to prevent over harvest if grunion gathering became more
Although there has been recent interest in re-opening the
popular. A bag limit also is valuable to insure that sh
recreational giant sea bass shery, this does not seem
caught under the authority of a sport shing license are
prudent at this time given the lack of data and new
not being harvested in large quantities for illegal sale.
evidence that suggest high body burdens of DDE and PCB
in California giant sea bass. Research projects underway
Jack Mackerel
at this time are collecting detailed information on the
movement, habitat use and behavior of this species. In a
few years, we may have enough data to make informed The jack mackerel population can probably continue to
management decisions regarding giant sea bass. Current support the current level of shing exploitation, but it is
management measures should remain in place. difcult to predict the effects of increased exploitation,
due to the limited knowledge of the composition and
behavior of the older segment of the population and to
Gracilaria the limited knowledge of reproduction and recruitment in
jack mackerel. Under the CPS FMP, jack mackerel are a
Baseline data on the extent and density for Gracilaria and
monitored species unless landings exceed the ABC for two
Gracilariopsis in areas favorable for its growth are lacking.
years. Should jack mackerel become actively managed, it
Little is known about its ability to capture and recycle
will be important to know the contribution of older sh to
nutrients, its invertebrate associates, and its value as a
the population and shery.
food source for macrofauna, especially the various avian
species that over-winter in California’s bays and estuaries.
Kelp Bass
The California Fish and Game Code gives the commission
authority to make regulations to insure the proper har-
vesting of kelp or other aquatic plants. If the worldwide It may be time to explore new conservation measures such
market for Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis increases, the as increasing the size limit, imposing minimum and maxi-
pressure on the commission to open up more of Califor- mum size limits (slot shing), and/or promoting catch-and-
nia’s nearshore waters to wild stock harvesting of these release shing.
and other agar-bearing marine plants will likely increase.
However, until essential information is obtained on the
role these seaweeds play in the ecology of California’s
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 557
Louvar opah, it is difcult to determine the impacts of various
Appendix A: Management Considerations
sheries worldwide.
Biological requirements and worldwide distribution limit
the ability of local sheries to severely impact the louvar
Other Nearshore Rockfish
population. If a breeding or subpopulation is determined
to exist off the California coast, a level of awareness
Concerns are increasing due to increasing demand on
through proactive management could be utilized to pre-
a limited resource; commercial size limits, commercial
vent over shing and maintain optimum yield.
permits, and gear limitations have been implemented
to address these concerns. Recent changes in federal
Monkeyface Prickleback management of nearshore species have resulted in very
low allowable take, increasing the demand and thus the
Due to the relative low utilization of monkeyface prick- prices. DFG is currently mandated to develop a Nearshore
leback, specic management recommendations are not Fishery Management Plan (NFMP), which uses the best
considered at this time. However, in view of the unique available data, provides for signicant public involvement
and limited habitat which this species occupies, a reduc- in the process, and is peer-reviewed. The NFMP may
tion in number (from the existing 10-sh recreational bag be adopted by the Commission in January 2002. DFG
limit) and a minimum legal size (such as 14 inches) might has developed interim management measures to further
be appropriate in the future. Most individuals are taken protect this emerging shery. Interim measures included
in the intertidal zone or in very shallow water, and the control date for limited entry, reduced bag limits, season
survival rate for those returned to the water would be closures, gear limitations (rod and reel only), and adjust-
expected to be high. However, based on their mode of ment of size limits. Increased sampling of landings, educa-
feeding, hooking mortality might be a limiting factor and tion of buyers to use proper market categories, and more
would preclude a size limitation. shery-independent sampling to assess stocks adequately
are needed to effectively protect these resources.
Mussels
Pacific Bonito
Improving and maintaining the water quality of California’s
coastal and estuarine waters is the most critical manage- An assessed decline in bonito abundance coupled with a
ment issue affecting the continued survival of the mussel drastic reduction in the size of the sh harvested com-
industry. Both sport and commercial utilization of all of mercially, brought about a reduced bag limit and minimum
the state’s shellsh sheries is impacted by increasing size regulation in 1982. The status of the population
quantities of ocean-bound efuents produced by point and has not been re-assessed since then. Also, this species
non-point sources in many areas of the state. Community- is not covered under any current or proposed federal
based education programs beginning in elementary school shery management plan. Declines in both recreational
and emphasizing the linkages between our coastal water- and commercial landings in the 1990s indicate that this
sheds, urban and ocean environments, and human health species should be re-assessed and appropriate manage-
are a positive step in developing an informed public. DFG, ment actions be taken. Such actions might include the
the California Sea Grant Extension Program, California initiation of discussions between the U.S. and Mexican
Water Quality Control Board, National Marine Sanctuary governments on coordinating management of this trans-
Programs and several other public and private groups boundary stock.
have made progress in this effort, but persistence and
determination are needed to slow and reverse the loss of
Pacific Hake
our clean coastal waters.
Since implementation of the Fisheries Conservation and
Opah Management Act in the U.S. and the declaration of a
200-mile shery conservation zone in Canada in the late
Although commercial landings of opah are recorded by 1970s, annual quotas have been the primary management
the department, opah is not presently a target species tool used to limit the catch of Pacic hake in both zones
and their take is not managed. The impact of California by foreign and domestic sheries. The scientists from
landings on the species as a whole may be minimal, as both countries have collaborated through the Technical
the population is worldwide in temperate and tropical Subcomittee of the U.S.-Canada Groundsh Committee,
seas. However, since very little is known about the and there has been informal agreement on the adoption
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
558
of an annual shing policy. However, overall management the legislature, the commission was given manage-
Appendix A: Management Considerations
performance has been hampered by a long-standing dis- ment authority for the herring shery during the roe
agreement between the U.S. and Canada on the division shery’s second year. This allows the regulations to
of the acceptable biological catch (ABC) between U.S. and be changed on an annual basis and new issues to be
Canadian sheries. In 1991-1992, U.S. and Canadian man- addressed as they arise.
agers set quotas that summed to 128 percent of the ABC, 5. Director’s Herring Advisory Committee. This commit-
while in 1993-1998, the combined quotas were 112 percent tee was established to seek valuable industry input
of the ABC on average. Under the current management on shery-related matters.
impasse there is a potential for overshing of Pacic hake.
The department is striving to incorporate an ecosystem
The current management of hake and the composition of approach to management of its marine resources. The
the shery may be affected by growth of tribal sheries. harvest level used for Pacic herring to some extent takes
At present, only the Makah Tribe of western Washington into consideration this species’ role in the marine food
has initiated a shery. However, two other Washington web and its connection to environmental factors, but
tribes have stated an interest in entering the hake shery these relationships are not well understood. Most aspects
and NMFS has established preliminary quotas for these of herring biology and ecology are in need of further
tribes. Other coastal tribes may also qualify for entry into scientic research to improve existing herring manage-
the hake shery. Non-Indian shers are challenging alloca- ment and further incorporate an ecosystem approach.
tion of hake to treaty tribes, but denitive court rulings The Humboldt Bay and Crescent City spawning populations
on this matter have not yet been reached. need re-assessment and more frequent assessments in the
Hake remains the largest shery on the West Coast. With future to improve harvest levels. Herring spawning habitat
the recent declines in salmon and the low abundance requirements need to be better understood so that they
of rocksh, shermen engaged in these sheries are con- can be adequately protected.
cerned about the bycatch of these species in the hake One of the weakest aspects of current management is the
shery. The hake shery is one of the lowest bycatch inability to predict the number of two-year-old herring
sheries in the U.S., but even the relatively low bycatch that will recruit to the spawning population each year
of salmon and rocksh is a large portion of the current because this age group has the largest impact on spawning
low quotas for depleted salmon and rocksh. The hake population size. Research is needed to understand how
shery is currently faced with the challenge of developing environmental factors affect herring survival, particularly
shing practices to minimize bycatch to the lowest level during early life history stages, so that we may better
possible. predict year-class strength.
Stock assessments and quota management will also
Pacific Herring improve with better understanding of the distribution and
abundance of herring in the open ocean, and whether
In general, the current management strategy used for or not spawning populations are genetically distinct from
California’s herring sheries has proven to be effective each other.
because it allows the department and commission to inte-
grate new and comprehensive information. This strategy
Pacific Razor Clam
has several key components that have contributed to its
effectiveness over the years:
Current estimates for total catch and effort are needed
1. Conservative harvest levels. Since the inception of for the Crescent City beaches and especially Clam and
the roe shery, harvest quotas have been conserva- Moonstone beaches in the Eureka area. Little is known
tive and adjusted annually based on spawning popula- about the extent and importance of subtidal populations
tion assessments for Tomales and San Francisco bays. acting as brood stock for intertidal populations; depen-
2. Annual population assessments. Each year, DFG dance on these alone to repopulate the Eureka area
assesses the status of the state’s two largest spawn- beaches may be unwarranted. Closure of Clam and Moon-
ing populations (San Francisco Bay and Tomales Bay) stone beaches to intertidal take or reduction of the pres-
by collecting information on spawning biomass, age ent bag limit may increase the rate of recovery for these
structure, and other biological data. sheries. In other parts of the state, the present sport bag
limit appears to be adequate to protect the resource since
3. Limited entry. The expansion of the shery was care-
minimal digger effort is seen for razor clams.
fully controlled and has not increased since 1983.
4. Commission management authority. Unlike other
commercial sheries, which have been regulated by
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 559
Pismo Clam Red Rock Shrimp
Appendix A: Management Considerations
Since 1948, DFG has managed the recreational Pismo clam Information on the size and condition of the red rock
shery by the use of bag limits, size limits, closed seasons shrimp population in California is mostly anecdotal. For
and closed areas. In 1976, an invertebrate reserve (closed this reason, the resource should be managed cautiously
to the commercial and recreational take of any inverte- until its status is better understood. Fortunately, shing
brates) was established in the Pismo Beach area to study pressure has historically been light, with only a few sher-
the separate effects of recreational clamming and sea men involved, mostly along rock jetties and breakwaters.
otter foraging on the Pismo clam population. In 1979, In addition, these shrimp may have a low susceptibility to
sea otters were rst observed foraging on Pismo clams. trapping. Large numbers of shrimp have been observed
By 1982, beach surveys found few clams either inside or outside of traps while few, if any, were inside. In 1975,
outside of the invertebrate reserve. a small number of experimental traps were set in deeper
water (20 to 70 feet) at locations including reefs and rocky
1. There is no further need for the closed seasons or
shorelines. Red rock shrimp were known to be present
the ve-inch size limit in San Mateo, Santa Cruz
at these locations, based on diver observation, but for
or Monterey counties since there is no recreational
unknown reasons, no shrimp entered the traps. Traps have
clamming.
also been observed with many shrimp climbing on the
2. It is suggested that a 4.5-inch statewide size limit be
outside, but none entering the trap. These characteristics
adopted to simplify regulations.
make it unlikely that the shrimp could be widely, or
3. There is no further need for the invertebrate reserve excessively, harvested with current gear. Regardless, it
established in California Code of Regulations or the would be advisable to take the following precautions in
various Pismo clam closed areas (known as clam pre- managing this shery:
serves) because long term management of a rec-
1. Apply a closure during the egg-rearing period, most
reational shery in these areas is not likely to be
likely from May through July.
needed.
2. Regulate the size of openings in traps to allow small
shrimp (< one inch) to escape.
Purple Sea Urchin 3. Collect data from shermen including bycatch and
occurrence of females carrying eggs.
There are several gaps in basic knowledge concerning
purple sea urchins. Although there are scattered studies of
Red Sea Urchin
growth and survival in the literature, data have not been
gathered together and synthesized in a manner suitable
for setting harvest size limits. Studies of early growth The red sea urchin shery is fully exploited in California,
and survival up to an age of one year are few and and evidence from a variety of sources points to an over-
are needed to link settlement information with recruit- shed condition in northern and portions of southern
ment to the reproductive population. Linking sources of California. Management measures developed and imple-
larvae with sites of settlement has not been done and mented collaboratively with the industry (minimum size
is crucial to developing management plans that involve limits, restricted access, temporal closures) have not been
marine reserves. Because of ocean current patterns, not effective in reversing long-term declines in harvestable
every region of coastline can be considered to be a suit- stocks. The following management-related actions may be
able source of larvae for all marine species. Both shery- needed to reverse this condition:
dependent and -independent monitoring should continue 1. Expand existing shery-dependent and -independent
in order to assess changes in stock condition. Fishery monitoring programs. Logbook data needs to be col-
dependent monitoring of commercial landing levels and lected at a higher spatial resolution using GPS tech-
patterns should detect any trend toward large-scale har- nology. Fishery-independent needs to be expanded
vests that might require more specic management mea- to allow managers to assess density and size distri-
sures. At present, the most comprehensive shery inde- butions. Fishery-dependent monitoring will detect
pendent data consists of the long-term monitoring of set- trends in harvest, but is confounded by harvest
tlement patterns in northern and southern California. Con- levels, which are strongly affected by quality of
tinuing this monitoring should provide a measure of settle- urchin gonads and market conditions. Fishery-inde-
ment supply, and an early warning of possible adverse pendent monitoring will allow managers to assess
effects of harvesting on recruitment. abundance of size classes and poor quality urchins not
sampled within the shery. Continuation and expan-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
560
sion of long-term monitoring of settlement patterns is seek opportunities to diversify their shing activities.
Appendix A: Management Considerations
crucial to providing a relative measure of settlement The multi-species nature of the rock crab shery also
supply and should be continued and expanded. Re- presents a number of challenges to implementing biologi-
establishment of an industry-based revenue system cally meaningful management measures. Future manage-
would assist in funding these programs. ment activities, which should be considered to help insure
the future health of this resource and shery include:
2. Develop a science-based red sea urchin shery man-
agement plan for the Fish and Game Commission. 1. Establish a system for obtaining periodic shery-inde-
pendent data on rock crab abundance, species and
3. Conduct a capacity goal analysis. Consider reducing
size composition, recruitment patterns, and bycatch
the permit goal to below the present level of 300
characteristics.
divers and explore methods for accelerating the attri-
tion rate. 2. Begin to monitor the commercial shery for species
and size composition, geographic and temporal pat-
4. Continue to examine and consider the use of
terns in catch and effort, and bycatch characteristics.
spatial management techniques (i.e., marine pro-
tected areas, rotating harvest zones) in urchin man- 3. Investigate the need to establish a restricted access
agement. program for this shery.
5. Expand collaborative monitoring and research with 4. Explore gear modications to reduce bycatch.
industry participation.
The following management measures could be imple-
Rock Scallop
mented on an interim basis before a shery management
plan is in place: The rock scallop is a valuable marine resource to the sport
1. Establish and monitor a maximum size limit to accel- diver as well as a highly promising candidate for extensive
erate recovery of shed areas. A maximum size limit cultivation in the sea by new methods of aquaculture.
would be expected to protect animals with the great- There will be an increasing demand for hatcheries to
est spawning potential and enhance the survival of provide seed stock for population enhancement and for
juvenile urchins under the spine canopy. the developing aquaculture industry.
2. Establish regional management zones for northern
and southern California.
Salmon
3. Establish annual harvest quotas based on the ve-
year average annual catch. This measure could The major threat to California’s salmon resource is further
ensure that a sudden increase in demand, as occurred degradation and elimination of its freshwater and estua-
in the mid-1980s, does not drive stock levels below rine habitats. Restoration of inland spawning and rearing
their ability to recover. habitats and renegotiation of inland water management
policies, particularly in the Central Valley, must be pur-
sued if salmon production levels from naturally spawning
Ridgeback Prawn areas are ever to return to their former levels. Prudent
regulation of the sheries will be required to equitably
Recommendations for the management of ridgeback
distribute the available sh between the various ocean
prawns closely follow that of spot prawns. Current regula-
and in-river users and to meet spawning escapement
tions need to be evaluated for effectiveness. As men-
needs. To these ends, the California Department of Fish
tioned above, no population estimates are available for
and Game should:
ridgeback prawns in California; periodic assessments are
1. Continue its efforts to improve, restore, and enhance
necessary to determine whether the resource is robust
freshwater and estuarine habitats for salmon,
and able to support a continuing shery.
focusing on:
a. Screening of water diversions
Rock Crabs b. Abatement of pollution sources, chemical and
thermal
The rock crab shery is currently one of the few remaining
signicant nearshore sheries not subject to some form c. Reductions in siltation and gravel compaction
of restricted access limitation. Present open access and levels
relatively low capital requirements for entry could result d. Elimination of gravel removal operations in
in large increases in effort for rock crabs as shermen important spawning and rearing areas
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 561
Sea Cucumber
e. Reduction of vegetation encroachment into
Appendix A: Management Considerations
major spawning areas
The dive and trawl sheries target different species. In
f. Maintenance of suitable stream ows and tem-
order to manage these sheries, it is important to know
peratures
the quantities of each species taken. Presently, both the
g. Control of diseases, particularly bacterial kidney
dive and trawl landings of sea cucumber are lumped on
disease in hatcheries.
commercial landing receipts under a single code for “sea
2. Support studies to differentiate races of salmon, par- cucumbers, unspecied.” It is recommended that:
ticularly in the Central Valley, where winter chinook
1. Individual species codes be assigned to both the Cali-
and spring chinook are severely depressed.
fornia and warty sea cucumber. The logbook data
3. Develop and implement plans addressing habitat also should be coded to species. This is especially
and shery management to reverse the status of important for dive logbooks, because it is possible for
depleted salmon stocks, winter-run and spring-run divers to target either species depending on where in
in particular. the state they are shing.
4. Investigate the feasibility of constructing a salmon 2. Limited entry regulations for the two sheries be
(and steelhead) hatchery within the San Joaquin maintained.
basin to produce study sh needed to evaluate delta
3. Effort is needed to collect the eld data necessary
water management strategies.
to perform stock assessments and generate biomass
5. Continue to work with the Klamath Fishery Manage- estimates for both the warty and California sea
ment Council in negotiating harvest sharing agree- cucumber. The biological, catch, effort and catch per
ments between ocean and river user groups, devel- unit effort parameters derived from logbook data
oping methods of adjusting sheries on an a real would be used to model the impact of different levels
time basis, and rening stock projection and shery of shing intensity.
models.
4. Fishery-independent, as well as the shery-depen-
6. Support studies to compare hooking mortality rates dent, information is needed to properly manage this
following release for sublegal and out-of-season shery. Video surveys of shed areas, to compare
salmon caught by trolling and mooching. with unshed areas, should be conducted.
7. Operate hatcheries and rearing facilities and conduct 5. Closed areas may need to be established to serve as
sh stocking practices responsibly to minimize effects controls in order to evaluate the impact of harvests
on natural production. on abundance in open areas.
6. Finally, if the limited entry restrictions do not ade-
quately limit the take of sea cucumbers to sustain-
Sand Crab able levels, additional management options, such as
individual or area quotas, may need to be considered.
Not all beaches are suitable for sand crab survival through
the winter and must be colonized annually. For this
reason, regulation of the shery should focus on smaller
Sheep Crab
management areas such as the Santa Monica Bay in south-
ern California, where most of the historic catch has been
The sheep crab shery is presently unregulated. Addi-
taken.
tional biological information, including a better under-
standing of physiological and behavioral reproduction, is
needed for the development of sound management poli-
Scorpionfish cies. Nevertheless, limited recommendations can be made
based on certain biological characteristics of the sheep
Because there has been no assessment of California scor-
crab.
pionsh numbers, it may be prudent to set conservative
quotas on both the recreational and commercial catches, 1. The sheep crab undergoes a terminal molt upon
in order to forestall the collapses seen in many other reaching adulthood. Thus, the adult claws will not
California sheries. regenerate once removed indicating the claw shery
utilizes a non-renewable resource.
2. The terminal molt, as well as other characteristics,
also has implications for management of the live,
whole body shery. For example, size limits would
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
562
Skates and Rays
likely need to include both an upper and lower limit,
Appendix A: Management Considerations
leaving the largest and smallest crabs to mate so as to
The continued removal of large numbers of skates and
maintain recruitment and intermediate sizes, as well
rays without additional management would be ill advised.
as to protect large juvenile males which overlap in
More data are needed to produce an effective man-
size with the adults.
agement plan for the species involved. The information
3. Protection of seasonal spawning aggregations may
needed includes:
need to be incorporated into a management plan for
1. Landing data on size, sex, and species composition of
this species.
the sport and commercial catch.
4. Use of abrasion stages may also provide a good
2. Survival rates for released catch.
tool for management. However, duration of the
various abrasion stages and their association with 3. Life history parameters for many of the species
gonadal development and reproductive success needs involved.
to be determined before considering this manage-
4. Population dynamics including species movements.
ment strategy.
All of this information will help determine if
increased landings of previously discarded catch are
Shortfin Mako altering the impact to the species involved.
5. With skate landings increasing in California, Oregon,
The shortn mako’s uncertain status calls for increased and Washington, it would be advisable to coordinate
investment in shery-dependent and -independent management among the three states.
research. Population assessments are needed, which
require more research on shing mortality, demographics,
Skipjack Tuna
stock structure, and abundance. The state might consider
reinstatement of its volunteer pelagic shark-tagging pro-
Since skipjack tuna in the Pacic are considered under
gram. This program has provided information on the
shed, management is not being considered. However,
migration paths, biology, and ecology of mako sharks.
because skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic are caught
Satellite pop-up tags may also prove useful in determining
with yellown tuna, many of the recommended manage-
the distribution and biology of adult mako sharks.
ment measures applied to yellown tuna may impact skip-
jack tuna. Some of these include reduction of effort
Silversides levels and reducing shing on schools associated with
drifting objects to minimize bycatch and the catches of
The only current aspect of topsmelt and jacksmelt man- small tunas.
agement that might be a candidate for revision is the lack
of a bag limit. The case for establishing a bag limit is
Spiny Lobster
not based on current harvest rates, but on the potential
impact of a constantly growing human population in Cali-
The limited entry program has had some benecial
fornia. A nominal bag limit of, perhaps, 30 topsmelt (which
results. An active shermen’s organization, the California
are commonly used for game sh bait), including jacksmelt
Lobster and Trap Fishermen’s Association, worked with
in a general provision such as “20 sh, no more than 10
the department to develop the current management
of any one species,” would not restrict current legitimate
program. In addition to formalizing a trap retrieval pro-
recreational harvesting but would serve to prevent over-
gram for traps washed into the surf or onto the beach,
harvest if shing for these species became more popular.
the trappers regularly participate in the commission
A bag limit also is valuable to insure that sh caught
process to resolve industry problems or improve the
under the authority of a sport shing license are not being
current regulations.
harvested in large quantities for illegal sale.
The current logbook system needs to maintained, and
a program needs to be initiated to determine the recre-
ational take of spiny lobster. A formal review of the
current limited access program should be scheduled to
address issues such as permit transferability until a shery
management plan is produced.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 563
Spot Prawn tion of access to historical habitats that are still suitable
Appendix A: Management Considerations
but blocked by dams.
The spot prawn shery has undergone signicant growth In 1999, the department implemented the north coast
in the last 10 years in terms of the total pounds landed, steelhead research and monitoring project to obtain infor-
numbers of participants and vessels. This pressure is not mation on status and life history of north coast steelhead
likely to ease given the worldwide demand for shrimp and stocks. A similar effort is needed for the Central Valley
prawn as well as the displacement of shermen from other and south coast. More steelhead focused research and
sheries such as the groundsh shery along the Pacic monitoring is needed to provide the necessary information
Coast and from the spot prawn shery in Washington. to facilitate the recovery these stocks.
Given these issues, the following management measures
should be considered:
Striped Marlin
1. Limited entry for both the trap and trawl eet.
2. Development of a coastwide spot prawn geographic All Pacic billsh resources will soon be covered under
information system (GIS) database, which would iden- new international conventions and a federal management
tify historic and current shing areas as well as pre- plan for highly migratory species is currently being drafted
ferred habitats. for the Pacic Fishery Management Council. These man-
3. Coastwide sheries-independent population survey of agement groups provide a great opportunity for effective
the spot prawn resource. long-term management and conservation of striped marlin
and other highly migratory species. However, stock assess-
4. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the current man-
ments for striped marlin are badly out of date and in
agement scheme.
need of re-examination. New assessments should include
5. Evaluation and establishment of a minimum and/or
current shery statistics, a clear denition of geographical
maximum roller gear size-limit.
limits, better understanding of age, growth and repro-
ductive status, better indices of abundance and evalua-
tion of the effectiveness of catch and release in the
Spotfin Croaker recreational sheries.
1. Maintain the current sport sh regulations and the
ban on commercial take of spotn croaker.
Swordfish
2. Protect and enhance available bay and nearshore
habitats. Current assessments are based on old, incomplete
and sometimes inaccurate data. New assessments using
3. Collect more complete data on age, growth and
updated and standardized shery statistics are necessary
maturity.
to determine stock condition and to validate existing
4. Ascertain size and age structure of populations.
levels for MSY. International and domestic conventions
are currently being developed to improve reporting of
shery statistics from all shing nations. These interna-
Spotted Sand Bass tional management authorities need to establish com-
prehensive assessments to ensure precautionary exploi-
Since they are not specically targeted as a food sh and
tation, allocation, and conservation of the Pacic
are mostly caught by recreational anglers adopting a catch
swordsh resource.
and release policy might prove benecial to this species.
Steelhead
Steelhead are rarely caught in the ocean and state laws
and regulations require they be released. The manage-
ment challenges for this species are almost exclusively
in inland waters. In 1996, the Steelhead Restoration
and Management Plan for California was published which
identied the goals and objectives for management and
research needs. The primary management focus for the
department recovery of imperiled populations is through
the restoration of freshwater habitat, particularly restora-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
564
Smelts Wakasagi
Appendix A: Management Considerations
Additional research is recommended in order to monitor
the potential expansion of wakasagi distribution. The
Delta Smelt
impacts of wakasagi expanding its range into southern
Since the delta smelt was listed as a threatened species,
California are unknown.
modications to provide better habitat conditions as well
as restrictions on the timing and amounts of diversions
Whitebait Smelt
from the estuary have been instituted. Large-scale habitat
Since very little is known about the life history of this
restoration projects to improve spawning and rearing habi-
species, any research or information would add greatly
tat have also been planned. Monitoring of the population
to our understanding. Smelt catches should be constantly
as well as research designed to determine mechanisms
examined for the presence of this species.
affecting abundance are needed to evaluate the success
or failure of these modications.
Washington Clam
Eulachon
The eulachon populations in California need investigation The greatest take of Washington clams occurs in Humboldt
in order to evaluate the status of these populations. It Bay and with the present level of effort unlikely to
is unknown whether a shery for this fascinating sh can increase greatly. The current combination of Washington
be restored. and gaper clam bag limits appears to be adequate. The
present sport bag limits for the rest of the state also
Longn Smelt appear to be adequate at this time to protect Washington
and butter clams from over-harvest.
Abundance trends of longn smelt should be closely moni-
tored since freshwater outows out of San Francisco Bay
estuary are highly regulated and other coastal estuaries
Wavy Turban Snails
are highly modied.
Further development of the shery should follow proce-
Night Smelt
dures for emerging sheries under the Marine Life Man-
The shery for night smelt appears to be stable or increas- agement Act. Thus, the department should identify and
ing; however the shery is in fact poorly regulated and monitor new emerging sheries and notify the commission
monitored. Fisheries independent sampling, as suggested of such sheries. The commission can then adopt regula-
earlier, can verify whether apparent increases in shing tions that limit taking in the shery until a shery man-
effort are over-exploiting the resource. An evaluation agement plan is adopted and/or direct the department
of the recreational impacts on spawning beaches should to prepare a shery management plan for the shery and
be done. regulations necessary to implement the plan.
Recommended interim regulations, based on current best
Surf Smelt
scientic knowledge and slow growth rates, include:
The apparent shift from surf smelt to night smelt as the
1. A minimum legal size of four inches in shell diameter.
most common smelt in the commercial shery may reect
2. A fall and winter shing season.
changes in effort or methods; however, the shery should
be monitored much more closely. Fisheries-independent 3. A temporary cap on the number of shery partici-
sampling would also verify changes in abundance irrespec- pants.
tive of changes in shing effort. Any additional informa-
4. Closed areas for study where snails can not be shed.
tion, especially on life stages where little or no informa-
These interim regulations could be implemented while
tion is known, would greatly add to our understanding of
the department is developing and evaluating a shery
surf smelt biology.
management plan and conducting population monitoring.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 565
White Croaker Yellowfin croaker
Appendix A: Management Considerations
There are currently no limitations on catches of white 1. Retain current status as a recreational resource only
croaker off California, with the exception of a small no- and existing bag limit of 10 sh.
take zone off Palos Verdes. Future management consider- 2. Collect basic life history information such as age and
ations should include continual monitoring of the popula- growth, size at rst maturity, and fecundity.
tion size and the status of contaminant levels in areas of
concern.
Yellowtail
Yellowfin Tuna Given the current status of the yellowtail population,
and recent enactment of a minimum size limit for sport
The current IATTC management objective for yellown caught sh, no further management measures are needed
tuna in the eastern Pacic is to maintain the stock at to protect the stock.
levels capable of producing the average MSY. To attain this
objective, the IATTC continues to recommend an annual
catch quota. Future management issues for yellown tuna
in the eastern Pacic will also include capacity reductions
to maintain or reduce effort levels and reduced shing on
drifting objects to minimize the catches of small tunas
and bycatch.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
566
Appendix B:
Glossary Beam trawl - A conical-shaped net held open by an hori-
Appendix B: Glossary
zontal beam. At each end of the beam are iron frame-
works that hold the net open in a vertical direction.
Benthic - Of, relating to, or occurring at the bottom of a
ABC - See Acceptable Biological Catch.
body of water (including the ocean).
Abyss - The deepest part of the ocean.
Berried - Bearing eggs.
Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC)- A term used by a
Bight - A name for the water body found abutting a large
management agency which refers to the range of allow-
indentation in the coast. A bight is less enclosed than
able catch for a species or species group. It is set each
a bay.
year by a scientific group created by the management
agency. The agency then takes the ABC estimate and Billfishes - The family of fish that includes marlins, sailfish
sets the annual total allowable catch (TAC). and spearfish.
Advection - Horizontal or vertical movement of water. Bioaccumulation - The build-up over time of substances
(like metals) that cannot be excreted by an organism.
Allele - One of several variants of a gene that can occupy
a locus on a chromosome. Biomass - The total weight or volume of a species in a
given area.
Allozyme - A variant of an enzyme coded by a different
allele. Biosystematics - The study of relationships with refer-
ence to the laws of classification of organisms; tax-
Amphipod - Laterally compressed, planktonic or benthic
onomy.
crustaceans.
Biota - Refers to any and all living organisms and the
Anadromous - Fish that migrate from saltwater to fresh
ecosystems in which they exist.
water to spawn.
Biotoxin - Substances produced by organisms that can
Anaerobic - Living in the absence of oxygen.
seriously impair living processes and in some cases
Angler - A person catching fish or shellfish with no intent
cause death.
to sell. This includes people releasing the catch.
Bioturbation - Disturbance of soft sediments by the move-
Annuli - Annual variations in the pattern of growth rings
ments and feeding activities of infauna (animals that live
on fish scales.
just beneath the surface of the sea bed).
Aquaculture - The raising of fish or shellfish under some
Bivalve - A mollusk with the shell divided into two halves;
controls. Feed and ponds, pens, tanks, or other con-
e.g. clams, mussels.
tainers may be used. A hatchery is also aquaculture,
Brachiopod - A bivalve mollusk distinguished by having,
but the fish are released before harvest size is reached.
on each side of the mouth, a long spiral arm, used to
Artisanal fishery - Commercial fishing using traditional or
obtain food.
small scale manually-operated gear and boats.
Brackish water - Water of reduced salinity resulting from a
Ascidiacea - See Tunicate.
mixture of freshwater and seawater.
Bag limit - The number and/or size of a species that a
Brail net - A small dip net used to scoop out portions
person can legally take in a day or trip. This may or may
of the catch from the main net and haul these portions
not be the same as a possession limit.
aboard. Brail nets are used to transfer tuna, salmon,
Baitboat - Refers to a vessel that fishes with live bait. and sometimes menhaden from the purse seine to the
Examples of target catch for baitboats include albacore boat’s hold.
and other tunas.
Broken and burnt otolith method - Otoliths are broken
Baleen - A specialized plate of horny material used by and burned, revealing more accurate information about
some species of whales (Mysticetes) to filter-feed. the age of a fish.
Barbel - A slender flesh “chin whisker” found in many Bryozoa - A group of sessile colonial animals that are
kinds of fishes. Barbels function primarily as sensory colonial invertebrates and live on hard surfaces.
organs for locating food.
Bycatch - The harvest of fish or shellfish other than the
Bathymetry - The science of measuring depths in the species for which the fishing gear was set. Bycatch is
ocean. also often called incidental catch. Some bycatch is kept
Batoid - A skate or ray. for sale.
CEQA - California Environmental Quality Act.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 567
CPFV - Commercial passenger fishing vessel. Cilia - Hair-like structures used for locomotion, and in
Appendix B: Glossary
some species, for feeding.
CPS - Coastal pelagic species.
Cladogenesis - The branching of an ancestral lineage to
CPUE - See Catch Per Unit of Effort.
form equal sister taxa (species, genera, families, etc.).
Calanoid copepod - A crustacean zooplankton that has a
Cladocera - Planktonic crustacea with a bivalved outer
barrel-shaped body, is found in all oceans of the world,
skeleton.
and is an important food source for many fishes.
Clupeid - A member of the Clupeidae family of fishes.
Calcareous - Made of calcium carbonate.
Clupeids include herrings, shads, sardines, and menha-
Capelin - A small silvery fish, most common in the North
den. They can be readily recognized by their keeled
Atlantic.
(sawtooth) bellies and silvery, deciduous scales.
Caridean - An infraorder of the decapod crustaceans.
Codend - The end of a trawl net. Fish are eventually
Examples include many shrimps and prawns.
pushed into the codend as the net is dragged along.
Catadromous - Refers to fish that migrate from fresh
Cohort - A group of fish spawned during a given period,
water to saltwater to spawn.
usually within a year.
Catch - The total number or poundage of fish captured
Coliform - A bacteria commonly associated with food poi-
from an area over some period of time. This includes
soning.
fish that are caught but released or discarded instead
Community - An ecological unit composed of the various
of being landed. The catch may take place in an area
populations of micro-organisms, plants, and animals that
different from where the fish are landed. Note that
inhabit a particular area.
catch, harvest, and landings are different terms with
different definitions. Congener - A member of the same genus.
Catch Per Unit of Effort (CPUE) - The number of fish Convergence - The contact at the sea surface between
caught by an amount of effort. Typically, effort is a two water masses converging, one plunging below
combination of gear type, gear size, and the length of the other.
time gear is used. Catch per unit of effort is often Copepod - A group of small planktonic, benthic or parasitic
used as a measurement of relative abundance for a crustaceans. Copepods that spend their entire life in
particular fish. the water column are usually the numerically dominant
Caudal fin - Tail fin. group of zooplankton captured by nets in most marine
areas.
Caudal peduncle - The tapered, posterior fleshy part of a
fish just in front of the tail fin. Coriolis effect - The deflection of air or water bodies,
relative to the solid earth beneath, as a result of the
Cephalopod - Organisms belonging to the phylum Mol-
earth’s eastward rotation.
lusca that are nearly always carnivorous and are charac-
terized by complex behavior, a well-organized nervous Creel - A container used by anglers to hold fish.
system, a circle of grasping arms, and a powerful beak. Crustacean - A group of freshwater and saltwater animals
Examples include squid and octopus. having no backbone, with jointed legs and a hard shell
Cetacean - A member of the order of marine mammals made of chitin. Includes shrimp, crabs, lobsters, and
that includes whales, porpoises, and dolphins. crayfish.
Chimaera - A member of a group of bottom-dwelling, Ctenophore - Gelatinous zooplankton having eight longi-
invertebrate-feeding fishes. Distinctive characteristics tudinal rows of fused cilia (‘ctenes’) used in swimming.
include an operculum that covers four gill openings, an Cultch - Material (as oyster shells) laid down on oyster
upper jaw fused to the skull, teeth consisting only of a grounds that furnish points of attachment for the
few large, flat plates, and no scales. young oyster.
Chitin - A horny substance forming the hard part of the Cycloid - A round, flat, and thin fish scale found on fish
outer skeleton of crustacea. such as trout, minnow, and herring.
Chiton - Mollusks found commonly on hard substrates that Davit - A fixed or movable crane that projects over the side
are ovalshaped and flattened, have eight dorsal plates of a boat or over a hatchway. It is used for hauling nets,
which cover the dorsal mantle, and are herbivores. anchors, boats or cargo.
Chum - To attract fish to a hook by throwing whole or Demersal - Describes fish and animals that live near
chopped fish or shellfish into the water. water bottoms. Examples of demersal fish are flounder
and croaker.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
568
Density - dependent factors - Factors, such as resource Epipelagic zone - The upper region of the sea from the
Appendix B: Glossary
availablilty, that vary with population density. surface to about 200-300 meters depth.
Depuration - Cleansing of bivalve shellfish by moving Epiphyte - A plant that grows on another plant.
them from polluted waters to clean waters. Epipodium - A ridge or fold in the lateral edges of each
Detritivore - An organism that feeds on detritus. side of the foot of certain gastropod mollusks.
Detritus - Any loose material produced directly from rock Escapement - The percentage of fish in a particular fish-
disintegration. ery that escape from an inshore habitat and move off-
shore, where they eventually spawn.
Diatom - One-celled phytoplankton with an external skel-
eton of silica. Estuary - A partially enclosed body of water having a free
connection with the open sea; within it salt water and
Dinoflagellate - Unicellular plankton having two flagella
fresh water mix.
and, in some species, a cellulose test.
Etiology - All the causes of a disease or abnormality.
Doliolaria - The second stage of the echinoderm (which
include starfish and sea urchins) larvae. Euphausiid - Shrimplike crustaceans that spend their
entire lives in the sea; “krill”.
Dorsal fin - An unpaired fin on the dorsal or upper side of
the body, between the head and the tail. Extirpation - Situation when something is no longer
present.
Dory - A flat-bottomed boat with high flaring sides, a sharp
bow, and a deep V-shaped transom. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) - The region from 3-200
nautical miles searward of the 48 contiguous states,
Downwelling - The sinking of water.
Alaska, Hawaii, and U.S.-affiliated islands. The U.S.
Drum seine - Similar to a purse seine but the seine is
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regulates
stored on a large drum mounted at the stern. The drum
fisheries within this area.
is particularly successful in handling shallow nets.
Ex-vessel - Refers to activities that occur when a commer-
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency.
cial fishing boat lands or unloads a catch. For example,
ESA - Endangered Species Act. the price received by a captain for the catch is an ex-
vessel price.
Ecosystem - A group of organisms that interact among
themselves and with their nonliving environment FL - See Fork Length.
Effort - The amount of time and fishing power used to Falcate - Shaped like a sickle.
harvest fish. Fishing power includes gear size, boat
Fathom - A unit of measurement. One fathom equals six
size, and horsepower.
feet or 1.83 meters.
Ekman circulation - Movement of surface water at an
Filter feed - See Suspension Feed.
angle from the wind, as a result of the Coriolis effect.
Finfish - A common term to define fish as separate from
El Niño - Condition in which warm surface water
shellfish.
moves into the eastern Pacific, collapsing upwelling and
Fingerling - A term commonly used for any juvenile fish,
increasing surface-water temperatures and precipitation
most commonly used for a life stage in trout and salmon.
along the west coast of North and South America.
A fingerling is the stage after fry and before smolt.
Elasmobranch - Describes a group of fish without a hard
Finlet - Small fins located posterior to the anal and dorsal
bony skeleton, including sharks, skates, and rays.
fins. Examples are found in the mackerels (family
Electrophoresis - A method of determining the genetic
Scombridae).
differences or similarities between individual fish or
Fishery - All the activities involved in catching a species of
groups of fish by using tissue samples.
fish or group of species.
Embayment - Formation of a bay. Also, the portion of
Fishery-dependent - Describes data about fish resources
water or coast that forms a bay.
collected by sampling commercial and recreational
Endangered species - A classification under the Endan-
catches.
gered Species Act. A species is considered endangered
Fishery-independent - Describes data about fish
if it is in danger of extinction throughout a significant
resources collected by methods other than sampling
portion of its range.
commercial and recreational catches. An example of
Entrainment - Mixing of salt water into fresh water, as in
such a method is sampling in marine reserves.
an estuary.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 569
Food chain - A linear sequence of organisms in which Green mud - Greenish sand deposits in which glauconite
Appendix B: Glossary
each is food for the next member in the sequence. is abundant.
Food web - A network describing the feeding interactions Groundfish - A species or group of fish that lives most of
of the species in an area. its life on or near the sea bottom.
Fork length - The length of a fish as measured from the tip Gurdy - Spool used in trolling upon which the fishing line is
of its snout to the fork in the tail. wound. The gurdies are usually powered, but on some
of the smaller boats, like salmon dories, they are often
Front - A major discontinuity separating ocean currents
hand-operated.
and water masses in any combination.
Haplosporidian - A member of the phylum Haplosporidia,
Fully utilized - Situation when the amount of fishing effort
which contains spore-forming parasitic protists. One
used is about equal to the amount needed to achieve
member of this group, Haplosporidium nelsoni, also
the LTPY.
called MSX disease, has recently caused widespread
Gaff - A pole with a large hook at its end.
disease in Crassostrea virginica, the eastern oyster, on
Galactans - Plant polysaccharides. Examples are agar- the U.S. east coast.
agar and carrageenan.
Haplotype - A set of genes that determines different anti-
Gamete - An egg or a sperm. gens but are closely enough linked to be inherited as
a unit.
Gammarid - A member of the suborder Gammaridea and
the order Amphipoda. Distinctive gammarid characteris- Haptera - Basal outgrowths that form part of a holdfast.
tics include that the first segment of the thorax is fused
Harvest - The total number or poundage of fish caught
to the head and that they live in salt water, fresh water,
and kept from an area over a period of time. Note that
and tropical forests. An example is the beach hopper.
landings, catch and harvest are different.
Gastropod - A member of the class Gastropoda. Gastro-
Heterosis - Segmentation in which the parts are different.
pods have a flattened foot, usually a cap-shaped or
Also, the tendency of cross-breeding to produce an
coiled shell, a mouth apparatus known as a radula,
animal or plant with a greater hardiness and capacity for
and are characterized by a twisting of the body,
growth than either of the parents; hybrid vigor.
known as torsion. Examples include limpets, whelks,
Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female
and periwinkles.
organs.
Gastrula - A stage in the development of a fertilized egg.
Histology - A branch of anatomy that deals with the
Gel chromatography - A method for comparing DNA or
minute structure of animal and plant tissues as discern-
genes of different organisms.
ible with a microscope.
Genetic introgression - The transfer of a small amount
Holdfast - The rootlike structure at the base of an alga that
of genetic material from one (usually plant) species to
attaches to rocky substrate.
another as a result of hybridization between them and
Hydroacoustics - Sound waves travelling through water.
repeated back-crossing.
Hydrography - The arrangement and movement of bodies
Ghost fishing - Situation when abandoned fishing gear
of water, such as currents and water masses.
continues to catch organisms.
Hydroid - Benthic colonial cnidarians (a phylum that
Gillnet - A curtainlike net suspended in the water with
includes jellyfish, sea anemones and corals), some of
mesh openings large enough to permit only the heads of
which produce free-swimming jellyfish.
the fish to pass through, ensnaring them around the gills
when they attempt to escape. INPFC - International North Pacific Fisheries Commission.
Gill rakers - Bony, tooth-like structures on the anterior IWC - International Whaling Commission.
edges of gill arches. Used for protection or for straining Immunodiffusion - Any of several techniques for obtain-
out food. ing a precipitate between an antibody and its specific
Gonad - Animal organs which produce gametes (eggs antigen. One technique is to suspend one in a gel and
or spermatazoa). Female gonads are ovaries; male letting the other migrate through it from a well; another is
gonads are testes. to let both antibody and antigen migrate through the gel
from separate wells to form an area of precipitation.
Gonosomatic index - The ratio of the weight of a fish’s
eggs or sperm to its body weight. The index is used to Intertidal - Between the high and low tide marks and
dermine the spawning time of a species of fish. periodically exposed to air.
Gravid - Heavy with eggs or young.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
570
Isopods - An order of crustaceans characterized by a Long-term potential yield - The maximum long-term
Appendix B: Glossary
small flattened bodies, sessile eyes, and both benthic average yield that can be achieved through conscien-
and planktonic species. tious stewardship, by controlling the proportion of the
population removed by harvesting by regulating fishing
Isotherm - An imaginary line passing through points on
effort or total catch levels.
the earth’s surface having the same mean temperature.
Lunate - Refers to the caudal fin shape that is indented
Jetty - A rocky structure constructed from land into the sea
and looks like a crescent.
to protect shore-based property.
MLMA - Marine Life Management Act.
Jig - An artificial lure made to simulate live bait. It is
usually made with a lead head cast on a single hook and MLPA - Marine Life Protection Act.
is heavier than most other lures. MMPA - Marine Mammal Protection Act.
Juvenile - A young fish or animal that has not reached MRFSS - Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey.
sexual maturity.
MSY - See Maximum Sustainable Yield.
Keystone species - A species that maintains community
Macrophyte - A plant that is large enough to be seen with
structure through its feeding activities, and without which
the naked eye.
large changes would occur in the community.
Mariculture - The raising of marine finfish or shellfish
Knot - A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour
under some controls. Feed and ponds, pens, tanks
(approximately 51 centimeters per second).
or other containers may be used. A hatchery is also
LTPY - Long-term potential yield. mariculture but the fish are released before harvest size
La Niña - An episode of strong trade winds and unusually is reached.
low sea surface temperature in the central and eastern Maturity - The age at which reproduction is possible.
tropical Pacific. The antithesis of El Nino.
Maximum sustainable yield - The largest average catch
Lampara net - An encircling net (similar to purse seine yet that can be taken continuously (sustained) from a stock
that does not close completely) used in shallow water. under average environmental conditions. This is often
Landing - The number or poundage of fish unloaded at used as a management goal.
a dock by commercial fishermen or brought to shore by Mean - The sum of the data divided by the number of
recreational fishermen for personal use. Landings are pieces of data; the average.
reported at the points at which fish are brought to shore.
Median - Within a data set, the median is the the number
Note that landings, catch, and harvest define different
that divides the bottom 50% of the data from the top
things.
50%.
Lateen - A sailing rig used by early salmon fishing vessels
Megalopa - A larval stage of crabs that follow the zoea
off California.
stages.
Leader - A length of monofilament or wire that connects
Meristem - The point or region from which active growth
the main fishing line to the hook used for capturing fish.
takes place.
Limited entry - A program that changes a common prop-
Mesohaline - A zone of water from 1.8% salinity to .5%
erty resource like fish into private property for individual
salinity.
fishermen. License limitation and the individual transfer-
Mesopelagic - A somewhat arbitrary depth zone in off-
able quota (ITQ) are two forms of limited entry.
shore or oceanic waters, usually below 600 feet and
Limiting factor - A factor primarily responsible for deter-
above 3,000 (200-1000 meters).
mining the growth and/or reproduction of an organism
Metric ton - 2200 pounds.
or a population. The limiting factor may be a physical
factor (such as temperature or light), a chemical factor Midden - A refuse heap left by prehistoric Native Ameri-
(such as a particular nutrient), or a biological factor cans, usually marking campsites.
(such as a competing species). The limiting factor may
Milt - A term for the sperm of fish such as salmon, trout,
differ at different times and places.
and herring.
Limnology - The study of freshwater ecosystems, espe-
Mollusk - A group of freashwater and saltwater animals
cially lakes.
with no skeleton and usually one or two hard shells
Littoral zone - The intertidal zone. made of calcium carbonate. Includes the oyster, clam,
mussel, snail, conch, scallop, squid, and octopus.
Longline - See Setline.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 571
Mooching - A method of salmon fishing from a drifting Optimum yield - The harvest level for a species that
Appendix B: Glossary
or propelled boat. The bait is sunk deep with a heavy acheives the greatest overall benefits, including eco-
sinker then brought upward at an angle as the boat is nomic, social, and biological considerations. Optimum
maneuvered forward a few yards or the line retrieved. yield is different from maximum sustainable yield in that
The bait is then allowed to sink once again to the bottom MSY considers only the biology of the species. The
and the procedure repeated. term includes both commercial and sport yields.
Morphology - The physical characteristics of an individual. Organic - Deriving from living organisms.
Myctophid - A member of the Myctophidae family of Otolith - Calcareous concretions in the inner ear of a fish,
fishes. Commonly called lanternfishes, they are abun- functioning as organs of hearing and balance. There are
dant in all oceans of the world, usually at 200-1000 three pairs of otoliths in the skull of each fish, and these
meters depth. are termed sagittae, lapilli, and asterisci. Otoliths are
used by fishery biologists for numerous studies.
Mysid - A member of an order of shrimplike crustaceans,
mostly epibenthic. Otter trawl - A cone-shaped net that is dragged along the
sea bottom. Its mouth is kept open by floats, weights
NEPA - National Environmental Policy Act.
and by two otter boards which shear outward as the net
NFMP - Nearshore Fishery Management Plan.
is towed.
NISA - National Invasive Species Act.
Overfishing - Harvesting at a rate greater than that which
NMFS - National Marine Fisheries Service. will meet the management goal.
NPDES - National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Overutilized - When more fishing effort is employed than
is necessary to achieve LTPY.
Nacre - A smooth, shining, iridescent substance forming
the inner layer in many shells; mother-of-pearl. Oviparous - Producing eggs that hatch outside the
female’s body.
Nekton - Organisms with swimming abilities that permit
them to move actively throught the water column and to Oviphagous - Refers to an organism that consumes eggs.
move against currents. Examples include adult squid,
Oviposit - To lay or deposit eggs, especially by means
fish and marine mammals.
of a specialized organ, as found on certain insects and
Neuston - Organisms that inhabit the uppermost few mil- fishes.
limeters of the surface water.
Ovoviviparous - Pertaining to an animal that incubates
Non-point source - Sources of pollution such as general eggs inside the mother until they hatch.
runoff of sediments, fertilizer, pesticides, and other
PFMC - Pacific Fishery Management Council.
materials from farms and urban areas as compared to
PSMFC - Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission.
specific points of discharge such as factories.
PacFIN - Pacific Fishery Information Network. A database
Nudibranch - Sea slug. A member of the mollusk class
containing West Coast fishing landings that is main-
Gastropoda that has no protective covering as an adult.
tained by the Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commis-
Respiration is carried on by gills or other projections on
sion.
the dorsal surface.
Palp - Any of various sensory and usually fleshy append-
Nursery - Habitat suitable for protection and growth during
ages near the oral aperture of certain invertebrates.
an organism’s early life stages.
Papilla - A nipplelike protuberance of the skin.
Nutricline - The depth zone where nutrient concentrations
increase rapidly with depth. Paranzella net - A bag-shaped net towed by two vessels
that run at various distances apart to keep the mouth
Oocyte - An egg before the completion of maturation.
open and at various speeds according to the depth
Oophagy - The first young to “hatch” in each of the two
desired. The paranzella net initiated the West Coast
oviducts proceed to eat the other embryos in the oviduct
trawl fishery in 1876 but by World War II it had been
with them.
replaced by the less expensive otter trawl.
Open access - A fishery in which no restrictions on entry
Parturition - Birth.
or gear occur. Licenses may be required in an open
Patchy distribution - A condition in which organisms
access fishery, but if no quotas on fishermen exist the
occur in aggregations.
fishery is still considered to be open access.
Pectoral fins - Paired fins on the front lower sides of the
Operculum - The covering of the gills of a fish. Found in
chest.
higher order fishes.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
572
Pedicle - In jointed brachiopods, a short stalk, composed Potential yield - The yield estimated to be available for
Appendix B: Glossary
mostly of tough connective tissue, that emerges through exploitation.
a hole or notch in the posterior part of the larger valve. Procaryote - A member of a group of unicellular organ-
Muscles that are inserted into the pedicle make it pos- isms comprising the bacteria and the cyanophyceae,
sible for an jointed brachiopod to change its orientation. whose cell structures differs from all other organisms.
Pelagic - Refers to fish and animals that live in the open Productivity - The rate at which a given quantity of
sea, away from the sea bottom. organic material is produced by organisms.
Pelecypod - A bivalve. Protandry - An organism functions first as a male, then
Penaid - Member of a family of shrimp, used in shrimp as a female.
culture. Protogynous - Female in the first phase of one’s life.
Periostracum - A protective layer of chitin covering the Pteropod - A holoplanktonic (permanent resident of the
outer portion of the shell in many mollusks, especially plankton community) snail having two swimming wings.
freshwater forms.
Purse seine - A net that is cast in a circle around a school
Pharyngeal - Of, pertaining to, or connected with the of fish. When the fish are surrounded, the bottom of the
pharynx. net is closed up, preventing escape.
Pharyngeal teeth - Teeth developed on the pharyngeal RecFIN - Recreational Fisheries Information Network.
bone in many fishes. A database of the National Marine Fisheries Service
Phycocolloid - A colloidal substance obtained from (NMFS).
seaweeds. Recruit - An individual fish that has moved into a certain
Phytoplankton - Microscopic planktonic plants. Exam- class, such as the spawning class or fishing-size class.
ples include diatoms and dinoflagellates. Recruitment - A measure of the number of fish that enter
Pinniped - A member of the order of marine mammals that a class during some time period, such as the spawning
includes the seals, sea lions, and walruses, all having class or fishing-size class.
four swimming flippers. Red tide - A red coloration of seawater caused by high
Piscivorous - An organism that feeds on fish. concentrations of certain species of micro-organisms,
usually dinoflagellates, some of which release toxins.
Planktivorous - An organism that feeds on planktonic
organisms. Reduction fishery - Harvested fish are processed into fish
meal, oils, or fertilizer.
Plankton - Plants or animals that live in the water column
and are incapable of swimming against a current. Regime shift - A long-term change in marine ecosystems
and/or in biological production resulting from a change
Pleopod - One of the swimming limbs attached to the
in the physical environment.
abdomen in crustaceans.
Riffle - A shallow extending across the bed of a stream
Plug - A nonspecific term for any artificial lure having a
over which the water flows swiftly so that the surface of
distinct “body” made of wood or plastic and having one
the water is broken in waves.
or more sets of single, double, or triple hooks hattached.
Most plugs are designed to wobble or create a commo- Riprap - Piles of rock used to support river banks.
tion in the water when retrieved. River-run - Describes upstream migration of anadromous
Pneumatocyst - A gas-filled bladder at the base of each fish.
kelp blade that helps buoy the frond in the water column. Roller trawl - A trawl net equipped with rollers that enable
Point source - Specific points of origin of pollutants, the net to go over rocky areas without snagging.
such as factory drains or outlets from sewage-treatment Round haul net - A net, such as a purse seine, that
plants. encircles schools of fish.
Polychaete - Marine segmented worms belonging to the Running-ripe - A high state of reproductive readiness.
phylum Annelida; some are planktonic, but most are
Sac-roe - Fish eggs that are encased in a clear mem-
benthic.
brane. Sac-roe are found in herring, among other spe-
Population - Fish of the same species inhabiting a speci- cies.
fied geographic area.
Salinity - The total amount of dissolved material (salts) in
Potamodromous - Refers to fish that migrate entirely seawater.
within fresh water.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 573
Salmonid - A member of the Salmonidae family of large lakes), the smolts gradually become mature and
Appendix B: Glossary
fishes. Salmonids are the dominant fishes in the cold- return to their home streams for spawning.
water streams and lakes of North America, Europe, Somatic cell - All cells other than those in sexual gametes
and Asia, where they support large recreational and (egg and sperm).
commercial fisheries.
Spat - A flat young oyster.
Satellite pop-up tag - A specialized tag usually used to
Spatfall - Attachment of shellfish larvae to substrate where
mark pelagic fish to study their migrations. Data from
they develop into their adult forms.
the tag is transmitted to researchers via a satellite.
Spawn - The term for reproduction in fishes.
Scaphopod - A member of the phylum Mollusca and class
Spermatophore - An aggregation of sperm held together
Scaphopoda which have an elongate conical shell and
by gelatinous material, or a gelatinous packet of sperm
live buried within the sediment, feeding on foraminifer-
which is inserted into or attached to the female as part
ans and other small animals.
of reproductive behavior.
Scute - A type of sharp scale found on fish such as
Spinning gear - A type of recreational fishing reel with an
sturgeon and jackmackerel.
open spool on the front end.
Sea wall - Any solid structure onshore used to protect the
Spoon - An artificial lure with a curved or dished out body
land from wave damage and erosion.
that wobbles but does not revolve. A spoon attracts fish
Seed - Juvenile shellfish, such as clams, oysters,
by its movements as well as color.
and mussels.
Sporophyte - A plant that produces spores.
Serological - An adjective referring to the branch of sci-
Stipe - The stem-like part that connects the holdfast and
ence dealing with the properties and reactions of blood
blade of a frondose alga.
sera.
Stock - A grouping of fish usually based on genetic rela-
Sessile - Referring to animals that are permanently
tionship, geographic distribution, and movement pat-
attached to a substrate.
terns. Also a managed unit of fish.
Set gillnet - A gillnet that is anchored on both ends.
Stratified random sampling - A sampling method in
Setline - Fishing gear made up of a long main line
which one (1) divides the population into subpopulations
attached to which are a large number of short branch
(called strata), (2) obtains from each stratum a simple
lines. At the end of each branch line is a baited hook.
random sample of size proportional to the size of the
When catching groundfish, setlines are laid on the sea-
stratum, and (3) uses all of the members obtained in
floor. When catching swordfish, shark or tuna they are
step 2 as the sample.
buoyed near the surface. Setlines can be twenty or
Substrate - A solid surface on which an organism lives
more miles long. They are also called longlines.
or to which it is attached (also called substratum); or, a
Sexual dimorphism - A phenomenon in which males and
chemical that forms the basis of a biochemical reaction
females differ markedly in shape, size, color, or other
or acts as a nutrient for microorganisms.
ways.
Subtidal zone - The benthic zone extending from the low
Short ton - 2000 pounds.
tide mark to the outer edge of the continental shelf.
Single rig gear - Refers to a boat using a single trawl net
Suspension feeder - An organism that feeds by capturing
(instead of two trawl nets) when fishing for shrimp.
particles suspended in the water column.
Simple random sampling - A sampling procedure for
Sympatry - The common occurrence of two taxa (closely
which each possible sample is equally likely to be the
related forms) in the same geographic area.
one selected. A sample obtained by simple random
TAC - See Total Allowable Catch.
sampling is called a simple random sample.
TL - Total length.
Skiff - Any of various small boats, especially a flat-bot-
tomed rowboat. Telemetry - The process of tracking movements of organ-
isms using transmitting tags.
Slough - A place of deep mud or mire. Also, a small
backwater. Territorial sea - A zone extending seaward from the shore
or internal waters of a nation for a distance of twelve
Smolt - A term for a specific life stage in salmonids.
miles (19.3 km) as defined by the United Nations Confer-
In anadromous populations parr (small active fish with
ence on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The coastal
series of bars on their sides) transform into silvery
smolts and migrate to the sea. Once in the ocean (or
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
574
state has full authority over this zone but must allow Ventral fins - Paired fins on the lower part of the body;
Appendix B: Glossary
rights of innocent passage. they may be near the anus, below the pectoral fins, or
near the throat. They are also called pelvic fins.
Test - The shell of a sea urchin.
Virtual population analysis (VPA) - A type of analysis
Thermocline - The water layer in which temperature
that uses the number of fish caught at various ages or
changes most rapidly with increasing depth.
lengths and an estimate of natural mortality to estimate
Threatened species - A classification under the Endan-
fishing mortality in a cohort. It also provides an estimate
gered Species Act. A species is considered threatened
of the number of fish in a cohort at various ages.
if it is likely to become an endangered species in
Viviparous - Bringing forth living young, rather than being
the foreseeable future through a significant portion of
an egg-layer.
its range.
Water column - The water from the surface to the bottom
Tidal prism - The volume of water between the high tide
at a given point.
level and low tide level.
Weir - A low dam or barrier made across a water channel
Total allowable catch (TAC) - The annual recommended
to raise the level of water for different purposes. Also,
catch for a species or species group. The regional fish-
a barricade.
ery management council sets the TAC from the range of
the allowable biological catch. Wrack zone - A bank of accumulated litter at the strand-
line.
Trammel net - An entangling net that hangs down in
several curtains. YOY - Young-of-the-year.
Trawl - A sturdy bag or net that can be dragged along the Year-class - The fish spawned and hatched in a given
ocean bottom, or at various depths above the bottom, year, a “generation” of fish.
to catch fish. Zoea - A planktonic larval stage of crabs with characteristic
Trematode - Any of a class (Trematoda) of parasitic flat- spines on the exoskeleton.
worms including the flukes. Zooplankton - Animal members of the plankton.
Trocophore - A free-swimming larval stage of polychaete Zoospore - A motile spore with one or more flagella or cilia
worms and some mollusks, characterized by having by the vibration of which it swims.
bands of cilia (hair-like structures) around the body.
Troll - To trail artificial or natural baits behind a moving
Kristen Sortais
boat. The bait can be made to skip along the surface or
University of California, Davis
trailed below at any depth to just above the bottom. A
bait or lure trailed behind an angler walking along a pier,
bridge, or breakwater is also called trolling.
References
Trophic level - The nutritional position occupied by an
Dawson, E.Y. 1966. Seashore plants of northern Califor-
organism in a food chain or food web; e.g. primary pro-
nia. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 103pp.
ducers (plants); primary consumers (herbivores); sec-
ondary consumers (carnivores), etc. Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1968. Deep-water shes
of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA,
Tunicate - Sessile benthic animals belonging to the
155pp.
phylum Chordata.
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1975. Tidepool and
Turbidity - Reduced visibility in water due to the presence
nearshore shes of California. University of California
of suspended particles.
Press, Berkeley, CA, 156pp.
Underutilized - When more fishing effort is required to
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
achieve the LTPY.
Fisheries Division. 1960. Trilingual dictionary of sheries
Upwelling - A rising of nutrient-rich water toward the sea
technological terms – curing. FAO, Rome, Italy, 85pp.
surface.
Kramer, D.E., W.H. Barss, B.C. Paust, and B.E. Bracken.
VPA - See Virtual Population Analysis.
1995. Guide to northeast Pacic atshes : families
Vector - A physical quantity that has magnitude and direc- Bothidae, Cynoglossidae, and Pleuronectidae. Alaska Sea
tion. Examples are force, acceleration, and velocity. Grant College Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Veliger - A free-swimming larval stage of mollusks. AK, 104pp.
Velum - A ciliated, sail-like appendage of a veliger larva.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 575
Lalli, C.M. and T.R. Parsons. 1993. Biological oceanogra- & facilities. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic
Appendix B: Glossary
phy: an introduction. 1st ed. Pergamon Press, New York, and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries
NY, 301pp. Service, Seattle, WA, 139pp.
Levinton, J.S. 1995. Marine biology: function, biodiver- U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmo-
sity, ecology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, spheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service.
420pp., 1999. Our living oceans: Report on the status of
U.S. living marine resources, 1999. U.S. Dept. of
Meltzer, M. 1980. The world of the small commercial
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
shermen: their lives and their boats. Dover Publica-
tion, National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C.,
tions, Inc., New York, NY, 86pp.
301pp.
Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary. 10th ed. 1998.
Wallace, R.K. and K.M. Fletcher. 2000. Understanding
Merriam-Webster, Springeld, MA, 1559pp.
sheries management: a manual for understanding the
Moyle, P.B. and J.J. Cech, Jr. 2000. Fishes: an introduc-
federal sheries management process, including analysis
tion to ichthyology. 4th ed. Prentice- Hall, Uppersaddle
of the 1996 Sustainable Fisheries Act. Mississippi-Alabama
River, NJ, 612pp.
Sea Grant Consortium, Mobile, AL and University, MS,
Nebel, B.J. 1987. Environmental science: the way the 53pp.
world works. 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
Weiss, N.A.; biographies by C. Weiss. 1995. Introductory
NJ, 671pp.
statistics. 4th ed. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 939pp.
Newell, G.E. and R.C. Newell. 1963. Marine plankton, a
practical guide. Hutchinson Educational, London, 206pp.
Parker, S.P. (editor). 1984. McGraw-Hill dictionary of
biology. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 384pp.
Simpson, J.A. and E.S.C. Weiner (editors). 1998. The
Oxford English dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford University
Press, New York, NY.
Squire, J.L. and S.M. Smith. 1977. Anglers’ guide to the
United States Pacic coast: marine sh, shing grounds
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
576
Appendix C:
California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 577
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
578
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 579
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
580
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 581
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
582
Appendix D:
Reviewers
Appendix D: Reviewers
California State University, Long Beach
The editors wish to thank the reviewers for their Chris Lowe
invaluable assistance in compiling this book. California State University, San Diego
Tom Ebert
Alaska Sea Grant Extension Program California State Unversity, San Francisco
Brian Paust Ralph Larson
California Aquaculture Association Commercial Fisherman
Justin Malan Peter Halmay
California Dept of Fish and Game Richard Young
Pietro Parravano
Alan Baracco (retired)
Kristine Barsky Ducks Unlimited
Dennis Bedford Ryan Broddrick
L.B. Boydston Fishermen’s Marketing Association
Pat Collier
Pete Leipzig
Steve Crooke
Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute
Paul Gregory
Mark Drawbridge
Doyle Hanan (retired)
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
Bob Hardy
Bob Olson
Emma Hateld (Squid Fishery Scientic Committee)
Frank Henry (retired) Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Bob Hulbrock Judith Connor
DeWayne Johnston Moss Landing Marine Laboratory (CSU)
Rick Klingbeil Greg Cailliet
Mary Larson Mike Foster
Bob Lea John Oliver
Mike Malone (Nearshore Advisory Committee)
National Marine Fisheries Service
Ken Oda
John Butler
Dave Ono
Gonzalo Castillo
Dave Parker
Jim Hastie
Christine Pattison
Bob Hoffman
Connie Ryan
Dave Holts
Jerry Spratt (now deceased)
Larry Jacobson
Dale Sweetnam
Sus Kato (retired)
Ian Taniguchi
Mike Laurs
Bob Tasto
Bill Lenarz (retired)
Carl Wilcox
Nancy Lo
Deb Wilson-Vandenberg
Geoff Moser
California Fish and Game Commission
Lisa Natanson
John Duffy Richard Parrish
Mike Weber (Advisor) Gary Sakagawa
California Marine Life Management Project Mike Sigler
Burr Heneman Sue Smith
Cindy Thomson
California Sea Grant Extension Program
Chris Toole
Susan McBride
Jack Turnock
Paul Olin
Russ Vetter
Jim Waldvogel
Occidental College
California State University, Humboldt
John Stephens (retired)
Ron Fritzche
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
Dave Hankin
Tim Mulligan Dave Fox
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 583
The Ocean Conservancy University of California, Davis
Appendix D: Reviewers
Tim Eichenberg Joe Cech
Gary Cherr
Oregon State University
Fred Conte
Dave Sampson
Frank Gress
Gil Sylvia
Pete Klimley
Pacic Coast Federation of Fishermens
Peter Moyle
Associations, Inc.
University of California, San Diego
Zeke Grader
Mike Mullin (now deceased)
Pepperdine University
Richard Rosenblatt
Karen Martin
University of California, Santa Barbara
Point Reyes Bird Observatory
Carrie Culver
David Ainley
Milton Love
Point Reyes-Farallon Island National Marine Sanctuary
John Richards
Dan Howard Steve Schroeter
Jan Roletto
University of South Carolina
Processor
Joe Hightower
Dave Rudie
University of Southern California
San Francisco Estuary Institute
Kathy Ann Miller
Andy Cohen
Washington Department of Fisheries
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History
Dick Burge
Eric Hochberg
Wayne Palsson
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
James Allen
Stillwater Associates
Sharon Kramer
University of California, Berkeley
Dick Moe
Julie Reynolds
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
584
Index
Abalone, 19, 25, 48, 51, 56-57, 59-61, 70, 73-74, 79, 87-97, Birds, 26, 32-35, 37, 45, 138, 158, 163, 176-177, 179, 182,
Index
101-103, 113, 131, 142, 144-145, 147-148, 155, 158, 202, 211, 247, 293, 297, 301, 305, 310, 366, 370,
256, 273, 280, 282, 347, 471, 493-495, 499, 515, 522, 380-381, 435, 455, 458, 472, 476, 484, 486-487, 505,
538, 553-554, 511, 514-516, 521-522, 538, 541-550
Abalone culture, 493, 495, 515 Black abalone, 90, 92-94, 96, 188
Acipenser medirostris, 465 Black perch, 236
Acipenser transmontanus, 467, 469 Black rocksh, 68, 79, 162-164, 167-168
Agarophytes, 286-287 Black-and-yellow rocksh, 173, 185-187
Ahnfeltia, 286 Blackgill rocksh, 368-369, 378
Albacore, 48, 57, 67, 215-216, 291, 315, 317-321, 325-326, Blue rocksh, 26, 68, 162-168, 187, 194, 372
332, 348, 352, 354-355, 357, 567 Blue shark, 342-344
Alopias vulpinus, 339 Blue whale, 530-532
Amphistichus argenteus, 229, 236 Bluen tuna, 215-217, 235, 299, 308, 315, 325-327
Amphistichus koelzi, 236-237 Bocaccio, 22, 26, 166, 359, 361-363, 366-367, 372, 380,
Amphistichus rhodoterus, 236, 238 398-400, 402, 404, 554
Angel shark, 149-150, 248-251, 553-554 Bonito, 27, 54, 79, 149, 215-218, 263-264, 269, 301, 363,
558
Anoplopoma mbria, 390, 392
Bottlenose dolphin, 533
Appendices, 20, 417, 123, 551
Brachyistius frenatus, 236
Aquaculture: overview, 493
Brown rock crab, 112, 114
Arctocephalus townsendi, 523, 525
Brown rocksh, 68, 170-174, 188, 441, 455
Arrowtooth ounder, 119, 203-204, 264, 266, 268, 556
Bull kelp, 25, 79, 91, 102, 273, 282-284, 554
Atheresthes stomias, 203
Butter clam, 447-448
Atherinops afnis, 243
Butter sole, 203
Atherinopsis californiensis, 243, 245
Buttery ray, 260
Atractoscion nobilis, 206, 208, 510, 512
Cabezon, 19, 68, 79, 91, 95, 99, 109, 113, 116, 150-151,
Balaenoptera acutorostrata, 531
157-159, 177, 179, 181-182, 263-264, 269, 449, 554
Balaenoptera musculus, 530-531
Calico rocksh, 68, 149, 179-180, 555
Balaenoptera physalus, 531
Calico surfperch, 236-237
Bank rocksh, 378-379
California Barracuda, 19, 79, 149-150, 219-221, 555
Barracuda, 19, 27, 53-54, 63, 79, 127, 149-150, 219-221,
California corbina, 136, 149, 228-229, 231, 555
263-264, 269, 301, 323, 326, 363, 555
California halibut, 19, 21, 69, 149-151, 165, 195-200, 203,
Barred sand bass, 113, 149, 151, 198, 222-227, 269-272,
236, 248, 363, 435, 455, 510-511, 555
554
California market squid, 295-298
Barred surfperch, 138, 229, 236-237, 239
California scorpionsh, 53-54, 68, 149-150, 160-161, 562
Basking shark, 345-347
California sea lion, 310, 523-524, 526-527
Bat ray, 257-258, 260
California sheephead, 56, 68, 149-150, 155-156, 555-556
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview, 481-482
California skate, 258, 261
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems, 431, 435-436, 481, 491
California tonguesh, 203
Bay and Estuary Finsh Resources, 455
California s Variable Ocean Environment, 21-28
Bay and Estuary Invertebrate Resources, 437-438
Callorhinus ursinus, 523, 525
Bay shrimp, 439-442, 453, 467, 476, 514, 554
Canary rocksh, 175-176, 359, 372, 554
Big skate, 257-258, 441
Cancer antennarius, 114
Bigmouth sole, 203
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 585
Cancer anthonyi, 112, 114 Delphinus capensis, 533
Index
Cancer magister 107
, Delphinus delphis, 533
Cancer productus, 112 Delta smelt, 463, 472-473, 475-479, 564
Carcharodon carcharias, 345, 347 Diamond stingray, 260
Carrageenophytes, 286-287 Diamond turbot, 203
Cebidichthys violaceus, 181-182 Dolphin, 331-332, 352-353, 356-357, 533-534, 555
Cetorhinus maximus, 345, 347 Dolphinsh, 315, 471
Chilipepper, 170, 359, 362-363, 366-367, 398-399, Dolphins, 179, 291, 331-332, 470-471, 521, 529-535, 568
China rocksh, 68, 185-187 Dorado, 323, 352-353
Chinook salmon, 32, 109, 176, 193, 370, 407, 409-414, Dover sole, 27, 359-360, 374, 382-384, 389-390,
417-418, 424, 460, 463, 466, 508-509, Dungeness crab, 71, 73-74, 87-88, 107-112, 129, 435, 437,
Chione, 451-452 455, 514
Chione californiensis, 451 Dwarf perch, 236
Chione uctifraga, 451 Eelgrass, 33-34, 37, 177, 193, 207, 226, 243-244, 384, 435,
459, 481, 484, 487-490, 502, 505, 516, 555-556
Chione undatella, 451
Embiotoca jacksoni, 236
Chondrus crispus, 286-287
Embiotoca lateralis, 236, 239
Chum salmon, 405, 407
Emergent Marshes, 483-486
Citharichthys fragilis, 201-202
Emerita analoga, 138-139
Citharichthys sordidus, 201-202
English sole, 200 384-385, 441
Citharichthys stigmaeus, 201-202
Engraulis mordax, 293, 303, 305
Citharichthys xanthostigma, 201
Enhydra lutris, 101, 536, 540
Clupea pallasi, 456, 459
Eopsetta exilis, 203
C-O turbot, 202
Eopsetta jordani, 386-387, 389
Coastal Pelagic Species: overview, 293-294
Errex zachirus, 388
Coastal Wetlands, 29, 32, 35, 483-486, 546,
Eschrichtius robustus, 531, 535
Coho salmon, 29, 69, 405, 410, 412-413, 415-417, 507-508
Eucheuma, 286
Commercial Fishing Gear, 206, 215, 577-582
Eulachon, 472, 477-478, 564
Common dolphin, 533
Eumetopias jubatus, 523-524
Coonstripe shrimp, 129-130, 555
Exotic Species, 30, 437, 473, 477, 493, 518
Copper rocksh, 68, 173-174, 177
Fantail sole, 203
Coryphaena hippurus, 352-353
Fat gaper, 445
Cow shark, 470
Fin whale, 531
Cowcod, 359, 363-365, 401-402
Finsh culture, 510
Crangon franciscorum, 439-440, 442
Fishing Gear, 20, 37, 53, 64, 67-68, 73, 140, 150, 206, 215,
Crangon nigricauda, 440, 442
220, 232, 243, 328, 332, 336, 345, 467, 521, 523, 544,
Crangon nigromaculata, 440
567, 570, 574, 577-582
Crassostrea gigas, 500
Galeorhinus galeus, 255
Crassostrea sikamea, 501
Gaper clams, 445-447, 449, 556
Crassostrea virginica, 500, 506, 570
Genyonemus lineatus, 234-235
Curln turbot, 203
Geoduck, 437, 449-450, 556
Dall’s porpoise, 534-535
Giant kelp, 25, 28, 79, 91, 101-102, 140, 164, 194, 207,
Dasyatis brevis, 260 273, 277-284, 288, 457, 495, 556
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
586
Giant sea bass, 99, 149-150, 209-211, 220, 235, 258, 308, Hyperprosopon argenteum, 236
Index
363, 510-511, 557 Hyperprosopon ellipticum, 236
Girella nigricans, 241-242 Hypomesus pretiosus, 474
Globicephala macrorhynchus, 532-533 Hypomesus nipponensis, 474, 479
Glossary, 20, 567-576 Hypomesus transpacicus, 472, 479
Gopher rocksh, 68, 173, 185-188 Hypsopsetta guttulata, 203
Grampus griseus, 533-534 Hypsurus caryi, 236
Grass rocksh, 68, 172, 182, 185-188, 271 Invasive Species, 34, 435, 486, 488, 498, 513-520, 572
Gray whale, 522, 529, 531-532, 535 Iridaea, 286
Green abalone, 92-93, 96 Isurus oxyrinchus, 336, 338
Green sturgeon, 465-466 Jack mackerel, 27, 212, 216, 220, 293-294, 299, 304, 306,
Groundsh: Overview, 359-360 308-311, 341, 361, 557
Grunion, 34, 149, 151, 220, 232, 243, 246-247, 341, 472, Jacksmelt, 243-246, 253, 472, 563
557 Japanese littleneck, 451
Guadalupe fur seal, 522-523, 525-526 Katsuwonus pelamis, 328, 330
Gulf sanddab, 201 Kelp, 21, 25, 28, 30-31, 33-34, 36, 47, 68-69, 79, 90-92,
Gull, 542-5454 95, 99, 101-103, 105-106, 116, 128, 132, 140-141, 143,
149-151, 155-158, 163-166, 168, 170, 174, 181, 183-187,
Gymnogongrus, 286
190-191, 193-194, 206-207, 209-210, 212, 220, 222-227,
Gymnura marmorata, 260
232, 236, 239, 241, 243-244, 252, 259-260, 269-273,
Halfmoon, 79, 112, 149, 241-242, 279 277-285, 288, 307, 361, 363, 366, 435, 457, 470, 495,
516, 532, 537, 554, 556-557, 573
Halibut, 19, 21, 69, 125, 149-151, 165, 195-200, 203-204,
209, 232, 235-236, 248, 259, 263-264, 270,348, 363, Kelp bass, 21, 25, 79, 99, 149, 151, 222-227, 259, 269-272,
396, 435, 455, 478, 510-511, 536, 555-556 557
Haliotis corrugata, 89 Kelp greenling, 149, 183-184, 191, 193
Haliotis cracherodii, 89 Kelp perch, 236
Haliotis fulgens, 89 Kelp rocksh, 25, 68, 165, 185-187
Haliotis rufescens, 91, 96-97, 494-495, Killer whale, 470, 532
Haliotis sorensensi, 89 Kumamoto oyster, 501-502, 504-506
Harbor porpoise, 527, 534 Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, 534
Herring, 19, 27, 48, 51, 53, 55-57, 59-60, 63, 69, 73-74, Lamna ditropis, 345, 347
129, 183, 193, 207, 244, 253, 259, 300, 341, 386,
Lampris guttatus, 348
409, 427, 435, 455-459, 468, 480, 487, 489, 491, 521,
Law Enforcement, 20, 67-72
523-524, 531, 545, 559, 568, 571, 573
Leopard shark, 252-254, 435, 441, 455,
Hexagrammos decagrammus, 183-184
Leuresthes tenuis, 246-247
Hexanchus griseus, 470-471
Lingcod, 22, 27, 54-55, 66, 68, 109, 124, 129, 149-151, 158,
Highly Migratory Species: overview, 315-316
163-166, 177, 179, 183, 188, 190-194, 263-264, 270,
Hinnites multirugosus, 142
359, 366, 381, 388, 396, 554, 565
Hippoglossina stomata, 203
Lissodelphis borealis, 534
Hippoglossus stenolepsis, 203
Littleneck clam, 451
Hornyhead turbot, 203
Loligo opalescens, 293, 295, 297-298
Human Ecosystem, 47-66
Longn sanddab, 201
Humpback whale, 530
Longn smelt, 472-473, 476-479, 564
Hyperprosopon anale, 236
Longnose skate, 258
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 587
Longspine thornyhead, 374-375 Northern fur seal, 523, 525-526
Index
Louvar, 341, 350-351, 356, 557 Northern right-whale dolphin, 534
Loxorhynchus grandis, 115, 117 Notorynchus cepedianus, 470-471
Luvarus imperialis, 350-351 Ocean shrimp, 87-88, 118-120, 129
Lysmata californica, 127 Offshore ecosystem, 26, 289, 291-292
Mackerel sharks, 345-347 Olive rocksh, 68, 79, 168-169
Macrocystis pyrifera, 164, 194, 273, 277, 283 Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, 405
Mahi mahi, 352 Oncorhynchus keta, 405
Mako shark, 336-339, 354-355 Oncorhynchus kisutch, 405, 417, 507
Management Considerations, 553-566 Oncorhynchus mykiss, 405, 411, 418, 507
Manila clam, 451-452 Oncorhynchus nerka, 405
Marine Birds, 33-35, 163, 177, 310, 366, 455, 458, 521-522, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 405, 407, 417
541-550 Opah, 348-349, 356, 558
Marine Birds and Mammals: overview, 521-522 Opaleye, 127, 138, 149, 241-242, 265-266, 279
Medialuna californiensis, 241-242 Ophiodon elongatus, 191, 194
Megaptera novaeangliae, 530 Orcinus orca, 532
Megastrea undosa, 140 Ostreola conchaphila, 500
Merluccius productus, 393, 397, 120 Ostreola lurida, 500
Micrometrus aurora, 236 Other atshes, 386, 150, 198, 201, 203-205
Micrometrus minimus, 236 Other nearshore rockshes, 185-188
Microstomus pacicus, 382-383, 389 Oyster culture, 496, 500-502, 504, 506
Minke whale, 531 Pacic angel shark, 149, 248-251
Mirounga angurstirostris, 525 Pacic bonito, 79, 149, 215-218, 558
Mobula, 260 Pacic gaper, 445-446
Mobula japonica, 260 Pacic hake, 21, 27, 119-120, 341, 366, 393-397, 399, 402,
Monkeyface prickleback, 149, 181-182, 557 404, 558
Morone saxatilis, 460, 463-464 Pacic halibut, 348, 396, 203-204, 556
Mussel culture, 496 Pacic harbor seal, 523-524, 526-527
Myliobatis californica, 257, 260 Pacic herring, 48, 69, 207, 435, 455-459, 487, 489, 491,
559
Mytilus californianus, 496
Pacic mackerel, 22, 27, 207, 212, 216, 220, 223, 293-294,
Mytilus galloprovincialis, 496, 499
304, 306-310, 314,
Mytilus trossulus, 496
Pacic northern bluen tuna, 325-327
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources, 17, 273
Pacic oyster, 500-501, 504
Nearshore rockshes, 164-165, 169, 174, 178-179, 185-188,
Pacic razor clam, 443-444, 559
190
Pacic salmon, 341, 407-419, 426-427
Nereocystis luetkeana, 282, 284
Pacic sanddab, 341, 201-202
Night smelt, 472, 474, 476, 478, 480, 564
Pacic sardine, 21-22, 24, 27-28, 196, 220, 293, 299-302,
Nonindigenous Species, 34, 37-38, 435
304, 306, 308-310, 341, 545, 547
Northern anchovy, 21, 24, 28, 216, 220, 293, 302-307,
Pacic white-sided dolphin, 534
309-310, 545
Palaemon macrodactylus, 440
Northern bluen tuna, 325-327
Pandalus danae, 129
Northern elephant seal, 523, 525-527
Pandalus jordani, 118, 120
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
588
Pandalus platyceros, 121, 123, 126 Quillback rocksh, 68, 170, 177-178
Index
Panope generosa, 449-450 Rainbow perch, 236
Panulirus interruptus, 98, 100 Raja binoculata, 257
Paralabrax clathratus, 222-223 Raja inornata, 258
Paralabrax maculatofasciatus, 226-227 Raja rhina, 258
Paralabrax nebulifer 198, 224
, Rays, 53, 91, 93, 95, 116, 125, 136, 149, 151, 210, 236-237,
253, 256-262, 346, 348, 388, 396, 452, 455, 467,
Paralichthys californicus, 195, 198, 510
470-471, 501, 503, 526, 563, 569
Parastichopus californicus, 131, 134
Razor clam, 443-444, 559
Parastichopus parvimensis, 134
Red abalone, 89-93, 95-97, 102, 145, 147-148, 494-495,
Pelagic stingray, 260
554
Pelican, 33, 3001, 305, 541-542, 546, 550
Red rock crab, 112, 114
Petrale sole, 384, 386-387, 389, 21, 119, 199
Red rock shrimp, 187, 127-128, 560
Phanerodon atripes, 236
Red sea urchin, 26, 87, 91, 101-106, 560
Phanerodon furcatus, 236
Redtail surfperch, 150, 236-238
Phocoena phocoena, 534
Reef perch, 236
Phocoenoides dalli, 534-535
Restricted Access, 19-20, 70, 73-76, 98, 105, 165, 216,
Physeter catodon, 532 560-561
Pile perch, 127, 236-238, 240 Reviewers, 20, 583-584
Pilot whale, 532-533 Rex sole, 388-389, 400
Pink abalone, 89, 92, 95 Rhacochilus toxotes, 236, 239
Pink salmon, 405, 407 Rhacochilus vacca, 236, 238
Pink seaperch, 236 Rhinobatos productus, 257, 259
Pinnipeds, 177, 521-525, 527-529 Ridgeback prawn, 88, 121, 123-126, 561
Pismo clam, 87, 135-137, 437, 559 Risso s dolphin, 533-534
Platichthys stellatus, 199-200 Rock crabs, 87, 112-113, 115, 136, 501, 561
Platyrhinoidis triseriata, 257, 259 Rock scallop, 142-143, 561
Pleuronectes bilineatus, 203 Rock sole, 203
Pleuronectes isolepis, 203 Roncador stearnsii, 230
Pleuronectes vetulus, 384 Round stingray, 259-260
Pleuronichthys coenosus, 203 Rubberlip seaperch, 236, 239-240
Pleuronichthys decurrens, 203 Sablesh, 27, 76, 119, 291, 359-361, 366, 374, 382,
390-392, 401-402,
Pleuronichthys ritteri, 203
Salmo gairdneri, 418
Pleuronichthys verticalis, 203
Salmon, 19, 21, 27, 29, 32, 36, 48, 50-57, 59-61, 63, 66,
Porpoises, 220, 301, 308, 395, 521-522, 529-535, 568
69, 73-74, 107, 109-110, 122, 162, 176-177, 179, 193,
Postelsia palmaeformis, 285
195, 259, 291, 295, 309, 341, 345-348, 361, 366, 370,
Prionace glauca, 342, 344 380-381, 394, 405-420, 424-429, 457, 460, 463, 466,
472, 478, 484, 507-509, 521, 523-524, 558-559, 561,
Protothaca laciniata, 451
567, 569-572, 584
Protothaca staminea, 451
Salmon culture, 507-508
Protothaca tenerrima, 451
Salmon shark, 345-347
Psettichthys melanostictus, 203
Salmonids: overview, 405
Pteroplatytrygon violacea, 260
Sand basses, 224-227
Purple sea urchin, 101, 105-106, 560
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 589
Sand crab, 138-139, 562 Sebastolobus altivelis, 374, 377
Index
Sand sole, 203 Semicossyphus pulcher 155-156
,
Sanddabs, 149, 201-203 Seriola lalandi, 212
Sarda chiliensis, 215, 218 Sevengill shark, 253, 255, 470-471
Sardine, 21-22, 24, 27-28, 70, 129, 151, 196, 220, 234, 291, Sharpnose seaperch, 236
293-294, 299-304, 306, 308-310, 312-313, 319, 335, 337, Sheep crab, 88, 115-117, 145, 147-148, 562
341, 348, 544-545, 547, 550,
Shiner perch, 460, 498, 193, 236
Sardinops sagax, 293, 299-300, 302
Shortbelly rocksh, 176, 341, 380-381
Saxidomus giganteus, 447
Shortn mako shark, 336-339
Saxidomus nuttalli, 447
Shortnned pilot whale, 532-533
Scomber japonicus, 293, 306, 308
Shortspine thornyhead, 374, 376
Scorpaena guttata, 160
Shovelnose guitarsh, 257, 259-260
Scorpaenichthys marmoratus, 157-158
Sicyonia ingentis, 123-126
Scorpionsh, 53-54, 63, 68, 149-150, 160-161, 265-266,
Siliqua patula, 443-444
272, 562
Silver surfperch, 236, 239
Sea cumbers, 131
Silversides, 53, 63, 206, 243-246, 265-266, 477, 563
Sea otter, 87, 89, 91-92, 96, 101-102, 113, 136-137, 279,
Sixgill shark, 470-471
282, 437, 450, 498, 522, 536-540, 553, 556, 559
Skates and rays, 149, 151, 257-262, 563, 569
Sea palm, 273, 285
Skipjack tuna, 216, 315, 328-330, 333, 563
Seabirds, 37, 47, 150, 193, 199, 291, 308, 521, 541-550
Slender sole, 203
Sebastes auriculatus, 170
Sockeye salmon, 27, 405, 407
Sebastes carnatus, 185
Soupn shark, 150, 255-256
Sebastes caurinus, 173
Spartina, 483
Sebastes chrysomelas, 185
Speckled sanddab, 201-202
Sebastes dalli, 179
Sperm whale, 522, 532
Sebastes entomelas, 370-371
Sphyraena argentea, 219, 221
Sebastes avidus, 372
Spiny lobster, 21, 79, 87-88, 98-100, 280, 556, 563
Sebastes goodei, 366
Spirinchus starksi, 476
Sebastes jordani, 380-381
Spirinchus thaleichthys, 476, 479
Sebastes levis, 363
Spot prawn, 75, 121-126, 563
Sebastes maliger 177-178
,
Spotn croaker, 138, 229-231, 563
Sebastes melanops, 162
Spotn surfperch, 236, 239
Sebastes melanostomus, 368-369
Spotted sand bass, 149, 222, 226-227, 564
Sebastes miniatus, 189
Squatina californica, 248, 251
Sebastes mystinus, 165
Squid, 19, 21, 27, 48, 52, 55-57, 59-61, 70, 74-75, 87,
Sebastes nebulosus, 185
151, 158, 174, 190, 196, 202, 206-207, 210, 212, 215,
Sebastes paucispinis, 361
217, 220, 224, 235, 243, 250, 291, 293-298, 306-307,
Sebastes pinniger 175
, 309-310, 319, 323, 326, 333, 335, 337, 341-343, 361,
Sebastes rastrelliger 172, 185, 188
, 366, 521, 523-524, 526, 531-533, 538, 547, 568,
571-572, 583
Sebastes rufus, 378-379
Starry ounder, 149, 199-200, 203, 385, 435, 441, 449
Sebastes serranoides, 168-169
Steelhead, 32, 67, 405-406, 411, 415, 417-427, 507-509,
Sebastes serriceps, 185, 188
523, 561, 564
Sebastolobus alascanus, 377
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
590
Steelhead rainbow trout, 418-425 Whales, 291, 301, 335, 346, 395, 471, 521-522, 529-535,
Index
537, 567-568
Steller sea lion, 524
White abalone, 19, 89, 93-95, 97, 494
Stereolepis gigas, 510
White croaker, 56, 150, 196, 234-235, 264, 266, 268-272,
Striped bass, 53-54, 63, 69, 437, 439, 441, 455, 460-464,
341, 441, 565
467, 469, 477, 480
White seabass, 56, 79, 119-120, 127, 149-151, 206-209, 212,
Striped marlin, 308, 334-335, 564
308, 493, 510-512
Striped seaperch, 193, 236, 239-240
White shark, 151, 253, 255, 345-347, 470, 532
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, 101, 104-106
White sturgeon, 441, 455, 465-469
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, 105-106
Widow rocksh, 19, 171, 359, 363, 370-372,
Submerged Aquatic Plants, 487-492
Xiphias gladius, 322, 324
Surf smelt, 79, 151, 472-474, 476, 478, 564
Yellow rock crab, 112
Surfperches, 27, 149, 151, 236-240, 253, 435, 455
Yellown croaker, 138, 232-233, 565
Swordsh, 27, 48, 57, 59-61, 67, 315, 322-324, 328,
Yellown tuna, 27, 215-216, 315, 328, 331-333, 563, 565
331-332, 334, 336, 339, 341-343, 350, 352, 356, 363,
396, 471, 564, 574 Yellowtail, 127, 67, 79, 149-150, 163, 166, 168, 212-214,
264, 266-268, 272, 301, 308, 326, 359, 363, 372-373,
Symphurus atricauda, 203
398-399, 565
Tapes philippinarum, 451
Yellowtail rocksh, 163, 168, 359, 372-373
Thaleichthys pacicus, 477
Zalembius rosaceus, 236
Thornback, 257, 259-260
Zalophus californianus, 523-524
Thornyheads, 359-360, 374-377, 382, 390
Zostera marina, 481, 487, 490
Thresher shark, 248, 315, 336-337, 339-341
Thunnus alalunga, 317, 321
Thunnus albacares, 331, 333
Thunnus orientalis, 325
Tivela stultorum, 135, 137
Topsmelt, 472, 220, 243-244, 246, 253, 563
Trachurus symmetricus, 293, 309, 311
Treesh, 68, 149, 185-188, 272
Tresus capax, 445-446
Tresus nuttalli, 445
Triakis semifasciata, 252, 254
True smelts, 27, 243, 246, 455, 472-480
Turban snail, 140-141, 145, 147-148
Umbrina roncador 232
,
Urolophus halleri, 259
Vermilion rocksh, 26, 189-190, 363
Wakasagi, 472-476, 479, 565
Walleye surfperch, 236, 239-240
Washington clam, 447-448, 565
Water Quality, 20, 29-45, 87, 227, 416, 419, 437, 452, 481,
483, 486, 493, 497, 500-502, 505, 507, 510, 517-518,
558
Wavy turban snail, 140-141, 145, 147-148
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 591
Index
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
592
The University of California, in accordance with applicable Federal and State law and University policy, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color,
national origin, religion, sex, disability, age, medical condition (cancer-related), ancestry, marital status, citizenship, sexual orientation, or status as a
Vietnam-era veteran or special disabled veteran. The University also prohibits sexual harassment. This nondiscrimination policy covers admission, access,
and treatment in University programs and activities.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 593
594
A Status Report December 2001
California’s Living Marine Resources:
A Status Report
The Resources Agency
The California Department of Fish and Game
California Governor Gray Davis
Resources Secretary Mary D. Nichols
Department of Fish and Game Director Robert C. Hight
Marine Region Manager Patricia Wolf
Editors
William S. Leet
Christopher M. Dewees
Richard Klingbeil
Eric J. Larson
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 1
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The editors wish to acknowledge important contributions from many colleagues. In DFG,
Joann Eres and her staff compiled a huge amount of landings data for the tables and graphs,
while Nancy Wright and Chad King created the maps. Chamois Andersen and the Conservation
Education staff assisted with the editing. Carrie Wilson and Paul Gregory searched out and
supplied many of the photographs. Bernice Hammer and Susan Ashcraft aided in organizing
and producing tables and graphs. Kristen Sortais from the California Sea Grant Program
compiled the glossary and organized the photographs in the document. The ever-enthusiastic
Tom Jurach of the UC Davis Repro Graphics Department was the lead person for publication
design and layout.
This publication fullls the Marine Life Management Act of 1998 requirement for a status
of the sheries report. Primary funding for this project was provided by the State of
California to the Marine Region of the California Department of Fish and Game. Additional
support was supplied by the California Marine Life Management Project with funding from
the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the National Sea Grant College Program of
the Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, under grant
number NA06RG0142, project AE/1 through the California Sea Grant College Program.
This publication contains a compilation of information from numerous individuals and
highly regarded sources. All efforts have been made to publish the best available data
and information.
This report is not copyrighted. If sections are reproduced elsewhere, the authors and
the California Department of Fish and Game would appreciate receiving appropriate
acknowledgment.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2001098707
ISBN 1-879906-57-0
University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources
Publication SG01-11
For information about ordering copies of this publication, call (800) 994-8849 or visit
www.anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu.
To view or download via the Internet, visit www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
2
Dedication
Dedication
Dr. Mia J. Tegner
California’s Living Marine Resources: A Status Report is dedicated to the
memory of Dr. Mia J. Tegner, a loved and respected colleague, who died
in a scuba diving accident in January 2001. As a researcher at the
University of California’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Dr. Tegner
was an expert in kelp forest ecology and was recognized as one of the
leading scientists in the world regarding California’s abalone and sea
urchin resources. She cared deeply about the marine environment and
became an effective spokesperson for science-based marine conserva-
tion. She rmly believed that a system of marine protected areas is
critical to restoration of sheries and the protection of biodiversity and
worked with others to ensure the enactment of both the Marine Life
Management Act of 1998 and the Marine Life Protection Act of 1999, and
the appropriation of funds for their implementation.
Dr. Tegner’s presence as a scientist and concerned citizen will be
sadly missed.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 3
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
4
Purpose and Overview
Purpose and Overview
T he Marine Life Management Act (MLMA), which became law on
Jan. 1, 1999, opened a new era in the management and conserva-
tion of living marine resources in California. The MLMA’s overriding
goal is to ensure the conservation, sustainable use, and restoration
of California’s living marine resources, including the conservation of
healthy and diverse marine ecosystems and living marine resources.
To achieve this goal, the MLMA established an innovative program
for managing marine sheries. Good sheries managers periodically
take stock of the effectiveness of their programs. With this in
mind, the MLMA requires that the Department prepare an annual
report on the status of sport and commercial marine sheries
managed by the state. The MLMA requires that these reports do
three things: 1) identify any marine shery that does not meet the
MLMA’s sustainability policies; 2) review restricted access programs;
and 3) evaluate the management system and make recommendations
for modications. This rst report presents the best available informa-
tion for all marine and estuarine sheries managed by the state.
Under the MLMA, later annual reports will cover one-quarter of all
marine and estuarine sheries managed by the state.
The rst section of California’s Living Marine Resources: A Status
Report is meant to provide lay people and specialists alike with
the best available information on the oceanic, environmental, regula-
tory, and socioeconomic factors that affect the management affecting
California’s living marine resources. This discussion is divided into
ve chapters: California’s Variable Ocean Environment, The Status of
Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environ-
ment, The Human Ecosystem Dimension, The Status of Marine Fisher-
ies Law Enforcement and A Review of Restricted Access Programs.
The second section of the report includes chapters on the three major
ecosystems off California: nearshore, offshore, and bays and estuaries.
Each of these chapters includes a description of the ecosystem, the
major issues facing sheries managers, and the management frame-
work. These chapters also include evaluations of individual sheries
and species of marine wildlife, including a historical description of
each shery, the status of biological knowledge, and the status of
the population. Management considerations submitted by authors for
approximately half the individual sheries are found in Appendix A.
The report concludes with chapters on Aquaculture, Invasive Species,
and Marine Birds and Mammals.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 5
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
6
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 7
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
8
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2 Endangered Species Act.............................................. 39
Table of Contents
Marine Mammal Protection Act ................................. 40
Dedication 3 National Marine Sanctuaries Act ................................ 40
The Coastal Zone Management Act............................. 40
Purpose and Overview 5 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
Management Act ......................................................... 41
Table of Contents 9
Oil Pollution Act of 1990............................................. 41
State
Introduction and Historical Overview 19
California Environmental Quality Act......................... 41
Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act .................. 41
California’s Variable Ocean Environment 21
California Endangered Species Act............................. 42
Climatic Processes, El Niño Events and Regime Shifts.......... 22
McAteer-Petris Act ...................................................... 42
El Niño/La Niña Processes .................................................. 22
California Coastal Act ................................................. 42
Decadal/Regime Scale Processes ........................................ 23
Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1990........... 42
Implications for Nearshore Ecosystems................................ 24
Regional ..................................................................... 42
Implications for the Offshore Ecosystem .............................. 26
CALFED....................................................................... 42
El Niño - La Niña Fluctuations .............................................. 27
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Water Quality
Regime Scale Climatic Variations ......................................... 27
Protection Program.................................................... 43
Conclusions........................................................................... 28
Local
References ............................................................................ 28
Implementation of CEQA and NEPA ............................ 43
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in Coordinated Resource Management Planning ........... 43
California’s Coastal and Marine Environment 29 Marine Protected Areas.............................................. 43
Regulatory Gaps ......................................................... 44
Importance of Healthy Waters and Habitats to Marine Life 29
Human Ecosystem Dimension 47
Health of Coastal and Marine Water Quality and Habitats ... 29
Human Benefits of the Marine Ecosystem............................. 47
Monitoring and Assessment Information ................... 29
Factors Affecting Commercial and
Data Limitations/Gaps................................................ 30
Recreational Fishery Activity................................................. 47
Sources of Impairment of Water Quality and Habitats.......... 31
Commercial Fisheries Landings and Ex-vessel Value ............ 48
Point Source Discharges............................................. 31
Harvesting Sector.................................................................. 49
Nonpoint Source Discharges ...................................... 31
The Processing Sector........................................................... 51
Spills ..................................................................................... 32
The Trade Sector................................................................... 51
Oil Spills ..................................................................... 32
Sport and Subsistence Fisheries............................................ 52
Other Spills................................................................. 32
Effort and Harvest ................................................................. 53
Dredging and Disposal of Dredged Material ........................ 33
Recreational Fishery Expenditures ....................................... 53
Invasive Species .................................................................... 34
Additional Information on the Salmon and
Habitat Loss, Destruction and Alteration .............................. 34
CPFV Sport Fisheries ............................................................. 53
Water Flow............................................................................. 35
References............................................................................. 55
Freshwater Discharges ............................................... 35
Hydromodification...................................................... 36
Marine Law Enforcement 67
Recreational and Commercial Activities ............................... 36
Introduction.......................................................................... 67
Boating ....................................................................... 36
Resources.............................................................................. 67
Jet Skis (Motorized Personal Watercraft) .................. 36
Personnel.................................................................... 67
Fishing ........................................................................ 37
Patrol Boats ................................................................ 67
Ecosystem-wide Implications................................................ 37
Teams ......................................................................... 68
Regulatory Structure for Addressing
Partnerships ............................................................... 68
Water Quality and Habitat Issues ......................................... 38
Fisheries-Specific Enforcement Efforts ................................. 68
Federal
Groundfish.................................................................. 68
Clean Water Act........................................................... 38
Nearshore Fish............................................................ 68
Permit Program ....................................................... 38
Salmon........................................................................ 69
Nonpoint Pollution Program....................................... 38
Halibut........................................................................ 69
Regulation of Discharges into Impaired Waters......... 38
Striped Bass................................................................ 69
Discharges under Federal Licenses or Permits .......... 38
Pacific Herring ........................................................... 69
Dredge Disposal and Fill ............................................ 38
Antidegradation.......................................................... 39
Ocean Dumping Act.................................................... 39
The National Environmental Policy Act ...................... 39
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 9
Coastal Pelagic Species ......................................................... 70 Purple Sea Urchin ...................................................................... 105
Table of Contents
Sardine/Anchovy/Mackerel........................................ 70 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 105
Squid .......................................................................... 70 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 105
Abalone....................................................................... 70 Status of the Population ...................................................... 105
Sea Urchin .................................................................. 70 References........................................................................... 106
Shrimp/Prawns .......................................................... 70 Dungeness Crab ......................................................................... 107
Lobster........................................................................ 71 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 107
Crab ............................................................................ 71 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 109
Other Invertebrates .................................................... 71 Status of the Population ...................................................... 110
Marine Aquaria ..................................................................... 71 References............................................................................111
Aquaculture .......................................................................... 71 Rock Crabs................................................................................. 112
Commercial Fish Businesses................................................. 72 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 112
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 112
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries 73 Status of the Populations..................................................... 113
Background ........................................................................ 73 References............................................................................114
History ................................................................................ 73 Sheep Crab ..................................................................................115
California’s Restricted Access Programs .............................. 73 History of the Fishery ...........................................................115
California’s Commercial Fisheries Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 116
Restricted Access Policy........................................................ 74 Status of the Population .......................................................117
Federal Restricted Access Programs..................................... 76 References............................................................................117
Future Actions ....................................................................... 76 Ocean Shrimp ............................................................................ 118
References ........................................................................... 76 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 118
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................119
California’s Nearshore Ecosystem 79
Status of the Population .......................................................119
References........................................................................... 120
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate
Spot Prawn ................................................................................. 121
Resources: Overview 87
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 121
Abalone ........................................................................................ 89
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 122
History of the Fishery ............................................................ 89
Status of the Population ...................................................... 123
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................. 89
References........................................................................... 123
Red abalone................................................................ 90
Ridgeback Prawn ....................................................................... 124
Pink abalone............................................................... 92
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 124
Green abalone ............................................................ 92
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 124
Black abalone............................................................. 93
Status of the Population ...................................................... 125
White abalone............................................................. 94
References........................................................................... 125
Status of the Populations....................................................... 95
Red Rock Shrimp ....................................................................... 127
References............................................................................. 96
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 127
California Spiny Lobster............................................................... 98
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 127
History of the Fishery ............................................................ 98
Status of the Population ...................................................... 128
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................. 99
References........................................................................... 128
Status of the Population ...................................................... 100
Coonstripe Shrimp ..................................................................... 129
References........................................................................... 100
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 129
Red Sea Urchin........................................................................... 101
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 129
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 101
Status of the Population ...................................................... 130
Southern California Fishery ................................................ 101
References........................................................................... 130
Northern California Fishery ................................................ 101
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 102
Status of the Population ...................................................... 103
References........................................................................... 104
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
10
Sea Cucumbers........................................................................... 131 Blue Rockfish ............................................................................. 165
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 131 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 165
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 132 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 165
Status of the Population ...................................................... 133 Status of the Population .......................................................167
References........................................................................... 134 References............................................................................167
Pismo Clam ................................................................................ 135 Olive Rockfish ............................................................................ 168
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 135 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 168
Status of the Biological Knowledge ..................................... 135 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 168
Status of the Population ...................................................... 137 Status of the Population ...................................................... 168
References........................................................................... 137 References........................................................................... 169
Sand Crab................................................................................... 138 Brown Rockfish.......................................................................... 170
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 138 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 170
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 138 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 170
Status of the Population ...................................................... 139 Status of the Population ...................................................... 171
References........................................................................... 139 References........................................................................... 172
Wavy Turban Snail ..................................................................... 140 Copper Rockfish......................................................................... 173
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 140 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 173
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 140 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 173
Status of the Population ...................................................... 141 Status of the Population .......................................................174
References........................................................................... 141 References............................................................................174
Rock Scallop .............................................................................. 142 Canary Rockfish ..........................................................................175
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 142 History of the Fishery ...........................................................175
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 142 Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................175
Status of the Population ...................................................... 143 Status of the Population .......................................................176
References........................................................................... 143 Quillback Rockfish .................................................................... 177
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates ...................... 144 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 177
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 177
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview 149 Status of the Population ...................................................... 178
California Sheephead..................................................................155 References........................................................................... 178
History of the Fishery ...........................................................155 Calico Rockfish .......................................................................... 179
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................155 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 179
Status of the Population ...................................................... 156 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 179
References........................................................................... 156 Status of the Population ...................................................... 179
Cabezon...................................................................................... 157 References........................................................................... 180
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 157 Monkeyface Prickleback............................................................ 181
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 157 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 181
Status of the Population ...................................................... 158 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 181
References........................................................................... 158 Status of the Population ...................................................... 182
California Scorpionfish .............................................................. 160 References........................................................................... 182
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 160 Kelp Greenling ........................................................................... 183
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 160 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 183
Status of the Population ...................................................... 160 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 183
References............................................................................161 Status of the Population ...................................................... 184
Black Rockfish ........................................................................... 162 References........................................................................... 184
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 162 Other Nearshore Rockfishes ...................................................... 185
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 162 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 185
Status of the Population ...................................................... 163 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 186
References........................................................................... 164 Status of the Populations..................................................... 187
\ References........................................................................... 188
Vermilion Rockfish .................................................................... 189
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 189
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 189
Status of the Population ...................................................... 190
References........................................................................... 190
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 11
Kelp Bass.................................................................................... 222
Lingcod ...................................................................................... 191
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 222
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 191
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 222
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 192
Status of the Population ...................................................... 223
Status of the Population ...................................................... 193
References .......................................................................... 223
References........................................................................... 194
Barred Sand Bass....................................................................... 224
California Halibut ...................................................................... 195
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 224
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 195
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 224
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 196
Status of the Population ...................................................... 225
Status of the Population ..................................................... 196
References........................................................................... 225
References........................................................................... 198
Spotted Sand Bass ...................................................................... 226
Starry Flounder .......................................................................... 199
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 226
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 199
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 226
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 199
Status of the Population ...................................................... 227
Status of the Population ...................................................... 200
References........................................................................... 227
References........................................................................... 200
California Corbina ..................................................................... 228
Sanddabs.................................................................................... 201
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 228
History of the Fishery ......................................................... 201
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 228
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 201
Status of the Population ...................................................... 229
Status of the Population ..................................................... 202
References........................................................................... 229
References........................................................................... 202
Spotfin Croaker .......................................................................... 230
Other Flatfishes .......................................................................... 203
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 230
History of The Fishery ......................................................... 203
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 230
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 203
Status of the Population ...................................................... 230
Status of the Populations..................................................... 204
References........................................................................... 231
References........................................................................... 205
Yellowfin Croaker....................................................................... 232
White Seabass ............................................................................ 206
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 232
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 206
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 232
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 207
Status of the Population ...................................................... 232
Status of the Population ...................................................... 208
References........................................................................... 233
References........................................................................... 208
White Croaker ............................................................................ 234
Giant Sea Bass ............................................................................ 209
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 234
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 209
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 234
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 209
Status of the Population ...................................................... 235
Status of the Population ...................................................... 211
Surfperches................................................................................ 236
References........................................................................... 211
General ............................................................................... 236
Yellowtail .................................................................................. 212
Barred Surfperch................................................................ 236
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 212
History of the Fishery................................................ 236
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 212
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
Status of Population ............................................................ 213
Status of the Population............................................ 237
References........................................................................... 214
Calico Surfperch ................................................................. 237
Pacific Bonito..............................................................................215
History of the Fishery................................................ 237
History of the Fishery ...........................................................215
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
Status of Biological Knowledge ............................................217
Status of the Population............................................ 237
Status of the Population .......................................................217
Pile Perch............................................................................ 237
References........................................................................... 218
History of the Fishery................................................ 237
California Barracuda ................................................................. 219
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 237
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 219
Status of the Population............................................ 238
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 220
Status of the Population ...................................................... 220
References........................................................................... 221
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
12
Redtail Surfperch................................................................ 238 Skates and Rays.......................................................................... 257
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery................................................ 238 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 257
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 238 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 257
Status of the Population............................................ 238 The Skates and Softnose Skates -
Rubberlip Surfperch ........................................................... 239 Families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae............................... 258
History of the Fishery................................................ 239 The Guitarfishes and Thornbacks -
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239 Families Rhinobatidae and Platyrhinidae........................... 259
Status of the Population............................................ 239 The Electric Rays - Family Torpedinidae ............................ 259
Striped Seaperch................................................................. 239 The Myliobatidiform Rays (Stingrays) - Families Urolophidae,
History of the Fishery................................................ 239 Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae, Gymnuridae, and Mobulidae .... 259
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239 Status of the Populations..................................................... 260
Status of Population.................................................. 239 References .......................................................................... 261
Walleye Surfperch............................................................... 239 Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish................................. 263
History of the Fishery................................................ 239 Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish...................................... 269
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 239
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview 273
Status of the Population............................................ 240
Giant Kelp................................................................................... 277
Surfperch: Discussion......................................................... 240
History of the Use and Harvest ........................................... 277
References........................................................................... 240
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 278
Opaleye and Halfmoon............................................................... 241
Status of the Beds................................................................ 279
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 241
Kelp Restoration.................................................................. 280
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 241
References........................................................................... 281
Status of the Population ...................................................... 241
Bull Kelp..................................................................................... 282
References........................................................................... 242
History of the Use and Harvest............................................ 282
Silversides .................................................................................. 243
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 282
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 243
Status of the Beds ............................................................... 283
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 243
References: ........................................................................ 284
Status of the Populations..................................................... 244
Sea Palm .................................................................................... 285
References........................................................................... 245
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 285
Grunion...................................................................................... 246
Status of the Beds................................................................ 285
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 246
References........................................................................... 285
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 246
Agarophytes and Carrageenophytes........................................... 286
Status of the Population ...................................................... 247
History of Use and Harvest.................................................. 286
References........................................................................... 247
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 287
Pacific Angel Shark .................................................................... 248
Status of the Beds................................................................ 287
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 248
References .......................................................................... 287
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 249
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Plants.................................. 288
Status of the Population ...................................................... 250
References........................................................................... 251
California’s Offshore Ecosystem 291
Leopard Shark............................................................................ 252
History of the Fishery ......................................................... 252 Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview 293
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 252
California Market Squid............................................................. 295
Status of the Population ..................................................... 253
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 295
References........................................................................... 254
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 297
Soupfin Shark............................................................................. 255
Status of the Population ...................................................... 297
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 255
References........................................................................... 298
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 255
Pacific Sardine ........................................................................... 299
Status of the Population ...................................................... 256
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 299
References........................................................................... 256
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 300
Status of the Population ...................................................... 301
References........................................................................... 302
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 13
Northern Anchovy ...................................................................... 303 Shortfin Mako Shark .................................................................. 336
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 303 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 336
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 304 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 336
Status of the Population ...................................................... 305 Status of the Population ...................................................... 337
References........................................................................... 305 References........................................................................... 338
Pacific Mackerel......................................................................... 306 Thresher Shark .......................................................................... 339
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 306 History of the Fishery ......................................................... 339
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 307 Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 339
Status of the Population ...................................................... 308 Status of the Population ..................................................... 341
References........................................................................... 308 References........................................................................... 341
Jack Mackerel ............................................................................ 309 Blue Shark.................................................................................. 342
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 309 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 342
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 310 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 342
Status of the Population ...................................................... 310 Status of the Population ...................................................... 343
References............................................................................311 References........................................................................... 344
Commercial Catch - Coastal Pelagics ......................................... 312 Other Mackerel Sharks .............................................................. 345
Recreational Catch - Coastal Pelagics .........................................314 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 345
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 345
Highly Migratory Species: Overview 315 Status of the Populations..................................................... 347
Albacore......................................................................................317 References........................................................................... 347
History of the Fishery ...........................................................317 Opah .......................................................................................... 348
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 318 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 348
Status of the Population ...................................................... 320 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 348
References........................................................................... 321 Status of the Population ...................................................... 349
Swordfish ................................................................................... 322 References........................................................................... 349
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 322 Louvar ........................................................................................ 350
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 323 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 350
Status of the Population ...................................................... 324 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 350
References ......................................................................... 324 Status of the Population ...................................................... 351
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna.................................................... 325 References........................................................................... 351
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 325 Dolphin ...................................................................................... 352
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 326 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 352
Status of the Population ...................................................... 326 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 352
References........................................................................... 327 Status of the Population ...................................................... 353
Skipjack Tuna ............................................................................ 328 References........................................................................... 353
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 328 Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks.... 354
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 329 Recreational Catch - Highly Migratory Finfish ........................... 357
Status of the Population ...................................................... 329
Groundfish: Overview 359
References........................................................................... 330
Yellowfin Tuna ........................................................................... 331 Bocaccio .................................................................................... 361
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 331 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 361
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 332 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 361
Status of the Population ...................................................... 333 Status of the Population ...................................................... 361
References........................................................................... 333 References........................................................................... 362
Striped Marlin............................................................................ 334 Cowcod....................................................................................... 363
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 334 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 363
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 334 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 364
Status of the Population ...................................................... 335 Status of the Population ...................................................... 364
References........................................................................... 335 References........................................................................... 365
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
14
Chilipepper ................................................................................ 366 Sablefish..................................................................................... 390
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 366 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 390
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 366 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 391
Status of the Population ...................................................... 366 Status of Population ............................................................ 391
References........................................................................... 367 References........................................................................... 392
Blackgill Rockfish...................................................................... 368 Pacific Hake ............................................................................... 393
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 368 History of the Fishery .......................................................... 393
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 368 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 394
Status of the Population ...................................................... 368 Status of the Population ...................................................... 396
References........................................................................... 369 References........................................................................... 397
Widow Rockfish ......................................................................... 370 Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish........................ 398
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 370
Salmonids: Overview 405
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 370
Pacific Salmon ........................................................................... 407
Status of the Population ...................................................... 371
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 407
References........................................................................... 371
Salmon Management History .............................................. 409
Yellowtail Rockfish .................................................................... 372
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 410
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 372
Chinook salmon ....................................................... 411
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 372
Coho salmon............................................................. 412
Status of the Population ...................................................... 373
Status of Spawning Populations .......................................... 413
References........................................................................... 373
Salmon: Discussion............................................................. 415
Thornyheads .............................................................................. 374
Challenges to Inland Salmon Management......................... 415
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 374
Challenges to Ocean Management ...................................... 416
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 375
References........................................................................... 417
Status of the Population ...................................................... 376
Steelhead Rainbow Trout ........................................................... 418
References........................................................................... 377
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 418
Bank Rockfish............................................................................ 378
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 418
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 378
Status of the Populations .................................................... 420
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 378
References........................................................................... 425
Status of the Population ...................................................... 378
Coastal Cutthroat Trout.............................................................. 426
References........................................................................... 379
History of Fishery ................................................................ 426
Shortbelly Rockfish .................................................................... 380
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 426
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 380
Status of Population ............................................................ 427
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 380
References........................................................................... 427
Status of the Population ...................................................... 381
Commercial Landings - Salmonids ............................................ 428
References........................................................................... 381
Recreational Catch - Salmonids ................................................. 429
Dover Sole .................................................................................. 382
History of the Fishery ........................................................ 382
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems 435
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 382
Status of the Population ...................................................... 383 Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview 437
References........................................................................... 383
Bay Shrimp................................................................................. 439
English Sole................................................................................ 384
History of Fishery ................................................................ 439
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 384
Status of Biological Knowledge ...........................................440
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 384
Status of the Populations..................................................... 441
Status of the Population ...................................................... 385
Pacific Razor Clam ..................................................................... 443
References........................................................................... 385
History of Fishery ................................................................ 443
Petrale Sole ................................................................................ 386
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 443
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 386
Status of the Population ......................................................444
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 386
References...........................................................................444
Status of Population ............................................................ 386
References........................................................................... 387
Rex Sole...................................................................................... 388
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 388
Status of Biological Knowledge .......................................... 388
Status of the Population ..................................................... 389
References........................................................................... 389
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 15
Gaper Clams............................................................................... 445 True Smelts ................................................................................ 472
Table of Contents
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 445 General ............................................................................... 472
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 445 Delta Smelt .......................................................................... 472
Status of the Population ......................................................446 History of the Fishery................................................ 472
References...........................................................................446 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 472
Washington Clams...................................................................... 447 Status of the Population............................................ 473
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 447 Surf Smelt............................................................................ 474
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 447 History of the Fishery................................................ 474
Status of the Population ......................................................448 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 474
References...........................................................................448 Status of the Population............................................ 474
Geoduck ..................................................................................... 449 Wakasagi............................................................................. 474
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 449 History of the Fishery................................................ 474
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 449 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 475
Status of the Population ...................................................... 449 Status of the Population............................................ 475
References........................................................................... 450 Night Smelt .......................................................................... 476
Littleneck Clams......................................................................... 451 History of the Fishery................................................ 476
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 451 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 476
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 451 Status of the Population............................................ 476
Status of Population ............................................................ 452 Longfin Smelt ...................................................................... 476
References........................................................................... 452 History of the Fishery................................................ 476
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuaries Invertebrates........... 453 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 477
Status of the Population............................................ 477
Bay and Estuarine Finfish Resources: Overview 455 Eulachon ............................................................................. 477
Pacific Herring........................................................................... 456 History of the Fishery................................................ 477
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 456 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 477
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 458 Status of Population.................................................. 478
Status of the Population ...................................................... 458 Whitebait Smelt ................................................................... 478
References........................................................................... 459 History of the Fishery................................................ 478
Striped Bass ............................................................................... 460 Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 478
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 460 Status of Population.................................................. 478
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 461 Discussion........................................................................... 478
Status of the Population ...................................................... 461 References........................................................................... 479
Young Striped Bass Abundance. .............................. 461 Bay and Estuarine Finfish........................................................... 480
Adult Striped Bass Abundance. ................................ 462 Commercial Landings ......................................................... 480
Fishery Restoration. ................................................. 462 Recreational Catch .............................................................. 480
References........................................................................... 463
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview 481
Green Sturgeon .......................................................................... 465
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 465
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes 483
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 465
General Description............................................................ 483
Status of the Population ...................................................... 466
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 484
References........................................................................... 466
Status of the Habitat ............................................................484
White Sturgeon........................................................................... 467
References........................................................................... 486
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 467
Submerged Aquatic Plants.......................................................... 487
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 467
Eelgrass............................................................................... 487
Status of the Population ......................................................468
Introduction ............................................................. 487
References........................................................................... 469
Status of Biological Knowledge.................................488
Cow Sharks................................................................................. 470
Status of the Beds .....................................................488
History of the Fishery .......................................................... 470
Humboldt Bay ...........................................................488
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 470
Small North Coast Estuaries ..................................... 489
Status of the Population ...................................................... 471
Tomales Bay.............................................................. 489
References........................................................................... 471
San Francisco Bay..................................................... 489
Southern California .................................................. 489
References ................................................................ 490
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
16
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview 521
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis............................................ 491
Table of Contents
History of Harvest..................................................... 491 Pinnipeds ................................................................................... 523
Status of Biological Knowledge................................. 491 History ................................................................................ 523
References ................................................................ 491 Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 523
California Sea Lion ................................................... 523
Aquaculture: Overview 493
Steller Sea Lion ......................................................... 524
Culture of Abalone ..................................................................... 494
Pacific Harbor Seal................................................... 524
History ................................................................................ 494
Northern Fur Seal..................................................... 525
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 495
Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................. 525
References........................................................................... 495
Northern Elephant Seal ............................................ 525
Culture of Mussels...................................................................... 496
Status of the Populations..................................................... 526
History ............................................................................... 496
California Sea Lion ................................................... 526
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 497
Pacific Harbor Seal................................................... 526
References........................................................................... 499
Northern Fur Seal..................................................... 526
Culture of Oysters ...................................................................... 500
Guadalupe Fur Seal .................................................. 526
History ................................................................................ 500
Northern Elephant Seal ............................................ 526
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 503
References .......................................................................... 527
Shellfish and the Environment ............................................ 505
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises ..................................................... 529
Future Trends...................................................................... 505
History ................................................................................ 529
References........................................................................... 506
Current Management .......................................................... 529
Culture of Salmon ...................................................................... 507
Status of Biological Knowledge and Populations................. 530
History ................................................................................ 507
Humpback Whale .................................................... 530
Status................................................................................... 508
Blue Whale .............................................................. 530
References........................................................................... 509
Fin Whale ................................................................. 531
Culture of Marine Finfish ........................................................... 510
Minke Whale ........................................................... 531
History of Finfish Culture.................................................... 510
Gray Whale .............................................................. 531
History of the Ocean Resources Enhancement and Hatchery
Sperm Whale ........................................................... 532
Program (OREHP).............................................................. 510
Killer Whale ............................................................. 532
Culture, Facilities and Systems............................................ 510
Shortfinned Pilot Whale ........................................... 533
Aquaculture Potential ..........................................................511
Common Dolphin ..................................................... 533
Conclusions .........................................................................511
Bottlenose Dolphin................................................... 533
References........................................................................... 512
Risso s Dolphin ........................................................ 533
Invasive Species ......................................................................... 513
Northern Right-Whale Dolphin................................. 534
History ................................................................................ 513
Pacific white-sided dolphin ...................................... 534
Examples of Significant Invasive Species ............................ 513
Harbor Porpoise....................................................... 534
The European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas)....... 513
Dall s Porpoise ......................................................... 534
The Chinese Mitten Crab (Eriocheir sinensis) .........514
References........................................................................... 535
An Asian Clam (Potamocorbula amurensis) ...........515
Sea Otter .................................................................................... 536
A South African Sabellid Worm
History ............................................................................... 536
(Terebrasabella heterouncinata).............................515
Status of Biological Knowledge ........................................... 537
A Tropical Seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia) .................515
Status of the Population ...................................................... 538
Other Invasives ......................................................... 516
Current Management ........................................................ 539
Existing Regulatory Regime and Regulatory Gaps .............. 516
References........................................................................... 540
National Invasive Species Act of 1996....................... 516
Marine Bird Resources .............................................................. 541
Clean Water Act......................................................... 516
History and Utilization ....................................................... 543
National Environmental Policy Act ............................517
Seabird Ecology .................................................................. 545
Endangered Species Act.............................................517
Management and Conservation........................................... 546
Presidential Executive Order 13112 ..........................517
Seabird and Fisheries Interactions ..................................... 547
California Environmental Quality Act........................517
References........................................................................... 548
California Porter-Cologne
General Seabird References ..................................... 548
Water Quality Control Act ......................................... 518
Surveys and Status Reports ...................................... 548
California Fish and Game Code ................................ 518
Seabird Ecology ....................................................... 549
Public Resources Code ............................................. 518
Conservation and Management ............................... 549
Local Application of State and Federal Laws............. 518
Pollution and Other Perturbations .......................... 550
Conclusions..........................................................................519
Seabirds and Fisheries ............................................. 550
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 17
Appendix A: Management Considerations 553 Steelhead............................................................................. 564
Table of Contents
Striped Marlin..................................................................... 564
Abalone .............................................................................. 553
Swordfish ............................................................................ 564
Albacore.............................................................................. 553
Smelts.................................................................................. 565
Angel Shark......................................................................... 553
Delta Smelt................................................................ 565
Barred Sand Bass................................................................ 554
Eulachon................................................................... 565
Bay Shrimp.......................................................................... 554
Longfin Smelt............................................................ 565
Bocaccio ............................................................................. 554
Night Smelt................................................................ 565
Bull Kelp.............................................................................. 554
Surf Smelt ................................................................. 565
Cabezon............................................................................... 554
Wakasagi .................................................................. 565
Calico Rockfish ................................................................... 555
Whitebait Smelt......................................................... 565
California Barracuda .......................................................... 555
Washington Clam ................................................................ 565
California Corbina .............................................................. 555
Wavy Turban Snails............................................................. 565
California Halibut ............................................................... 555
White Croaker ..................................................................... 566
California Sheephead.......................................................... 555
Yellowfin Tuna .................................................................... 566
Coonstripe Shrimp .............................................................. 555
Yellowfin croaker................................................................ 566
Coastal Cutthroat Trout....................................................... 555
Yellowtail ............................................................................ 566
Dolphin ............................................................................... 555
Eel Grass ............................................................................. 556 Appendix B 567
Flatfish ................................................................................ 556
Glossary ..................................................................................... 567
Gaper Clam ......................................................................... 556
References........................................................................... 575
Geoduck Clam..................................................................... 556
Giant Kelp............................................................................ 556 Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear 577
Giant Sea Bass ..................................................................... 557
Appendix D: Reviewers 583
Gracilaria............................................................................ 557
Grunion............................................................................... 557
Index 585
Jack Mackerel ..................................................................... 557
Kelp Bass............................................................................. 557
Louvar ................................................................................. 558
Monkeyface Prickleback..................................................... 558
Mussels ............................................................................... 558
Opah ................................................................................... 558
Other Nearshore Rockfish................................................... 558
Pacific Bonito...................................................................... 558
Pacific Hake ........................................................................ 558
Pacific Herring.................................................................... 559
Pacific Razor Clam .............................................................. 559
Pismo Clam ......................................................................... 560
Purple Sea Urchin ............................................................... 560
Red Rock Shrimp ................................................................ 560
Red Sea Urchin.................................................................... 560
Ridgeback Prawn ................................................................ 561
Rock Crabs.......................................................................... 561
Rock Scallop ....................................................................... 561
Salmon ................................................................................ 561
Sand Crab............................................................................ 562
Scorpionfish........................................................................ 562
Sea Cucumber ..................................................................... 562
Sheep Crab .......................................................................... 562
Shortfin Mako ..................................................................... 563
Silversides ........................................................................... 563
Skates and Rays................................................................... 563
Skipjack Tuna ..................................................................... 563
Spiny Lobster....................................................................... 563
Spot Prawn .......................................................................... 564
Spotfin Croaker ................................................................... 564
Spotted Sand Bass ............................................................... 564
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
18
Introduction and south of San Francisco, and there are serious concerns
Historical Overview about the potential for extinction of the white abalone.
Introduction and Historical Overview
Some major groundsh stocks, especially long-lived rock-
shes, continued to decline. Quota reductions, seasonal
and area closures, bag limit reductions and long-term
C alifornia’s Living Marine Resources: A Status Report is
stock rebuilding plans are causing major disruption in the
the fourth edition in a series of reports that address
commercial and recreational industries and communities
the status of California’s marine and anadromous sheries
dependent on groundsh.
and other marine life. Since the California Department
Since the last edition was published, ve California salmon
of Fish and Game published California Ocean Fisheries
populations have been listed under the federal Endan-
Resources to the Year 1960 (1961) and California’s Living
gered Species Act (ESA): Sacramento River winter chinook,
Marine Resources and Their Utilization (1971), and the
Central Valley spring chinook, California coastal chinook,
California Sea Grant Program updated and expanded Cali-
California coastal coho (south of the San Francisco Bay),
fornia’s Living Marine Resources and Their Utilization in
and steelhead (south of the Klamath-Trinity River system).
1992, the state’s marine resources and their management
The principal problem faced by these runs is the habitat
have continued to undergo constant change. For example,
degradation that has accrued from water uses that com-
by the early 1990s the sardine shery, which was the
pete with the requirements of salmon. Primary among
world’s largest during the rst half of the 20th century
these is diversion of water for irrigation and domestic use.
and practically has been non-existent since the 1960s,
In addition, alterations of rivers and watersheds to enable
reappeared under precautionary management. In 1998,
navigation, provide power, control ooding, and otherwise
the sardine resource was declared fully recovered. Tropi-
accommodate the needs of humans have taken their toll.
cal tunas were an extremely valuable segment of Califor-
While California’s population continued to grow and diver-
nia sh landings until the tuna canning industry moved
sify during the 1990s, participation in marine recreational
overseas during the mid-1980s. Changes in California’s
shing measured by license sales continued to be rela-
commercial sheries between 1970 and 1990 included the
tively stable. The number of active commercial passenger
development of specialized and valuable sheries for sea
shing vessels (partyboats) declined from 308 in 1989 to
urchins, hake, Pacic herring and widow rocksh.
300 in 1998. Other forms of marine recreation linked to
Change has continued in many sheries since the 1992 edi-
the health of marine living resources such as ecotourism
tion of this report. For example, increased international
have grown signicantly and have become an important
demand for squid resulted in a 500 percent increase in
segment of California’s coastal dependent economy.
landings to over 300 million pounds annually during non-El
The public’s interest and involvement in the management
Niño years. This expansion attracted many new partici-
and conservation of marine living resources have
pants from salmon purse seine sheries in the Pacic
increased substantially since the 1992 edition of Califor-
Northwest. A squid management plan including restricted
nia’s Marine Living Resources and Their Utilization. Major
access is currently being developed. In 1994, gillnets were
federal and state legislation is altering the way marine
prohibited in most of the nearshore areas of the coast
resources are managed. The 1996 reauthorization of the
and islands of southern and central California. This hap-
Magnuson-Stevens Act specied a precautionary approach
pened as a result of a voter approved California constitu-
in federally managed sheries. This resulted in establish-
tional amendment (Prop. 132). During the 1990s, a major
ing much lower catch limits and designing long term stock
shery developed for nearshore species including rock-
rebuilding plans for many Pacic Coast groundsh species,
shes, cabezon, and sheephead that were often marketed
especially the rockshes. The MLMA also required the
live for signicantly higher prices. Concerns about sustain-
identication and protection of essential sh habitat.
ability of this new intense shery provided much of the
impetus for the Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) of This report was written during a period of extraordinary
1998 and a moratorium on permits in the nearshore sh- change in our state. The MLMA of 1998 signicantly altered
ery. The southern California commercial lobster shery the way the state manages marine life. The MLMA pro-
continued to demonstrate higher catches during the 1990s vides the mechanisms whereby the management responsi-
resulting in record landings in 1997. California barracuda bility for commercial sheries can be moved from the
increased as a component of the recreational sheries to California State Legislature to the Fish and Game Com-
the levels of the 1950s, and the white seabass population mission. The MLMA mandates the development of shery
is showing signs of a recovery at the end of the century. management plans incorporating peer-reviewed science,
The California halibut commercial shery continued to increased constituent involvement in marine life manage-
sustain landings comparable to the 1980s, despite the ment, implementation of an ecosystem based research
gillnet closure. and management approach, and regular analyses of the
status of California’s sheries such as those found in
Severe declines in abalone abundance resulted in total
this publication. While the initial management plans man-
closure of recreational and commercial abalone shing
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 19
dated are for white seabass, nearshore sheries, and access in sheries. We have also taken advantage of new
Introduction and Historical Overview
emerging sheries, it is anticipated that similar manage- technologies to increase the use and effectiveness of
ment plans will be developed for many other California maps, graphs and tables. For ease of use, historical land-
marine sheries. ings statistics have been moved to the end of each appro-
priate chapter rather than being placed in large appendi-
Use of marine reserves and marine protected areas to
ces. A new glossary of technical terms and acronyms as
preserve marine wilderness and manage sheries is inten-
well as a shing gear appendix have been addded.
sifying at both the state and national level. California’s
Marine Life Protection Act of 1999 requires development Compiling a publication like this is a collaborative effort.
of a master plan for a network of marine reserves. On the The editors were fortunate to be able to recruit top
federal level, intense discussions by panels of scientists experts from the California Department of Fish and Game,
and constituents have occurred regarding plans for marine other state and federal agencies, universities, and private
reserves in large areas of the Santa Barbara Channel industry in the preparation of this report. Each section
Islands. Although no consensus was reached by mid-2001, has been peer reviewed for accuracy. The author’s name
debate regarding MPAs was continuing at both the state and afliation appear at the end of the section they
and federal levels. wrote. When signicant portions of the text from the
1992 edition were left intact, the original author is cred-
During the 1990s, overcapitalization was widely recog-
ited. We want to thank the more that 200 authors and
nized as a major problem in some sheries. The difcult
reviewers who volunteered their time and expertise. We
task of designing restricted access programs to improve
also greatly appreciate the contributions of many photog-
the balance between eet shing power and sustainable
raphers who allowed us to use their images to greatly
harvest levels has become a major component of shery
enhance this publication.
management plans seeking to sustain sheries economi-
cally as well as biologically. All editors participated in the development of the overall
design and layout of the report. Bill Leet served as
Earlier editions of this publication proved to be among
the lead editor as he did for the 1992 edition. Rick
the most valuable general reference works available on
Klingbeil served as project manager for the Department of
California’s economically important marine species. The
Fish and Game. Christopher Dewees led the University of
reports have been widely used by sheries researchers
California’s participation. Eric Larson coordinated the
and managers, policymakers, interested citizens, journal-
creation of the numerous statistical tables, graphics and
ists, the shing industry, enforcement ofcers, educators,
maps found in the report. Principal publication production
and others. Publication of this edition is mandated by
assistance was provided through a contract with the
the MLMA of 1998. A primary purpose of the book is to
University of California, Davis. Tom Jurach from Repro
provide a baseline of information for all concerned with
Graphics Services and Marianne Post from Creative
managing living marine resources in California.
Communications Services organized the layout, design,
The editors of this edition have retained much of the style
and publication of the document.
and format of earlier editions. Many of the conventions of
scientic writing are foregone because it was felt that this
style better serves the broad interests of readers. Each Christopher M. Dewees, Marine Fisheries Specialist, Sea
species article presented in this report contains a short Grant Extension Program, Wildlife, Fish and Conservation
list of general references for further reading. Detailed sh Department, University of California, Davis
and shellsh landings statistics, which begin in 1916, have Richard Klingbeil, Program Manager, California Depart-
been updated through 1999. ment of Fish and Game, Los Alamitos
Readers of earlier editions will notice some signicant Eric J. Larson, Senior Marine Biologist, California Depart-
changes and new features. The publication is organized ment of Fish and Game, Belmont
by marine ecosystems (bays and estuaries, nearshore, and
William S. Leet, Senior Editor, Davis
offshore) rather than species-by-species. For species that
occur in more than one ecosystem, the discussion appears
in the ecosystem section where they spend most of their
life and/or their principal harvest location. Descriptions of
the three marine ecosystems used for this report are also
included. Added or expanded chapters include a detailed
description of the human dimensions of marine life man-
agement, California’s ocean environment, marine law
enforcement, water quality and pollution, and restricted
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
20
California’s Variable
Ocean Environment temperatures) and indices of biological productivity (i.e.,
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
zooplankton densities). These longer term events have
T
been shown to greatly alter populations of the dominant
he habitat of California’s living marine resources is
pelagic shes of the California Current and it is probable
primarily the California Current system. This huge,
that they affect the populations of even long-lived benthic
open system is constantly changing in response to weather
shes and marine mammals.
systems, seasonal heating and cooling processes, inter-
annual episodes such as El Niño - La Niña events, and A species physiology determines its preferred temperature
longer term or regime scale climatic changes. range and its lethal temperature tolerances. The surface
and bottom temperatures on the continental shelf off
Small organisms, and the young of most large ones, are
California make the northern portion of the state good
impacted by the full temporal range of physical processes.
habitat for sub-arctic and cold-temperate species (salmon,
Shorter time scale and local physical processes including
market crab, and petrale sole) and the southern portion
intense wind storms, extended periods of calms, infusions
good habitat for warm temperate and sub-tropical species
of freshwater runoff, and shorter term variations in
(kelp bass, spiny lobster and California halibut). Many
currents heavily impact the growth, survival, and dis-
of the most abundant species of the California Current
tribution of most of these organisms. Short-term varia-
are transition-zone species that have the center of their
tions in primary production (e.g., diatom blooms) coincide
distribution in California (Pacic sardine, Pacic hake,
with upwelling, but the scale of phytoplankton production
and northern anchovy). Temperature, like other physical
relates to the history of water masses and weather
oceanic factors, is highly variable on seasonal, annual,
conditions. Seasonal scale uctuations are so important
and longer time scales and it is the most easily studied.
to many organisms that their life-cycle is often largely
In addition, temperature is highly dependent upon large-
adapted to the seasonal cycle and their abundance is
scale ocean currents and local upwelling; it is therefore
often heavily inuenced by variations from the seasonal
a rough index of the productivity of the lower trophic
norm. Longer term events, El Niños and regime shifts,
levels and an indicator of climatic processes that favor
appear to be primarily dependent upon physical processes
the colder or the warmer water faunas that occur in
that are centered elsewhere in the Pacic and their
California. Temperature is thus the most commonly cor-
effects include alterations in the physical, nutrient, and
related climatic variable used to determine associations
biological content of the waters entering the California
with biological processes. However, nearly any environ-
Current system. These events also result in alterations in
mental factor that is associated with variations in the
local physical processes such as currents and upwelling
major currents will also be correlated with biological pro-
that control local inputs of nutrients. El Niño events and
cesses and temperature, and we do not know if altera-
regime shifts have extensive effects on kelp forests and
tions in currents or the resultant changes in temperature
zooplankton populations.
have the largest effect on biological processes in the
The adults of larger shes and other marine vertebrates
California Current.
are somewhat buffered from the effects of weather
and other short-term physical uctuations, and extremely
long-lived organisms, such as many of the deep benthic
shes, may have populations that are nearly independent
of normal short-term environmental uctuations. Many
of California’s marine shes have life history adaptations
such as extended spawning seasons, multiple spawnings,
migrations, and extreme longevity that reduce the harm- Average Monthly Sea
ful effects of short-term adverse environmental uctua- Surface Temperatures
tions and even limit the effects of El Niño events at the Off San Francisco
Sea surface water
population level. In contrast, organisms with shorter life
temperature offshore of
spans, such as the market squid, that may be only slightly San Franciso indicates a
affected by environmental uctuations at the shorter distinct summer upwelling
pattern with cold sea
time scales appear to have extreme population declines
surface temperatures
during El Niño events. Decadal or regime scale climatic nearshore, as well as large
uctuations that alter the basic productivity of the Cal- inter-annual variations.
Within this strong upwelling
ifornia Current system are common, repetitive events
cell, sea surface tempera-
readily observed in paleo-sediment analyses that extend tures can be colder during
back several thousand years. They are also clearly evident the summer in cold years
than they are during the
in time series analyses of physical factors (i.e., ocean
winter in warm years.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 21
The living marine resources of California evolved in poleward ow is not uncommon in the nearshore region
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
a dynamic and changing ocean and most populations over much of the system. The advection of warm, high
undoubtedly uctuated in response to environmental salinity, low-nutrient and plankton-poor water from the
alterations long before man exploited them. Many of these sub-tropics is largely responsible for the warm water ora
resources are now heavily exploited and those in the near- and fauna and lower productivity characteristic of the
shore environment are also impacted by human induced nearshore region south of Point Conception.
environmental changes. Some species, such as bocaccio Like other eastern boundary currents, the California Cur-
and lingcod, have been heavily overshed, and their cur- rent has extensive coastal upwelling that is primarily
rent populations are at very low levels. A few very highly driven by spring and summer winds resulting from tem-
overshed stocks, such as Pacic mackerel and Pacic perature gradients between the relatively cool sea surface
sardine, have suffered nearly complete population col- and the warming continental land mass. Equatorward
lapses from which they have recovered after one or more winds, offshore Ekman transport, and coastal upwelling
decades of protection by harvest moratoriums. As dis- occur nearly all year off of Baja California and the offshore
cussed below, there is considerable evidence that regime region of southern California; however, within the South-
shifts exacerbated the effects of shing and delayed the ern California Bight wind velocities are lower and offshore
effects of the moratoriums. transport is much reduced. Wind velocities and upwelling
Fishery and marine resource management is presently in are variable but tend to be at a maximum in the spring
the middle of a change in philosophy. In the past, our to early summer in the region between Point Conception
management has been based on the view that the envi- (34.5°N) and the Oregon border (42°N). The duration and
ronment can be considered to be constant with only minor strength of upwelling-favorable winds diminishes north-
and temporary perturbations which introduce “random wards. Off the State of Washington (48°N) upwelling is
noise” into our population assessments and management relatively minor and is largely restricted to the late
policies. This has resulted in a management system spring to early fall; winter storms there result in intense
that has failed to protect exploited populations during downwelling events. Downwelling events diminish in both
extended periods of adverse environmental conditions. magnitude and seasonal duration to the south, below
The information in the following sections indicates that Point Conception they are uncommon and usually of
physical factors and biological productivity in the Califor- minor magnitude.
nia Current system are not stationary. It is clear that Climatic uctuations ranging from strong storms to sea-
variations in these processes must be monitored by our sonal cycles to El Niño/La Niña events to decadal changes
research programs and built into our management systems or regime shifts alter the physical, chemical, and biologi-
if we expect to maintain healthy and diverse nearshore cal environment of California’s marine waters. Average
and offshore ecosystems. monthly sea surface temperatures (SST) in California
waters range from a minimum of about 52°F in February
off northern California to a maximum of about 68°F
Climatic Processes, El Niño Events in August off southern California. The pattern of sea sur-
and Regime Shifts face temperatures in the California Current varies from
a clearly latitude dependent situation in the late winter,
T he California Current, one of the world’s major eastern with isotherms being nearly east-west in orientation, to
boundary currents, has its origin in the mid-latitude the distinct upwelling pattern of cold water near shore
west-wind-drift region of the North Pacic, and it could and warmer water offshore in the late summer. Most of
be considered an equatorward owing, surface extension the area has mild winter SSTs, and cool summer SSTs
of the North Pacic Current. The core of the California caused by the summer upwelling. This results in a very
Current normally lies about 90 to 130 miles offshore of small seasonal variation in SST, no more than 4 to 7° F
the shelf break or continental margin. The fauna and during the year. In contrast, the inter-annual variation in
productivity of the California Current system are heavily SSTs can be as large as the normal summer/winter differ-
dependent upon the input of cool, low-salinity, high ence; off San Francisco SST is colder during the summer in
nutrient and plankton-rich waters from the mid-latitude cold years than it is during the winter in warm years.
North Pacic.
The system also has a sub-surface, poleward current (the
El Niño/La Niña Processes
Davidson Current) that is often at a maximum just off-
shore of, and somewhat deeper than, the shelf break. In
E l Niño is a term that describes large-scale changes in
the fall, poleward ow often extends to the surface in
the atmospheric pressure system, trade winds, and sea
the southern portion of the California Current and surface
surface temperatures of the entire tropical Pacic that
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
22
occur at approximately three to four-year intervals. The marily inuenced by large-scale variations in ow of the
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
cold water portion of the cycle is now referred to as La California Current. Increases in southward transport are
Niña. This cyclic process has traditionally been measured associated with increases in zooplankton production, cold
by the southern oscillation index (SOI), which is the dif- temperatures, and low salinity (La Niña events), whereas
ference between the atmospheric pressure at Tahiti (an decreases in this transport result in unusually low zoo-
approximation of the South Pacic High) and the atmo- plankton biomass, warm temperature, and high salinity (El
spheric pressure at Darwin, Australia (near the Tropical Niño events).
Pacic Low). The SOI is therefore a measure of the vari- In addition to substantial declines in zooplankton abun-
ability of the atmospheric circulation in the South Pacic. dance during El Niño events, analysis of the samples taken
The effects of El Niño events in California include reduced during the years 1955 to 1959 showed a large rearrange-
input of cold, nutrient-rich waters from the north and ment of the dominance structure of functional groups
increased advection of warm, nutrient-poor water of sub- of macrozooplankton. The rank order of abundance for
tropical and tropical origin into the southern California 18 groups, containing an estimated 546 species, changed
area. There may or may not be a reduction in upwelling over this period. Plankton community structure was sim-
favorable winds; however, nutrient input to the surface ilar in 1955 to 1957 but underwent an abrupt and
waters from upwelling is decreased due to reduced nutri- dramatic change coincident with strong El Niño conditions
ents in the subsurface waters and a depressed ther- in 1958-1959. In addition to changes in zooplankton, other
mocline. Thus, during El Niños the California Current characteristics of strong El Niño events include deepening
becomes more sub-tropical, and warm-water organisms of thermocline and nitricline by some 165 feet, and redis-
enter the system in greater numbers. During La Niñas the tribution of phytoplankton biomass from the upper layers
environment is more sub-arctic and cold water organisms of the ocean to a deep chlorophyll maximum. Quarterly
are favored. patterns of environmental variables and zooplankton bio-
mass are now reported annually in the State of the Califor-
Although California occupies a large geographical area,
nia Current in CalCOFI Reports.
surface temperature anomalies on scales greater than a
few weeks are common over the entire region. Time
series of SST from northern, central and southern Califor-
Decadal/Regime Scale Processes
nia are characterized by strong El Niño events such as
D
those occurring in 1940, 1958, 1983, 1992, and 1997. In uring the last decade it has become increasing appar-
addition, there are decadal scale events where surface ent that longer term decadal to multi-decadal cli-
temperatures are above or below average for extended matic cycles are impacting populations of a wide variety
periods. Cold periods occurred prior to 1925, from about of marine organisms in the California region, and that
1946 to 1956, and from 1962 to 1976. Warm periods all trophic levels are affected. Analyses of sh scales in
occurred from 1938 to 1945, 1957 to 1961, and from anaerobic sediments have shown that these cycles have
1977 to 1998. Waters of the Central Pacic, however, been occurring for thousands of years (i.e., independent
tend to vary in the opposite direction from the California of shing), and that the most abundant sh stocks have
Current system.
Surface temperature is not necessarily a good indicator
of temperature below the upper mixed layer. In
1972, at the onset of a major El Niño, the surface tem-
perature at Point Conception was the lowest since 1951,
whereas the temperature at 330 feet was among the
warmest recorded.
The 50 year time series of the California Cooperative
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) is probably the
world’s best data set for determining the effects of inter-
annual physical variability on zooplankton populations,
the primary food for larger stages of larval and some
adult shes. As with temperature, strong interannual sig-
nals occur over a very large spatial scale. Anomalies of
zooplankton abundance, 10m temperature, 10m salinity, Winter and Summer Pacific Coast Sea Surface Temperatures
Average (1920-1992) February and August sea surface temperatures (˚F). A cold summer
and southward transport are highly correlated in time
upwelling core is apparent in northern California. Data extract from COADS as monthly means.
from southern Baja California to north of San Francisco.
On interannual time scales, zooplankton abundance is pri-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 23
uctuations which occur over an average period of about in reduced displacement of the thermocline and thus a
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
60 years. The implications from a number of these paleo- shoaling of the source of upwelled waters. The effect is
sediment studies are that large-scale physical processes to decrease the fraction of the year when wind stress is
are forcing the biological uctuations. Recent results from strong enough to lift nutrient-rich waters to the surface
ocean/atmosphere models suggest that decadal climatic near the coast. Because the increased stratication essen-
cycles are forced by air/sea interactions in the higher tially insulates nutrient-bearing waters from the surface,
latitude North Pacic. Observed decadal to multi-decadal a moderate degree of heating can greatly reduce the
uctuations in the mid-latitude atmospheric circulation in surface nutrient supply. These trends appear to be related
the Central Pacic have also been suggested to have phys- to the strengthening of the North Pacic wintertime atmo-
ical and biological effects that appear to affect a large spheric circulation associated with the regime shift that
proportion of the North Pacic basin. A major regime shift began in 1976-1977.
occurred in 1976-1977 and the surface waters of the entire Fish eggs and larvae are also sampled in CalCOFI zooplank-
eastern Pacic Ocean from Mexico to Alaska became ton collections. Although both total larval sh and zoo-
warmer. Since 1976, there has also been an increase in plankton abundance exhibit substantial interannual vari-
the frequency, duration and intensity of El Niño events in ability, there is no clear relation between the two time
California waters. series. There are weak time-lagged correlations when zoo-
The 1976 climatic shift is clearly seen in time series of plankton leads sh larvae by four to ve months in three
California sea surface temperatures. Decadal and regime of four regions of the California Current, which would
shift processes both are evident in a newly proposed be expected if poor nutrition of adult sh has affected
index for the North Pacic, the northern oscillation index their reproductive success. Although zooplankton is well
(NOI). This index is analogous to the southern oscillation correlated with temperature, salinity, and transport, total
index used to describe and predict El Niños. However, sh larvae are poorly related to these physical param-
it is a better measure of the atmospheric circulation in eters. Nor are larval sh clearly related to anomalies in
the North Pacic because it is based on the difference longshore winds, the basis of coastal upwelling. Analyses
between the average position of the North Pacic High of both larval sh and zooplankton data suffer from the
(35°N: 130°W) and the Tropical Low near Darwin. When obvious complications of lumping large numbers of taxa;
the three to four year scale El Niño processes are ltered studies of individual species may offer better oppor-
out, using a 36-month moving average, the NOI exhibits tunities of relating oceanographic variability to recruit-
the decadal cycles that researchers have predicted and ment success. For example, there are inverse trends for
the widely observed climatic shift that occurred in northern anchovy and Pacic sardine spawning biomass
1976-1977. and larval standing crop; the declines for anchovy and
increases for sardines took place during a period of declin-
Zooplankton populations also exhibit strong interdecadal
ing zooplankton abundance and warming temperatures
variability. CalCOFI data showed a 70 percent decrease in
associated with the regime shift. Clearly shes are long-
the biomass of macrozooplankton associated with warm-
lived organisms with complicated life histories; mortality
ing of surface layers between 1951 and 1993. Averages
in poorly assessed stages such as juveniles may account
of zooplankton biomass over the initial and nal seven-
for the poor relationships between physical parameters,
year periods of this interval were computed for southern
larval abundance, and adult stocks.
California grid lines . The differences between the two
periods appeared to be uniform in space and at least
twice the standard deviation of the seven-year mean at
Implications for Nearshore Ecosystems
each station. Over this time period, lines 80 and 90 sur-
T
face temperatures warmed by an average 2.2 and 2.8°F, he ora and fauna of California’s nearshore communi-
respectively, but thermal changes at depth were small. ties are strongly affected by interannual variability in
Therefore, the vertical stratication of the thermocline the physical environment including both El Niño-Southern
substantially increased, resulting in a reduction in the Oscillation events and the regime shift that began in
transfer of nutrients to the surface. 1976-1977. Furthermore, large wave events in this region
Long-term trends in temperature and salinity of the upper are highly correlated with strong El Niño events, so
100m, zooplankton biomass, and transport from north to these two forms of disturbance often co-occur. Thus,
south through the present day CalCOFI grid indicate that in the southern and central regions of the state there
interdecadal changes apparently have different physical has been considerable interdecadal-scale wave variability,
forcing mechanisms than those associated with El Niño with greatly increasing numbers of episodes with signi-
events. Because the surface layer has become warmer and cant wave heights greater than 12 feet in recent years.
fresher, the increase in stratication apparently results
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
24
The most dramatic benthic effects of El Niño events are appear to be important. Drift kelp is the primary food for
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
on kelp forests, ecosystems organized around the struc- sea urchins and abalones. With up to 60 percent of the
ture and productivity provided by giant kelp (Macrocystis) biomass of a healthy Macrocystis forest in its canopy, the
and bull kelp (Nereocystis). The two-fold effects include loss of the canopy and varying degrees of mortality of
extreme winter storm waves, which may decimate kelp adult plants have huge effects on drift availability. With
populations along the entire exposed coast, and anom- reduced food supplies, urchin gonad production is very
alously-warm, nutrient-depleted waters, whose effects low, often to the point of making processing uneconomi-
increase in severity with decreasing latitude. With their cal; because the product is the gonads. Many processors
high growth rate, southern California Macrocystis popula- closed during the 1982-1984 El Niño, for example. Abalone
tions depend on nutrients supplied by upwelling or inter- reproduction and recruitment are also affected, leading
nal waves. When these sources are rendered ineffective to large gaps in size-frequency distributions. The loss
by depression of the thermocline, growth ceases, tissue of drift food may trigger destructive grazing by sea
decay leads to the loss of the surface canopy, and consid- urchins, transforming kelp forests to barren grounds with
erable mortality may follow. Kelp forests from the warm- cascading implications for other organisms in this com-
est regions of the state, Orange County south along the munity. Anomalously warm waters are also associated with
mainland and the southeastern Channel Islands, suffer disease outbreaks, especially for sea urchins, sea stars,
massive losses. Further to the north, the addition of the and abalones.
El Niño temperature anomaly to normal summer-fall tem- Reductions in Macrocystis populations have critical impli-
peratures apparently maintains the environment within cations for shes dependent on giant kelp for foraging
the range of suitability (i.e., nutrients did not become habitat and refuge from predators. Recruitment of young-
limiting), although growth may be reduced. of-the-year kelp bass is dependent on Macrocystis density.
Sea surface temperature is the best predictor of kelp The presence of giant kelp has a positive effect on the
harvest and areal extent. The increase in mean SST since recruitment of other rocky inshore shes such as kelp
the 1976-1977 regime shift has been associated with large rocksh, giant kelpsh, kelp surfperch, pile surfperch, and
decreases in the size of Macrocystis plants as measured by black surfperch. On the other hand, the striped surfperch,
number of stipes per individual. Furthermore, this secular which feeds in foliose red algae, is adversely affected by
increase in SSTs means that each El Niño event is adding the presence of Macrocystis because of the strong nega-
to a higher temperature base; thus, successive events are tive relationship between giant kelp and foliose algae.
characterized by increasingly severe temperature anom- Thus, the structure of a kelp forest has signicant effects
alies. Poor conditions for Macrocystis growth are associ- on the species composition and local density of the sh
ated with enhanced understory algae and reduced drift assemblage, and that structure is strongly affected by
kelp production. ocean climate.
Aerial surveys illustrate huge variability in Macrocystis With greatly increased transport from the south, northern
surface canopies in the Southern California Bight. The range extensions of subtropical, migratory species and
effects of the 1983 and 1998 El Niño winter storms are larvae are very characteristic of El Niño events. Most
apparent in all areas, but the speed of kelp recovery
varies with location. Cooler areas such as San Miguel
Island recovered from the storms very quickly and had
minimal impacts from the warm, nutrient-depleted waters
that followed. In contrast, many of the Macrocystis popu-
lations on the coastline between Santa Barbara and Point
Conception, which were largely set in sand, were devas-
tated by the storms of the early 1980s and have not recov-
ered. The 1988-1989 La Niña provided excellent growth
conditions after a severe storm largely removed existing
giant kelp populations in many areas; this combination led
to peaks in kelp canopy biomass in the southeastern part
of the bight in 1990.
While effects of El Niño and regime shifts on the kelps
are relatively well known, the implications for higher tro- California Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies
Annual sea surface temperature anomalies (˚F) off northern, central, and southern California,
phic levels and community structure are only beginning
with means of three time periods (1920-1937, 1938-1976, and 1977-1997). Data extract from
to be understood. The effects of storms, warm, nutri- COADS as monthly means.
ent-depleted waters, and anomalous current patterns all
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 25
migratory species are pelagic, but pelagic red crabs are sensitive to El Niño conditions, because it was poor during
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
conspicuous nearshore visitors. Spiny lobsters and sheep- 1983 and 1992. Poleward advection, downwelling, delayed
head, two important predators of sea urchins in the South- and reduced phytoplankton blooms, and low zooplankton
ern California Bight, both have their centers of distribu- abundance appear to be important factors in reproductive
tion off Baja California and recruit heavily to southern failure during these periods. Modeling has demonstrated
California (and sheephead as far north as Monterey) during that shery management practices can exacerbate El Niño
strong El Niño events. Conversely, La Niña events with effects if harvest is not decreased in response to the
enhanced transport from the north result in increased environmentally induced decrease in biomass.
recruitment of cool water shes such as blue rocksh in In northern California, where the red sea urchin shery
southern California. is limited by poor recruitment, there has been strong
Observations of shallow water reef sh assemblages in interest in understanding the role of oceanographic vari-
the Southern California Bight from 1974 to 1993 indicate ability on the temporal and spatial patterns of settlement.
substantial changes in species composition and productiv- Recent studies have shown increased settlement in some
ity that appear to relate to the increased frequency of sites during both the 1992-1993 and 1997 El Niños, but
El Niño events and the regime shift. At two sites off Los the sampling periods were short and settlement was not
Angeles, species diversity fell 15 to 25 percent and the consistent among areas. Regional patterns of circulation
composition shifted from dominance by northern to south- in northern California and the delivery of larvae to the
ern species by 1990. By 1993, 95 percent of all species coast during upwelling relaxation are the best explanation
had declined in abundance by an average of 69 percent. for the observed pattern of recent recruitment for several
Similar declines of surfperch populations off Santa Cruz invertebrate species. Understanding the role of larger
Island were linked to declines of their crustacean prey scale processes will require longer time series.
and biomass of understory algae where the sh foraged.
Recruitment of young-of-the-year at the three sites fell
Implications for the Offshore Ecosystem
by over 90 percent, and the decline was highly correlated
with the decrease in macrozooplankton abundance in the
C alifornia’s marine fauna and ora are principally com-
CalCOFI data. These changes in population abundances
ponents of the subarctic, transition, and central (or
and trophic structure were apparently caused by lower
subtropical) zones. Subarctic species are more common
productivity associated with the regime shift of 1976-1977.
off northern California and subtropical species more abun-
Statistics from the commercial passenger shing vessel dant off southern California. With the exception of marine
rocksh shery of southern California for the period 1980 mammals, birds, and a very few shes (tunas), marine
to 1996 illustrate a substantial decline in catch-per-unit organisms are cold blooded. They are therefore highly
effort. Three species abundant in 1980 were absent by affected by temperature, making water temperature one
1996. Catch of others such as bocaccio declined as much of the most signicant physical factors that marine organ-
as 98 percent. On average, mean length declined due to isms have to cope with. In fact, the most obvious effect
the removal of larger size classes, and in the case of of climatic variation in the California offshore ecosystem
the vermilion rocksh, the take changed from primarily is the appearance of tropical species such as tunas and
adults to almost entirely juveniles. On some trips, the pelagic red crabs in association with El Niño events. As
catch now mostly consists of dwarf or small species of mentioned earlier, variations in the major current pat-
Sebastes. Such population declines probably result from terns greatly inuence uctuations in ocean temperatures.
poor long-term juvenile recruitment caused by adverse
Wind driven upwelling also alters temperature and trans-
oceanographic conditions combined with overshing of
port patterns. In the California current, the most obvious
adults and sub-adults. This combination results in recruit-
consequence is the nearshore core of cold upwelled water
ment overshing that reduces spawning stocks to levels
that is at a peak in the Cape Mendocino region in the
too low to ensure adequate production of young sh for
summer. Nearshore species that have pelagic eggs are
future shing.
highly susceptible to the offshore loss of their early life
Dramatic effects on sh assemblages are reported in cen- history stages by wind-driven surface transport. Many spe-
tral California as well, where El Niño events are asso- cies are therefore unable to reproduce successfully in
ciated with improved recruitment of southern species, the region between Point Conception and Cape Blanco,
recruitment failures of rockshes, and poor growth and Oregon (about 35-43°N), where upwelling and offshore
condition of adult rockshes. In addition to sheephead, transport are at a maximum. Many of the important spe-
blacksmith and bluebanded goby are southern species that cies that are permanent residents of this region have
were observed near Monterey. Reproductive success of reproductive adaptations that reduce the offshore disper-
many species of central California rocksh appears to be sion of reproductive products. These include bearing live
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
26
young (rockshes and surfperches), demersal spawning With the exception of the salmons, the colder water shes
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
(herring, lingcod and many littoral species), anadromous are much less likely to make seasonal migrations. Most of
spawning (salmonids and true smelts), and late winter the California groundsh and nearshore shes make very
spawning (Dover sole, sablesh and most rockshes) to limited geographical movements, other than the larval
avoid the intense upwelling season (late spring to early drift that occurs during their planktonic early life history
summer). The most abundant California Current shes stages. Once they settle in good habitat, individuals of
have pelagic eggs and larvae and these shes have exten- these species tend to remain in relatively small areas. La
sive spawning and feeding migrations (Pacic hake, Pacic Niña events therefore are not remarkable in the appear-
sardine, Pacic mackerel, and jack mackerel). The adults ance of large numbers of the adults of cold water species
of these stocks feed in the more northern portions of the moving down from Alaska and Canada. However, they may
region during the summer and fall, and then return to the result in increased recruitment at the southern edges of
area near, or to the south of Point Conception to spawn in the range of colder water species.
the late winter and early spring.
Regime Scale Climatic Variations
El Niño - La Niña Fluctuations
L onger-term climatic processes appear to be forced by
T he most obvious biological effect of El Niño Southern factors outside of the California Current region. Early
Oscillation events is that environmental factors, espe- studies showed that sea surface temperatures are out
cially temperature, affect the behavior and distribution of of phase off of California and Japan. The dominant
larger marine organisms. These effects are most marked pelagic shes of the California, Japan, and Peru/Chile
in the adults of pelagic, migratory, or nomadic species regions have been shown to have strikingly similar popula-
that are able to greatly expand or contract their ranges tion uctuations, and paleo-sediment studies in both the
by actively moving among regions with seasonal cycles or California Current and the Peru Current suggest that
other climatic uctuations such as El Niño events. South- regime scale climatic changes have been occurring for
ern species that have the center of their distribution south thousands of years. Salmon production in the Pacic
of California such as bonito, barracuda, white sea bass, Northwest (chinook and coho) has recently been related
and swordsh normally move into southern and central to interdecadal climatic patterns in the North Pacic and
California during the late summer and fall. Both these it is out of phase with production of pink and sockeye
shes and tropical shes such as yellowtail, skipjack, and salmon in Alaska.
yellown tuna move into southern California in larger In contrast with short term La Niña events, cold water
numbers during El Niños. Major El Niño events also cause organisms are able to extend their populations into the
extended migrations of Pacic sardine, jack mackerel, and southern portion of the state during extended cold peri-
Pacic mackerel to as far north as Alaska. This migratory ods. Many rockshes that have the center of their distribu-
response to warmer surface temperatures is primarily tion in the subarctic zone exhibit this pattern. The reverse
behavioral and it may or may not be associated with pattern occurs in subtropical shes. Some transition zone
increased population size of the individual species. pelagic species move as far north as southern Alaska
Sub-tropical species with limited swimming ability, such during very warm years but essentially abandon the area
as pelagic red crabs and smaller zooplankton species, north of California during extended cold periods.
often occur in dense concentrations off of California, sug- The California Current has recently been in its longest
gesting that advection also plays a signicant role in com- recorded period of warm water. During the last two
munity structure during El Niño events. El Niños are known decades, there have been marked population declines in
to alter the population levels of zooplankton and other a number of cold water species (salmon, lingcod, and
animals with short life spans. The market squid, which rockshes) and several stocks are now threatened or
normally lives for no more than one year, appears to be endangered. In contrast, several transition zone shes
heavily impacted by El Niños and the California shery for that spawn off southern California and migrate to feeding
this species has suffered near total collapse in major El grounds between northern California and Canada experi-
Niño years. Population effects on longer-lived animals are enced large population increases following the shift to
likely, but population time series are lacking for most spe- warm water conditions (Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel
cies. El Niños and other warm water events can result in and Pacic hake). It is clear that physical climatic factors
decreased growth rates and reproductive output in shes, may be as important as shing in regulating the productiv-
and decreased size at maturity in market squid. ity of some exploited species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 27
Conclusions References
California’s Variable Ocean Environment
T he organisms of the California Current are adapted to Baumgartner, T.R., A. Soutar and V. Ferreria-Bartrina.
an environment that varies on scales from local and 1992. Reconstruction of the history of Pacic sardine and
short term to very large scale and multidecadal. Growth, northern anchovy populations over the past two millennia
reproduction, and larval survival may be depressed for from sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California.
variable periods during short-term adverse environmental CalCOFI Rep. Vol. 33:24-40.
conditions, but most adults of larger species survive. The Chelton, D. B., P. A. Bernal, and J. A. McGowan. 1982.
addition of decades of intense shing pressure onto long Large-scale interannual physical and biological interaction
term climate disturbances such as those experienced since in the California Current. J. Mar. Res. 40: 1095-1125.
the 1976-1977 regime shift, however, makes population
Dayton, P. K. and M. J. Tegner. 1990. Bottoms beneath
decline almost inevitable for species adversely affected
troubled waters: benthic impacts of the 1982-84 El Niño
by the changed environment. The challenge facing shery
in the temperate zone. In: P. W. Glynn (ed.), Ecological
managers is how to respond on time scales that will
consequences of the 1982-83 El Niño to marine life.
protect spawning stocks during periods of poor reproduc-
Elsevier Oceanography Series No. 52, p. 433-472.
tion. One approach is to signicantly decrease shing
Holbrook, S. J., M. H. Carr, R. J. Schmitt, and J. A. Coyer.
effort on existing, heavily pressured stocks to create a
1990. Effect of giant kelp on local abundance of reef
buffer for hard times. El Niño events are being predicted
shes: the importance of ontogenetic resource require-
with increasing skill; if shing effort on sensitive species
ments. Bull. Mar. Sci. 47: 104-114.
could be sharply curtailed in favor of species that thrive
under warm conditions, the negative effects of these Holbrook, S. J., R. J. Schmitt, and J. S. Stephens. 1997.
climatic events could be reduced. Another approach is to Changes in an assemblage of temperate reef shes associ-
establish marine protected areas large enough to ensure ated with a climate shift. Ecol. Appl. 7(4): 1299-1310.
surviving populations in every region. If some rocksh
Love, M. S. , J. R. Caselle, and W. Van Buskirk. 1998. A
stocks had been protected in southern California during
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
the present regime shift, for example, recovery during
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the Southern California
cold water periods would be far faster than the present
Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Rep.39: 180-195.
situation that will largely depend on recruitment from
MacCall, A.D. 1996. Patterns of low frequency variability
depressed central California populations.
in sh populations of the California Current. CalCOFI Rep.
Too much of our sheries management has been based
Vol 37:100-110.
on the assumption that environmental variability is not
McGowan, J.A. 1972. The nature of oceanic ecosystems. In
important. With 20/20 hindsight and the increasing pros-
The Biology of the Oceanic Pacic. Ed C.B. Miller. Oregon
pects of human impacts on climate, we know that this
State Univ. Press. 9-28.
cannot continue. It is clear that over the next decade
a major research effort will have to be made to better McGowan, J. A., D. R. Cayan, and L. M. Dorman. 1998.
understand the climatic connection and that shery man- Climate-ocean variability and ecosystem response in the
agement will have to consider policies to reduce exploi- northeast Pacic. Science 281: 210-217.
tation rates when species are impacted by adverse
Roemmich, D. and J. A. McGowan. 1995a. Climatic warm-
climatic factors.
ing and the decline of zooplankton in the California Cur-
rent. Science 267: 1324-1326.
Richard R. Parrish
Tegner, M. J. and P. K. Dayton. 1987. El Niño effects on
National Marine Fisheries Service
Southern California kelp forest communities. Adv. Ecol.
Mia J. Tegner Res. 47: 243-279.
University of California Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Tegner, M. J. and P. K. Dayton. 1991. Sea urchins, El Niños,
and the long-term stability of Southern California kelp
forest communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 77: 49-63.
Tegner, M. J., P. K. Dayton, P. B. Edwards, and K. L. Riser.
1997. Large-scale, low-frequency effects on kelp forest
succession: a tale of two cohorts. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
146: 117-134.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
28
The Status of Habitats
and Water Quality in shing and tourism that depend on a healthy coast and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
ocean contribute more than 17 billion dollars to the
California’s Coastal state’s economy every year, and provide 370,000 jobs to
California’s citizens.
and Marine Health of Coastal and Marine Water
Quality and Habitats
Environment Monitoring and Assessment Information
G ood water quality and healthy aquatic habitats
Importance of Healthy Waters and depend upon the activities that occur nearby. Land
Habitats to Marine Life use practices, population densities, point and nonpoint
source discharges, agriculture, urbanization, industry, and
C lean water is essential to a healthy coastal and marine
recreation all inuence the water quality and habitat of
environment. Seventy-ve percent of all commercial
a specic locality or region. To determine the nature and
sh in the United States depend on estuaries and associ-
extent of impacts that these activities have on water
ated coastal wetlands for some portion of their life-cycle.
quality and habitat, monitoring and assessment programs
Unfortunately, these are probably the most threatened of
are conducted at the state, federal, and local levels.
all habitats in California today.
The state’s Bay Protection and Toxic Cleanup Program
Because pollution impairs the breeding grounds for many and Mussel Watch Program, the San Francisco Bay
species of sea life, it is a substantial contributing factor Regional Monitoring Program, the Southern California
to declines in these species. Impacts to coastal-depen- Bight Regional Study, and the National Oceanographic and
dent species include declines in the species’ populations, Atmospheric Administration’s Status, and Trends Program
reproductive problems, birth defects, behavioral changes, are but a few examples of the many programs underway in
and increased susceptibility to disease. For example, ill- California. Monitoring and assessment information is used
nesses and deaths of sea otters and other marine mam- to determine compliance with state and federal statutes
mals from viruses, many of which had had little effect such as the federal Clean Water Act and the state’s Porter-
on the animals only a few years ago, are on the rise Cologne Water Quality Control Act, as well as with permit
in California. Studies indicate that coastal pollution may regulations and water quality standards protecting marine
be a signicant factor in these increased illnesses and resources and their habitats.
deaths, possibly due to its negative impacts on immune
Though monitoring efforts in the state are limited and
systems responses.
can be much improved, some conclusions can be drawn
Pollution can come from direct discharges (“point about the health of certain state’s waters. For example,
sources”) and runoff from land-based activities (“non- existing data indicate that uses of 100 percent of the
point source pollution”). Plumes of contaminated runoff state’s surveyed tidal wetlands, 71 percent of surveyed
can oat on top of the heavier seawater and have been bays and harbors, 91 percent of surveyed estuaries, 78
shown to extend 25 or more miles offshore. Nutrient pol- percent of surveyed freshwater wetlands, 71 percent
lution, such as from farms, can create toxic algal blooms, of surveyed lakes and reservoirs, and 81 percent of sur-
or “red tides,” in marine waters. One 1998 toxic algal veyed rivers and streams are impaired or threatened in
bloom produced domoic acid, a harmful biotoxin that some way by water pollution. Examples of uses that are
affects the nervous system in animals and humans. This being impaired or threatened by pollution include drinking
algal bloom resulted in the death of more than 50 Cali- water, sh consumption, aquatic life support, swimming,
fornia sea lions along California’s central coast. Inland, and aquaculture. It should be noted that these gures are
nonpoint source pollution from logging and other activi- only for those waters that are monitored, which may over-
ties impair critical habitats for marine life, including north represent the more contaminated waters in the state. On
coast streams essential to threatened and endangered the other hand, a recent federal report indicates that the
species such as Pacic Coast coho salmon. number of impaired waters is likely much higher than that
currently recorded.
The health, safety, and welfare of California residents
who use marine resources similarly depends upon clean The state’s latest report on water quality generally
coastal and ocean waters. Eighty percent of Californians describes the major water pollution concerns along the
live within 30 miles of the coast. Industries such as California coast. In the north coast region, nonpoint
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 29
source pollution from logging and agriculture pose the source discharges and it becomes readily apparent that
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
most signicant problems. In the San Francisco Bay area, impacts to marine and estuarine resources are inevitable.
point source discharges from petroleum reneries and Some improvements, however, have been realized over
cities along the bay, and nonpoint source runoff from the years as a result of additional controls and require-
Marin County dairies and farms in the Central Valley and ments applied to point source discharges, and due to
Napa County, cause coastal pollution problems. Along the phase out of particularly toxic chemicals. For example, a
central coast, agriculture creates the most signicant pol- recent study reports that concentrations of DDT and PCBs
lution problems. Along the densely populated southern in livers of bottom sh collected throughout the southern
California coast, storm-water pollution is a major problem, California coastal shelf are at concentrations 95 percent
though agricultural runoff and sewage discharges also are lower than 20 years ago, though health advisories still
important pollution sources. exist for these constituents. The major challenge remain-
States are required to identify water bodies within the ing is the control of nonpoint source pollution.
state’s jurisdiction that do not meet water quality stan-
Data Limitations/Gaps
dards. To this end, the State Water Resources Control
E
Board, in conjunction with the state’s nine Regional xisting water quality and habitat data are not as com-
Water Quality Control Boards, has used monitoring data plete or comprehensive as needed to assess the overall
to develop a list of impaired water bodies for the State health of marine ecosystems. California does not yet have
of California. A water body can be listed as impaired for a system to comprehensively monitor water quality in the
any number of chemical constituents or conditions such inland watershed, enclosed waters, or nearshore ocean
as nutrients, heavy metals, petroleum products, sediment zones, and the vast majority of California’s waterways
toxicity, bacteria, pesticides, polynuclear aromatic hydro- and small estuarine systems are not monitored by the
carbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), etc. state on a regular basis. For example, over 90 percent
California has over 500 water bodies that are “impaired,” of California’s rivers and streams and about half of the
that is, they are not meeting water quality standards state’s coastal shoreline are simply never monitored by
under current regulations; many of these are coastal. the state. Sediment and water quality assessment pro-
grams such as the statewide Mussel Watch Program, Bay
Waters from the Oregon border to north of San Francisco
Protection and Toxics Cleanup Program and the San Fran-
Bay are listed as “impaired” primarily because of sedi-
cisco Bay Regional Monitoring Program, all need to be con-
ments. There are, however, some northern embayments,
tinued and expanded. These programs have, over recent
(e.g., Humboldt Bay and Tomales Bay) that have been
years, supplied critical data on the health of the coastal,
identied as impaired by other assorted constituents such
bay, and estuarine waters of the state. However, years of
as heavy metals and nutrients. southern California, with
funding cuts have left the health of much of California’s
a substantially higher number of impaired coastal waters,
waters unknown.
bays, and estuaries, faces problems from a much wider
variety of sources and contaminants, with urban runoff Programs that will collect data on contaminants and
playing a prominent role. A southern California example is marine life populations, as well as pollutant source identi-
Santa Monica Bay, which has been listed as impaired for cation, are necessary to ensure that adequate informa-
several heavy metals, marine debris, sediment toxicity, tion is available to make sound regulatory and man-
chlordane, DDT, PAHs, and PCBs. San Pablo Bay, located agement decisions regarding water quality issues. In addi-
in the northern San Francisco area, has been identied as tion, a statewide baseline inventory of various habitats
impaired for several heavy metals, exotic species, diazi- such as rocky intertidal, subtidal, kelp beds, rock reef,
non, PCBs, chlordane, DDT, dieldren, dioxin, and furan beach areas, mudats, and subtidal vegetation is critical
compounds. In central California, Morro Bay is impaired to make sound scientically-based resource management
because of heavy metals, sedimentation/siltation, and decisions. Additional information also needs to be gath-
pathogens. San Diego Bay has been listed for copper, sedi- ered on marine and estuarine habitat restoration and
ment toxicity, and benthic community effects; and Lower enhancement opportunities.
Newport Bay for a variety of pesticides, metals, nutrients
In 1999, the Legislature passed a law that required the
and pathogens. In many of these areas, degraded subtidal
State Board to prepare a comprehensive, statewide sur-
and intertidal habitat has also been identied.
face water quality monitoring program by November 2000.
The coastal waters of California have been utilized for This will serve as the blueprint for much-needed improve-
waste disposal for many years. Ocean outfalls for the ments in coastal water quality monitoring.
discharge of treated sewage, power plant cooling waters,
and various industrial discharges are common throughout
the state. Add to this the substantial volumes of nonpoint
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
30
Sources of Impairment of Water Quality City of San Francisco, which is one of the few major cities
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
left in the nation that has a combined storm water and
and Habitats sewage system. This aging system frequently overloads
during heavy storm events and discharges raw sewage to
the Pacic Ocean.
Point Source Discharges
P
Sewage treatment plants discharging into the marine envi-
oint source discharges are generally those that have a
ronment are another signicant pollution source. The dis-
discrete, identiable source, such as a pipe carrying
charges for those plants that provide secondary treatment
treated waste from a pulp mill or a sewage treatment
to the waste stream contain low levels of heavy metals,
plant. Point sources also include municipal, industrial,
pesticides, nutrients, and high volumes of fresh water.
and construction storm water discharges and offshore oil
Some heavy metals, though discharged at low levels, bio-
well platforms.
accumulate up the food chain. These have the potential
Point source discharges into the marine environment con-
to alter body burdens in sh and other marine life feeding
tain a variety of contaminants. They include suspended
in the vicinity of the discharge pipe. While levels at the
and dissolved solids, heated water, petroleum hydro-
end of the pipe in the water column may be considered
carbons, heavy metals, nutrients, pesticides, chlorine,
relatively insignicant, over the reproductive life of the
brines, fresh water, and oil and grease. All discharges into
affected marine organisms, effects may be signicant.
the marine or estuarine environment are required to be in
This is particularly true in areas where discharges receive
compliance with provisions of the State Water Resources
only primary treatment to remove solids. For example,
Control Board’s California Ocean Plan or the respective
San Diego uses only “advanced primary” treatment for the
Basin Plans developed by the Regional Water Quality Con-
city’s sewage, which it then deposits into the ocean.
trol Boards. Conditions on permitted discharges are sup-
Point source discharges lead to a variety of impacts. Beach
posed to be set so that discharge of pollutants will not be
closures, degraded bay and estuarine habitats, increased
deleterious to sh, wildlife and other resources.
levels of contaminants in marine sediments, bioaccumula-
Point source discharges to marine waters of the state
tion of pollutants in the tissues of marine organisms,
are substantial both in volume and pollutant load. Many
degraded benthic communities, loss of kelp beds, and
millions of gallons of treated efuent from sewage treat-
sediment toxicity are some of the more notable impacts
ment plants, cooling water discharges from power plants,
identied. Beaches are posted or closed for thousands
storm water, and other point sources ow into marine and
of beach days each year due to point source discharges
estuarine waters every day.
from combined sewer overows and storm water. Non-
Historically, there have been many discharges of pollut- point source pollution, which is not conned to a discrete
ants that, although discontinued, continue to have adverse and easily regulated source, plays an even greater role in
impacts upon the environment. For example, in the 1960s water pollution and habitat degradation in California.
and 1970s, regional industrial facilities discharged DDT
and PCBs into what is now the County of Los Angeles Joint Nonpoint Source Discharges
Water Pollution Control Plant, which discharged these
N onpoint source pollution occurs when water from rain-
toxins directly into the Pacic Ocean at the Palos Verdes
fall, snowmelt, oods, or irrigation runs over land
shelf. Today, the discharge area is identied as a U.S. EPA
or through the ground, picks up pollutants, and deposits
superfund site and is undergoing extensive evaluation and
them into rivers, lakes, bays, estuaries, nearshore coastal
remediation planning.
waters or groundwater. In California, nonpoint source
One of today’s foremost issues with respect to ongoing discharges have been categorized into eight large group-
coastal water quality and habitat impacts is storm-water ings: agricultural, urban, silviculture, marinas and boat-
discharge. Although storm water discharges are regulated ing, grazing, mine drainage, on-site sewage treatment
by National Pollution Discharge Elimination System systems, and hydromodication.
(NPDES) permits, the current contribution of pollutant
According to the U.S. EPA, agriculture is the leading con-
load by this source to waters of the state is staggering. In
tributor nationwide to water quality impairments, degrad-
the National Water Quality Inventory: 1998 Report to Con-
ing most of the impaired river miles and lake acreage
gress, U.S. EPA found that urban runoff and storm sewers
surveyed by states, territories, and tribes. By contrast,
are the leading source of pollution in coastal waters.
runoff from urban areas is the largest source of
Urban runoff and storm water discharges include pollut-
water quality impairments to surveyed estuaries. The
ants such as heavy metals, pesticides, salts, sediments,
most common nonpoint source pollutants are sediments
trash, debris, nutrients, bacteria, petroleum products,
and nutrients.
and sewage overows. This problem is heightened in the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 31
Some examples of impacts from nonpoint source pollution much higher, but current resource limitations make full
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
in central California include agricultural runoff releases detection impossible.
of DDT into the Salinas River Lagoon and Monterey Bay In nearly all cases, wildlife are injured or even killed by
National Marine Sanctuary at levels that have been dem- contact with oil. Aquatic birds, shorebirds, and marine
onstrated to be deleterious to aquatic life; and severe mammals, particularly sea otters, are the sea life most
oxygen depletion and eutrophication, as well as shellsh visibly affected. However, birds collected at an oil spill
contamination, in Tomales and Bodega bays and their site often may die with no external signs of oil contact
tributaries due to nutrients from dairy runoff. Data from because they have ingested oil while cleaning it off their
the National Shellsh Register document that in 1995 (the feathers. Once ingested, the oil is almost always fatal to
most recent year reported) shellsh harvesting was pro- the birds. Impacts to sh and other aquatic organisms are
hibited for 9,000 out of 24,000 acres of harvesting areas in not often observed because the affected organisms sink
California due to water quality concerns. Coastal nonpoint out of sight.
source pollution, including both urban and agricultural
The use of oil dispersants to prevent an oil slick from
runoff, also contributes to the thousands of days of beach
coming ashore generally serves to break up the spill’s
closures and postings in the state each year.
integrity. However, they allow the oil to remain emulsied
Alteration of water ow (hydromodication) and channel in the water column, and add dangerous chemicals that
erosion are two nonpoint source pollution categories may adversely affect water column communities below
that have been linked to the decline of anadromous sh- the surface. Oil spills that do come ashore impact coastal
eries (e.g., chinook salmon), especially in habitat areas and marine wildlife as well as valuable rocky intertidal,
where spawning success is determined. The increased sand beach, and coastal wetlands habitats.
sedimentation, siltation, and turbidity resulting from
In 1991, the California Department of Fish and Game cre-
these pollution sources lead to habitat loss and modica-
ated the Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR)
tion. These impacts may then adversely affect species
to implement legislation to address oil pollution issues in
population numbers.
the marine environment. In 1997 (last year for available
Harbors and marinas provide their share of nonpoint data), 767 marine oil spills were reported to OSPR. Again,
source pollutants including oily bilge water, detergents these are only reported spills; the actual amount of oil
from the washing of decks and hulls, runoff from shipyards discharged into coastal waters is likely far higher than
with paint akes containing heavy metals and organotins, reported. For example, these gures do not include the
and dish detergent and occasionally sewage material from 8.5 to 20 million gallons of diluent released over many
live-aboards. Marinas and harbors also can add a sig- years at the Unocal/Guadalupe oil eld near the City of
nicant sediment plume to local waters during dredging San Luis Obispo.
activities for channel and basin depth maintenance, as
well as associated pollutant and sediment loads from the Other Spills
dumping of these dredged materials into coastal waters.
S ewage spills are the most common of non-oil related
spills. Effects can range from minimal losses to thou-
sands of sh and other marine animals killed or impaired.
Spills A recent sewage spill into the Salinas River resulted in
a portion of the river becoming completely depleted of
Oil Spills oxygen and in the loss of hundreds of shes, including
O f all deleterious materials spilled into the marine steelhead trout (a federally listed species). Sewage spills
environment, crude oil and rened petroleum prod- also have the potential to release harmful chemicals into
ucts are the most common. Oil enters state waters from the environment, as the sewage has not reached the treat-
many sources, such as storm drains and runoff from road- ment plant where these chemicals normally are removed
ways, as well as medium-to-large oil spills. Oil spills come or reduced to non-toxic levels prior to discharge. Sewage
in many forms, from the discharge of oily bilge water by spills are a signicant source of beach closings and health
tens of thousands of boats plying the waters of California, advisories each year.
to breakage in oil pipelines due to earthquakes or age. Even some chemical compounds commonly thought to be
From 1991 to 1998, “signicant” oil spills released at least non-toxic can have an adverse effect on wildlife when
18,650 barrels of oil into California’s coastal waters. Data spilled into an aquatic environment. For example, the
complied by U.S. EPA of signicant California spills from release of 2,300 gallons of vegetable oil into Monterey Bay
1971 to February 2000 record 627,415 barrels of oil spilled in 1997 impacted a variety of birds species. Among other
that resulted in identied environmental damage. The things, birds were poisoned through ingestion of the oil,
actual number of spills and amount of damage is likely and oil on feathers made the birds less buoyant and more
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
32
susceptible to hypothermia. Several hundred birds died, homeporting project. Upland or aquatic disposal for ben-
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
while hundreds more were rehabilitated and released. ecial reuse is encouraged throughout the state to mini-
mize open-water unconned disposal at authorized in-bay
(e.g., San Francisco Bay), nearshore (e.g., Moss Landing) or
Dredging and Disposal of ocean (e.g., Los Angeles, San Diego, Eureka, etc.) disposal
sites. Dredged material that is physically suitable, but
Dredged Material is chemically unsuitable for aquatic disposal because of
D
elevated levels of certain contaminants, may be used
redging is the deepening or enlargement of a naviga-
as ll, or in certain wetland construction and habitat
tional channel, harbor/marina basin, or berthing area.
improvement projects, provided the contaminated materi-
Construction of new channels, basins, or berthing areas
als are conned (e.g., parking lots, container piers, etc.).
involves the removal of previously undisturbed sediment,
while “maintenance dredging” removes accumulated sedi- Beach nourishment is one of the more common reuses
ment from previously dredged areas. Maintenance dredg- of clean dredge material from routine dredging projects.
ing also occurs at the mouths of coastal lagoons, creeks, Compatible material, which matches the receiving beach
and rivers where accumulated sediment is removed to in grain size and quality, is usually pumped directly onto
keep the system open to the ocean. the beach and then spread by use of heavy equipment, or
directly placed in the nearshore environment where it will
At the ports of San Francisco, Oakland, Los Angeles, Long
be transported onshore through natural littoral processes.
Beach, and San Diego, increasing global economic pres-
Large-scale beach nourishment projects, using material
sures have resulted in the need for larger, deeper draft
from offshore borrow areas, are currently being planned
ships to transport cargo. This has led to a demand
for southern California, particularly in San Diego County.
for new construction dredging to widen and deepen
channels, turning basins, berths, and slips to accommo- Dredging activities can cause signicant negative impacts
date the larger vessels. Maintenance dredging has simi- to marine life, including a direct loss of benthic habitat,
larly increased. More often, dredging activities are permit- as well as potential loss or injury to slow moving or immo-
ted for annual or multiannual maintenance of previously bile benthic species such as polychaete worms, crabs,
dredged areas. Although infrequent, dredging activities seastars, clams, and bottom-dwelling shes. Studies have
are increasingly being used for wetland restoration and shown that benthic invertebrate species can re-colonize in
enhancement projects such as the dredging of Batiquitos the dredged area as early as six months after a dredging
Lagoon in San Diego County, the Port of Los Angeles’ project has been completed. However, this type of recov-
shallow water habitat, and the Port of Oakland’s middle ery can be delayed indenitely if there is repeated dredg-
harbor enhancement area. ing activity. Depending on the scale of dredging, there
also could be a loss of marine plants such as eelgrass.
The selection of a disposal site for dredged sediments is
In addition to the direct loss of habitat and associated
dependent upon the physical and chemical characteristics
infauna and epifauna, dredging operations displace mobile
of the material to be placed. Physically and chemically
sh and invertebrates, affect the foraging habits of marine
suitable material (i.e., appropriate grain size and minimal
birds, and displace other water birds such as ducks, geese,
contamination) may be disposed of at unconned, open-
terns, loons, grebes, and cormorants. Newly dredged sub-
water disposal sites authorized by the U.S. EPA and U.S.
strate also is more susceptible for colonization by opportu-
Army Corps of Engineers, such as the deep-ocean disposal
nistic and invasive non-endemic organisms.
site near the Farallon Islands off San Francisco.
Dredging may also result in the resuspension and redistri-
In some instances, clean material may be benecially
bution of sediments, potentially increasing marine and
reused for structural ll, wetland construction and resto-
estuarine life to exposure to chemical contaminants,
ration, habitat improvement and enhancement, capping
as well as a temporary decrease in dissolved oxygen.
material for sites with contaminated sediments, or for
Increases in turbidity and suspended solids decrease light
beach nourishment. Dredge material has been used in Los
penetration, resulting in reduced photosynthesis by phyto-
Angeles Harbor to regain acreage of shallow water habitat
plankton, kelp, eelgrass, and surfgrass. Prolonged turbid-
historically lost to past dredge and ll projects. In the Los
ity can clog the apparatuses of lter-feeding invertebrates
Angeles Harbor project, clean dredge material was used
and the gills of shes. Turbidity also reduces the ability
to cap contaminated sediments. A recent Port of Oakland
of sight-foraging birds, such as the federal- and state-
channel deepening project resulted in the creation of the
endangered California least tern and brown pelican, to
Sonoma Baylands, a more than 300-acre tidal wetland res-
successfully capture prey items.
toration project located in Sonoma County. In San Diego
Bay, the Navy has proposed a 30-acre shallow water hab- For small dredging projects, many impacts are assumed
itat site to be built with dredge material from their to be short term and temporary; however, the larger the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 33
dredging project, the longer the duration of the dredging Asian clam, the European green crab, the New Zealand sea
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
and the greater the impacts to marine organisms. The slug, the Chinese mitten crab, several species of sponges,
method of dredging also affects turbidity and resuspension jellysh, several species of sh, and numerous species of
of sediments. For example, a clamshell dredge results anemone, snails, mussels, clams, and barnacles.
in more turbidity at the dredging site than a hydraulic It is widely accepted that the discharge of ballast water is
dredge, but at the disposal site the opposite occurs. the primary mechanism by which coastal invasive species
There are a number of ways to minimize some of the are spread. For example, from 53 percent to up to 88
impacts associated with dredging. Mitigation measures percent of the aquatic non-indigenous species introduced
include the use of silt curtains to contain ne sediments, into San Francisco Bay in the last decade originated in bal-
water-tight clamshell buckets for minimizing the disper- last water discharges. Other sources include aquaculture
sion of contaminants, and seasonal restrictions (e.g., no imports and deliberate introductions (the possible source
dredging during the nesting seasons of least terns and of the invasive Chinese mitten crab in the San Francisco
snowy plovers, or during the migration of endangered Bay Estuary).
salmonid species). This topic is addressed in more detail in the chapter on
Open-water disposal buries most immobile epibenthic and invasive species.
infaunal organisms within the footprint of the disposal
site, and there are expectations that the site will be
Habitat Loss, Destruction and Alteration
degraded over time. Approved ocean disposal sites are
designed to minimize adverse impacts to living marine
N earshore coastal and estuarine habitats are signif-
resources outside of the site boundaries. Beach replenish-
cantly impacted by ll, residential and commercial
ment can also have negative impacts on marine resources
development, and ood control projects. Fill, or the
and their habitats. Sensitive and valuable habitats includ-
placement of sediments, pilings, bulkheads, retaining
ing kelp beds, rocky reefs, and surfgrass could be poten-
walls, piers, etc. in marine waters, has occurred in every
tially buried by nearshore disposal operations. Direct
major port and many other developed coastal areas.
placement of sand on the beach may also bury incubating
The man-made Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach
California grunion eggs, destroy nests of western snowy
were created by the dredging and lling of the former
plover and least tern, and preclude shorebird foraging.
3,450-acre Wilmington Lagoon. Large-scale ll projects
continue today as increasing economic pressures dictate a
Invasive Species need for additional container terminals. In fact, the Port
of Los Angeles just recently completed an over 580-acre
I nvasive species are the number two threat to endan- landll project for its Pier 400 project. In the San Fran-
gered and threatened species nationwide, second only cisco Bay area, the San Francisco International Airport
to habitat destruction. Specic environmental threats is proposing a runway reconguration project that would
include consumption of native species and their food potentially ll up to 1,500 acres of San Francisco Bay.
sources, dilution of native species through cross-breeding, The lling of marine waters with large volumes of sedi-
and poisoning of native species through bioaccumulation ment clearly has signicant adverse impacts on the near-
of toxics that are passed up the food chain. Commercial shore marine and estuarine environment, permanently
shermen nationwide are seeing signicant impacts to eradicates benthic habitat, and likely kills most epibenthic
sh and shellsh populations due to invasive marine life. and infaunal organisms within the footprint of the ll.
Moreover, unlike threats posed by most chemical or other Additionally, ll removes the surface-air interface, reduc-
types of pollution, biological pollution by non-indigenous ing foraging areas for surface feeding species, and
species has permanent impacts, as aquatic invasive spe- reduces water column habitat, adversely affecting plank-
cies are virtually impossible to eradicate once established. ton, shes, diving birds, and marine mammals.
Though many areas along California’s coast have been Structures, such as wharves, piers, seawalls, groins, and
impacted, San Francisco Bay has seen some of the most breakwaters, also impact and modify the marine and estu-
signicant damage from invasive species. Extensive stud- arine environment. There is often a permanent loss of
ies conrm that at least 234 alien plant and animal spe- habitat from the ll used to install the structure, such as
cies now live in San Francisco Bay, and that recently pilings for piers. Some overlying structures (e.g., pier plat-
introduced alien species are nding a viable niche in the forms) cover a portion of the water column, resulting in
bay and delta at the rate of one new species every 14 the loss of foraging habitat for sight-feeding marine birds
weeks. Those invasive species that have been positively such as terns and pelicans. Additionally, the structure may
identied as permanent residents of the bay include the shade marine plants such as eelgrass, as well as algae
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
34
and benthic invertebrates. Groins and breakwaters may valued for their capacity to recharge groundwater and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
deect wave or water current energy and inuence water cleanse runoff.
currents, ushing, sedimentation, and normal sediment However, these habitats are an increasingly scarce
transport. Materials used to construct structures exposed resource. For example, 90 percent of California’s coastal
to water may have negative impacts on water quality, wetlands have been diked, paved over, developed or oth-
such as creosote-treated wood products. The operation of erwise destroyed, and only ve percent of the state’s
the structure may also result in additional water quality coastal wetlands remain intact. Development continues
impacts, such as runoff from piers and platforms. to pose a signicant threat to the few remaining natural
In addition to the structures themselves, construction coastal wetlands. The vast majority of California’s popula-
activities associated with projects also impact the marine tion lives within a short drive from the coast, and the
environment, and, although the impacts are not perma- number of people settling in coastal counties continues
nent, they may have signicant effects on resources. This to grow.
is particularly true for large-scale or long-term projects Development not only can directly destroy coastal habi-
or where there are multiple small project phases in the tats, but also can contaminate them through the urban
same area. Surface turbidity caused by dredging is one runoff and other discharges generated by the develop-
of the major impacts from in-water construction activities ment activities. Increased controls on urban runoff will be
affecting marine plants, birds, and shes. Shock waves implemented shortly through a new round of regulations
from demolition and pile driving can further impact forag- on smaller municipalities, helping to control this problem
ing birds by making prey more difcult to capture. They somewhat, but it is unclear whether this effort will be
are also capable of breaking up concentrated schools of outweighed by the sheer rate of growth in these areas.
sh, forcing schools to seek deeper waters or avoid an
The California Coastal Act limits the lling of wetlands
area altogether. Noise associated with construction opera-
and estuaries to certain types of projects including
tions also displaces marine birds and mammals.
port, energy, and coastal-dependent industrial facilities,
Groins and breakwaters convert one habitat type to entrance channels for new or expanded boating facilities;
another resulting in a change in community structure. new boating facilities in a degraded wetland; and restora-
For example, placement of riprap over subtidal/intertidal tion, nature study, and aquaculture. Despite these protec-
habitat converts a soft bottom surface to a rocky habitat. tions, coastal wetlands are still being developed today.
Habitat conversion becomes an issue when a majority of Development projects are currently anticipated at Bolsa
the habitat in the area has already been altered. For Chica, Ballona, and Los Cerritos wetlands, some of the few
example, in San Diego Bay, only 26 percent of the bay’s remaining wetlands in southern California.
shoreline remains natural, whereas the remainder is cov-
ered with man-made structures.
Water Flow
Flood control projects can be another source of habitat
loss and alteration. The natural hydrology of bays
and estuaries has been greatly affected by human activi- Freshwater Discharges
ties in an attempt to control ooding. Flood control meth-
T he two principal sources of freshwater discharges into
ods such as channelization of rivers and streams have
marine and estuarine habitats are sewage treatment
impacted or destroyed riparian habitat and increased the
plants and power plant cooling water. Sewage treatment
rate of sedimentation into bays and estuaries. Breaching
plants discharge treated wastewater into coastal waters
of sand bars on coastal rivers and streams for the purpose
and bays. There, the freshwater dilutes the salinity of
of ood control has changed riverine habitat from fresh
the receiving environment, impacting and changing that
water to brackish or tidal. One of the many functions of
habitat. This problem is particularly acute in south San
wetland habitat is to provide ood control during high ow
Francisco Bay, which has a low ushing rate.
years, but development on coastal wetlands has, among
With respect to power plant discharges, California has
other things, removed this natural benet.
more power plants discharging into salt and brackish
Coastal habitats such as wetlands and estuaries are vital
water than any other state. Although these plants use
to the survival of numerous invertebrates, shes, birds,
once-through cooling systems, the water is heated to
mammals, and plants. Already an essential component of
several degrees above ambient during transit through the
commercial and sport shing industries worth hundreds
plant. Impacts from heated water can vary depending
of millions of dollars, these habitats help fuel the
upon where the discharge structure is located. Discharges
state’s economy and support California’s diverse marine
into environments that normally experience wide tem-
wildlife population. California’s coastal wetlands also are
perature ranges during tidal and annual cycles (e.g., estu-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 35
aries) are more resistant to changes from thermal effects smothering gravels with silt during high ow releases, and
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
than those that do not normally experience such changes. by emptying summer rearing pools. Dams also contribute
Power plant discharges can result in decreased diversity to poor water quality by releasing warm surface water
and density of species at the community and ecosystem that has been mostly depleted of oxygen; or by releasing
levels. In addition to heat, power plant discharges can water, through spillways, that may contain oxygen levels
contain high levels of suspended solids, which decrease too high for sh survival (supersaturation). The lakes that
light penetration of the water column and affect adjacent are formed by large dams cover miles of former spawning
kelp bed production. rifes, and many dams have been built without passage
facilities, blocking the upstream migration of anadromous
Power plants also cause problems related to water ow.
sh trying to nd suitable spawning habitat.
Electricity generating power plants take in billions of gal-
lons of water on a daily basis. Diablo Canyon Nuclear Water conveyance structures (i.e., water canals) remove
Power Plant circulates 2.5 billion gallons of water per day, essential water from rivers and streams that historically
which pulls in creatures in the seawater en route to pass- produced the bulk of California’s salmon runs. These
ing the water through the plant in its once-through cooling structures not only remove water, they also alter existing
cycle. This water circulation causes temperature increases habitat. For example, canals that leak repeatedly create
in the area of discharge (thermal pollution), impingement riparian habitat entirely dependent on that leakage. When
(marine animals caught on water intake screens), and these canals are repaired, the ecosystem that has devel-
entrainment (destruction of marine animals pulled inside oped over the years is lost. Water canals also have the
the plant). Entrainment is generally limited to those potential to transport sh between watersheds and intro-
organisms not capable of swimming against the intake duce species into unfamiliar habitats. Many newly created
current (e.g., larval forms). Most energy company-spon- reservoirs behind dams contain non-native sh that also
sored studies of power plant entrainment limit analysis have the potential to escape from the lake into the outlet
to effects on larval sh, arguing that plankton losses stream, such as the in the case of the northern pike
are too difcult to enumerate and analyze for ecosystem introduced into Lake Davis.
effects. It has been estimated, however, that plankton
losses can signicantly increase the estimates of overall
Recreational and Commercial Activities
wildlife losses due to entrainment. Larval entrainment
losses are often estimated at 100 percent due to a multi-
plicity of factors, including physical changes in pressure, Boating
discharge velocity, turbulence, and temperature increase
C ruise ships, yachts, and other large recreational ves-
effects. If the power plant has a mechanism to return
sels discharge sewage, gray water, toxic chemicals, oil
impinged organisms to the water (most do not), those
and gas, and air pollutants into sensitive coastal waters.
losses are lower, but do contribute to the cumulative
Smaller vehicles also can do signicant harm.
effects of power plants on the ecosystem.
Jet Skis (Motorized Personal Watercraft)
Hydromodication
F or example, jet skis, more generically referred to as
D ams in California range from large, permanent struc-
“motorized personal watercraft” (MPWC) can do sig-
tures to small, temporary structures. Millions of gal-
nicant nearshore harm. For example, their noise, which
lons of water, often diverted from rivers that empty into
is rated at 85-105 decibels, can disrupt wildlife communi-
the ocean or estuaries, are stored for agricultural use,
ties through alteration of behavior and nest abandonment.
drinking water supplies, ood control, or groundwater
MPWCs also pollute more than other boats. From 25 to
recharge. Dams change the landscape both at the con-
33 percent of the oil and gasoline used by MPWCs is
struction site and the downstream conveyance to the
discharged unburned, impacting local water quality. A
ocean or estuary. Loss of upstream habitat due to water
two-hour ride on an MPWC can discharge up to three
diversion has the effect of reducing the production capa-
gallons of unburned gasoline and oil, or the same amount
bility of anadromous species that depend on continuous
of pollution as driving 139,000 miles in a 1998 passenger
summer ows for rearing and transport of juveniles that
car. The impact of accumulated oil pollution in the marine
travel downstream to the ocean for growth prior to
environment is particularly signicant in sensitive near-
returning to natal streams. Diversion of freshwater inow
shore environments such as estuaries and bays. This pol-
to estuarine systems also reduces the productivity of the
lution can have cumulative effects throughout the food
estuaries by reducing the nutrient input which diatom and
web as the hydrocarbons bioaccumulate, posing a threat
other bottom trophic level organisms require. Dams also
to larger marine life.
change stream morphology by altering sediment ow, by
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
36
For these reasons, MPWC regulations have been estab- Measures to minimize these impacts include prohibiting
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
lished in sensitive areas such as the waters of the Mon- the use of damaging gear in sensitive areas and modifying
terey Bay and Gulf of the Farallones National Marine gear so that damage to bottom habitats is minimized.
Sanctuaries. In justifying the regulation of MPWC, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration noted
Ecosystem-wide Implications
that, “the small size, maneuverability and high-speed of
these craft is what causes these craft to pose a threat
A n ecosystem can be dened as the balanced and
to resources. Resources such a sea otters and sea birds
sustained interaction of a biological community with
are either unable to avoid these craft or are frequently
its physical and chemical environment. The sh, inverte-
alarmed enough to signicantly modify their behavior
brate, marine mammal, aquatic bird, and aquatic plant
such as cessation of feeding or abandonment of young.”
populations in California’s coastal, bay, and estuarine
Indeed, the narrow draft and smaller size of MPWCs
waters are all components of a vast array of discrete and
allows them to access the most fragile nearshore habitats,
overlapping communities and ecosystems. Although most
causing signicant environmental impacts including: ight
members of a biological community are linked through
responses in shorebirds and alteration of nesting habits;
elaborate food webs based upon predation, competitive
destruction of critical bird and sh habitat, including eel-
and mutualistic relationships also play an important role.
grass beds; and harassment of or collisions with marine
Add to this complexity the myriad of effects on individual
mammals (several of which are federally protected spe-
organisms and populations from changes in the chemical
cies under the Endangered Species Act) and other wildlife.
and physical environment, and measuring and evaluating
While these impacts are most critical in the nearshore
ecosystem responses to these changes becomes a chal-
environment, the risk of collision with or harassment of
lenging task.
marine mammals and seabirds is signicant throughout
The current state of environmental science allows us to
areas frequented by MPWC.
use both individual evaluation measures and combinations
Fishing of measures depending upon the information at hand.
T
These may include population numbers and structure,
here is growing evidence that shing has a signicant
biological testing (e.g., bioassays, bioaccumulation, etc.),
impact on coastal habitats. For example, the complex-
concentration of contaminants in organisms or the sur-
ity of the marine habitat can be altered by the scraping,
rounding habitat, movement of contaminants into aquatic
shearing and crushing effects of shing gear. Physical
ecosystems, and size and/or availability of habitat. Based
effects of trawling include plowing and scraping of the
upon these and other measurements, it appears that bay
sea oor and resuspension of sediments. Resulting benthic
and estuarine ecosystems are much more threatened than
troughs can last as little as a few hours or days in mud
those of the nearshore coastal environment with regard
and sand sediments over which there are strong tides or
to habitat quality and quantity. This is particularly true
currents, to between a few months to over ve years in
with regard to contaminants in the water column and
sea beds with a mud or sandy-mud substrate at depths
benthic sediments, and impacts from dredging and lling,
greater than 100 meters with weak or no current ow.
point and nonpoint source discharges, oil spills, and non-
Longline gear has similarly been observed to shear marine
indigenous species introduction. On a localized or regional
plants and sessile organisms from the bottom. Pot gear
basis, however, areas of the nearshore coastal environ-
may damage demersal plants and animals as it settles,
ment may be in worse condition than our bays and estuar-
and longlined pots may drag through and damage bottom
ies with regard to specic contaminants or conditions.
fauna during gear retrieval. Boat anchors also can inict
Examples include DDT-laden sediments in the area of the
serious, though localized, damage in some areas.
Palos Verdes shelf and radioactive waste dumped near the
In addition to directly altering the bottom habitat, shing
Farallon Islands.
can result in lost gear that is left to “ghost sh,” thereby
Although California’s population continues to increase,
causing additional habitat alterations. Fishing activities
thereby putting added pressure on our limited resources
also affect the water column through discharge of offal
and habitats, there are a number of efforts and initiatives
from sh processed at sea. These discards in deeper
underway in the state to begin to curtail impacts and
water could redistribute prey food away from midwater
improve the quality and quantity of our marine and
and bottom-feeding organisms to surface-feeding organ-
estuarine habitats. These efforts include greater
isms; in low-current environments, these discharges can
regulation of point and nonpoint source discharges,
decompose and create anoxic bottom conditions. The
improved identication of toxic hot spots, increased
water column also can be impacted by fuel leaks from
emphasis on benecial reuse opportunities for dredged
shing boats.
materials, reduction of the frequency and extent of oil
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 37
spills, development and coordination of large-scale water receive federal 319 funds for projects to control polluted
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
quality and habitat monitoring and assessment programs, runoff. Signicant limitations of this program include low
restrictions on the import of non-indigenous species in levels of funding in comparison with the signicance of
ballast water, and increased marine habitat restoration the problem and the fact that the programs are voluntary.
and enhancement projects. As a result, over a decade after establishment of the “319
program,” polluted runoff continues to be the major - and
growing - source of pollution into the nation’s waters.
Regulatory Structure for Addressing
Regulation of Discharges into Impaired Waters
Water Quality and Habitat Issues
S ection 303(d) of the Clean Water Act requires states
to identify specic water bodies where water quality
Federal standards are not expected to be met even after full
implementation of required permit controls and other con-
Clean Water Act ditions imposed on point source discharges. States must
T
then establish a priority ranking of those impaired waters
he Environmental Protection Agency is the foremost
and identify the pollutant stressors that are causing the
federal agency with responsibility for protecting the
water quality problems. In accordance with those rank-
health of the nation’s waters. The Federal Water Pollution
ings, the state must then establish limits on all pollution
Control Act (“Clean Water Act”) addresses the major cat-
discharges, both point and nonpoint, in order to ensure
egories of discharges into coastal and marine waters with
attainment of water quality standards within a “margin
varying degrees of stringency. California’s State Water
of safety.” These limits are referred to as the “total
Resources Control Board (SWRCB) and Regional Water
maximum daily loads” (TMDL) for the identied pollutants
Quality Control Boards (RWQCB) currently hold the author-
and waters. The state’s impaired water body list currently
ity, delegated by U.S. EPA, to implement the Clean Water
tops 500, with more likely to be listed. Because many of
Act in state waters.
these waters are vital to the health of the state’s coastal
ecosystems and wildlife, full and prompt implementation
Permit Program
of these TMDLs is essential to a thriving marine ecosystem.
S ection 301(a) of the Clean Water Act prohibits the
discharge of “any pollutant by any person” into waters
Discharges under Federal Licenses or Permits
of the United States, unless done in compliance with
S ection 401 of the Clean Water Act requires a certi-
specied sections of the Act, including the permit require-
cation from a state that federal agency actions and
ments in Section 402. Under the National Pollutant Dis-
permits comply with state water quality standards and
charge Elimination System (NPDES) set up under Section
other Clean Water Act requirements. Congress stated in
402, U.S. EPA requires permits for most point source
enacting this provision that the purpose of Section 401
discharges of waste. These permits contain discharge con-
is to “provide reasonable assurance that no license or
ditions, including technology-based controls and water-
permit will be issued by a federal agency for any activity
quality-based efuent requirements, to ensure that the
that through inadequate planning or otherwise could in
discharges meet all applicable standards set to protect
fact become a source of pollution.” When implemented
uses of the water body, such as use by aquatic life and
fully, this adds an important layer of protection over
for shing.
existing regulations protecting coastal water quality and
NPDES permits for discharges into the territorial sea
habitat health.
also must comply with “ocean discharge criteria” spe-
cically designed to prevent the degradation of those
Dredge Disposal and Fill
waters, pursuant to Clean Water Act Section 403. These
S ection 404 of the Clean Water Act grants the U.S. Army
permit requirements may increase in stringency in the
Corps of Engineers authority to regulate any project
near future due to a recent presidential Executive Order
involving ll, construction, or modication of the waters
on this topic.
of the United States. This would include, for example,
dredging and lling of coastal harbors. Corps actions
Nonpoint Pollution Program
are subject to Clean Water Act Section 401 certication
S ection 319 of the Clean Water Act sets up a voluntary
that the proposed activities will not violate state water
program to control polluted runoff. This program was
quality standards.
established through the 1987 Clean Water Act amend-
U.S. EPA sets the standards for suitability of dredge mate-
ments, and states soon thereafter submitted nonpoint
rial destined for federally approved sites in the ocean
source pollution management plans to EPA in order to
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
38
beyond three miles from shore. These standards are found disposition of material.” The statute contains only a
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
in the 1991 Ocean Disposal Testing Manual, or “Green few, very specic exemptions from this term. The Act is
Book,” which species the physical, chemical, and biologi- administered by U.S. EPA and is on top of any Clean Water
cal tests required to determine suitability. Disposal within Act requirements.
state waters (i.e., inside three miles) is authorized by state
The National Environmental Policy Act
and federal agencies which use standards from the “Inland
T
Testing Manual.” State agencies involved in authorizing he National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 is the
disposal within state waters through a permitting process basic national directive for the protection of the envi-
include the Regional Water Quality Control Boards, State ronment. NEPA requires that federal agencies prepare an
Lands Commission, California Coastal Commission, and the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for “major Federal
San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commis- actions signicantly affecting the quality of the human
sion. Federal agencies involved in the permitting process environment.” In doing so, the agencies must provide
for the disposal of dredged materials in state waters a “full and fair discussion of signicant environmental
include U.S. EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. impacts” of the proposed project.
Federal and state resource agencies such as the Depart-
An EIS is intended to help public ofcials make decisions
ment of Fish and Game, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
that are based on an understanding of the potential
and National Marine Fisheries Service act as consulting
environmental consequences and decide whether to take
agencies on dredging projects.
actions that avoid these consequences. The EIS also
must “inform decision makers and the public of the
Antidegradation
reasonable alternatives which would avoid or minimize
T he Clean Water Act and accompanying regulations adverse impacts” and must analyze such project alterna-
state that both point and nonpoint source pollution tives comprehensively. In addition, the EIS must discuss
control programs must specically address antidegrada- “appropriate mitigation measures not already included in
tion, or preventing further pollution of the nation’s the proposed action or alternatives.” Finally, the lead
waters. Water quality standards, which all waters must agency must state at the time of its decision “whether
meet, consist of three elements: (1) the designated ben- all practicable means to avoid or minimize environmental
ecial use or uses of a water body; (2) the water quality harm from the alternative selected have been adopted,
criteria necessary to protect the uses of that water body; and, if not, why not.”
and (3) an antidegradation policy. Both federal and state
antidegradation policies must ensure that water quality Endangered Species Act
improvements are conserved, maintained and protected.
T he federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) is the
Despite the fact that antidegradation in general, and pro- nation’s charter for protection of threatened and
tection of relatively clean waters in particular, is a spe- endangered species, including coastal and marine life.
cic component of the water quality standards, it is given The Endangered Species Act contains both consultation
relatively little attention in point source pollution control requirements and a substantive requirement prohibiting
and permitting programs, and essentially no attention in certain activities that threaten listed species. Under Sec-
nonpoint pollution control programs. A lack of attention to tion 7 of ESA “[e]ach Federal agency shall, in consultation
maintaining the health of cleaner waters threatens those with and with the assistance of the Secretary [of the
waters with impairment that will be far more expensive to Interior and/or Commerce, as appropriate], insure that
address than prevention. Water quality programs should any action authorized, funded, or carried out by such
contain specic descriptions of how new and continued agency . . . is not likely to jeopardize the continued
discharges into all waters, both impaired and clean, will existence of any endangered species or threatened spe-
be reduced. cies or result in the destruction or adverse modication
of habitat of such species . . . .” In addition, federal
Ocean Dumping Act agencies must consult with the Secretary of the Interior
T itle 1 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc- and/or Commerce, as appropriate “on any agency action
tuaries Act (Ocean Dumping Act), prohibits the unper- which is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
mitted dumping of “any material transported from a loca- any species proposed to be listed . . . or result in the
tion outside the United States” into the territorial sea destruction or adverse modication of critical habitat pro-
of the United States, or into the zone contiguous to the posed to be designated for such species.”
territorial sea, to the extent discharge into the contiguous Section 7 is an important tool that can be used to protect
zone would affect the territorial sea or the territory of and conserve the habitats of threatened and endangered
the United States. “Dumping” is dened broadly as “a coastal and marine wildlife. ESA Section 7 is used, for
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 39
example, to require the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers of, or injure any sanctuary resource managed under law
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
to consult with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the or regulations for that sanctuary,” with specied actions
National Marine Fisheries Service regarding how proposed allowed under sanctuary permits or authorizations. Under
Corps dredging projects will affect listed species. the NMSA, management plans must be prepared for each
sanctuary and reviewed every ve years. These plans
In addition, Section 9 of ESA prohibits the transport or
must take into account management of the diverse marine
take of listed species, and Section 4 sets up a program to
wildlife in California’s sanctuaries.
acquire lands and habitat associated with listed species to
enhance recovery efforts. Like the Ocean Dumping Act, the NMSA adds an extra layer
of protection for marine resources in certain areas. For
Marine Mammal Protection Act example, the San Francisco and Central Coast Regional
T
Water Quality Control Boards report to the Monterey Bay
he federal Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) pro-
NMS ofce on proposed new and revised permits for dis-
tects the marine mammals that make their home in
charges into sanctuary waters and allow for staff review
the waters off California’s shores. One of the more sig-
and comment. Sanctuary staff may in some instances
nicant provisions of the MMPA prohibits the “take” of
place conditions on these permits as needed to protect
marine mammals. “Take” is dened broadly to include
Sanctuary resources. Violations of these permits is an
actions that kill or “harass” marine mammals, where
infraction of both state water quality law and the NMSA,
“harassment” refers to “any act of pursuit, torment,
subjecting the violator to nes under both acts.
or annoyance which (i) has the potential to injure a
marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild;
The Coastal Zone Management Act
or (ii) has the potential to disturb a marine mammal or
T
marine mammal stock in the wild by causing disruption of he Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1972
behavioral patterns, including . . . feeding . . . .” As established a federal-state partnership to manage
dened, “take” is not limited to a direct physical taking development and use of the coastal zone. CZMA, which
of the animal, but also other actions that indirectly harm is administered nationwide by NOAA, provides federal
the animal. funding for the development and implementation of state
Coastal Zone Management Programs. The state agency
National Marine Sanctuaries Act charged with developing and implementing a state coastal
T
plan in accordance with CZMA is the California Coastal
itle 3 of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc-
Commission. Signicantly, CZMA grants the commission
tuaries Act is the National Marine Sanctuaries Act
the authority to review federal activities in the coastal
(NMSA), which protects the nation’s most unique marine
zone and ensure they comply with California’s Coastal
habitats, waters and wildlife. California is fortunate to
Zone Management Program.
have four National Marine Sanctuaries: Channel Islands,
which lies nine to 46 miles offshore and encompasses
Coastal Zone Management Act Reauthorization
1,658 square miles of marine waters and habitats; Mon-
Amendments of 1990
terey Bay, which lies adjacent to the central coast and
T
is 5,328 square miles; Gulf of the Farallones, which lies he Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program, estab-
adjacent to shore along Marin County and extends 12 miles lished by the Coastal Zone Reauthorization Amend-
out to the Farallon Islands, encompassing 1,255 square ments of 1990 (CZARA), addresses the control of nonpoint
miles; and Cordell Bank, the smallest at 526 square source pollution, which is the number one cause of water
miles, which lies near the continental shelf seven to 23 contamination in the state. The impacts of nonpoint
miles offshore (adjoining the Gulf of the Farallones Sanc- source pollution in coastal areas include beach closings
tuary). The NMSA is designed to “maintain, restore, and advisories, loss of habitat, closed or harvest-limited
and enhance living resources by providing places for spe- shellsh beds, declining sheries, red tides and other
cies that depend on these marine resources to survive harmful plankton blooms, reduction in tourism revenues
and propagate.” NOAA’s Sanctuary ofces use the NMSA and threats to the drinking water of coastal communities.
to provide for “comprehensive and coordinated manage- The State Water Resources Control Board and the Califor-
ment” of these unique marine areas. nia Coastal Commission have submitted to U.S. EPA and
To meet these goals, the NMSA requires federal agencies NOAA a Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Plan that
to consult with sanctuary ofcials if federal actions are is intended to control nonpoint source pollution in accor-
likely to injure sanctuary resources. So, for example, U.S. dance with CZARA Section 6217 requirements. The plan
Army Corps of Engineers staff would need to consult with lays out a general outline of nonpoint source pollution
sanctuary staff on proposed dredging in sanctuary waters. management measures that will be implemented over the
The NMSA also makes it illegal to “destroy, cause the loss next 15 years.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
40
State
U.S. EPA and NOAA approved California’s plan in July
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
2000. Additional requirements on the contents of the Plan
imposed under state law (particularly with respect to California Environmental Quality Act
enforcement) should be completed by February 2001.
L ike NEPA, the California Environmental Quality Act
requires the state to take a hard look at the environ-
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
mental impacts of projects that require state or local gov-
Management Act
ernment approval. Unlike NEPA, CEQA also requires appro-
A s amended and reauthorized in 1996, the Magnuson-
priate mitigation of projects that contain signicant envi-
Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
ronmental impacts. Specically, CEQA states that agencies
includes substantial new provisions designed to protect
must adopt feasible mitigation measures in order to
habitats important to all federally managed species of
substantially lessen or avoid the otherwise signicant
anadromous and marine sh. The amended Act denes
environmental impacts of a proposed project. A “signi-
“essential sh habitat” (EFH) as “those waters and sub-
cant” impact is a “substantial, or potentially substantial,
strate necessary to sh for spawning, breeding, feeding,
adverse change in any of the physical conditions within
or growth to maturity.”
the area affected by the project including land, air, water,
The act requires the eight regional shery management minerals, ora, [and] fauna…”
councils around the country and the Secretary of Com-
CEQA also mandates that the responsible agencies con-
merce to amend each regional shery management
sider a reasonable range of project alternatives that offer
plan to:
substantial environmental advantages over the project
• Describe and identify EFH; proposal. CEQA adds that the agency responsible for the
project’s approval must deny approval if there would be
• Identify adverse impacts to EFH;
“signicant adverse effects” when feasible alternatives
• Minimize, to the extent practicable, adverse impacts
or feasible mitigation measures could substantially lessen
from shing to EFH; and
such effects.
• Develop suggested measures to conserve and enhance
EFH. Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act
U
Before a federal agency may proceed with an activity that nder California’s Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
may adversely affect a designated EFH, the agency must Act “any person discharging waste, or proposing to
consult with NOAA Fisheries with regard to measures that discharge waste, within any region that could affect the
avoid or minimize adverse impacts on the EFH. quality of the waters of the state” must le a report
of the discharge with the appropriate Regional Water
The Pacic Fishery Management Council has dened
Quality Control Board. Pursuant to the act, the regional
groundsh EFH as waters of the entire Pacic Coast, and
board may then prescribe “waste discharge requirements”
described the types of measures needed to protect the
(WDRs) that add conditions related to control of the dis-
habitat from shing and non-shing impacts. However,
charge. Porter-Cologne denes “waste” broadly, and the
the Council, like other councils nationwide, has required
term has been applied to a diverse array of materials,
almost no protection for EFH from shing itself, despite
including nonpoint source pollution.
growing evidence that shing often poses a signicant
threat to EFH. When regulating discharges that are included in the fed-
eral Clean Water Act, the state essentially treats WDRs
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and NPDES as a single permitting vehicle. Where Porter-
T
Cologne is more stringent than the Clean Water Act, such
he Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990 streamlined and
as for discharges of nonpoint source pollution, WDRs alone
strengthened EPA’s ability to prevent and respond to
must be applied to or waived for such discharges. This
catastrophic oil spills. A trust fund nanced by a tax
requirement, however, is not implemented as it should
on oil is available to clean up spills when the reponsible
be, and indeed is simply ignored in a number of cases,
party is incapable or unwilling to do so. The OPA requires
particularly with respect to nonpoint source pollution.
oil storage facilities and vessels to submit plans to the
A bill passed in 1999 now requires the state and
Federal government detailing how they will repond to
regional boards to review existing waivers of WDRs in
large discharges. EPA has published regulations for above
an effort to ensure that needed regulatory controls are
ground storage facilites; the Coast Guard has done so for
properly imposed.
oil tankers. The OPA also requires the development of
Area Contingency Plans to prepare and plan for oil spill
response on a regional scale.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 41
California Endangered Species Act maintain, and, where feasible, enhance and restore the
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
overall quality of the coastal environment and its natural
T he California Endangered Species Act (CESA) generally
and manmade resources.” The act also delegates planning
parallels the main provisions of the Federal Endan-
and permitting authority to local governments through the
gered Species Act and is administered by the California
Local Coastal Plan process.
Department of Fish and Game. Under CESA, the term
“endangered species” is dened as a species of plant, sh,
Oil Spill Prevention and Response Act of 1990
or wildlife that is in serious danger of becoming extinct
T he state’s Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response
throughout all, or a signicant portion of its range and is
(OSPR) was created in the aftermath of the Exxon-
limited to species or subspecies native to California. CESA
Valdez oil spill and the American Trader oil spill at Hun-
states that it is the “policy of the state” that state agen-
tington Beach. The Lempert-Keene-Seastrand Oil Spill Pre-
cies should not approve projects as proposed which would
vention and Response Act of 1990 created OSPR within
“jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered
the Department of Fish and Game. The bill provided fund-
species or threatened species or result in the destruction
ing for OSPR’s work by levying a tax on oil brought into
or adverse modication of habitat essential to the con-
the state and another on oil transported across the state
tinued existence of those species,” if there are “reason-
by rail, truck, or pipeline. OSPR’s mandate is to work
able and prudent alternatives available consistent with
with other DFG units, interested public, other agencies,
conserving the species or its habitat which would prevent
clean-up companies, and oil companies to prevent oil
jeopardy.” However, CESA goes on to add that, in the
spills, to develop response plans, and to implement those
event “specic economic, social, or other conditions make
plans when spills occur.
infeasible” such alternatives, individual projects may be
approved if “appropriate” mitigation and enhancement The U.S. Coast Guard is OSPR’s federal counterpart
measures are provided. and response partner for these efforts. In addition,
OSPR has responsibility for determining injuries to living
McAteer-Petris Act natural resources and seeking compensation and restora-
U tion through civil litigation. More recently, OSPR’s role
nder the McAteer-Petris Act of 1965, the Bay Con-
has expanded from a focus on oil spills to a broader
servation and Development Commission (BCDC) has
focus on spills of any material deleterious to living natural
authority to plan and regulate activities and development
resources, and has expanded from marine waters to spills
in and around San Francisco Bay through policies devel-
that may happen anywhere in California.
oped in the San Francisco Bay Plan. This is essentially
the San Francisco Bay counterpart to the California In addition, the act makes the State Lands Commission
Coastal Act. responsible for ensuring that all marine terminals and
other oil and gas facilities within their jurisdiction use
California Coastal Act the best achievable methods to prevent accidents and
T he California Coastal Act of 1976 granted state resulting oil spills. The State Lands Commission has juris-
authority to the California Coastal Commission, in con- diction over all of California’s tidal and submerged lands.
junction with local governments, to manage the con- Management responsibilities extend to activities within
servation and orderly development of coastal resources submerged lands and those within three nautical miles
through a comprehensive planning and regulatory program of shore.
for the coast (excluding areas covered by the McAteer-
Petris Act). The state’s management program for the
Regional
1,100-mile Pacic Coast program was approved in 1977 by
N umerous regional and local initiatives have been
NOAA as consistent with the requirements for planning
launched to protect marine resources and wildlife.
in the federal Coastal Zone Management Act. NOAA’s
A few of the more signicant initiatives are highlighted
approval was made pursuant to an agreement between
below.
the Coastal Commission and the Bay Conservation and
Development Commission to develop mechanisms to
CALFED
integrate their two programs.
T he San Francisco Bay-Delta Estuary is a signicant
The Coastal Act contains specic policies relating to man-
habitat for numerous coastal and marine species and
agement of coastal development activities that affect the
directly impacts the viability of many of the state’s coastal
marine environment and coastal land resources. These
watersheds and resources. However, years of mismange-
policies are the standards used in the commission’s plan-
ment of this invaluable resouce has left its health seriously
ning and regulatory programs to ensure that the commis-
threatened. State-federal cooperation to restore the estu-
sion meets the act’s mandate that the state “[p]rotect,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
42
ary was formalized in June 1994 with the signing of a agencies in 1992, committing the agencies to working
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
framework agreement by the state and federal agencies together to develop a Water Quality Protection Plan for
with management and regulatory responsibility in the Bay- the sanctuary. Led by sanctuary staff, over two dozen
Delta Estuary. These “CALFED” agencies include the state federal, state, local agencies and public and private
Resources Agency, the California Environmental Protection groups have developed much of the planned comprehen-
Agency, the Department of the Interior, the Environmental sive Water Quality Protection Program, addressing urban
Protection Agency, the Department of Commerce, the U.S. runoff, marina and boating pollution, monitoring, and
Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of Agricul- runoff from agricultural activities and rural lands, in order
ture. The framework agreement pledged that the state to enhance and protect the sanctuary’s physical, chemical
and federal agencies would work together on implementa- and biological conditions. Implementation has begun on
tion of water quality standards, coordination of State many of the action items in the plans.
Water Project and Central Valley Project operations with
Local
regulatory requirements, and development of long-term
solutions to problems in the Bay-Delta Estuary.
Implementation of CEQA and NEPA
The long-term goal of CALFED is to develop a comprehen-
O
sive and balanced plan that addresses all of the resource ne of the more common ways that coastal and marine
problems in the estuary. A group of more than 30 citizen- resources are protected on a local level is through
advisors selected from California’s agriculture, environ- implementation of environmental review requirements
mental, urban, business, shing, and other interests with under CEQA and NEPA. Projects requiring local, state
a stake in nding long-term solutions for the problems or federal approval are generally subject to the review
of the Bay-Delta Estuary has been chartered to advise requirements in these statutes. Local and state projects
the CALFED program on its mission and objectives, the also are subject to required mitigation under CEQA.
problems to be addressed and proposed actions.
Coordinated Resource Management Planning
The program is following a three-phase process to achieve
C
broad agreement on long-term solutions. First, a clear oordinated Resource Management and Planning
denition of the problems to be addressed and a range (CRMP) is a community-based program established by
of solution alternatives were developed. Second, environ- the federal Natural Resource Conservation Service. It uses
mental impact reports are being prepared to identify a watershed-based approach to manage upstream lands in
impacts associated with the various alternatives. The pro- order to improve downstream water quality. CRMP empha-
gram’s nal EIS was released in June 2000, proposing sizes direct participation by everyone concerned with nat-
more reliable water deliveries to the Estuary to protect ural resource management in a given planning area. The
habitats, water quality and wildlife. Environmental impact concept underlying CRMP is that coordinating resource
reports will be prepared for each element of the selected management strategies will result in improved resource
solution. Implementation of the nal CALFED Bay-Delta management and minimized conicts among land users,
Estuary solution is expected to take 30 years. landowners, governmental agencies, and interest groups.
The goals of CRMP are to protect, improve and maintain
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Water natural resources by addressing resource problems based
Quality Protection Program on resource boundaries and through those who live, work
T he proximity of the Monterey Bay National Marine and recreate on a given piece of land, and by avoiding
Sanctuary to the coast and its sheer size make the articial constraints by individual, agency or political
sanctuary vulnerable to numerous pollution problems in boundaries.
the eleven watersheds that drain into it. The quality CRMPs work with University of California Cooperative
of the water in the sanctuary is directly linked to the Extension program and the Resource Conservation Dis-
quality of the rainwater runoff and irrigation water from tricts, who are signatories to the CRMP Memorandum
mountains, valleys, rivers, streams, and wetlands on the of Understanding and who support this process through
adjacent coastline. Key problems identied in the sanctu- technical and other assistance to the local CRMP groups.
ary and its watersheds include sedimentation, toxic pollut-
ants in sediments, sh and shellsh, high fecal coliform Marine Protected Areas
levels, sh population declines, low ows in rivers and
M arine Protected Areas (MPAs) are special ocean areas
streams, wetlands alteration, and habitat degradation.
that are protected in some way above other
Recognizing that water quality is a key to ensuring protec- marine areas in order to minimize disturbance.
tion for all sanctuary resources, a memorandum of agree- Depending on the level of use of such areas, benets
ment (MOA) was signed by eight federal, state, and local include biodiversity conservation, ecosystem protection,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 43
improved sheries, enhanced recreation, improved water programs, which are designed to prevent cleaner waters
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
quality and expanded knowledge and understanding of from sliding down towards contamination.
marine systems. With respect to the storm-water permit program, the
As a tool for enhancing ocean resources and wildlife, MPAs state has allocated far fewer staff and other resources
are becoming increasingly popular. In 1999, the legislature than needed to ensure full compliance with federal
passed the Marine Life Protection Act, which sets up a requirements. For example, at the current rate of facility
system for evaluating and coordinating MPAs in the state. inspections, the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Con-
In May 2000, President Clinton issued an executive order trol Board will not be able to make even one full
supporting MPAs and further dening their purpose. round of inspections of regulated industries in its jurisdic-
tion in 100 years. Moreover, the regional board has not
Regulatory Gaps moved forward with more than a handful of enforcement
C
actions against non-ling facilities, even though there are
alifornia has lagged in implementing federal and state
between 12,000 and 17,000 facilities in the Los Angeles
laws designed to protect the health of the state’s
region that have not led permit applications as required
waters. Years of budget cuts and bond act failures have
by law. For this reason, several environmental groups
left California’s water quality protection programs under-
recently petitioned U.S. EPA to take away the state’s
funded and poorly implemented. Until the recent passage
authority to conduct the storm-water permit program in
of Propositions 12 and 13, of the $2.9 billion in water
that region.
bonds approved by California voters since 1970, only $10
million had been earmarked for nonpoint source pollution, The state has identied over 500 water bodies as impaired
the number one source of water pollution in the state. In under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act. The
addition, acquisition funding for protection of the state’s limited monitoring information available indicates that the
lands, which helps prevent increasing pollution from urban number of impaired waters is likely to be much higher.
and other runoff sources declined 80-90 percent over the However, the state has completed only a scattering of
last 10 years. plans for reducing pollution into these impaired waters,
with the pace of production of new plans extremely slow
As a result, use of the vast majority of the state’s sur-
and implementation uncertain.
veyed tidal wetlands, bays, harbors, and estuaries is
impaired or threatened in some way by water pollution. With respect to antidegradation, the state has paid virtu-
Examples of uses that are being impaired or threatened by ally no attention to protecting its cleaner waters, choosing
pollution include drinking, sh consumption, aquatic life instead to spend much of its limited time and funds on
support, swimming, and aquaculture. The primary source already impaired waters. Protecting the state’s waters
of pollution in these waters is nonpoint source pollution. from increased pollution is not only benecial to the
The state’s lack of a detailed, comprehensive approach for health of those waters and the people who depend on
addressing nonpoint source pollution is a major stumbling them, it is also more cost-effective than cleaning up con-
block in our efforts to stem the continuing degradation of taminated waters. Regulations implementing the federal
these water bodies. Clean Water Act as well as State Water Board Resolution
68-16, call on the state and regional water boards to
These water-use impairment gures are even more alarm-
consider and address the impacts of their decisions on the
ing in light of the fact that many of the state’s waterways
overall health of the waters affected. However, this man-
are monitored only infrequently or not at all. California
date has not been implemented fully, particularly with
does not yet have a system to comprehensively monitor
respect to nonpoint source discharges, leaving cleaner
water quality in the inland watershed, enclosed waters,
waters and associated habitats vulnerable to pollution.
or nearshore ocean zones, and the vast majority of Califor-
nia’s waterways and small estuarine systems are not moni- Other state programs that are not being implemented
tored by the state on a regular basis. Because of these fully include the state water board’s Bay Protection and
deciencies, it is difcult to comprehensively determine Toxic Cleanup Program (BPTCP) and its program of issuing
the health of these water bodies. In other words, the waste discharge requirements for nonpoint source pollu-
number of impaired water bodies that we know about tion under the Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act,
is the minimum number of polluted water bodies in as well as the Department of Fish and Game’s program for
the state. addressing pollution under Fish and Game Code Section
5650.
Federal water quality control programs that are not being
implemented fully include the Clean Water Act’s storm- The Bay Protection and Toxic Cleanup Program required
water permitting program; the Clean Water Act’s Section monitoring for toxic pollution, identication of cleanup
303(d) program; and the state and federal antidegradation priorities, and development of standards for toxics in sedi-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
44
ment, plans for cleaning up the toxics, and a funding
The Status of Habitats and Water Quality in California’s Coastal and Marine Environment
mechanism to ensure that the dischargers that created the
problem will pay for the cleanup. Much of the BPTCP’s
goal of identifying “hot spots” of toxic coastal contami-
nation has been completed, leading to signicant new
knowledge about threats to marine wildlife. However,
the original goal of actually cleaning up these hot spots
remains unmet, and is unlikely to be met in the foresee-
able future.
With respect to Porter-Cologne, the state has the author-
ity to issue waste discharge requirements for both point
and nonpoint source discharges. However, the full extent
of this authority has never been used, particularly
with respect to nonpoint source discharges, where such
requirements are routinely waived. Increased permitting
would increase the number of conditions on discharges,
which would reduce this signicant source of pollution in
coastal and marine habitats.
Finally, implementation of Fish and Game Code Section
5650 has been weakened through recent statutory amend-
ments and a lack of allocated funding. This section stated
broadly that “it is unlawful to deposit in, permit to
pass into, or place where it can pass into the waters
of this state…[a]ny substance or material deleterious to
sh, plant life, or bird life.” This language gave the
department wide latitude to protect marine habitats from
problem discharges. However, the program was amended
recently to exempt dischargers who hold state or regional
water board discharge permits, on the assumption that
those discharges are already being controlled. But, as
noted above, the regional water boards are behind on
fullling state and federal permit mandates. As a result,
there is no assurance that permitted discharges will not be
“deleterious” to sh, plants and birds.
Linda Sheehan
The Ocean Conservancy
Robert Tasto
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 45
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
46
Human Ecosystem
Dimension
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Human Benefits of the Marine Ecosystem
M arine ecosystems provide opportunities for consump-
tive and non-consumptive uses of marine resources.
Some activities, such as commercial, recreational and
subsistence shing, kelp harvesting and harvesting of
marine specimens for aquarium use, are consumptive in
the sense that they result in permanent removal of eco-
system resources. Other activities (tidepooling, marine
mammal and bird watching, kayaking and observational
diving) are more commonly characterized as non-con-
sumptive. However, the distinction between consumptive
that may result from interactions with shing operations.
and non-consumptive use is not always clear cut, as activi-
Regulations may be imposed for economic reasons. For
ties that are not necessarily intended to be consumptive
instance, seasons may be set to coincide with periods
may sometimes result in inadvertent injury to marine
when a sh stock is in prime marketable condition
animals or disruption of their habitat.
or when market demand is high. Regulations may be
Marine ecosystems also benet people who may never use
imposed for social reasons, such as providing equitable
or even see marine resources but nevertheless value their
harvest opportunities or reducing the potential for conict
existence. Non-use value may be motivated by the desire
among different sectors of a shery.
to have ecosystem resources available for future use or
Regulations can take a variety of forms, including license
by the satisfaction of knowing that such resources exist,
and permit programs, harvest quotas, season closures,
regardless of whether they are ever put to human use.
area closures, trip limits, bag limits (for recreational
The remainder of this report focuses on the two major
anglers), size limits and restrictions on quantity and type
consumptive uses of marine resources— commercial and
of gear. Reporting requirements such as landings receipts,
recreational shing. The intent is not to diminish the
logbooks or on-board observers may be imposed to ensure
importance of other sources of use and non-use value
that shery monitoring, management, enforcement and
but rather to address informational and reporting require-
research needs are met. A particular type of regulation
ments of the Marine Life Management Act.
may serve different objectives, depending on the context
in which the regulation is imposed. For instance, trip
limits may be used to discourage targeting on a particular
Factors Affecting Commercial and species while allowing a limited amount of incidental
Recreational Fishery Activity take of that species. Trip limits may be used to
slow the harvest rate to enhance real-time monitoring
C ommercial and recreational shery landings are
capability in sheries where quotas would otherwise
affected by many factors. Landings tend to increase
be quickly exhausted. Trip limits may also serve eco-
with stock abundance, as sh are easier and less costly
nomic objectives, such as lengthening the duration of the
to locate and harvest when they are at higher levels of
abundance. The availability of some species on local sh-
ing grounds may vary across seasons or years, depending
on ocean temperature and other environmental factors.
Weather conditions and economic circumstances (market
demand and prices) may discourage or encourage shing
activity. Fishing behavior is also affected by regulatory
restrictions, which are imposed for a variety of reasons
and take a variety of forms.
Regulations may be imposed for biological reasons. For
instance, harvest restrictions may be imposed to protect a
particular sh stock or to reduce incidental take of other
stocks that are caught simultaneously with that stock.
Regulations may be imposed to protect habitat or to
reduce injury or mortality to marine mammals or seabirds
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 47
shing season or ensuring that landings do not exceed
Human Ecosystem Dimension
processing capacity.
For shing vessels and sh dealers, net economic benet
is properly measured as the difference between their
gross revenues and economic costs. However, net eco-
nomic benets cannot be estimated for either of these
shery sectors, due to lack of complete economic data.
Instead, landings by shing vessels and landings receipts
by sh dealers are described in terms of their ex-vessel
value. Ex-vessel value overstates the economic value of
the shery to shing vessels, as it does not include any
consideration of harvesting costs. For dealers, ex-vessel
value represents the cost of obtaining sh. Information on
revenues earned from processing/marketing these land-
Commercial landings in California decreased from 791.4
ings is not generally available. In addition, some dealers
million pounds in 1981 to 472.1 million pounds in 1999.
may also process/market sh imported from other states
Ex-vessel revenues also fell during this period from $475.7
or countries; the revenues and costs associated with these
million to $144.4 million in 1999. All dollar values pre-
imported products are also not known.
sented here and throughout the remaining of this report
have been corrected for ination to 1999 dollars. The
Commercial Fisheries Landings and precipitous decline experienced during the early-1980s
was largely the result of a shift in tuna landings from Cali-
Ex-vessel Value fornia ports to less costly cannery operations in American
T
Samoa and Puerto Rico. The decline in tuna landings and
his section describes trends in the volume and ex-
revenues has been compounded by declines in landings of
vessel value of California commercial landings. The
species such as groundsh, urchin, shark and swordsh,
harvest information presented here is based on landings
salmon, abalone. Other species (e.g., market squid, lob-
receipts and therefore excludes discards and live bait
ster, prawn, coastal pelagics) have been the target of
catch. Fish may be discarded in commercial shery opera-
expanding sheries, while still others (e.g., crab, Pacic
tions for a variety of reasons. Discards may include sh
herring, shrimp) exhibit no obvious pattern or trend in
that are of sublegal size, exceed a vessel’s hold capacity
landings and revenues.
or trip limit, or are not of marketable size or species.
Information on the level of discards and discard mortality From 1995 through 1999, the species groups accounting
is generally not known. Live bait used by recreational for most of the ex-vessel value of California landings
shermen is also not reported on landings receipts, since were (in descending order of value) groundsh, market
transactions between buyers and sellers of live bait typi- squid, crab, albacore/other tunas, sea urchin, herring,
cally take place at sea. Logbook data indicate that bait shark/swordsh, salmon, coastal pelagics, lobster, prawn,
haulers harvest a maximum of 12 million pounds of live shrimp and abalone. The species composition of landings
bait each year. and revenues varies signicantly by area. Over 90 percent
of the ex-vessel value of landings in northern California
consists of groundsh, crab, shrimp and sea urchin. In
central California, 90 percent of total ex-vessel value is
contributed by groundsh, herring, salmon, crab, prawn,
shark/swordsh and coastal pelagics. In southern Califor-
nia, 90 percent of total value is contributed by squid,
albacore/other tuna, sea urchin, coastal pelagics, shark/
swordsh, lobster and groundsh. Landings and revenues
have historically been higher in southern California than
in central or northern California. The major reason for
this difference is the large contribution made by the high-
volume squid and coastal pelagic sheries to southern
California landings and revenues.
The State of California requires that all commercial shing
vessels, crew members, and sh businesses be licensed
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
48
Categorizing vessels according to their “principal area”
Human Ecosystem Dimension
(i.e., the area in which they made the plurality of their
revenues from California landings), the statewide pattern
of declining eet size is evident in all areas. From 1981
to 1999, the number of boats declined from 2,256 to 532
(76 percent) in northern California, from 2,848 to 1,191 (58
percent) in central California, and from 1,793 to 967 (46
percent) in southern California. The number of boats has
been consistently higher in central California than in the
other two areas.
Just as some vessels engage in interstate shing activity,
a small but signicant minority of vessels lands sh both
inside and outside of their principal shing area within
California. From 1981 through 1999, 82 percent of vessels
to operate in the state, and further requires that all whose principal area was northern California made land-
businesses and shermen who accept seafood for com- ings in northern California only, while the remaining 18
mercial purposes maintain landings receipts. The state percent also made landings in other areas (mostly central
also imposes additional license and permit requirements California). Of vessels whose principal area was central
that are specic to certain types of shing activities. In California, 87 percent made landings in central California
addition, federal permits are required for vessels that only, and 13 percent also made landings in northern
qualify to participate in the groundsh and coastal pelag- and/or southern California. Of vessels whose principal
ics limited-entry sheries. Permits and licenses represent area was southern California, 88 percent made landings
upper-bound estimates of shery participation, as not all in southern California only, and the remaining 12 percent
permit/license holders actively engage in shery activity also made landings in other areas (mostly central California).
each year. The next two sections of this report describe The percent of boats earning less than $5,000 per year
the extent of actual participation in the harvesting and declined from 53 percent during the period from 1981
processing sectors. through 1985 to 34 percent during the 1995 through 1999
period, while the percent of boats accounting for 90 per-
cent of the ex-vessel value of statewide landings increased
Harvesting Sector from 20 percent (1981-1985) to 35 percent (1995-1999).
T
The highly skewed revenue distribution characteristic of
he number of commercial shing vessels that land sh
the early 1980s reects the sizeable contribution of tuna
in California declined from 6,897 in 1981 to 2,690 in
shery participants to total statewide revenues during
1999. While the majority of these boats land sh solely at
those years. The tendency toward a less skewed distribu-
California ports, a signicant minority also makes landings
tion of revenue after the mid-1980s was apparent in north-
in Oregon or Washington. California boats may sh in
ern, central and southern California as well as statewide.
other states as well (e.g., Alaska); however, the extent of
Nevertheless, the commercial shery remains character-
such activity is not known.
ized by a large number of low-revenue vessels and a
small number of high-revenue vessels, with hook-and-line
Street fish market, Fisherman’s Wharf, San Francisco, CA
Credit: UC Davis Sea Grant
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 49
salmon and groundsh vessels disproportionately repre-
Human Ecosystem Dimension
sented in the low-revenue segment.
From 1981 through 1999, ex-vessel revenue from California
landings averaged $46,500 per boat and did not exhibit
any consistent trend or pattern. However, the statewide
average masks signicant regional differences in this
regard. From the 1981-1985 period to the 1994-1999
period, average revenue per boat increased signicantly
in northern California from $24,500 to $60,800, increased
less dramatically in central California from $20,800 to
$30,100, and declined in southern California from $126,000
to $74,900. The shing opportunities that developed in
southern California after the mid-1980s were not sufcient
to compensate for the decline in revenues from the highly
enue per vessel among sheries is suggestive of vessels’
lucrative tuna shery. Nevertheless, average revenue per
economic dependence on their principal shery relative to
boat is still higher in southern California than elsewhere
other California sheries and to Oregon and Washington
in the state.
sheries. For instance, some vessels (e.g., shrimp trawl in
For the years 1995 through 1999, commercial landings
northern California) earn more revenue from their out-of-
and revenues were categorized into 23 different com-
state landings than their California landings. For these
binations of species and gear that depict major types
vessels in particular, adverse conditions in their out-of-
of shery activity in the state. Table II-7 describes aver-
state sheries can result in a signicant diversion of effort
age annual landings and revenues in each major shery
to the California sheries in which they also participate,
in northern, central and southern California during the
and vice versa. At the other end of the spectrum are ves-
1995-1999 period, presented in declining order of revenue.
sels that derive most if not all of their revenue from their
For each shery, the table also includes the number
principal shery (e.g., urchin diving in central California).
of participating vessels (dened as vessels who earned
Because of this lack of diversication, such vessels are
at least ve percent of their California revenue from
particularly vulnerable to changing conditions in the
that shery) and the number of participating vessels for
shery in which they do participate. It should be cau-
whom the shery is their “principal shery” (that is,
tioned that ex-vessel revenue comparisons are merely sug-
the shery from which they derive the plurality of their
gestive of differences in economic value, as such compari-
California revenue).
sons do not account for differences in operating costs
Table II-8 characterizes the vessels in each principal sh-
across sheries.
ery category in terms of average landings and revenues
According to Tables II-7 and II-8, the highest-revenue sh-
per year from the vessel’s principal California shery, from
eries do not necessarily support the largest numbers of
other California sheries, and from Oregon and Washing-
boats or generate large ex-vessel revenues per boat. For
ton sheries. Average revenue per boat varies widely
instance, the salmon hook-and-line shery is the third
among sheries, and tends to be lowest in the groundsh
largest contributor to ex-vessel revenue in central Cali-
and salmon hook-and-line sheries and highest in the
fornia ($6.5 million) and serves as the principal shery
trawl and seine sheries. The distribution of average rev-
for 579 vessels, yet generates only $9,000 in ex-vessel
revenue per boat per year. The tuna seine shery is the
third largest contributor to ex-vessel revenue in southern
California ($9.6 million) and yields higher revenue per
boat than any other shery statewide ($914,600 per boat
per year); yet tuna seine is the principal shery for only
10 boats.
The Tables in II-3 describe the most common combinations
of sheries in which vessels participated from 1995
through 1999. The number in each rectangle represents
the average annual number of vessels that participated
solely in that shery during the 1995-1999 period, and the
number on each line connecting the rectangles represents
the average annual number of vessels that participated
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
50
The increase in numbers of dealers has followed a distinc-
Human Ecosystem Dimension
tive pattern: a relatively stable number of dealers during
the 1981-1986 period, followed by a stepwise increase in
1987 and relatively stable (albeit higher) numbers there-
after. The ex-vessel value of average annual landings
receipts per dealer shows a parallel though opposite step-
wise pattern. From the 1981-1986 period to the 1987-1999
period, the average annual number of dealers increased
from 547 to 825, while the value of landings receipts
per dealer decreased from $531,500 to $209,500 over the
same period. The decline in average value per dealer
is largely due to the post-1986 increase in the number
of dealers for whom the value of landings was less than
$5,000. Many of these small dealers are commercial sh-
ing vessel operators who sell their landings directly to
in that particular two-shery combination. The asterisks
restaurants and markets rather than to a processor. The
denote the most common three-shery combinations. Only
decline in annual value per dealer has been particularly
sheries or shery combinations that represent an annual
severe in southern California (falling from $805,500 in
average of at least three vessels appear in the gure.
1981-1985 to $233,900 in 1986-1999), where the effect of
Since the abalone dive shery has been closed to com-
the post-1986 increase in the number of small dealers was
mercial shing since 1998, the 1995-1999 statistics on that
compounded by the drastic reduction in high-priced tuna
shery included in Tables II-7, II-8 and II-3 include the
landings experienced in that area through the early 1980s.
recent years of zero shing activity (1998-1999).
Since the decline of the tuna shery, northern California
Patterns of behavior vary signicantly by area. In north-
has generally replaced southern California as the area
ern California, crab pot is the predominant shery in
with the highest average value of landings per dealer.
terms of the number of vessels that participate solely
The distribution of landings receipts among dealers is
in that shery (153) and the frequency with which crab
highly skewed, with 16 percent of the dealers responsible
pot vessels also engage in other sheries. In central
for 90 percent of the value of landings from 1987 through
California, the largest numbers of vessels engage in the
1999. This pattern is repeated throughout the state, with
salmon hook-and-line (419), groundsh hook-and-line (332)
20 percent of dealers in northern California and 16 percent
and herring (121) sheries. The most common combina-
of dealers in central and southern California accounting
tions involve salmon and groundsh hook-and-line (92),
for 90 percent of ex-vessel value in their respective areas
and salmon hook-and-line and crab pot (88). In southern
of the state.
California, the largest numbers of vessels engage in the
sea urchin (156), groundsh hook-and-line (119) and lob-
ster pot (102) sheries. Groundsh hook-and-line vessels
The Trade Sector
are also notable in terms of the number of other sheries
G
in which they participate. While interactions exist among enerally speaking, imports into the U.S. are catego-
the prawn, groundsh and cucumber trawl sheries, trawl rized by their initial port of entry, which is not neces-
sheries in southern California are seldom pursued in sarily their nal destination. Thus, some imports that
combination with other gear types.
The Processing Sector
B etween 1981 and 1999, the number of sh dealers
increased statewide from 519 to 888. Categorizing
dealers according to their “principal area” (e.g., the area
of California accounting for the plurality of the ex-vessel
value of their landings receipts), the number of dealers
increased from 86 to 143 (+66 percent) in northern Califor-
nia, from 213 to 366 (+42 percent) in central California,
and from 220 to 379 (+72 percent) in southern California.
The number of dealers has been consistently lower in
northern California than in other areas of the state.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 51
enter the U.S. at Nogales, Arizona and Honolulu, Hawaii
Human Ecosystem Dimension
likely end up in California markets. For this reason, sea-
food imports into California should be considered sug-
gestive rather than denitive estimates of California con-
sumer demand for imported seafood.
Like imports, exports from the U.S. are categorized in
terms of the port from which they left the U.S. Thus,
not all exports from a state necessarily originate from
sheries in that state. California exports may include
sh landed in Mexico and subject to additional handling
or processing in California before being sold to a third
country. Exports also include sh that were imported
and not sold, then re-exported in substantially the same
condition as when imported.
during the 1997-1999 period (in order of declining annual
The dollar value attached to imports represents the Cus-
import value) were Thailand ($999.6 million), Indonesia
toms value, that is, the price actually paid for merchan-
($179.1 million), China ($162.5 million), Ecuador ($157.9
dise when sold to the U.S., excluding U.S. import duties,
million), India ($148.6 million) and Taiwan ($99.4 million).
freight, insurance and other charges incurred in bringing
Imports from all of these countries except China have
the goods to the U.S. The dollar values attached to
been on a generally increasing trend over the past decade.
exports and re-exports is the “free alongside ship” value,
From 1989 through 1999, the value of seafood products
that is, the value at the port of export, dened as
exported from California and from the U.S. as a whole
the transaction price including charges and transportation
averaged $246.2 million and $3,215.3 million respectively.
costs incurred in bringing the merchandise to the port
About eight percent of total U.S. seafood exports origi-
of exportation.
nated from customs districts in California. In recent years
Between 1989 and 1999, the value of seafood products
(1997-1999), squid has replaced sea urchin as California’s
imported into California increased from $1.6 trillion to
major export. The major species groups comprising Cali-
$2.4 trillion, while imports into the U.S. as a whole
fornia exports during the 1997-1999 period (in order of
increased from $6.9 trillion to $9.0 trillion. About 30
declining average annual value) were squid ($37.9 million),
percent of the value of U.S. imports enters the country
sea urchin ($28.5 million), shrimp ($18.3 million), lobster
at California ports. Shrimp imports, which have increased
($17.4 million), salmon ($16.6 million) and groundsh
dramatically over the past decade, have consistently com-
($14.7 million). Although exports to Japan have declined
prised about 60 percent of the value of California seafood
signicantly over the past decade, Japan remains the
imports. The average annual value of shrimp imports
major recipient of California exports. California’s major
was $1.6 trillion during the 1997-1999 period. Signicant
seafood export trading partners from 1997 through 1999
though much smaller amounts of tuna ($187.6 million),
(in order of declining annual export value) were Japan
unspecied marine sh ($104.1 million), scallop ($65.1
($61.7 million), Taiwan ($30.6 million), China ($22.2 mil-
million), lobster ($62.2 million) and squid ($47.0 million)
lion), Australia ($15.7 million), Mexico ($11.9 million) and
were also imported during that period. The countries
Hong Kong ($10.8 million).
from which California received most of its seafood imports
Sport and Subsistence Fisheries
S ome shermen do not earn revenue from their catch
but rather sh for pleasure and/or to provide food
for personal consumption. The economic value of the
sport/subsistence (hereafter loosely referred to as “recre-
ational”) shery depends on which segment of the shery
is being considered. For instance, the value of shing
to anglers would be measured by consumer surplus, that
is, the maximum amount that anglers would be willing
to pay for the shing experience over and above what
they actually pay. The value of shing to businesses that
provide services to anglers, such as commercial passenger
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
52
varies widely, ranging from a high of 85-90 percent for
Human Ecosystem Dimension
smelt, rocksh, jacks and herring to a low of 11 percent for
cartilaginous sh.
Harvests vary across shing modes and areas as well as
species. During 1998-1999, annual harvests (excluding sh
released alive) ranged from highs of 1,995,000 sh for
CPFV anglers and 2,171,000 sh for private boat anglers in
southern California, to lows of 344,000 sh for southern
California beach anglers and 600,000 sh for central/
northern California anglers shing from man-made struc-
tures. Sea basses, tuna/mackerel, Pacic barracuda, Cali-
fornia scorpionsh and jacks are much more commonly
caught in southern California, while striped bass and
salmon are more commonly caught in central/northern
shing vessels (CPFVs), would be measured by the differ- California. Rockshes are an important component of
ence between their gross revenues and economic costs. boat-based harvests in southern California and the domi-
The economic impact of shing on local economies would nant component in northern California.
be measured by the multiplier effects on income and
employment that occur as money spent by anglers moves
Recreational Fishery Expenditures
through the economy. Collection and analysis of data
needed to estimate these various types of economic
B ased on the average annual number of marine rec-
effects are underway. Until such studies are completed,
reational shing trips made in U.S. waters during
all that is available at this time are approximate estimates
1998-1999, aggregate annual trip-related expenditures
of angler expenditures.
were estimated to be approximately $202.0 million for
southern California and $107.9 million for central/northern
Effort and Harvest California. These estimates, combined with license, sh-
ing gear and boat-related expenses of $128.4 million in
A pproximately 4.7 million marine recreational angler southern California and $68.6 million in central/northern
trips were made annually in California during California, bring total annual statewide angler expendi-
1998-1999 — 2.9 million trips (61 percent) in southern tures to $506.9 million.
California (Santa Barbara County and southward) and 1.9
million trips (39 percent) in central/northern California
Additional Information on the Salmon
(San Luis Obispo County and northward). The proportion
of total effort in each area associated with man-made
and CPFV Sport Fisheries
structures (e.g., piers), beaches, CPFVs and private boats
D
was 22 percent, 10 percent, 22 percent and 46 percent FG sponsors a number of data collection programs
respectively in southern California, and 24 percent, 18 that provide detailed information regarding certain
percent, nine percent and 49 percent in central/northern segments of the marine sport shery. One such program is
California. Approximately 17.8 million sh were harvested the Ocean Salmon Project (OSP), which provides informa-
annually during 1998-1999, of which 9.6 million were
landed in whole condition, 7.1 million were discarded
alive, and 1.2 million were used as bait, lleted, given
away or discarded dead.
Harvest levels vary signicantly across species groups.
During 1998-1999, the major components of harvest
included rocksh (3.4 million sh), sea basses and tuna/
mackerel (2.5 million sh each), and smelt, surfperch,
croakers and Pacic barracuda (1.1 million sh each).
Flatsh, silversides, jacks, sharks, rays, scorpionsh,
striped bass, herring greenlings, sculpins and sea chubs
made smaller though signicant contributions to total
harvest. The percentage of total catch retained by
anglers or discarded dead (e.g., not released alive)
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 53
tion on harvest and effort in California’s ocean salmon Mexican waters, and ve shed exclusively in Mexican
Human Ecosystem Dimension
sheries (both recreational and commercial). It also spon- waters.
sors a CPFV logbook program. Not all CPFVs participate The number of CPFV angler trips in northern California
in the program and the participation rate varies somewhat averaged 6,782 (1980-1984), increased to 13,271
from year to year. Nevertheless, logbook-based estimates (1985-1991), then declined to 6,087 (1992-1998). In central
of effort and catch are generally considered to be useful California, shing effort declined from an annual average
indicators of trends in the CPFV shery. of 206,121 angler trips (1980-1991) to 159,634 angler trips
According to data collected in the OSP, recreational (1992-1998). For CPFVs based in southern California, sh-
salmon landings and effort in both central and northern ing effort in U.S. waters experienced peaks in 1980-1982,
California were lower and less variable in the years prior 1990 and 1997-1998, while effort in Mexican waters peaked
to 1985 than they have been in subsequent years 1985 in 1984-1985 and 1997-1998. Fishing effort in southern
through 2000. Record low levels of landings and effort California (in both U.S. and Mexican waters) displays no
were experienced by both CPFV and private boat anglers obvious trend over time.
in 1992 and record highs in 1995. While CPFV and private Paralleling the changes in shing effort, CPFV landings
boat landings have been markedly similar over time, sh- in northern California also increased through the 1980s,
ing effort has been consistently higher for private boats peaked in the late 1980s and early 1990s, then declined
than CPFVs. From 1985 through 2000, annual salmon land- throughout the 1990s. This same trend was followed by
ings averaged 91,600 sh for CPFVs and 93,600 for private both major components of northern California landings
boats, while annual effort averaged 86,200 CPFV trips and – rocksh/lingcod and salmon. Landings of “other”
128,300 private boat trips. Neither landings nor effort species, which have historically been very modest, were
exhibit any consistent long term trend. augmented by crab harvests from 1995 through 1998,
According to data collected in CPFV logbooks, the number when CPFVs began employing crab pots on shing trips
of CPFVs that participate annually in the marine recre- to help supplement declining harvests of nshes. Cen-
ational shery averaged 297 boats from 1980 through tral California landings, which ranged from 1.5 to 1.8 mil-
1998. Categorizing CPFVs according to their “principal lion sh during the early 1980s, have declined to well
area” (e.g., the area in which they made the plurality under one million sh in recent years. This decline has
of their shing trips), the number of northern California been largely driven by the precipitous decline in rocksh/
CPFVs increased from an annual average of 18 boats lingcod landings. Salmon landings and landings of “other”
during the 1980-1987 period to 30 boats during the species (including species such as crab, striped bass, stur-
1988-1991 period, then decreased to an average of 13 geon, atshes, mackerel, tuna, shark) followed no obvi-
boats during the 1992-1998 period. The number of central ous trend. Landings associated with southern California
California CPFVs declined from an annual average of 137 trips in U.S. waters declined from well over four million
boats during the 1980-1991 period to 105 boats during the sh during the early 1980s to around two million sh
1992-1998 period. The CPFV eet in southern California, during the late 1990s. Increases in sea bass and barracuda
many of which sh in Mexican as well as U.S. waters, landings during 1980-1998 were overshadowed by much
increased in size from an average of 145 boats (1980-1994) larger declines in rocksh, mackerel and bonito landings.
to 183 boats (1995-1998). Of these 183 boats, 119 shed Tuna/jack landings do not follow any obvious long term
exclusively in U.S. waters, 58 shed in both U.S. and trend, although they have been unusually high in recent
years. “Other” landings include a diversity of species,
including California scorpionsh, ocean whitesh, sea
chubs, wrasses, croakers and atshes among others.
Since 1995, the CPFV logbook database has included infor-
mation that allows shing trips to be distinguished from
diving trips and also allows trips to be distinguished by
target species. From 1995 through 1998, diving trips
comprise a very modest proportion of total CPFV activity
in both northern and central California. CPFV shing trips
in northern California were targeted largely at salmon (39
percent), rocksh/lingcod (48 percent) and salmon and
rocksh/lingcod combined (10 percent). CPFV shing trips
in central California were targeted at salmon (45 percent),
rocksh/lingcod (35 percent), salmon and rocksh/lingcod
(three percent), and striped bass/sturgeon, shark, tuna
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
54
and other/unspecied species (17 percent). From 1995 From 1995 through 1998, 91 percent of southern California
Human Ecosystem Dimension
through 1998, the contribution of salmon to total CPFV CPFV shing trips in U.S. waters were not targeted at any
landings in northern and central California (seven percent particular species, reecting the prevalence of freelance
and 10 percent respectively) was much lower than the trips on which anglers are provided with the opportunity
proportion of trips targeted at salmon. Conversely, the to catch a diversity of species. Of the remaining nine per-
rocksh/lingcod contribution to total northern and central cent of trips, two percent were specically targetine tuna
California landings (88 percent and 84 percent respec- and seven percent rocksh/lingcod. About 55 percent
tively) was much higher than the proportion of trips tar- of total rocksh/lingcod landings in southern California
geted at rocksh/lingcod. Such marked disproportion- were made on trips specically targeting rocksh/lingcod
alities between landings and effort highlight the large and the remaining 45 percent landed on freelance trips.
differences in catch-per-unit-effort that can exist among This highlights one of the complexities associated with
species groups. The singular reliance of northern management of the southern California CPFV shery,
and central California CPFVs on salmon, rocksh and ling- that is, how to meet harvest goals for managed species
cod harvests and the unprecedented regulatory restric- (like rocksh and lingcod) that are taken jointly with
tions on harvests of these species in recent years are other species without unduly restricting harvests of these
signicant contributing factors to the decline in effort and other species.
landings experienced in northern and central California in
recent years.
Cynthia J. Thomson
Southern California CPFVs participate in a range of shing National Marine Fisheries Service
and diving activities. From 1995 through 1998, about
79 percent of angler trips made by southern California
References
boats involved shing in U.S. waters, 14 percent involved
shing in Mexican waters, seven percent involved diving
Thomson, Cynthia J. and Daniel D. Huppert. 1987. Results
in U.S. waters, and less than one percent involved dive
of the Bay Area Sportsh Economic Study (BASES), NOAA
trips in Mexican waters. Of the 183 CPFVs that operated in
Technical Memorandum NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-78, 70 pp.
southern California during 1995-1998, 63 shed in Mexican
waters. Mexican as well as California shing regulations Thomson, Cynthia J. and Stephen J. Crooke. 1991. Results
are an important consideration for this signicant minority of the southern California Sportsh Economic Survey.
of southern California CPFVs. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-164,
264 pp.
Table II-1. Commercial landings (millions of pounds), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1
Year Groundfish Squid Crab Alb/Other Tuna Urchin Herring Shark/Sword Salmon
1981 94.4 51.8 11.8 337.1 26.5 13.1 4.8 6.0
1982 116.7 36.9 8.2 251.6 19.5 23.4 5.7 8.0
1983 90.0 4.0 6.7 248.7 17.8 17.7 5.8 2.4
1984 90.1 1.2 7.0 182.4 15.1 8.5 7.6 2.9
1985 95.0 22.7 7.9 68.2 20.1 17.6 8.9 4.3
1986 92.5 46.9 9.8 69.0 34.1 16.9 6.7 7.3
1987 91.8 44.1 8.6 80.6 46.1 18.6 5.3 8.8
1988 88.5 82.1 12.7 75.7 52.0 19.1 4.3 14.2
1989 94.4 90.2 7.2 55.5 51.4 20.6 4.5 5.6
1990 86.7 62.7 12.3 37.4 45.3 16.5 3.5 4.3
1991 79.7 83.2 6.0 19.0 42.3 16.3 3.1 3.7
1992 77.3 28.9 9.9 20.6 33.2 14.2 3.3 1.6
1993 62.4 94.4 13.5 24.9 27.0 9.6 3.5 2.5
1994 54.8 122.0 14.6 26.0 23.9 6.7 3.4 3.1
1995 63.5 154.9 10.4 26.1 22.3 10.4 2.4 6.6
1996 62.4 177.6 13.6 42.4 20.1 12.2 2.5 4.1
1997 65.5 155.1 11.3 37.2 18.1 20.8 3.1 5.3
1998 50.6 6.6 12.1 38.1 10.4 4.5 2.8 1.8
1999 33.1 201.8 9.6 24.6 14.2 5.2 3.8 3.8
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 55
Table II-1. Commercial landings (millions of pounds), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1 (continued)
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Year CPS Lobster Prawn Shrimp Nearshore Abalone All Else Total
1981 232.6 0.5 0.6 5.3 2.6 1.1 3.2 791.4
1982 215.7 0.5 0.4 5.4 2.3 1.2 3.2 697.8
1983 122.9 0.5 0.3 2.1 1.5 0.8 1.7 522.8
1984 123.7 0.4 0.6 3.0 2.3 0.8 1.5 447.3
1985 102.0 0.4 1.0 4.6 3.0 0.8 1.3 357.6
1986 120.8 0.5 0.8 7.0 2.1 0.6 1.1 416.1
1987 124.7 0.4 0.3 8.2 2.1 0.8 1.5 442.1
1988 129.2 0.6 0.3 11.5 2.3 0.6 1.7 494.8
1989 136.1 0.7 0.4 14.6 2.1 0.7 3.6 487.5
1990 106.2 0.7 0.4 10.3 2.0 0.5 6.0 394.9
1991 99.9 0.6 0.4 11.8 2.9 0.4 1.7 371.2
1992 85.7 0.6 0.3 19.6 1.8 0.5 1.3 298.9
1993 67.9 0.6 0.4 8.6 2.1 0.5 1.8 319.8
1994 57.6 0.5 0.6 12.1 3.1 0.3 1.7 330.4
1995 115.7 0.6 0.8 6.8 3.2 0.3 1.4 425.4
1996 107.5 0.7 1.1 10.6 3.4 0.2 3.3 461.6
1997 151.2 0.9 1.1 15.7 2.7 0.1 4.2 492.3
1998 147.2 0.7 1.3 3.0 1.4 0.0 3.3 283.9
1999 163.4 0.5 2.0 5.8 1.4 0.0 2.9 472.1
“Nearshore” includes non-rockfish species caught in nearshore areas (e.g., California sheephead, white croaker, white seabass).
1
Table II-2. Ex-vessel value ($millions, base year=1999), by year and species group, 1981-1999.1
Year Groundfish Squid Crab Alb/Other Tuna Urchin Herring Shark/Sword Salmon
1981 38.3 8.5 17.2 317.6 8.4 7.9 9.6 25.3
1982 46.5 5.6 13.6 198.7 5.6 15.8 12.5 31.5
1983 36.5 1.1 14.0 163.1 5.8 18.9 13.7 7.0
1984 35.8 0.4 14.3 118.2 5.3 2.8 20.7 11.4
1985 39.9 5.3 14.7 36.6 6.8 8.7 23.1 15.3
1986 42.8 6.2 17.9 38.3 13.4 7.6 20.8 20.2
1987 44.5 5.3 15.2 48.3 17.9 7.9 18.2 32.6
1988 40.1 10.2 21.0 55.1 25.2 7.4 15.2 52.5
1989 40.7 8.7 11.3 32.8 28.4 5.9 16.6 16.5
1990 37.2 5.7 21.8 18.4 29.7 10.5 10.7 14.1
1991 34.4 7.2 10.0 9.4 39.5 11.1 9.3 10.5
1992 34.9 2.8 14.1 11.5 33.9 10.5 9.6 5.1
1993 28.0 11.3 16.4 15.2 29.4 2.8 10.9 6.3
1994 28.2 15.6 21.4 16.5 27.7 3.5 11.5 7.0
1995 38.7 23.7 16.9 11.4 24.1 10.3 7.8 12.4
1996 37.8 22.8 19.5 23.5 19.6 15.8 7.1 6.3
1997 35.8 21.2 20.8 20.1 15.7 15.6 7.3 7.5
1998 25.0 1.7 21.8 19.0 8.0 0.6 6.7 3.1
1999 22.4 33.3 18.2 16.3 13.4 2.2 9.1 7.4
Year CPS Lobster Prawn Shrimp Nearshore Abalone All Else Total
1981 23.7 2.7 1.6 5.3 2.8 3.5 4.0 475.7
1982 21.1 3.0 1.7 5.4 1.2 3.6 4.0 369.6
1983 15.5 3.0 0.8 2.1 0.9 2.6 1.2 286.3
1984 14.7 2.6 0.8 3.0 1.1 3.2 1.2 238.4
1985 11.5 2.7 1.3 4.6 1.8 3.4 1.0 174.4
1986 12.7 3.1 1.5 7.0 1.3 2.6 0.9 194.7
1987 11.0 2.9 1.0 8.2 1.3 3.3 1.2 218.7
1988 12.7 4.2 1.3 11.5 1.4 2.6 1.3 256.7
1989 12.3 5.0 1.3 14.6 1.2 3.9 2.0 193.4
1990 7.9 4.8 1.9 10.3 1.2 3.0 3.6 176.5
1991 8.3 4.4 2.1 11.8 1.5 2.1 1.5 158.8
1992 7.1 4.4 1.7 19.6 1.0 3.2 1.4 149.3
1993 4.2 4.0 2.6 8.6 0.6 3.5 2.6 141.2
1994 4.1 3.8 3.2 12.1 2.0 2.9 2.0 157.0
1995 5.6 5.1 3.3 6.8 2.1 2.7 1.0 170.5
1996 5.6 5.3 4.4 10.6 2.0 2.3 1.4 180.5
1997 8.4 7.0 5.8 15.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 176.5
1998 6.8 4.8 6.4 3.0 1.6 0.0 1.3 109.0
1999 7.4 3.7 5.8 5.8 1.3 0.0 1.1 144.4
“Nearshore” includes non-rockfish species caught in nearshore areas (e.g., California sheephead, white croaker, white seabass).
1
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
56
Table II-3. Average annual landings and ex-vessel value during 1995-1999, by area and major species group.
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Northern California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Groundfish 30,233.7 57% 13,564.4 38%
Crab 8,067.0 15% 13,257.6 37%
Shrimp 6,425.7 12% 3,531.2 10%
Urchin 3,321.6 6% 2,724.9 8%
Albacore/Other Tuna 1,105.3 2% 951.8 3%
All Else 3,402.0 7% 1,467.9 4%
Total 52,555.3 100% 35,497.8 100%
Central California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Groundfish 22,771.8 27% 14,985.8 32%
Herring 10,431.2 12% 8,800.1 19%
Salmon 4,131.5 5% 6,939.9 15%
Crab 2,428.0 3% 5,135.0 11%
Prawn 335.6 0% 2,279.0 5%
Shark/Swordfish 758.9 1% 2,093.4 5%
Coastal Pelagics 32,000.3 38% 1,499.2 3%
Albacore/Other Tuna 1,618.6 2% 1,448.6 3%
Shrimp 1,912.5 2% 1,314.0 3%
Market Squid 7,709.4 9% 1,197.8 2%
All Else 1,192.4 1% 1,181.2 2%
Total 85,290.2 100% 46,874.0 100%
Southern California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Market Squid 131,468.9 45% 19,344.8 26%
Albacore/Other Tuna 30,924.4 11% 15,662.8 21%
Urchin 13,057.8 5% 12,906.9 18%
Coastal Pelagics 104,979.2 36% 5,261.4 7%
Shark/Swordfish 2,059.3 1% 5,229.5 7%
Lobster 683.1 0% 5,174.6 7%
Groundfish 2,007.4 1% 3,382.5 5%
Prawn 915.9 0% 2,813.2 4%
Crab 891.2 0% 1,067.1 1%
All Else 2,237.8 1% 2,974.6 4%
Total 289,225.0 100% 73,817.4 100%
Total California
Species Group Pounds x 1000 Percent (Base Year $=1999) Percent
Groundfish 55,012.9 13% 31,932.7 20%
Market Squid 139,187.8 33% 20,546.4 13%
Crab 11,386.1 3% 19,459.6 13%
Albacore/Other Tuna 33,648.2 8% 18,063.1 12%
Urchin 17,040.0 4% 16,151.1 10%
Herring 10,628.9 2% 8,910.9 6%
Shark/Swordfish 2,915.3 1% 7,609.2 5%
Salmon 4,348.7 1% 7,347.7 5%
Coastal Pelagics 137,003.8 32% 6,764.9 4%
Lobster 683.2 0% 5,175.5 3%
Prawn 1,261.4 0% 5,157.7 3%
Shrimp 8,373.9 2% 4,876.8 3%
Abalone 121.7 0% 1,205.1 1%
All Else 5,458.6 1% 2,988.4 2%
Total 427,070.5 100% 156,189.2 100%
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 57
Table II-4. Number of vessels that make commercial landings in California, categorized according to whether or not
Human Ecosystem Dimension
they also make landings in Oregon or Washington, 1981-1999.
Year CA Only CA & OR CA & WA CA, OR & WA Total
1981 5,832 787 135 143 6,897
1982 5,762 555 106 130 6,553
1983 5,257 396 83 94 5,830
1984 4,779 261 103 31 5,174
1985 4,451 235 87 37 4,810
1986 4,305 365 106 69 4,845
1987 4,162 352 104 76 4,694
1988 4,204 354 135 92 4,785
1989 4,376 309 125 64 4,874
1990 4,155 273 122 48 4,598
1991 4,032 214 102 40 4,388
1992 3,536 170 118 46 3,870
1993 3,271 196 93 58 3,618
1994 3,102 161 107 52 3,422
1995 3,074 184 83 35 3,376
1996 2,994 205 74 30 3,303
1997 2,857 190 96 20 3,163
1998 2,505 119 51 24 2,699
1999 2,495 128 45 22 2,690
Table II-5. Number of vessels by principal area, categorized according to whether or not they also make landings
outside their principal area, 1981-1999.
Principal Area=Northern CA Principal Area=Central CA Principal Area=Southern CA
No.CA No.& Other Cen.CA No.& So.& Other So.CA So.& Other
Year Only Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Comb. Total
1981 1920 311 25 2256 2488 259 82 19 2848 1635 135 23 1793
1982 1842 289 36 2167 2274 232 110 29 2645 1566 155 19 1740
1983 1472 141 10 1623 2269 190 139 21 2619 1325 159 35 1519
1984 1066 160 16 1242 2008 177 102 15 2302 1313 230 20 1563
1985 891 198 23 1112 2033 147 105 13 2298 1160 152 24 1336
1986 1127 198 20 1345 1935 164 108 16 2223 1112 121 26 1259
1987 951 241 57 1249 1843 244 99 21 2207 1025 132 23 1180
1988 940 211 49 1200 2035 250 101 16 2402 979 90 53 1122
1989 858 240 60 1158 2069 296 69 20 2454 1056 89 64 1209
1990 842 130 48 1020 2011 184 84 14 2293 1111 76 40 1227
1991 767 127 40 934 1944 189 82 18 2233 1080 101 27 1208
1992 597 71 83 751 1778 90 83 18 1969 998 90 47 1135
1993 605 94 65 764 1562 132 63 20 1777 954 73 42 1069
1994 521 101 33 655 1370 155 101 23 1649 958 107 42 1107
1995 470 76 33 579 1539 97 116 14 1766 903 96 21 1020
1996 507 112 24 643 1428 92 70 7 1597 929 95 25 1049
1995 512 68 24 604 1406 88 84 9 1587 858 86 18 962
1998 445 76 17 538 1105 64 76 11 1256 806 64 17 887
1999 459 59 14 532 1057 56 74 4 1191 846 98 11 955
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
58
Table II-6. Average annual number of boats that make California landings, ex-vessel revenue per boat from
Human Ecosystem Dimension
California landings, number and percent of boats earning less than $5,000 per year from California landings, and
number and percent of boats accounting for 90 percent of ex-vessel value of aggregate landings, by principal
area and time period.
1981-1985 1986-1994 1995-1999
Principal Area=Northern CA:
Number of Boats 1,680 1,008 579
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $24,500 $48,300 $60,800
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 983(59%) 386(37%) 162(28%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Northern California Landings 419(25%) 341(35%) 236(41%)
Principal Area=Central CA:
Number of Boats 2,542 2,134 1,479
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $20,800 $25,100 $30,100
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 1,420(56%) 967(46%) 627(43%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Central California Landings 727(29%) 737(34%) 512(35%)
Principal Area=Southern CA:
Number of Boats 1,630 1,201 988
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $126,000 $67,400 $74,900
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 682(42%) 402(33%) 256(26%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of southern California Landings 290(18%) 401(34%) 382(39%)
Total California:
Number of Boats 5,853 4,344 3,046
Ex-Vessel Revenue Per Boat $50,600 $41,800 $50,700
#(%) Boats Earning <$5K Per Year 3,085(53%) 1,755(40%) 1,045(34%)
#(%) Boats Accting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Total California Landings 1,119(20%) 1,375(32%) 1,072(35%)
Table II-7. Average annual 1995-1999 landings, ex-vessel value of landings, and vessel participation in major
commercial sheries, by area.
# Vessels
Major Northern CA Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999) Vessels Principal Fishery
Crab trap 7,886.0 13,095.5 309 247
Groundfish trawl 28,683.7 11,322.9 71 56
Shrimp trawl 6,084.1 3,179.5 58 25
Urchin dive 3,318.9 2,742.1 64 61
Groundfish H&L 1,562.8 1,925.4 158 103
Tuna H&L 966.4 837.6 43 17
Salmon H&L 406.1 654.5 86 44
Groundfish/misc. trap 363.9 459.4 35 16
Shark/swordfish gillnet 102.0 308.9 9 4
Herring 121.1 104.4 5 4
# Vessels
Major Central CA Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999) Vessels Principal Fishery
Groundfish trawl 17,406.2 9,097.8 73 61
Herring 10,014.2 8,585.5 149 136
Salmon H&L 3,847.1 6,512.4 704 579
Crab trap 2,564.3 5,209.2 207 127
Groundfish H&L 4,056.2 4,710.2 520 415
Prawn trawl 317.9 2,039.2 18 13
Shark/swordfish gillnet 581.9 1,683.5 30 21
Squid seine/other net 8,817.7 1,282.9 13 5
Tuna H&L 1,470.1 1,248.1 123 44
CPS seine 20,333.9 961.6 13 7
Shrimp trawl 985.7 956.9 19 10
Urchin dive 686.7 546.9 17 10
Groundfish/misc. trap 153.1 382.5 34 13
Abalone dive 31.8 313.1 9 8
Prawn trap 34.4 249.2 8 3
Shark/swordfish H&L 101.2 240.9 9 3
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 59
Table II-7 (continued).
Human Ecosystem Dimension
# Vessels
Major Southern CA Landings Value ($1000s, # Participating Participating As
Fisheries (1000 lbs) Base Year=1999) Vessels Principal Fishery
Squid seine/other net 129,556.2 19,150.2 87 70
Urchin dive 13,007.9 12,835.5 223 207
Tuna seine 23,001.5 9,644.1 21 10
Tuna H&L 7,473.2 5,736.9 115 65
CPS seine 115,869.4 5,671.8 46 23
Lobster trap 680.7 5,157.5 202 168
Shark/swordfish gillnet 1,053.9 2,548.2 80 50
Groundfish H&L 1,588.5 2,193.8 205 157
Shark/swordfish H&L 795.6 1,875.9 42 27
Prawn trawl 745.3 1,679.9 27 19
Groundfish/misc. net 810.8 1,232.3 58 31
Crab trap 900.4 1,097.2 76 35
Prawn trap 135.1 1,011.9 28 18
Abalone dive 87.6 877.0 33 13
Groundfish/misc. trap 219.1 663.2 66 19
Shark/swordfish dive 119.3 632.0 24 20
Groundfish trawl 255.0 525.3 32 20
Cucumber dive 398.6 244.3 22 21
Salmon H&L 89.8 171.1 18 7
Cucumber trawl 236.4 167.1 12 5
Shrimp other net 63.5 22.2 3 3
Table II-8. Average annual 1995-1999 landings and ex-vessel revenue per boat from the principal shery, from other
California sheries and from Oregon and Washington sheries, by vessels’ principal area and principal shery.
Landings/Boat/Year (1000 Pounds) Ex-Vessel Revenue/Boat/Year ($1000s)
Northern California Principal Other Principal Other
Principal Fisheries Fishery CA OR/WA Total Fishery CA OR/WA Total
Crab trap 26.0 17.1 9.8 52.9 43.8 12.7 8.8 65.2
Groundfish trawl 473.1 61.1 385.7 919.8 185.1 37.2 44.8 267.2
Shrimp trawl 110.2 38.9 249.4 398.5 58.6 30.1 134.5 223.2
Urchin dive 54.2 0.7 2.7 57.6 43.9 1.5 2.5 47.9
Groundfish H&L 10.6 3.1 1.6 15.3 12.7 4.3 2.3 19.4
Tuna H&L 27.1 2.7 30.6 60.5 24.0 3.6 28.3 55.9
Salmon H&L 1.8 0.8 0.2 2.8 3.2 1.1 0.3 4.6
Groundfish/misc. trap 10.8 3.7 3.5 18.0 14.8 5.1 6.3 26.2
Shark/swordfish gillnet 13.2 10.3 107.6 131.0 42.3 11.3 102.9 156.5
Herring 25.9 1.2 0.0 27.1 19.4 1.2 0.0 20.5
Groundfish trawl 275.3 18.8 333.9 628.0 145.4 11.1 52.9 209.4
Herring 64.2 18.5 1.8 84.5 53.4 2.9 1.3 57.7
Salmon H&L 5.3 1.4 1.9 8.6 9.0 1.8 2.3 13.1
Crab trap 16.1 9.1 1.9 27.0 32.7 8.4 1.9 43.1
Groundfish H&L 8.6 0.8 0.2 9.6 10.2 1.1 0.2 11.5
Prawn trawl 23.3 44.7 87.4 155.4 153.8 34.0 46.3 234.1
Squid seine/other net 573.8 479.3 0.0 1053.1 85.7 46.0 0.0 131.6
Tuna H&L 17.1 2.7 17.9 37.6 14.4 4.0 16.7 35.2
CPS seine 2030.9 334.9 0.0 2365.9 99.2 53.2 0.0 152.4
Shrimp trawl 26.1 4.2 78.7 109.0 52.7 4.9 52.4 110.0
Urchin dive 60.3 1.1 0.0 61.4 47.6 2.2 0.0 49.7
Groundfish/misc. trap 8.1 2.2 0.0 10.3 20.8 4.3 0.0 25.1
Abalone dive 2.3 2.0 0.1 4.4 22.5 2.1 0.1 24.7
Prawn trap 8.1 16.2 0.9 25.2 59.8 12.6 0.5 72.8
Shark/swordfish H&L 11.2 2.7 0.7 14.6 27.0 7.5 1.9 36.4
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
60
Table II-8 (cont.)
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Landings/Boat/Year (1000 Pounds) Ex-Vessel Revenue/Boat/Year ($1000s)
Southern California Principal Other Principal Other
Principal Fisheries Fishery CA OR/WA Total Fishery CA OR/WA Total
Squid seine/other net 1516.9 674.7 5.2 2196.7 226.0 44.9 4.5 275.4
Urchin dive 60.2 3.0 5.1 68.2 58.8 4.2 0.9 63.8
Tuna seine 1882.1 1288.6 4.9 3175.6 806.4 104.0 4.1 914.6
Tuna H&L 105.0 15.1 36.2 156.3 70.5 9.4 31.3 111.3
CPS seine 2475.8 482.5 0.4 2958.8 132.0 89.5 0.1 221.6
Lobster trap 3.7 3.8 0.1 7.6 28.2 6.4 0.1 34.7
Shark/swordfish gillnet 16.4 23.5 8.3 48.2 42.9 19.7 7.1 69.7
Groundfish H&L 8.9 1.7 0.3 11.0 12.2 1.4 0.3 13.9
Shark/swordfish H&L 26.8 6.7 3.0 36.5 62.8 15.3 2.4 80.4
Prawn trawl 32.5 9.2 56.5 98.2 79.4 11.6 12.2 103.2
Groundfish/misc. other net 17.5 12.1 0.6 30.3 28.1 10.6 0.5 39.2
Crab trap 15.1 1.4 0.0 16.6 18.3 4.7 0.0 23.0
Prawn trap 6.1 2.6 0.5 9.1 47.4 9.1 0.4 56.9
Abalone dive 2.1 9.1 0.4 11.7 21.4 9.7 0.3 31.5
Groundfish/misc. trap 4.6 2.9 0.0 7.5 14.0 7.2 0.0 21.3
Shark/swordfish dive 5.2 1.2 0.0 6.3 27.3 1.8 0.0 29.1
Groundfish trawl 9.0 8.0 7.9 24.9 20.9 6.0 2.7 29.6
Cucumber dive 2.6 4.0 0.5 32.9 15.1 9.8 0.0 24.8
Table II-9. Number of sh dealers by principal area, categorized according to whether or not they also receive landings
outside their principal area, 1981-1999.
Principal Area=Northern CA Principal Area=Central CA Principal Area=Southern CA
No.CA No.& Other Cen.CA No.& So.& Other So.CA So.& Other CA
Year Only Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Cen. Comb. Total Only Cen. Comb. Total Dealers
1981 81 3 7 86 182 15 12 4 213 201 17 2 220 519
1982 77 8 1 86 209 9 11 4 233 227 18 2 247 566
1983 67 6 0 73 221 14 12 4 251 217 27 4 248 572
1984 53 11 0 64 211 8 9 4 232 207 28 2 237 533
1985 59 9 0 68 200 9 19 2 230 187 35 1 223 521
1986 65 7 2 74 213 4 18 3 238 188 24 6 218 530
1987 103 12 4 119 420 22 17 4 463 275 29 5 309 891
1988 102 6 2 110 361 21 15 2 399 272 29 10 311 820
1989 108 10 5 123 329 15 12 5 361 294 37 11 342 826
1990 85 11 5 101 322 14 21 2 359 285 34 12 331 791
1991 85 12 3 100 312 21 19 6 358 290 26 9 325 783
1992 85 10 6 101 307 21 24 11 363 257 26 15 298 762
1993 104 14 4 122 318 21 21 5 365 237 31 17 285 772
1994 98 14 12 124 333 24 27 9 393 331 59 15 405 922
1995 54 14 12 80 284 9 27 6 326 292 37 8 337 743
1996 88 13 6 107 274 19 18 6 317 267 30 12 309 733
1997 89 24 4 117 301 17 18 8 344 297 30 7 334 795
1998 78 19 6 103 360 16 19 5 400 312 29 10 351 854
1999 120 16 7 143 339 11 13 3 366 328 43 8 379 888
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 61
Table II-10. Average annual number of sh dealers, ex-vessel value of California landings receipts per dealer,
Human Ecosystem Dimension
number and percent of dealers accounting for less than $5,000 per year in California landings receipts, and number
and percent of dealers accounting for 90 percent of ex-vessel value of aggregate landings receipts, 1981-1986 and
1987-1999, by dealers’ principal area.
1981-1986 1987-1999
Principal Area – Northern CA:
Number of Dealers 75 112
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $542,700 $380,300
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 18(23%) 52(46%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Northern California Landings 25(33%) 22(20%)
Principal Area – Central CA:
Number of Dealers 233 370
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $246,700 $138,800
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 76(33%) 186(50%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Central California Landings 50(21%) 58(16%)
Principal Area – Southern CA:
Number of Dealers 239 344
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $805,500 $233,900
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 69(29%) 131(38%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of southern California Landings 28(12%) 55(16%)
All California:
Number of Dealers 547 825
Ex-Vessel Value of CA Landings Receipts/Dealer $531,500 $209,500
#(%) Dealers With<$5K Per Year in CA Receipts 163(30%) 369(45%)
#(%) Dealers Accounting for 90% of Ex-Vessel Value
of Total California Landings 103(19%) 134(16%)
Table II-11. Volume and value of imports and exports of edible sh products at California customs districts and at
all United States customs districts, by year, 1989-1999.
Imports Exports
$Millions $Millions
Millions of Pounds (Base Year=1999) Millions of Pounds(Base Year=1999)
Year Calif. U.S. Calif. U.S. Calif. U.S. Calif. U.S.
1989 569.8 3,243.0 1,636.7 6,863.7 106.6 1,406.0 255.2 2,940.8
1990 627.4 2,884.6 1,808.6 6,289.9 99.2 1,947.3 231.7 3,463.1
1991 687.0 3,014.8 1,895.1 6,595.2 131.6 2,058.6 260.1 3,669.5
1992 710.3 2,894.0 2,015.5 6,491.3 105.2 2,087.6 223.6 3,942.7
1993 708.9 2,917.2 1,948.3 6,477.0 86.7 1,986.0 216.6 3,407.3
1994 777.1 3,034.8 2,325.8 7,207.3 135.9 1,978.5 284.8 3,390.6
1995 729.8 3,066.5 2,230.8 7,217.5 183.8 2,047.2 293.8 3,466.8
1996 759.6 3,169.8 2,222.9 7,017.3 218.7 2,112.1 281.8 3,161.9
1997 832.0 3,338.8 2,533.5 7,961.2 248.3 2,018.9 269.7 2,785.5
1998 911.1 3,647.0 2,513.8 8,289.2 142.6 1,663.9 158.9 2,291.8
1999 979.0 3,887.9 2,471.5 9,013.9 285.4 1,961.1 232.3 2,848.5
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
62
Table III-1. Average annual marine recreational shing effort and harvest during 1998-1999 in southern and
central/northern California, by shing mode (1000s of sh).
1000s of Landed Released Other
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Area/Fishing Mode Angler Trips Whole Alive Disposition Total
Southern California
Man-made 624 837 644 233 1,714
Beach 281 327 247 17 590
CPFV 641 1,733 973 262 2,968
Private 1,324 1,960 4,075 211 6,246
Total 2,869 4,857 5,939 723 11,518
Central/Northern California
Man-made 440 533 192 67 792
Beach 344 1,582 206 17 1,805
CPFV 168 1,131 122 171 1,423
Private 921 1,459 648 205 2,311
Total 1,872 4,705 1,168 460 6,331
Total California
Man-made 1,064 1,370 836 300 2,506
Beach 625 1,909 453 34 2,395
CPFV 808 2,864 1,095 433 4,391
Private 2,245 3,419 4,723 416 8,557
Total 4,741 9,562 7,107 1,183 17,849
Source: Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey.
Includes harvests in U.S. waters only. “Other Disposition” refers to fish used as bait, filleted, given away or discarded dead. All landings are in 1000s of fish.
Table III-2. Average annual marine recreational harvest (excluding sh released alive) during 1998-1999 in southern
and central/northern California, by shing mode and species category.
Southern California Central/Northern California
Species Category 1000s of Fish (%) Species Category 1000s of Fish (%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Man-Made –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Tuna/mackerel 413 (39%) Silversides 185 (31%)
Croaker 204 (19%) Surfperch 164 (27%)
Silversides 150 (14%) Croaker 78 (13%)
Herring 145 (14%) Herring 61 (10%)
Surfperch 71 (7%) Anchovy 47 (8%)
Other 87 (8%) Other 65 (11%)
Total 1,070 (100%) Total 600 (100%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Beach ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Surfperch 218 (63%) Smelt 1,145 (72%)
Croaker 59 (17%) Surfperch 343 (21%)
Silversides 24 ( 7%) Silversides 41 (3%)
Sea chub 16 (5%) Other 70 (4%)
Other 27 (8%) Total 1,599 (100%)
Total 344 (100%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– CPFV ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Rockfish 668 (33%) Rockfish 1,204 (92%)
Sea basses 313 (16%) Salmon 50 (4%)
Tuna/mackerel 281 (14%) Greenling 21 (2%)
Pacific barracuda 269 (13%) Other 27 (2%)
Calif scorpionfish 151 (8%) Total 1,302 (100%)
Other 313 (16%)
Total 1,995 (100%)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Private Boat –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Sea basses 502 (23%) Rockfish 1,034 (60%)
Tuna/mackerel 379 (17%) Tuna/mackerel 89 (5%)
Rockfish 328 (15%) Croaker 85 (5%)
Pacific barracuda 192 (9%) Flatfish 80 (5%)
Jacks 168 (8%) Striped bass 70 (4%)
Croaker 156 (7%) Greenling 68 (4%)
Flatfish 125 (6%) Salmon 55 (3%)
Calif scorpionfish 86 (4%) Other 237 (14%)
Other 235 (11%) Total 1,718 (100%)
Total 2,171 (100%)
Source: Salmon harvest estimates obtained from DFG’s Ocean Salmon Project. All other harvest estimates obtained from Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 63
Table III-3. Estimated average annual expenditures by marine anglers during 1998-1999 in southern and central/
Human Ecosystem Dimension
northern California ($millions, base year=1999), by expenditure category.
Expenditure Category Southern CA Northern CA Total CA
Trip-Related Expenses
Man-Made $ 18.1 $ 13.2 $ 31.3
Beach 9.8 15.1 24.9
CPFV 81.4 17.0 98.4
Private 92.7 62.6 155.3
Total $202.0 $107.9 $309.9
Licenses/Fishing Gear 54.3 29.0 83.3
Boat-Related Expenses 74.1 39.6 113.7
Grand Total $330.4 $176.5 $506.9
Source: Trip-related expenses based on average annual 1998-1999 effort estimates (Table III-1) and estimates of average expenditures per trip by fishing mode derived from Thomson
and Crooke (1991) for southern California and from Thomson and Huppert (1987) for central/northern California and corrected for inflation to 1999 dollars. License/gear and
boat-related expenses based on the observation from Thomson and Crooke (1991) that license/gear and boat-related expenses are 27 percent and 37 percent respectively of total trip
expenditures in southern California, and extrapolating that result to central/northern California.
Table III-4. Number of CPFVs participating in the marine recreational shery during 1980-1998,
by vessels’ principal shing area.
Year NoCA CenCA U.S.Only SoCA:U.S. &Mex MexOnly Total All Boats
1980 14 142 83 57 6 147 303
1981 15 125 85 52 14 151 291
1982 20 136 92 50 9 151 307
1983 21 145 96 52 6 154 320
1984 19 140 80 65 17 162 321
1985 17 142 78 58 19 155 314
1986 18 140 82 53 7 142 300
1987 22 134 76 45 10 131 287
1988 27 132 102 47 8 157 316
1989 41 146 83 55 14 152 339
1990 32 135 87 45 11 143 310
1991 21 125 87 23 15 125 271
1992 16 120 91 39 3 133 269
1993 16 107 90 32 6 128 251
1994 13 107 98 34 7 139 259
1995 13 99 117 47 6 170 282
1996 10 105 121 47 6 174 289
1997 11 105 125 66 4 195 311
1998 13 95 114 73 5 192 300
Source: CPFV logbooks. Southern California CPFVs distinguished according to whether they fish in U.S. and/or Mexican waters.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
64
Table III-5. Number of CPFV angler trips, by year and area.
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Year NoCA CenCA SoCA Total U.S. Waters Mexican Waters Grand Total
1980 5,665 204,146 492,290 702,101 59,739 761,840
1981 6,948 205,380 556,721 769,049 61,460 830,509
1982 6,694 213,206 503,280 723,180 52,756 775,936
1983 8,024 180,898 433,514 622,436 69,210 691,646
1984 6,577 188,275 415,036 609,888 91,666 701,554
1985 11,591 210,894 413,102 635,587 81,601 717,188
1986 11,064 189,780 407,614 608,458 51,755 660,213
1987 13,251 208,989 396,309 618,549 59,862 678,411
1988 12,496 217,284 427,610 657,390 53,967 711,357
1989 15,595 226,333 420,976 662,904 74,681 737,585
1990 14,724 222,149 474,761 711,634 57,433 769,067
1991 14,179 175,329 434,945 624,453 37,100 661,553
1992 7,586 164,792 407,831 580,209 55,258 635,467
1993 5,617 169,566 377,125 552,308 40,626 592,934
1994 4,949 161,637 364,774 531,360 51,765 583,125
1995 6,806 169,402 408,547 584,755 58,074 642,829
1996 6,021 137,312 435,940 579,273 74,846 654,119
1997 5,456 165,899 554,117 725,472 99,304 824,776
1998 6,175 133,133 483,420 622,728 106,504 729,232
Source: CPFV logbooks. “Mexican waters” pertains to trips departing from southern California ports to fish in Mexican waters.
Table III-6. Landings on CPFV shing trips (1000s of sh), by year and area.
Year NoCA CenCA SoCA Total U.S. Waters Mexican Waters Grand Total
1980 24.2 1,545.4 4,517.1 6,086.6 321.2 6,407.8
1981 51.9 1,747.0 4,267.0 6,065.9 248.6 6,314.5
1982 42.4 1,781.8 3,363.5 5,187.7 182.9 5,370.6
1983 60.9 1,654.9 2,547.0 4,262.7 362.2 4,624.9
1984 33.5 1,485.3 2,249.5 3,768.3 404.0 4,172.3
1985 53.5 1,364.3 2,471.2 3,889.0 290.1 4,179.1
1986 41.6 1,198.9 2,617.9 3,858.4 217.1 4,075.5
1987 50.4 1,314.3 2,485.0 3,849.7 256.2 4,105.9
1988 56.9 1,390.1 2,651.2 4,098.2 254.2 4,352.4
1989 82.4 1,574.1 2,618.9 4,275.4 321.6 4,597.0
1990 111.1 1,606.5 2,824.5 4,542.1 243.5 4,785.6
1991 73.0 1,345.9 2,694.5 4,113.4 175.9 4,289.2
1992 69.7 1,526.7 2,275.7 3,872.1 219.6 4,091.7
1993 31.4 1,312.3 2,112.2 3,455.9 166.7 3,622.6
1994 30.8 1,049.1 1,945.7 3,025.6 189.4 3,215.1
1995 43.9 923.2 1,980.0 2,947.1 222.8 3,169.8
1996 32.1 743.7 2,350.6 3,126.5 249.0 3,375.5
1997 43.4 957.3 2,356.1 3,536.8 384.2 3,921.0
1998 53.7 882.8 2,008.1 2,944.6 377.9 3,322.5
Source: CPFV logbooks. “Mexican waters” pertains to harvests on trips that depart from southern California ports to fish in Mexican waters.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 65
Table III-7. Annual number of CPFV boat and angler trips in 1995-1998, by area and trip type.
Human Ecosystem Dimension
Area/Trip Type 1995 1996 1997 1998 Avg.
Northern California
Total Fishing Trips: 6,806 6,021 5,456 6,175 6,115
Salmon 2,948 3,264 1,808 1,554 2,394
Rockfish/lingcod 3,222 2,161 2,839 3,410 2,908
Salmon/rockfish/lingcod 321 519 553 1,034 607
Other/unspecified 314 77 256 177 207
Total Dive Trips 26 15 0 10 13
NoCA Total 6,832 6,036 5,456 6,185 6,128
Central California
Total Fishing Trips: 169,402 137,312 165,899 133,133 151,437
Salmon 86,899 56,567 78,202 48,645 67,578
Rockfish/lingcod 58,008 52,865 52,233 51,795 53,725
Salmon/rockfish/lingcod 5,098 3,408 5,135 3,777 4,354
Strbass/sturgeon 2,522 3,720 5,572 5,349 4,291
Shark 1,012 526 628 428 648
Tuna 140 1,127 6,500 4,014 2,945
Other/unspecified 15,723 19,099 17,629 19,125 17,894
Total Dive Trips 1,126 1,249 716 38 782
CenCA Total 170,528 138,561 166,615 133,171 152,219
Southern California
Total Fishing Trips-CA: 408,547 435,940 554,117 483,420 470,506
Rockfish/lingcod 31,684 34,923 30,525 26,595 30,932
Tuna 12,006 2,992 13,586 18,124 11,677
Other/unspecified 364,857 398,025 510,006 438,701 427,897
Total Fishing Trips-Mex: 58,074 74,846 99,304 106,504 84,682
Tuna 35,691 34,692 56,029 62,164 47,144
Other/unspecified 22,383 40,154 43,275 44,340 37,538
Total Dive Trips-CA 37,089 43,128 44,938 33,014 39,542
Total Dive Trips-Mex 446 790 394 659 572
SoCA Total 504,156 554,704 698,753 623,597 595,303
Source: CPFV logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
66
Marine Law
Enforcement Resources
Marine Law Enforcement
Introduction Personnel
The Department of Fish and Game’s (DFG) Marine Region
T he Fish and Game Code states that “(t)he protection
was established in December of 1997. This resulted in
and conservation of the sh and wildlife resources of
the consolidation of marine resource enforcement efforts
this state are hereby declared to be of utmost public
which had been split between the three inland regions
interest. Fish and wildlife are the property of the people
bordering the coastline. Initial stafng included 21 posi-
and provide a major contribution to the economy of the
tions transferred from the department’s Ofce of Oil Spill
state, as well as providing a signicant part of the peo-
Prevention and Response (OSPER) (responsible for marine
ple’s food supply and therefore their conservation is a
oil pollution regulation enforcement only).
proper responsibility of the state.”
In March 1998, 38 positions were transferred from DFG’s
In keeping with this responsibility, the Marine Region
inland regions. The law enforcement function was staffed
enforcement staff is charged with enforcing the regula-
with these 59 positions until October 1998 when the
tory aspects of marine resource management. This formi-
Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) was enacted by the
dable challenge encompasses approximately 1100 miles of
State Legislature. This law provided 15 additional enforce-
California coastline out to sea for 200 miles — 220,000
ment positions bringing the count to 74. In April 2000, in
square miles. Marine Region law enforcement focuses its
keeping with statutory obligations, the positions funded
efforts on commercial sheries (including shing vessels,
by the OSPR were removed from the Marine Region to
shore facilities and all sheries-related infrastructures
ensure a dedicated spill prevention and response unit.
throughout the state), illegal commercialization of the
Law enforcement personnel stafng in the Marine Region
public shery resources, sport sheries, market inspec-
decreased to 53 positions. In July 2000, the state Legisla-
tions and landing taxes. Enforcement efforts include
ture provided 10 additional positions. Entering 2001, the
the inspection of licenses, permits, catch, gear types,
Marine Region’s law enforcement staff consisted of 63
vessels, shing activity records, sh businesses, account-
positions, still well below the stafng levels of the early
ing records, and importation. The enforcement staff also
1980s when DFG had a Marine Resources Region with its
ensures that sport and commercial shermen comply with
own enforcement function.
regulations concerning seasons, size limits, bag limits,
trip limits, shing gear restrictions and design, quotas, Patrol Boats
closures, sales of sh, and prohibited species. Land-based
In 1998, the Marine Region had two 65-foot patrol boats,
and at-sea patrols are required to enforce all of the vari-
the Albacore (an aluminum mono-hull) and the Bluen (a
ous regulations.
berglass mono-hull), two 40-foot patrol boats (the Yel-
In addition to enforcing laws, the enforcement staff is lowtail and the Tuna), and 18 smaller patrol skiffs ranging
very active in public outreach and education. The staff in size from 13 to 28 feet.
takes a proactive approach in recognizing emerging sher-
Funds were provided later that year to increase the
ies that may need management measures to ensure a
region’s at-sea patrol capabilities. A 54-foot vessel was
viable commercial and recreational environment.
designed, contracted, built, and delivered in 1999. Named
In consideration of the natural history of individual the Thresher this patrol boat is a state-of-the-art
,
species, management and enforcement policies are aluminum foil-supported catamaran powered by twin 660
tailored to ensure the sustainability of sport and turbo diesels. The funds also enabled the purchase of
commercial sheries. Each species has unique regulatory three 24-foot, rigid-hull inatable (RHI) patrol boats.
needs, challenges, and issues, but the effective man- These three boats joined two other similar boats to form
agement of all is dependent on accurate recording and the north coast rapid deployment force. The boats can
reporting of landed weights by sh businesses. Patrol be put on trailers and deployed quickly along the rugged
efforts to insure accurate documentation of landings for north coast.
all species is crucial. Enforcement is faced with identify-
In July 1998, the MLMA provided for the purchase of the
ing these needs and structuring enforcement activities to
patrol boat Marlin, a sister vessel to the Thresher This
.
address such complex issues. Current enforcement effort
boat was delivered in July 2001. All six large patrol boats
is hampered by a lack of enforcement personnel and
are equipped with an 18-foot RHI boarding vessel. In July
disinterest in prosecution by some court systems.
1999, additional funding provided for three more patrol
boats, the Swordsh, Coho and Steelhead, identical to the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 67
previous two. Delivery is expected in January and April Management Council (PFMC) in its formulation of federal
Marine Law Enforcement
of 2002. shery management regulations.
In addition, the enforcement staff coordinates with 1)
Teams
the NMFS in regard to Lacey Act violations for sh trans-
The Marine Region Law Enforcement function is organized ported across state boundaries; 2) the US Coast Guard
along a traditional chain-of-command structure; however, on enforcement; 3) the PFMC on sheries management
in addition, self-directed work teams were instituted at plans and shing gear deployment; 4) the State Depart-
the inception of the Marine Region. These teams include: ment of Weights and Measures in assuring the proper
procedures for the weighing of sh and the completion
1. A Policy and Procedure Team responsible for inter-
of landing receipts; and 5) the State Department of Parks
preting commercial and sport shing laws, rules and
and Recreation, National Park Service, Harbor Patrol, local
regulations in a consistent statewide basis and estab-
police and local sheriffs departments in matters of mutual
lishing standard operating procedures for marine law
enforcement efforts.
enforcement activities.
2. An Enforcement Legislative Team responsible for
developing language for law, rule and regulation
Fisheries-Specific Enforcement Efforts
changes for legislative and commission consideration.
3. A Boat Team responsible for the deployment of
Groundsh
the patrol boats and the at-sea operations of the
Because of concerns about continuing declines of many
patrol eet.
groundsh populations, recent additional restrictions have
4. A Law Enforcement Training Team which develops
been proposed and adopted to protect these resources.
instructional designs for training modules to address
Enforcement of groundsh regulations is difcult due to
the training requirements of enforcing complex
the large number of species involved, their vast distribu-
commercial and sport shing regulations.
tions, the frequently changing and sometimes complex
These teams were developed to encourage fair and consis- regulations, and the various shing methods utilized in
tent enforcement of the laws and regulations throughout the commercial shing industry. Some species, such as
the region, clarify and make the regulations more enforce- lingcod, have been proposed as candidates for listing as
able, deploy and operate the patrol boats where they will threatened or endangered. The effectiveness of enforce-
be the most benecial, and maintain a well trained and ment effort is dependent upon the accurate recording of
professional warden force to protect California’s diverse landed weights.
marine resources for all of the people in the state.
Nearshore Fish
Partnerships
There are many species that can be considered as near-
The law enforcement function works closely with other shore sh, but the species that this section addresses
government organizations concerned with the manage- are those that are of primary concern to managers and
ment of marine resources. The department has a Memo- were among the rst to be addressed in the Nearshore
randum of Understanding with the Monterey Bay National Fisheries Management Plan. Included are black rocksh,
Marine Sanctuary which allows wardens to be deputized to black and yellow rocksh, blue rocksh, brown rocksh,
conduct federal law enforcement patrols in the sanctuary. calico rocksh, China rocksh, copper rocksh, gopher
This partnership provides $125,000 in operating expenses, rocksh, grass rocksh, kelp rocksh, olive rocksh, quill-
over a three-year period, for the wardens working in the back rocksh, treesh, California sheephead, greenlings,
sanctuary. A similar partnership exists with the National cabezon, California scorpionsh, and monkeyfaced “eels.”
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) which provides $300,000
These species are targeted by sport and commercial sh-
to pay wardens overtime for groundsh enforcement. We
ermen. The primary commercial shery is for the live-sh
can expect these partnerships to continue.
market. The live-sh market commands a much higher
Enforcement personnel are actively working on memoran- price per pound than traditional markets. The high price
dums of understandings with the Channel Islands National and low volume of sh being handled has resulted in
Marine Sanctuary and various units of the National Park the proliferation of small sh businesses. Many such busi-
Service in the Channel Islands and San Francisco Bay nesses operate out of vehicles. The resulting highly-mobile
areas. These partnerships will provide the department shery makes enforcement difcult.
with operating funds in exchange for law enforcement
patrols in federal waters. The function also provides a
law enforcement consultant to assist the Pacic Fisheries
Managing California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
68
Salmon Striped Bass
Marine Law Enforcement
Enforcement problems in the sport salmon shery include Enforcement includes patrols directed toward such prob-
the use of barbed hooks and other illegal hooks, multiple lems as night shing from boats and multiple rod viola-
poles, overlimits, group shing, retention of Coho salmon, tions in San Francisco Bay, overlimits, gillnets, and market
sorting and discarding of less desirable sh, (i.e., “high checks for illegal sh. There is also public concern over
grading”) violations of the salmon punch card in the Klam- snagging of striped bass in ocean waters.
ath Management Zone, and sale of sport caught sh. There There is an active black market involving sport-taken
has been a trend among some sport salmon anglers toward striped bass entering the commercial market. Fish are
the use of commercial type gear in an illegal manner. caught with rod and reel and illegal gillnets. Black market
Problems in the commercial shery include the failure striped bass then become mixed with legally imported sh
to record sh landings, violations of quota-landing limits, from sources outside of California, primarily aquaculture sh.
shing closed areas, retention of Coho salmon, use of ille- Additional patrol time has been made available through
gal gear such as barbed hooks or more than six troll lines, the Striped Bass Stamp Fund. In addition, funding is avail-
and shing without a commercial salmon permit. Some of able through state and federal water projects to mitigate
the tribal allotments of salmon are being sold outside the impacts of those projects on this and other sheries.
reservation, both in California and other states. This has Recipients of the additional funding are the Marine Region
created an enforcement problem, as there are currently and the Delta Bay Enhanced Enforcement Project.
conicts between tribal law and California regulations.
Pacic Herring
Mid-season regulation changes, for both the sport and
commercial sheries, result in confusion and adverse Enforcement is focused on compliance with gillnet mesh
public relations. While these changes are based upon the sizes, length of nets, number of nets used, limited entry
best biological information available, enforcement person- permit requirements, quotas, and season dates. There
nel often receive complaints about the complexity of the are special requirements for herring buyers to ensure
salmon regulations. Standardization and earlier publica- accurate recordings of the landings for the purpose of
tion of regulations, to the extent possible, would be well quota management. The roe-on-kelp shery is subject to
received by all shermen. A greater effort towards public permit requirements, licensing of individuals working on
education regarding management of salmon and the basis kelp rafts, special reporting requirements, quotas, and
for the regulations would also assist in this area. raft size limits. The ocean harvest fresh sh permit may
not be used during the time the roe sheries are operat-
Besides the federal shery agencies, other entities
ing, and the herring taken in this shery may not be sold
involved in the management of salmon include the Hoopa
for roe recovery. During the relatively short season, there
and Yurok tribes. These tribes in the Klamath Management
is a strong enforcement effort, which requires the shifting
Zone are allocated fty percent of the available annual
of wardens from many other areas of the state.
harvest and have a tribal representative on the PFMC. The
department works closely with these groups to manage Because of the numerous boats involved in the San Fran-
the sport and commercial salmon shery in ocean and cisco Bay shery, the Coast Guard is heavily involved
inland waters of the state.
Halibut
There are minimum size limits for commercial and sport
caught Pacic and California halibut. Commercial enforce-
ment efforts center on the trawl and gillnet shery.
Efforts focus on net measurement, sh size restrictions,
and documented landings. There are several closures for
trawl and gillnets along the California coasts. Closures
are very specic to depths and distance from shore. Spe-
cic electronic equipment capable of accurately measur-
ing distances and depths is needed to monitor these sh-
eries for compliance. Personnel trained in the use of this
equipment are essential to ensure successful prosecution
through the legal system. Limited entry permits are also
required for the use of gillnets to take halibut.
The department’s marine patrol officers enforce the law by issuing a citation for
taking horn sharks in a marine protected area.
Credit: Chamois Andersen, California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 69
in monitoring the setting of nets to avoid navigational the extremely high value for abalone, a signicant black
Marine Law Enforcement
hazards. The National Park Service is involved in some market exists. Traditionally, this violation revolved around
areas of the Golden Gate National Recreation area. The small groups taking large numbers of abalone for sale.
San Francisco Police Department becomes involved with While this still may occur, more recent trends involve
nets or boats that are tied to prohibited structures. large numbers of individuals taking their daily limits and
selling them. These individuals often make daily trips to
the coast.
Coastal Pelagic Species Every year signicant cases are made involving the sale
of sport-caught abalone. Patrol techniques used include
Sardine/Anchovy/Mackerel directed enforcement details, undercover operations, and
checkpoints. There is also DFG’s Special Operations Unit
Enforcement involves monitoring and sampling loads for
(SOU) which is a specially funded group of wardens
compliance with quotas and allowable levels of incidental
who spend much of their time and effort detecting sale
catches. Incidental catches are allowed because these
of sport-taken abalone. Enhanced enforcement levels,
species often school together and are caught in the same
depend on continued stable funding from abalone stamp
net. Round haul nets are the primary gear used for taking
revenue or other sources.
these species.
Sampling techniques and monitoring of the unloading pro-
Sea Urchin
cess are labor intensive. Monitoring the landings ensures
Regulations relating to the allowable size limits, log books
accurate reporting of species and prevents under-report-
and permits for sea urchins are the primary focus for
ing and/or landing of prohibited species. When quotas are
enforcement. Measuring the urchins is time-consuming
close to being reached or are reached, a high incidence of
and challenging because of the volume of urchins taken
unreported landings typically occurs making enforcement
and the physical make-up of the urchin. Commercial ves-
activity even more important.
sels are often small, and it is sometimes difcult to nd
workspace for at-sea monitoring. The urchin industry also
Squid
has specic time and area closures. Observing the divers
Enforcement for market squid includes education about
while they are in the water is necessary to identify the
and enforcement of new regulations such as the restricted
divers that do not have a restricted access permit. Aba-
use of lights, documentation of shing activity in log-
lone share the same habitat as urchins and this creates
books, weekend closures, light-boat shielding, and watt-
additional enforcement efforts related to the illegal take
age restrictions. Consistent statewide enforcement of new
of abalone by commercial urchin divers.
regulations is a priority. Accurate and consistent dissemi-
nation of information of regulation and policy changes to
Shrimp/Prawns
the shermen and sh businesses is critical to gaining
Shrimp and prawn sheries are generally divided into
compliance throughout the shery.
two gear categories. The rst category includes golden,
spot, coonstripe, and ridgeback prawns, which are taken
Abalone
by trawling or traps. The second category includes pink
The abalone shery is currently the number one statewide
shrimp, which are taken only by trawl nets.
enforcement priority and is expected to remain. Because
Enforcement focuses on trawl mesh sizes, trap construc-
of declining populations, all areas south of San Francisco
tion including destruct devices, limited entry permits,
have been closed to the sport and commercial take of
incidental catch, and log books. With the shutdown of
abalone. The coastline north of San Francisco is open
other sheries, there were concerns that new shermen
to sport shing only. The sport season is April through
would enter this shery, so limited entry was established.
November with the month of July closed. Restrictions
Apprehension over incidental take of prohibited species
added during the 2000 season were requirements for an
has resulted in consideration of on-board observers and
abalone stamp and abalone report card. Of major concern
sh excluder devices. Changes in the design of traps are
is the sale of sport-caught abalone. Mariculture and impor-
also under consideration.
tation are the only legal sources of abalone for the com-
mercial markets. Enforcement problems arise when the
source of abalone cannot be determined.
Besides the usual over limit/under-size problems, enforce-
ment is directed at the illegal sale and export of abalone.
This is a major problem in California, and because of
Managing California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
70
Lobster Because commercial take is permitted, unless restricted
Marine Law Enforcement
by law, new sheries continue to develop for invertebrate
Current enforcement efforts include inspection of catch,
species, which have not previously been taken for com-
compliance with season and area closures, gear restric-
mercial purposes.
tions, including trap construction and destruct devices,
Enforcement of the take of invertebrates in the tidal
permits, size limits, out-of-season take, illegal importa-
zone occurs primarily from the shore. Enforcement of
tion, and log books.
incidental take is commonly checked while monitoring
Patrol techniques vary on the enforcement of lobster
another shery. There are specic permits related to the
regulations. Techniques include routine uniformed patrols
scientic collection of invertebrates. These permits are
and undercover patrols, such as underwater surveillance,
very restrictive in specifying what can be taken, how
and use of marked lobster. DFG divers are also used to
many can be taken and who can do the collecting.
locate illegally-set lobster traps. Traps set in areas closed
to commercial lobster shing present a major problem for
enforcement.
Marine Aquaria
The majority of sport taken lobster are taken at night,
T he marine aquaria shery involves the take of organ-
requiring constant monitoring by enforcement personnel.
isms for the live pet, hobby or display trade. Finsh
The majority of violations committed by sport shermen
include garibaldi, gobies and juvenile sharks. Inverte-
include out-of-season-take and taking undersize lobster.
brates include coral, shrimp and octopus. The demand
Crab for the marine aquaria trade has led to species being
harvested for the rst time. The take of marine aquaria
Enforcement focuses primarily on commercial and sport
species occurs statewide primarily in nearshore waters
sheries for Dungeness or rock crab, with minor sheries
with no seasonal closures. Illegal importation of marine
for tanner and stone crab. The sport sheries are subject
aquaria species from Mexico has become prevalent.
to minimum size limits, season and gear restrictions for
all species of crabs. Marine aquarium organisms cannot be taken in any marine
life refuges, marine reserves, ecological reserves and
Commercial Dungeness crab regulations include a mini-
state reserves. One identied enforcement problem is the
mum size limit, male crab only requirement, and limited
killing of live-bearing adult sharks in order to remove
entry permits. Commercial shermen are allowed to bait
unborn young for the aquarium trade. Another is the
and pre-set their gear a certain number of hours prior
illegal shing by release of harmful chemicals into ocean
to the opening of the commercial Dungeness crab season.
waters. The chemicals force the otherwise inaccessible
Detection of violation of the pre-soak regulation requires
species from their hiding places resulting in the death of
the use of directed enforcement. Rock crab have mini-
many non-targeted as well as targeted species.
mum size limits as the primary restriction. All traps are
required to have escape rings and destruct devices built
into the design to prevent lost traps from continued sh-
Aquaculture
ing. In most years, eighty percent of Dungeness crab land-
ings are taken during the rst three weeks of the season.
E nforcement focuses on working closely with biologists
This requires concentrated enforcement efforts during this
to monitor aquaculture facilities.
peak period of landings.
Monitoring the collection of brood stock by the mari-
culture industry is necessary to ensure compliance with
Other Invertebrates
permits and regulations. Inspection of sh businesses
The “other invertebrates” category generally includes the
purchasing mariculture products, is required to ensure
large number of species for which specic permits are not
that wild stocks are not used to illegally replace mari-
required. However, a tidal invertebrate permit is required
culture species in the commercial trade. Current regula-
to take the following species for commercial purposes
tions are not sufcient to properly monitor and enforce
between the high tide line and 1,000 feet seaward of the
mariculture activities.
low tide line: ghost shrimp, barnacles, chiones, clams,
cockles, limpets, mussels, octopus, oysters, sand dollars,
sea hares, starsh, and worms. These species, as well as
scallops, turban snails and moon snails, may also be taken
under a sport shing license, in certain areas, with daily
bag limit restrictions. There are few commercial restric-
tions on season, size, or bag limits for these species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME Managing California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 71
Commercial Fish Businesses
Marine Law Enforcement
C alifornia’s marine resources are a public trust. The
conservation and protection of these resources have
been entrusted to DFG. One means to monitor the lawful
use of these resources is the inspection of businesses that
commercialize the wild sh populations. Persons dealing
in the sale of seafood are required to be licensed, to
maintain adequate accounting records, and to comply with
species restrictions. Wardens routinely conduct inspec-
tions of businesses to ensure compliance with all state
and federal laws. Business inspections are also routinely
conducted to ensure compliance with landing require-
ments and proper documentation.
Frank Spear and Carmel Babich
California Department of Fish and Game
Managing California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
72
A Review of Restricted
Access Fisheries Stevens Act). This act began phasing out foreign shing
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
and encouraged “Americanization” of sheries, primarily
for groundsh, within our 200-mile exclusive economic
Background zone. Federal loan and tax programs proved to be
R
powerful incentives for private investment in shing
estricted access programs in sheries limit the quan-
eet expansion.
tity of persons, vessels or shing gear that may be
engaged in the take of any given species of sh or shell- By the late 1970s, it was clear to many in the shing
sh. Restricted access may also limit the catch allocated industry, California Department of Fish and Game (DFG)
to each shery participant through harvest rights such as and the Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC) that
individual or community quotas. there was a need to limit entry to sheries. In California,
the rst limited entry program was established in 1977
Without some form of restricted access, sheries
for the abalone shery. This was followed in 1979 with
resources are available to anyone who wants to pursue
legislation requiring salmon limited entry permits in 1980.
them. Each individual sherman or company is motivated
By 1983, this became a salmon vessel permit system.
to catch the sh before their competitors, which leads
While these and other limited entry programs capped the
to overcapitalization of the eet with too many vessels
number of shermen or vessels and created more orderly
and too much gear. Overcapitalizaton usually results in
sheries, they generally had little effect on overall shing
reduced income to shermen. Open access to sheries
capacity. Participants in these restricted sheries often
often leads to problems with both biological sustainability
increased their shing power with larger vessels, more
and economic viability. Over the past 50 years, increased
gear and increased time shing, or shifted to other fully
demand for sheries products, big advances in shing
developed open access sheries.
technology, and development of global sh markets have
combined to intensify the “race for sh.” Since the early 1980s, DFG has implemented restricted
access programs at an accelerating rate. High value sher-
Restricting access has been used as a shery management
ies such as herring, sea urchin and Dungeness crab are
tool for thousands of years to improve resource sustain-
now under restricted access. When demand from industry
ability, allocate catches among participants, and improve
for restricted access programs intensied in the mid-
economic and social returns from sheries. Restricting
1990s, DFG decided it was time to address restricted
access to sheries can 1) promote sustainable sheries;
access in a comprehensive manner. In late 1996, DFG
2) provide for a more orderly shery; 3) promote conser-
formed a limited entry review committee to develop a
vation among participants; and 4) maintain the long-term
standard restricted access policy for the Fish and Game
economic viability of sheries.
Commission. A draft policy was completed in 1998 and
Great care must be taken in designing and implementing
underwent major revision in 1999 with assistance from
restricted access programs. First, broadly recognized
outside experts and consultation with constituents. After
goals for the shery must be dened by managers, sher-
three public hearings and considerable public input,
men, and other constituents. Once these goals are identi-
the commission approved the restricted access policy in
ed, key restricted access elements can be identied
June 1999.
to attain them. A primary purpose of restricted access
programs is to balance the level of effort in a shery
with the health of the shery resource. In most situations,
California’s Restricted Access Programs
except for harvest rights programs, this involves setting
T
an appropriate shery capacity goal (a combination of he legislature, commission, and DFG have differing,
factors that represent the shing power of the eet). but related roles in implementation of restricted
access programs. Historically, most of California’s pro-
grams were created through legislation. Examples include
History abalone (1977), salmon (1979), and pink shrimp (1994).
Others such as herring (1986), sea urchin (1989), and
U ntil recent decades, California did not restrict shing
the new pink shrimp program (2001) have been the
effort. After World War II, eet expansion, improved
responsibility of the commission. Since the passage of the
electronics and gear technology, new net materials, larger
Marine Life Management Act of 1998 and the commission’s
and faster vessels, plus increased shing skills signicantly
adoption of a comprehensive restricted access policy in
increased shing power. This trend of increased shing
1999, more restricted access program responsibility has
capacity and adoption of new technology accelerated
switched to the commission and department. The depart-
during the mid-1970s after passage of the Federal Fishery
ment works closely with constituent advisory committees
Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (Magnuson-
and task forces to carefully design and evaluate restricted
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 73
California’s Commercial Fisheries
access plans for submission to the commission. The com-
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
mission then conducts hearings for further public input.
Restricted Access Policy
The restricted access plan is then returned for any nec-
essary revision by the department and advisory groups
T he commission adopted its policy in order to guide
before going before the commission for a nal decision.
future restricted access programs. The commission
The legislature is kept informed and involved for sheries
believes that restricted access programs can offer at least
that require legislation to implement restricted access.
four benets:
Restricted access programs active through 2000 are sum-
• Fostering sustainable sheries by offering a means to
marized in the table below. Some of these programs are
match the level of shing with the capacity of a sh
revised versions of earlier programs. Restricted access
population and by giving shermen a greater stake in
was discontinued in 1998 in the abalone shery after
maintaining sustainability;
that shery was closed. Herring round haul permits were
• Providing a way to fund total costs for administration
phased out by 1998.
and enforcement of restricted access programs;
California Restricted Access Programs Through 2000
Permit Type Ldgs. Req. to Year Begun No. Permits No. Permits No. Permits Current Mgmt.
Renew First Year in 1992 in 2000 Authority
General Gill/Trammel Net Person no 1985 1052 376 223 Commission
Drift Gillnet Person every other year 1984 226 149 126 Legislature
Dungeness Crab (Resident) Vessel no 1995 614 N.A. 589 Legislature
Dungeness Crab (Non resident) Vessel no 1995 67 N.A. 69 Legislature
Finfish Trap Person yes 1996 316 N.A. 142 Legislature
Herring Gillnet (Resident) Person no 1986 339 323 335 Commission
Herring Gillnet (Non resident) Person no 1986 72 97 121 Commission
Lobster Operator Person no 1996 298 351 251 Commission
Market Squid Vessel Vessel no 1998 242 N.A. 198 Legislature
Market Squid Light Boat Vessel no 1998 53 N.A. 49 Legislature
Salmon Vessel Vessel no 1983 5964 2974 1704 Legislature
Sea Cucumber Diver Person no 1997 111 N.A. 101 Legislature
Sea Cucumber Trawl Person no 1997 36 N.A. 30 Legislature
Sea Urchin Diver Person every other year 1989 915 537 407 Commission
Nearshore Fishery Person no 1999 1130 N.A. 1026 Commission
Pink Shrimp (discontinued) Person no 1994 307 N.A. 90 Commission
Pink Shrimp
(new program in 2001) Vessel ---- 1994 8 N.A. 101 Commission
Source: California Department of Fish and Game License Branch Statistics
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
74
• Providing long term social and economic benets to Harvest Rights: In establishing restricted access pro-
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
the state and shermen, and; grams based on the allocation of harvest rights to individ-
ual shermen or vessels, the state should insure the fair
• Broadening opportunities for the commercial shing
and equitable initial allocation of shares, resources assess-
industry to contribute to management of the state’s
ments, cost recovery, limits on aggregation of shares, and
commercial sheries.
consider recreational shing issues.
The key elements of the policy are summarized below.
Costs and Fees: Administrative costs are to be minimized.
A complete copy of the policy is contained in Guide to
Review or advisory boards may be established. Funds
California’s Marine Life Managememt Act by M. L. Weber
from restricted access programs may be deposited in
and B. Heneman. It is also available at the commission’s
a separate account of the Fish and Game Preservation
Web site at www.dfg.ca.gov/fg_comm/index.html
Fund. Restricted access programs should deter violations,
General: Restricted access is one of a number of tools
while minimising enforcement costs through the use of
for conserving and managing sheries as a public trust
new technologies or other means. Administrative and
resource, and may be adopted to achieve several pur-
enforcement costs are to be borne by each restricted
poses, including sustainable and orderly sheries, conser-
access program.
vation, and long-term economic viability.
The rst restricted access program adopted under the
Development: Fishermen and other citizens must be
commission’s new policy is for northern pink shrimp sh-
involved in the development of restricted access pro-
ery. This program, which replaced the pink shrimp pro-
grams. The specic needs of a shery must be balanced
gram initiated by the legislature in 1994, took effect in
with the goal of increasing uniformity among such programs.
2001. It includes transferable and non-transferable vessel
Review: Restricted access programs in individual sheries and individual permits.
and the Commission’s policies on restricted access should
Currently, there are restricted access plans under devel-
be regularly reviewed.
opment and review for the nearshore nsh shery,
Capacity Goal: Any restricted access program that does market squid, the spot prawn trap sheries. These plans
not assign harvest rights to individual shermen must are created collaboratively by teams of constituents and
identify a “capacity goal” for the shery to try to match DFG staff convened by the director.
shing power to the resource. This goal, which should be
developed collaboratively, may be expressed in such terms
as size or power of vessels or number of permits. Where a
eet is above its capacity goal, the program must include
a means of reducing the capacity in the shery. A new
restricted access program is not to allow shing effort to
increase beyond recent levels.
Participation: Eligibility for participating in a restricted
access shery may be based on the level of historical par-
ticipation or on other relevant factors. In issuing permits,
certain priorities should be followed. For instance, rst
priority should be given to licensed commercial shermen
or vessels with past participation in that shery. In addi-
tion, shermen licensed in California for at least 20 years
may be included in new restricted access programs with
qualifying criteria determined for each program by the
commission. New permits should be issued only if a shery
is below its capacity goal.
Permit Transferability: Where appropriate, permits may
be transferable between shermen or vessels, as long as
there is a capacity goal and a program for achieving that
goal in the shery. Under certain conditions, permits may
be transferred from retired to new vessels. Fees to offset
the costs of management may be imposed on the transfer
of permits.
Commercial fishing vessels in Bodega Bay.
Credit: Chris Dewees
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 75
Federal Restricted Access Programs California needs to understand the interaction of
A Review of Restricted Access Fisheries
restricted access programs with other primary types of
T he federally managed groundsh shery (includes 83 shery management systems such as marine reserves,
species) off Washington, Oregon and California is spatial management and local co-management schemes.
managed, in part, under a limited entry program Finally it is important to take into account how restricted
developed by the Pacic Fishery Management Council access programs in one shery affect participation and
(PFMC) and implemented by the National Marine Fisheries shing effort in other sheries.
Service (NMFS) in 1993. The federal program has issued
gear-specic permits to vessels using trawl, xed longline
Christopher M. Dewees
and shpot and allocates a proportion of the catch to
University of California, Davis
each gear type. Those sh not allocated to the limited
Michael L. Weber
entry eet continue to be allocated to open access
Advisor to California Fish and Game Commission
vessels (primarily hook-and-line and shpots) and those
who take groundsh incidentally in other sheries. NMFS
was authorized by Congress in December 2000 to develop
References
regulations for the limited entry xed gear sablesh
shery which allow for stacking of up to three permits
California Fish and Game Commission. 1999. Restricted
with cumulative landing limits. These management
Access Policy. Accessible at www.dfg.ca.gov/fg_comm/
regulations would have effects similar to those of harvest
index.html.
rights systems.
Gimbel, K. L. 1994. Limiting Access to Marine Fisheries:
Keeping the Focus on Conservation. Center for Marine
Future Actions Conservation and World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC,
316 pp.
T he Marine Life Management Act (MLMA) requires eval-
Iudicello, S., M. L. Weber and R. Wieland. 1999. Fish,
uation every ve years of existing restricted access
Markets, and Fishermen: The Economics of Overshing.
programs and this will be an ongoing activity of the
Island Press, Washington, DC and Covelo, CA, 192 pp.
department and the commission. These evaluations and
National Research Council. 1999. Sharing the Fish: Toward
the increasing demand for restricted access programs
a National Policy on Individual Fishing Quotas. National
means that the department will need expanded capa-
Academy Press, Washington, DC, 422 pp.
bilities to collect and analyze economic and social data
related to sheries. These data, combined with biological Weber, M. L. and B. Heneman. 2000. Guide to California’s
data about shery resources, will be critical in developing Marine Life Management Act. Common Knowledge Press,
and evaluating restricted access policy options on a Bolinas, CA, 133 pp.
shery-by-shery basis. Restricted access will likely be
an important component of shery management plans
required under the MLMA.
Experience with restricted access is growing statewide,
nationally and internationally. As our knowledge base
grows, new techniques for managing access to sheries
will become available. There is a growing trend toward
implementing harvest rights systems in the form of
individual and community-based quotas as currently used
in Alaska, Canada and overseas. Transferable gear certi-
cate programs are in place in trap sheries in Florida and
Georgia and this tool may have potential in California.
It will be important that DFG and the PFMC work closely to
ensure consistency of state and federal restricted access
programs affecting sheries managed jointly off the Cali-
fornia coast.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
76
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 77
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
78
California’s Nearshore
Ecosystem and the commission delegated the authority to set recre-
California’s Nearshore Ecosystem
ational angling regulations. Notable exceptions are the
C
white seabass and nearshore nsh sheries, which are
alifornia’s nearshore ecosystem, dened as the area
subjects of shery management plans under development
from the coastal high tide line offshore to a depth of
by the department for adoption by the commission late
120 feet, is one of the most productive ocean areas in
in 2001. These two sheries are being managed under
the world. This area, comprising only about 2,550 square
the provisions of the Marine Life Management Act of
miles, generates from the harvest of its resources, almost
1998. This act establishes the framework for the eventual
$40 million in ex-vessel revenue, a little less than one-
management of all the state’s marine sheries through
third of the value of all California’s sheries. The area
the creation of shery management plans and commission
is home to a wide variety of shes, giant kelp, marine
regulatory action. A key provision of this act is an over-
invertebrates (spiny lobster, abalone, sea urchin, crabs),
arching goal of sustainable use.
and marine mammals, as well as a large number of sea
and shore bird species. The next decade will be a critical one for the manage-
ment of the resources of the nearshore, as we attempt to
The nearshore area is composed of a variety of habitats
successfully address the major issues listed above.
ranging from high-relief rocky reef to broad expanses
of sand and mud. There are distinct differences in the
prevalent oceanographic conditions from north to south.
Robson A. Collins
Much of the state’s shoreline is heavily inuenced by the
California Department of Fish and Game
cold California Current, which sweeps south from the Gulf
of Alaska. As a consequence, the extreme northern por-
tion of the coast is inhabited by plant and animal species
also found off Oregon and Washington. The nearshore
area here is dominated by species commonly found off
Oregon such as black rocksh and cabezon, redtail perch,
and night and surf smelt. Along the central coast, south
of Cape Mendocino, where rocky-reef habitat dominates,
prevailing onshore northwest winds cause the upwelling
of nutrient-rich waters from the ocean bottom and high
biological productivity. Kelp beds, consisting of giant kelp
to the south and bull kelp to the north, are home to
a variety of nearshore rocksh, abalone and sea urchin.
Sea bird nesting areas and marine mammals such as sea
otters and sea lions are also important members of this
community. South of Point Conception, warm waters from
the south join with the cold California Current to provide
habitat for a wide variety of seasonal sub-tropical visitors
like yellowtail, white seabass, Pacic bonito, and Califor-
nia barracuda, all found in close association with the
abundant stands of giant kelp found around the offshore
islands and along the mainland. Major resident species
such as kelp bass, sheephead, halfmoon and olive rocksh
sustain a year-round nearshore shery.
Major issues are the impact of environmental events like
El Niño on animal and plant species, over-harvest of spe-
cies such as abalone and nearshore rocksh, interactions
between sheries and marine mammals, pollution from
human activities, and competition among user groups,
both consumptive and non-consumptive.
Management authority for most species found in the
nearshore continues to be split between the legislature
and the Fish and Game Commission, with the legislature
retaining the authority to manage commercial sheries
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 79
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
80
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 81
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
82
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 83
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
84
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 85
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
86
The Nearshore
Ecosystem ness crab catch and that the sport lobster catch, while
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate Resources: Overview
signicant, is substantially less than the commercial catch.
Invertebrate While the size of the recreational lobster harvest is not
known, a NMFS-sponsored survey estimated over 115,000
Resources: Overview
individual trips targeting spiny lobster in 1989. Divers
catch most lobsters with their hands, although baited ring
nets are also used, usually from skiffs, piers or jetties. A
C
commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) industry cater-
alifornia’s marine invertebrate sheries range among
ing to divers schedules special trips during lobster season.
the crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms and to a lim-
CPFVs in the SF Bay area have in recent years been offer-
ited extent, the polychaetes. This section deals with
ing combo-trips for rocksh and Dungeness crabs, where
most of them, with the notable exception of squid, classi-
crab pots are set at the beginning of the shing trip
ed as a coastal pelagic in this publication. Invertebrate
and pulled on the way back to port. These trips could
resources usually associated with bays and estuaries are
signicantly increase the sport crab catch in this region.
considered in another section. Commercial and recre-
In addition to these major sheries, sand crabs and red
ational shermen spend thousands of hours annually in
rock shrimp are the target of small but high value-per-unit
pursuit of these species, which are among the most highly
bait sheries.
prized of our marine resources. Harvest methods include
trawls pulled by large ocean-going vessels (shrimp), California’s nearshore echinoderm sheries developed in
traps shed from smaller boats (lobsters, crabs, and the 1970s as a response to the growing demand for shery
prawns), ring nets, and bare hands (recreational lobsters export products but were little utilized domestically. They
and crabs). In 1999, commercial invertebrates (excluding have been dominated by the red sea urchin shery which
squid) accounted for only about six percent of the state’s saw almost 15 million pounds landed in 1999, the second
total commercial catch by weight, but over 30 percent of lowest total during the 1990s, down from a high of 45 mil-
its ex-vessel value at over $44 million. Commercial catch lion pounds in 1990. Sea cucumber landings have averaged
records for invertebrate species, like most of California’s about 500,000 pounds during the 1990s, with cucumbers
sheries, are more complete than for their recreational taken by both commercial divers and trawlers, mostly in
counterparts. Spiny lobster is the only invertebrate shery southern California. There has been very little interest in
with both a substantial sport and commercial component. the sport take of echinoderms, other than small amounts
However the magnitude of the sport component of that of sea urchins. Purple sea urchins, whose unregulated take
shery is poorly known. The Marine Life Management Act can cause localized depletions, have been the target of
recognizes the importance of allocating marine resources scientic collectors for years.
fairly between commercial and recreational users and Other species not considered in this section, such as
so an improved understanding of the amount of sport limpets, jackknife clams, mussels and rock scallops, are
take and effort will be a necessity in the future. Many frequently harvested by sport shers and have been seri-
other species of invertebrates that are not the target ously impacted by California’s expanding human popu-
of sheries inhabit California’s marine waters where they lation. Water quality problems, both natural and man-
nevertheless form important functional components of caused, may prevent commercial and sport harvest of
marine ecosystems. bivalve mollusks, primarily clams and mussels. Since most
In 1999, over half of the marine crustacean catch of 16.4 bivalves are lter feeders, they ingest microscopic plant
million pounds consisted of Dungeness crab. Dungeness and animal matter from the water column. At certain
crab and Pacic ocean shrimp have comprised the major- times during the year, particularly during the spring and
ity of the crustacean catch each year since the 1950s. summer upwelling season, heavy plankton blooms occur
In recent years there have been over 330 boats taking in nearshore waters, and lter feeders may ingest and
Dungeness crabs in the center of the catch range from concentrate toxins, which are harmful to humans if con-
Crescent City to Fort Bragg. Boats average 200 crab pots sumed. The levels of toxic plankton are monitored by the
each, but some carry as many as one thousand pots. California Department of Public Health and warnings are
In contrast, the spiny lobster catch was almost 500,000 issued when appropriate.
pounds in 1999, and ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 Natural predation may signicantly reduce a population
pounds through most of the 1990s. Recreational harvests if a prey species increases its density or range. A well-
of crustaceans also center around crabs and spiny lobster. documented example is the return of the sea otter popu-
Dungeness and rock crabs are targets of scattered recre- lation to its historic range and its impact on central
ational effort throughout California. It is estimated that California’s Pismo clam and abalone resources. Disease
sport shermen take less than one percent of the Dunge- has not often been implicated in reducing populations of
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 87
California’s mollusks. However, the “withering syndrome” can undergo rapid increases or declines in population size
The Nearshore Ecosystem Invertebrate Resources: Overview
in the black abalone population, coupled with shing pres- (ocean shrimp and ridgeback prawn). Separate subpopula-
sure, has resulted in a drastic decline in the southern tions of Dungeness crabs and ridgeback prawns may exist
California stock. Periodic oceanographic disturbances such within California. The spiny lobster population is shared
as the warm-water event known as El Niño can have with Mexico, and ocean shrimp and Dungeness crab popu-
severe impacts on nearshore invertebrates, especially lations span the Oregon border. Management and shing
southern populations. practices in those political entities may affect California’s
portion of such shared resources.
California’s commercial abalone shery was the leading
molluscan shery for the decades up until its collapse and Future management and research on California’s inverte-
closure in 1997. Indeed, the MLMA was drafted in part brate resources should focus on more frequent and ef-
as a response to this tragedy. A robust recreational-only cient resource assessment methods and a better under-
abalone shery remains in northern California where an standing of the various factors, both natural and human-
estimated 1.2 million pounds was taken by 33,000 divers induced, which determine population levels and patterns
annually during the past decade. A punch card reporting of change. With such information at hand, resource man-
system was established in 1999, which should make track- agers will be better able to match the growing demands
ing catch and effort in this shery much easier in on California’s nearshore invertebrates with their pro-
the future. ductive capacity. Future management will undoubtedly
address the issue of marine protected areas as a
California’s nearshore ecosystem has been the target of
tool for ecosystem protection and enhancement of
an onslaught of exploitation, both extractive and non-
degraded areas.
consumptive, since the end of World War II. California’s
population has exploded during that time period and con-
centrated along the coastal zones of central and southern Peter Kalvass
California. Intertidal areas here, particularly rocky tidal California Department of Fish and Game
pools, have been trampled and stripped of their ora and
fauna despite the efforts of regulatory agencies to protect
them. Offshore mineral extraction, pipelines and tanker
trafc increase the likelihood of major fouling incidents
along our coastline. Fisheries management agencies have
been largely concerned with controlling the type and
amount of marine organisms available for harvest. How-
ever, the demands of ecosystem management will require
a greater vigilance over all the elements of nearshore
ecology, including the habitats of the organisms.
The collection of timely and accurate biological and sh-
ery information can be a costly and challenging endeavor.
As a consequence, management of nearshore invertebrate
resources in California has proceeded largely on an ad hoc
basis. Measures such as minimum sizes, closed seasons,
gear or equipment restrictions, bag limits and closed areas
have been used in an effort to protect stocks, sustain
harvests and allocate the resource. For some of our sher-
ies, management systems based on annual or seasonal
quotas and a xed harvest rate may be more desirable.
Following a worldwide trend, during the last decade most
of our commercial sheries for invertebrates have come
under limited access or entry regulations, and conse-
quently opportunities for entry into these sheries have
been reduced.
A variety of life-history patterns, which need to be con-
sidered when making management decisions, are found
among California’s invertebrate resources. Some resources
are long-lived and slow growing (spiny lobster, sheep crab,
abalone, sea urchins); others have short life spans and
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
88
Abalone
History of the Fishery to 1970. Green abalones peaked in 1971 at 1,090,000
Abalone
pounds, declined rapidly to six percent of their 1968 to
A rchaeological evidence indicates that California Indi- 1972 average catch of 488,000 pounds. White abalone was
ans shed abalones extensively from coastal areas and the shortest lived of the abalone shery, beginning about
the Channel Islands prior to European and Asian settle- 1968 peaking in 1972 with landings of 144,000 pounds,
ment of California. During the 1850s, Chinese Americans and quickly declining thereafter. Black abalones peaked in
started a shery in California that targeted intertidal 1973 at 1,913,000 pounds, declining in 1990 to 13 percent
green (Haliotis fulgens) and black (H. cracherodii) abalo- of their 1972 to 1984 average catch of 687,000 pounds.
nes, with peak landings of 4.1 million pounds of meat and Because the shery was managed as a single entity, the
shell in 1879. The Chinese worked shallow waters with total landings stabilized with the inclusion of the pink,
skiffs, gafng abalones dislodged by a long pole with a green, white, and black landings, but each of these spe-
wedge on the end. This shery was eliminated in 1900 by cies quickly collapsed. Red abalone again became the
closure of shallow waters to commercial harvest. Japanese dominant species with most of the landings originating
divers followed the Chinese by exploiting virgin stocks from the southern part of central California, and the
of subtidal abalones, rst as free divers from surface Channel Islands.
oats and later, more successfully, as hard-hat divers. Complicating the issues was the effect of sea otter pre-
California Department of Fish and Game statistics showed empting the central California shing areas. Red abalone,
an increase in landings from 1916 to a peak in 1935 of stocks were fully utilized around the historic center of
3,900,000 pounds followed by a decline to 164,000 pounds the range, Monterey, and the shery expanded southward.
in 1942 as shermen of Japanese heritage were moved to The expansion of the sea otter, also moving south, eventu-
relocation camps during World War II. ally removed much of the central California coast as a
The red abalone (H. rufescens) was the only species source of legal abalones.
reported in the commercial landing gures from 1916 to Increased efciency and effectiveness of the shery, i.e.,
1943. They were recorded as unidentied abalone. By faster boats and better diving technology, were factors
1960, the center of the shery had moved from Monterey which caused a continual expansion of the shing grounds.
to the Morro Bay area, where the regions from Cape San None of these factors was adequately addressed, and
Martin to Cayucos in the north and Point Buchon to Pecho necessary reductions in the shing power in the shery to
Rock in the south were shed. Declining stocks of red protect the abalone resource never occurred.
abalones, caused largely by the combined effects of sh-
ing and a growing population of sea otters, forced a shift
Status of Biological Knowledge
southward in the late 1960s. Landings increased in the San
Francisco area, supplying 34 percent of the 1988 red aba-
I n addition to the ve species which have been commer-
lone landings. Evidence, including successfully prosecuted
cially shed, at (H. walallensis), threaded (H. assimilis)
court cases, indicates that many of these abalones were
and pinto (H. kamtschatkana) abalones are also found
poached from noncommercial areas in northern California.
in California; all have limited distributions and none is
By 1990, landings of red abalones declined to 17 percent
common. The threaded (H. assimilis) was once thought to
of the 1931 to 1967 average of 2,135,000 pounds.
be a separate species, but it has been included under the
Commercial harvest of abalones was prohibited in south-
pinto as a southern sub-species. Depth and geographical
ern California from 1913 through 1943, then reopened
distributions of all California haliotids are best described
to increase wartime food production. The shery has
by seawater temperature. Black abalones are found from
undergone successive development and decline as less
Oregon to southern Baja California and are largely inter-
desirable species were exploited. The abalone shery
tidal, extending to a depth of about 20 feet in southern
underwent spatial and interspecic serial depletion fol-
California. Red abalones, which also extend from Oregon
lowing World War II. The shery was managed as a single
into Baja California, are intertidal and shallow subtidal in
entity, and it was difcult to address the collapse of
northern and central California but are exclusively subtidal
individual species in the face of stable landings. The sh-
in southern California, where they are restricted to cooler
ery alternated from red to pink (H. corrugata) to green,
upwelling locations along the mainland and the north-
white (H. sorensensi), and nally to black abalones, but
western Channel Islands. Pink, green, white and threaded
the new target species could not provide the continuous
abalones are characteristic of the warmer waters south of
demand. The combined-species landings reached a record
Point Conception extending into Baja California and the
5,420,000 pounds in 1957. Pink abalone landings reached
southeastern Channel Islands. These species further sort
a maximum 3,388,000 pounds in 1952 and in 1990 were
out by temperature in their depth distributions: greens
one percent of the 2,178,000 pounds averaged from 1950
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 89
Abalone
6
millions of pounds landed
5
4
All Abalone
3
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, All Abalone
2
Prior to 1949, commercial
abalone landings consisted
1
primarily of red abalone. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
are centered at shallower depths than pinks, which the benthic existence appears to be hit or miss. To com-
are shallower than white abalones. Flat and pinto abalo- pensate, abalones produce millions of eggs. Additionally,
nes are generally found in the cooler waters north of broadcast spawners must be sufciently close together to
Point Conception. improve the chances of fertilization, which decrease with
distance between spawners because of dilution. Distances
California abalones feed primarily on algae, mostly the
greater that three or four feet may not support sufcient
large brown kelps that form stands along the coast and
fertilization. While abalones can move and aggregate for
islands. They feed on bacterial and diatom lms when
spawning, often low numbers and physical barriers can
small, later switching to grazing on living plants and cap-
prevent aggregation.
turing algal drift, fragments of macrophytes moved by
currents and surge. Most abalones feed preferentially on Recent research has shown that abalones may not success-
kelps but minor variations in preference appear to reect fully reproduce and recruit annually, likely because of
the habitat where each is found. Specialization on drift all the reasons above. As abalones are removed during
algae puts abalones in competition with three species of shing, their numbers often will decrease to the point
urchins. Sea urchin grazing has been reported to limit kelp that few adults are sufciently close for successful fertil-
and abalone distributions in many regions of the state. ization. In one Australian abalone, it has been shown
that when stocks of abalone are reduced to about 40
Seawater temperature also strongly inuences abalone
percent of the virgin biomass, reproduction failure occurs.
growth, and reproduction. Elevated seawater tempera-
Most of the California abalones are well below that 40
tures are low in nutrients and kelps, the food of abalone,
percent mark.
do not tolerate these periods well. El Niño events bring
warm seawater temperatures northward along the coast. Abalones, especially juveniles, are preyed upon by a wide
This can have severe short and long-term effects on aba- variety of animals including crabs, lobsters, gastropods,
lone populations through reduced food availability and octopuses, sea stars and shes; larger abalones achieve a
the direct affects of warm water on the abalone. In red partial refuge in size from most of these. However, two
abalone, El Niño conditions have been observed to slow predators, sea otters and humans, including the effects
growth, and decrease settlement and recruitment. If suf- of human activity in and near the sea, are the keystone
cient stocks survive through the warm water period, species that control the condition of the abalone resource.
reproduction will resume with the return of normal con-
ditions, but several year classes may be absent. This
Red abalone
will eventually be reected in the future availability of
shable stocks.
R ed abalone is the largest abalone in the world with a
Abalones are synchronous broadcast spawners, the males record maximum shell length of 12.3 inches. The shell
and females releasing their sperm and eggs directly to color is brick red when red algae are part of the diet.
the sea. The duration and period of spawning varies A prominent muscle scar is visible on the inside of the
with species. The fertilized egg sinks to the bottom, shell. Typically three to four respiratory pores are open;
hatches and spends several days to a week in the plank- these are slightly raised, tubular, and oval. The epipodium
ton, depending upon temperature and species. Various is smooth and black.
oceanographic mechanisms are thought to keep the larvae
in the vicinity of the adults. Nevertheless, settlement to
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
90
This abalone is associated with rocky kelp habitat ranging north have increased following the shing down of their
Abalone
from Oregon into Baja California. In northern and central main competitor the red sea urchin.
California they are found from the intertidal to the shallow Abalone are preyed upon by a broad range of predators
subtidal depths. In southern California they are exclusively including sea stars, octopus, crabs and lobster, and shes,
subtidal, restricted to upwelling locations along the main- particularly sheephead, cabezon, and bat rays, all of
land and the northwestern Channel Islands. Two canopy- which may be found in red abalone habitat. Sea otters
forming kelps, bull kelp and giant kelp are primary compo- are the major predator of red abalone in the current sea
nents of the red abalone habitat and diet. Several other otter range from Año Nuevo (Santa Cruz) to south of Point
brown algae are reported as important food sources. Conception. Inside this range a few adult abalone survive
There is a clear distinction between juvenile and adult red in deep crevices.
abalone habitat, an indication that migration occurs as the In central and southern California, where species were
abalone grow. There are two separate movement phases. serially depleted, red abalone had declined the least of
The rst phase corresponds with settlement as postlarvae all ve species by the time the shery was closed in 1997.
on coralline algae and is ascribed to light avoidance (nega- Combined landings of red abalone declined during the
tive photoaxis) and/or downward attraction (positive geo- period from 1969 to1982 stabilizing at 1/10 their historic
taxis) into small spaces between rocks and under boul- average during the 14 year period before the 1997 clo-
ders. The second phase starts at 2.0 inches when they sure. Detailed examination of catch by area and shery
switch to feeding on drift kelp, moving from under boul- independent assessments reveal that the stability in land-
ders into crevices. Abalone in exposed crevices, under ings masked serial depletion by area, as successive areas
ledges, or on top of reefs are described as “emergent” declined by over two orders of magnitude. From 1952-1968
with most red abalone emergent by six inches. Red aba- most red abalone were caught in central California, fol-
lone have been reported to move in response to environ- lowed by southern mainland, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and
mental hazards such as sanding-in of reefs. They have San Miguel Islands. Catches declined rst along the central
been shown to move considerable distances of up to coast under the combined effects of expanding sea otters
0.4 miles. In northern California random movement in and shing pressure. Outside the sea otter range catches
deeper, less intensely shed populations supports some declined more slowly along the southern mainland than
of the replacement of the intertidal and shallow sub- at Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and San Nicolas Islands. From
tidal shed stocks. 1983-1996, catch decreased off these three islands to
Red abalone generally reach sexual maturity at a shell three percent, for Santa Rosa, and less than one percent,
length of ve inches, but may become mature as small as for Santa Cruz and San Nicolas, of their respective peak
1.6 inches for females and 3.3 inches for males in the wild. catches by the 1997 closure. San Miguel Island and the
Fecundity ranges from a few thousand eggs at rst spawn- north coast were the exceptions to this pattern. Catches
ing to up to six million eggs in large adults. Spawning from San Miguel Island, the farthest and most northern
is seasonal in northern and year round in southern Cali- of the Channel Islands, and the north coast comprised 71
fornia reecting northern seasonal availability of kelp. A of the 87 tons landed in 1996 prior to the shery closure
single spawning season from April to July with a peak in 1997.
in May was reported for northern California, based on A successful red abalone sport only shery continues to
histological evidence. the north of San Francisco county, where SCUBA has
The optimal temperature for successful survival to settle- always been prohibited and commercial take was only
ment for red abalone larvae is 55˚ to 68˚ F. At these allowed for a three year period during WWII. Breath-hold
temperatures the average duration of the swimming larval
phase is four days. Post settlement larval survival varies
from year to year. Studies off southern and northern
California showed occasional strong year classes followed
by long periods of unsuccessful recruitment.
Growth is highly variable and depends on availability of
food. Mark and recapture studies demonstrated higher
yearly growth rates in southern California compared to
northern California where food is seasonally available. An
exception occurred during the 1982-1984 El Niño in south-
ern California when kelp abundance declined dramatically.
Recent evidence suggests abalone growth rates in the Red Abalone, Haliotis rufescens
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 91
diving effort has increased in relation to shore picking Department research cruises to San Clemente, Santa Cata-
Abalone
beginning in the 1960s. In 1960, an estimated 11,000 diver- lina, and Santa Barbara Islands in 1996 and 1997, were
days were expended to take 118,000 pounds of red and used to investigate pink, and other, abalones. The number
black abalone, compared with 29,000 diver-days to take of abalones sighted per unit of time was used to quantify
192,000 pounds in 1972. By 1985 to 1989, average diver- stocks, and a factor was applied to estimate the number
days and shore picker-days per year were focused on of commercially legal pink abalone that could be collected
red abalone in central and northern California. Estimated per hour. Estimates ranged from about one to 1.5 abalone
landings of red abalone in central and northern California per hour. Similar cruises conducted in 1999, estimated
for combined divers and shore pickers reached a high of only 0.28 commercial legal pink abalone per hour. At
3,472,000 pounds in 1986 and had decreased to 1,161,000 Catalina Island, no commercial sized pink abalone were
pounds by 1989. In 1998 an abalone stamp was rst found. These estimates indicate how low the remaining
sold to generate revenues for assessments. In 1998 and numbers of abalone there are at the islands. The situation
1999 an average 33,000 stamps were sold showing effort is no better on the front side of Santa Catalina Island,
levels are comparable to those estimated for the 1985 to where it was closed to commercial take, but open to
1989 period. recreational shing.
Fishery independent surveys conducted at the Channel
Islands reveal a close association between the presence
Pink abalone of small individuals and legal size sport and commercial
P
sizes. The best locations were where refuges were pres-
ink abalones occur from Point Conception to the cen-
ent, e.g., Anacapa Island. These areas supported higher
tral Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Its depth range
numbers of legal sized abalone and had continued pres-
extends from the lower intertidal zone to almost 200 feet,
ence of smaller sizes. There needs to be large adults
but most are found from about 20 to 80 feet. It has the
present to provide spawn for future generations, and the
broadest distribution of the southern California abalones.
presence of the smaller sizes forms the potential shable
It may be identied by its nearly circular shell, black and
resource. This situation may point out that to have sus-
white epipodium and black tentacles, and highly arched
tainable abalone resources the full size range must occur.
shell with protruding respiratory pores, two to four of
which may be open. Natural climatic events may affect pink abalone both posi-
tively and negatively. Pink abalone is at the northern end
In the early 1950s, pink abalone comprised the largest
of its range in southern California, so it would not be
segment of the abalone shery, about 75 percent, and
unusual for this species to be enhanced by the inux of
had a signicant effect on the total abalone landings
warm water during an El Niño period, as was observed
(Figure 1). Commercial landings originated at the eastern
in 1982 to 1984. On the other hand, intrusion of nutrient-
northern Channel Islands (Anacapa, Santa Cruz), and the
poor warm, El Niño-driven seawater severely depresses
southern Channel Islands (San Nicolas, Santa Catalina,
kelp, growth and survival, which limits the food of aba-
Santa Barbara, San Clemente). Because pink abalone are
lone. This may depress abalone growth and reproduction.
more fragile than others and grow more slowly, the level
Since pink abalone spawn throughout much of the year,
of take could not continue. The persistence of pink land-
they are able to overcome the detrimental effects of
ings was due to expansion into unshed areas, but that
warm water and spawn successfully. Withering syndrome
occurred so quickly that depleted areas did not have
(WS), a lethal disease of abalones, is exacerbated by El
time, or the ability, to recover. By the early 1980s the
Niño related sea water warming, and may cause severe
commercial pink abalone shery had expanded throughout
local decline in numbers.
the available range and the landings dwindled to
virtually nothing.
Green abalone
Pink abalone was important in the recreational shery,
being the second most taken species, after green abalone.
G
This is not surprising as both species are easily targeted reen abalone is found on open coast shallow rocky
by sport divers. Since pink abalone inhabits areas south habitat from Point Conception, California to Bahia
of Point Conception, until recently south of the range Magdalena, Baja California, including parts of the Channel
of the sea otter, its population condition has not been Islands that are inuenced by warmer water regimes. The
affected by that predator. The re-occupation of sea otter species is associated with the warm-temperate California
into southern California could have adverse consequences region from Baja California to southern California. Green
on the already depleted pink abalone. abalone were commonly found in rock crevices, under
rocks and other cryptic cavities from the low intertidal to
subtidal zones. They are mostly found between 10 and 20
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
92
foot depths, often associated with surf grass beds, but are
Abalone
4.5
sometimes seen at 50 and 60 foot depths. 4.0
millions of pounds landed
3.5
The shell is brown with the surface marked by many low,
Red Abalone
3.0
at-topped ribs which run parallel to the pores. The shell 2.5
has ve to seven pores with edges elevated from the 2.0
surface and a groove that runs parallel on the outside 1.5
1.0
edge of the pores. The edge of the foot, the epipodium, is
0.5
mottled cream and brown, with a frilly edge and scattered 0.01916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
tubercles. The tentacles are olive green in color. Green
abalone attain a size of 10 inches but are usually smaller. 4
millions of pounds landed
Sexual maturity occurs at about three and a half inch shell
3
length (approx. 5 to 7 years). Individuals average about
Pink Abalone
one half inch of shell growth per year for the rst ve 2
to seven years. After maturity, shell growth slows down.
The spawning season for green abalone is between early 1
summer and fall and spawning often occurs several times
during this period. Average fecundity for a population of 0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
greens at Santa Catalina Island was estimated to be about
1.2
2.5 million eggs per female per year.
millions of pounds landed 1.0
Green abalone are opportunistic drift algae feeders, and
Green Abalone
0.8
eat a wide variety of drift algae, but they prefer eshy
red algae. Predation of juveniles plays a major role in 0.6
shaping adult population size. Abalone experience a high 0.4
mortality early in life due mainly to predation. Some 0.2
of the predators of juvenile abalone are crabs, lobsters,
0.0
other gastropods, sea stars, octopuses, and shes. The 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
two spot octopus is the main predator of young green 150
abalone at Santa Catalina Island. Larger individuals have a
thousands of pounds landed
125
refuge in size from most of these predators. However, bat
White Abalone
100
rays and sea otters prey selectively on larger abalones.
75
Since they prefer well sheltered, hidden niches, green
50
abalone are able to exist in the high energy area of the
low intertidal shallow subtidal areas where most other 25
abalone species cannot exist. They are often concentrated 01916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
in shallow subtidal surf grass beds where wave action
2.0
facilitates a steady ow of drift algae.
millions of pounds landed
Green abalone may occupy a particular site, called a 1.5
Black Abalone
homesite or scar. Abalone larger than one inch seldom
leave their home scar to forage, relying on algal drift. 1.0
Smaller individuals actively forage but return to their
home scar in the day. 0.5
0.0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Black abalone Commercial Landings 1916-1999, Multiple Abalone
I
Data Source for all figures: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts. Graphs
n black abalone the shell is smooth, black to slate gray
stacked to depict movement of catch effort from one abalone species to the next
in color, though some may have lost much of the outer
over time. Prior to 1949, identification of abalone species landed was not
layer leaving it white. This abalone has the most distinc-
required. However, commercial abalone landings between 1916 and 1949 consisted
tive shell of the California species. The shell is usually
primarily of red abalone. The data presented here for red abalone includes
clean though some have barnacles growing on them. There
landings recorded as unspecified abalone during this time period. There were
are ve to nine open pores, which are ush with the shell.
no commercial landings reported for pink or green abalone prior to 1950; no com-
In more southern populations as many as 14 pores may be
mercial landings are reported for white abalone prior to 1959; and no commercial
open. The epipodium has a smooth texture and is black.
landings are reported for black abalone prior to 1956.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 93
The interior of the shell is silvery-white nacre (mother-of- individuals appear to be well protected from most preda-
Abalone
pearl) and has a muscle scar. tors, at least as long as they remain attached to the
substrate. Sea otters are the main natural predator of
Black abalone are reported from as far north as Oregon,
this species. The absence of sea otters from southern
but most are found south of San Francisco Bay to southern
California is the primary reason for the dense concentra-
Baja California including the offshore islands. By the mid-
tions of abalone that developed in California and Mexico.
1990s, only remnant populations existed at the Farallon and
Channel Islands, and along the mainland southern California The recent commercial shery in California began in
shoreline they were totally absent. Small populations exist in approximately 1968 at the Channel Islands with the devel-
central and northern California. opment of an Asian market. Landings peaked in the 1970s,
and began a slow decline thereafter.
Essential habitats includes rocky intertidal areas, often
within the high energy surf zone. Consequently, it is In 1985, weak, shriveled, and dying black abalone were
exposed to a broad range of conditions, including wave observed by scientists in tide pools at the Channel Islands.
wrack, exposure during low tides to hot, dry periods of Black abalone were literally falling off the rocks in large
direct sun, and to chilling cold winter conditions. Because numbers at several of the islands. The disease is char-
natural populations of black abalone form exposed, easily acterized by weight loss, pedal atrophy, weakness, and
accessible aggregations, protection from take is impor- lethargy. Early experiments showed that once an abalone
tant, particularly along the mainland coast. In light of the exhibited signs of this syndrome, it quickly died.
growing human population in California, it is possible that Withering syndrome (WS), caused by a Rickettsia-like pro-
coastal populations of black abalone will never return. caryote is the causative agent of this catastrophic disease
Remote totally protected intertidal areas on the mainland of abalone. It has ravaged all the Channel Islands and the
and the Channel Islands may be required for reestablish- remaining mainland populations of black abalone as far
ment of natural populations. north as Pacica, San Mateo county. Most locations experi-
It is not known whether subpopulations of this abalone enced almost total loss of black abalone populations.
exist. Because of the extensive distribution of suitable A few individuals survive WS. These resistant abalone
habitat, limited migration, and the method of reproduc- will be the basis of any natural recovery and are also
tion, there may be genetic differences that have evolved utilized in captive breeding programs to develop resistant
among local populations, particularly at the extreme ends strains. In 1998, the NMFS added black abalone to the
of the range, and between coastal and insular popula- candidate species list for possible listing under the federal
tions. Black abalone appear to recruit locally, but further Endangered Species Act.
examination of the recruitment pattern in this species is
needed for better resource management and restoration.
White abalone
Black abalone grow most quickly during the rst ve to
W
10 years. Growth varies between locations, and is likely hite abalone inhabit deep, rocky substrata from 60
affected by stress, including disease, food availability, and to 200 feet deep, from Point Conception, in southern
climatic variation. This abalone is a long-lived species, California to Bahia Tortugas, in central Baja California,
attaining an age of 25 years or more. Sexual maturity including the offshore islands and banks. Because it is
occurs at a relatively small size, with most individuals found primarily in depths greater than about 75 feet, it
being mature at less than two inches. Spawning occurs wasn’t described as a species until 1941.
in the spring and early summer, and a second period of
The shell is high and oval in shape with a row of high pores
spawning may occur in the fall.
spiraling to the highest part of the shell, the spire. Gener-
Black abalone larvae settle onto hard substrate, and are ally, the surface of the shell is free of heavy encrustation,
often found in the vicinity of larger individuals. The newly but often the shell is covered with pink, coralline algae.
settled larvae are cryptic, and remain so until they attain There appears to be no harm to the abalone, and the
a length of four inches or greater. Small juveniles are algae often matches the shell to the surrounding habitat.
found under rocks and deep in crevices, while larger black The shell is considerably lighter in weight than the shells
abalone in natural unharvested areas congregate on rocks of other species. The interior of the shell is silvery-white
and in tide pools, sometimes in great numbers. Newly nacre and lacks a muscle scar. Three to ve of the largest
settled and juvenile black abalone forage on bacterial pores are open, the rest being lled in during growth.
lms. As the abalone grows it shifts to larger drift algae
Little is known about natural growth of white abalone.
brought into the intertidal areas by waves and currents.
Individuals settled in the laboratory grew at about 0.6 inch
Small black abalone are preyed upon by sea stars, octo- per year, less than that of other abalones. Estimates from
pus, and several crabs found in the intertidal areas. Larger a few individuals indicated that growth during the rst
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
94
ve years averages about an inch per year slowing down for listing as endangered under the federal Endangered
Abalone
thereafter, which is a similar growth pattern to other Species Act.
California abalones. The life span of white abalone was
estimated at about 35 to 40 years. There is no evidence
Status of the Populations
of a signicant recruitment event since the late 1960s
or early 1970s; thus the remaining individuals are likely
C urrently, all ve major species of abalone in central
approaching the end of their life spans.
and southern California are depleted, a result of
Reproduction in white abalone is probably similar to other cumulative impacts from commercial harvest, increased
species. Successful reproduction depends upon population market demand, sport shery expansion, an expanding
density, spawning period, and fecundity, and conditions population of sea otters, pollution of mainland habitat,
conducive to successful settlement. White abalone spawn disease, loss of kelp populations associated with El Niño
in the winter, with synchronous gamete release, but the events, and inadequate wild stock management. The
cue is unknown. The release of sperm initiates egg release political/legislative climate and limited funding has pre-
in some abalones. Abalone may reproduce annually, but vented the department from establishing and managing to
evidence suggests that settlement of the larvae may be sustain yields for each species and area. Fish and Game
only occasionally successful. Because of the short larval Commission and California legislative action halted sport
life, and the discontinuous habitat there are likely to and commercial shing for abalones in southern California
be genetic differences between remote locations, particu- in 1997. Sport shing is allowed north of San Francisco
larly at the extremes of its range. Bay. It seems paradoxical that all shing for abalone would
Abalone are herbivorous, feeding on bacterial and diatom be closed in the southern two thirds of California, while
lms when small, and foraging on attached and drift kelp a viable sport shery exists in the north. The difference
later. White abalone are associated with deep living kelps, between the two areas is centered on the way abalones
and have been observed feeding on these. They have also are taken. In the south, scuba and commercial dive equip-
been observed near the interface of sand and rock, a ment made all abalone available to harvest, while in the
position that would facilitate the capture of drift algae. north only skin diving and shore picking are allowed. In
the deeper areas beyond free diving depth, the popula-
Abalone predators include sea stars, octopus, crabs, lob-
tion is dense and individuals are large, conditions that
ster, and shes, particularly sheephead, cabezon, and bat
maximize reproduction and recruitment. It is these de
rays, all of which have been observed in white abalone
facto refuge areas that provide a sustainable resource that
habitat. Sea otters are likely not signicant predators of
can be shed year after year.
white abalone, and are not responsible for low white aba-
lone population numbers. Otters have been absent from The northern California abalone shery provides insight
most of the areas where white abalone occur since well into what is necessary to maintain a sustainable resource,
before the establishment of the white abalone shery. upon which a shery can be allowed. In the northern
shery signicant areas of good abalone numbers are
As the nearshore abalone resources declined throughout
unavailable to the shery, including individuals larger than
California, divers went farther and deeper, eventually
minimum legal size. Such areas are maintained passively
encountering virgin stocks of white abalone. The commer-
because most skin divers cannot get to them in the often
cial shery for white abalone began about 1965, though
severe oceanic conditions found there. In contrast, all
whites were probably taken incidentally before then.
areas in southern California were available to commercial
The high quality of the meat and the knowledge of the
and sport divers, and eventually the larger individuals
resource spurred commercial landings to a peak in 1972 of
were taken, leaving little for stock rebuilding.
almost 144,000 pounds. Thereafter landings declined and
became insignicant in the mid-1980s. The recreational The primary regulation of the abalone shery was the size
shery also took white abalone, but landings are unknown, limit, which was set at a relatively large size, allowing
and probably far less than the commercial landings. Rela- individuals as old as 15 years (in red abalone) to reproduce
tive to the whole shery, white abalone comprised a before entering the shery. Implicit in size limits is the
small part of the landings, but its high quality and value assumption of regular reproduction and more importantly,
bolstered the shery for a short time. settlement. To have reproduction and settlement there
must be large numbers of adults close together. Such
In 1997, the NMFS added the white abalone to the candi-
areas are exactly what is sought in the shery. Man-
date species list to be considered for listing under the
agement efforts to protect stocks through size limits
federal Endangered Species Act. This action required a
and limits on the number of commercial abalone sh-
status review, which concluded that overexploitation was
ermen have been ineffective. Stock declines have led
the major cause of the decline. In May 2000, white aba-
to near extirpation of three species with red and pink
lone became the rst marine invertebrate to be proposed
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 95
abalone reduced to remnant populations on islands in if environmental temperatures increase WS could become
Abalone
southern California. a problem.
The poor survival rates observed in most abalone seeding WS has the capacity to eliminate abalones throughout
experiments suggest that seeding will not be an effective large areas. A signicant increase of the incidence could
method for restoration of depressed stocks. Adult translo- eliminate the remaining, already low, populations of aba-
cation to aggregate spawners may be the only hope to lones. Research is forthcoming about breeding resistant
replenish depleted stocks or prevent extinction for some abalone and treating abalones held in captivity. Addition-
species. Unfortunately for most species, few adults remain ally, any management decisions about abalone must take
to aggregate. Expensive articial breeding programs may disease effects into consideration.
be necessary to obtain sufcient numbers of large aba- Climatic and periodic oceanographic disturbances, par-
lones upon which to start rebuilding the resource. Addi- ticularly those that bring warm water northward can have
tionally, unless stocks are reestablished in well-protected severe effects on abalones, especially those in southern
refuge areas, illegal take will undermine these efforts. California. The effect of increased sea water temperature
In northern California, red abalone stocks continue to can affect disease susceptibility; lower growth in kelps,
provide abalone to an important recreational shery. The thus reducing abalone food sources; alter distribution pat-
continuation of this shery depends upon the protection terns of marine animals; and bring storms which disrupt
of the de facto deep water refuge, monitoring the annual local habitats. Each of these could further place additional
harvest to assure that the resource can accommodate stress on abalone populations.
sport harvest, continued effective resource protection, The southward movement of the sea otter into its ancient
education, and assessment. Recovery of the southern Cali- range in southern California would undoubtedly further
fornia abalone resource will likely require many years and reduce remaining abalone, and other invertebrate popula-
the establishment of marine protected areas to encourage tions further. Along the central coast, sea otters have
and protect dense populations of abalones. removed the larger emergent abalone populations, and
Three natural phenomena will have a decisive effect restricted them to cryptic habitat.
on California’s future abalone sheries — disease, Paradoxically, each of these three developments, are nat-
oceanographic events (El Niño), and sea otter expansion. ural events with which abalone and all marine organisms,
Each is already inuencing research and management have endured to some extent in the past. The difference is
decisions. that historically, populations were larger and more adapt-
WS is a bacterial disease that has virtually eliminated able, and better suited to evolve strategies to cope with
black abalone from large areas of its habitat in southern changing conditions. Today, populations are smaller, and
California. The spread and effectiveness of the disease is they cannot respond sufciently enough or quickly enough
enhanced by higher than average sea water temperatures. to adapt. In some cases, local, and perhaps total extinc-
In black abalone, some individuals appear to be resistant tion of species will result.
to it, but because these individuals are healthy, they
were often taken in the course of shing. It is precisely
Management Considerations
these healthy individuals that are necessary to obtain
natural recovery. After the discovery of WS, rather
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
than establishing a general moratorium on the take of
further information.
black abalone, each island was closed after populations
had crashed. The continued shing removed most of the
potentially resistant abalones. Peter L. Haaker, Konstantin Karpov, Laura Rogers-
Bennett, Ian Taniguchi, and Carolyn S. Friedman
WS is known in each of the other California abalones, but
California Department of Fish and Game
little is known how it affects the other species, particu-
larly along the mainland. Red abalone at San Miguel Island Mia J. Tegner
are infected, but incidence seems to be low. Green aba- Scripps Institution of Oceanography
lone, which overlaps with the distribution of black aba-
lone, appears to have suffered from WS at some islands.
References
A few northern California red abalone have been collected
with WS pathogens, but it has not caused any symptoms.
Ault, J.S. and J.D. DeMartini. 1987. Movement and disper-
The cooler seawater temperatures off northern California
sion of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in northern Cali-
are sufcient to prevent the occurrence of symptoms, but
fornia. Calif. Fish Game, 73:196-213.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
96
Cox, K.W. 1962. California abalones, Family Haliotidae. Tegner, M.J., P.A. Breen, and C.E. Lennert. 1989. Popula-
Abalone
Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 118:1-133. tion biology of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in south-
ern California and management of the red and pink, H.
Davis, G. E., P. L. Haaker, and D. V. Richards. 1996. Status
corrugata, abalone sheries. Fish. Bull., U.S. 87:313-339.
and trends of white abalone at the California Channel
Islands. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society Tutschulte, T.C. 1976. The comparative ecology of three
125: 42-48. sympatric abalone. Ph. D. Dissertation. Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, San Diego.
Geiger, D.L. 1999. Distribution and biogeography of the
recent Haliotidae (Gastropoda; vestigastropoda) world-
wide. Bollettino Malacacologico 35(5-12):57-120.
Haaker, P.L. 1974. Assessment of abalone resources at
the Channel Islands. Edited by Halvorson, W.L. and G.J.
Maender, in The Fourth California Islands Symposium:
Update on the status of resources. Santa Barbara Museum
of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
Haaker. D.O. Parker, K. C. Barsky, and C.S. Chun. 1998.
Growth of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens (Swainson) at
Johnsons Lee, Santa Rosa Island, Calif. J. Shell. Res. 17(3):
847-854.
Hobday, A. J. and M. J. Tegner. 2000. Status review of
white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) throughout its range
in California and Mexico. NOAA Technical Memorandum
NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWR-035. U. S. Department of Commerce.
Karpov, K.A., P.L. Haaker, I.K. Taniguchi, and L. Rog-
ers-Bennett. 2000. Serial depletion and the collapse of
the California abalone (Haliotis) shery. In Workshop on
rebuilding abalone stocks in British Columbia. Edited by
A. Campbell. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish Aquat. Sci. 130 pp.
In press.
Karpov, K.A. 1991. A combined telephone and creel survey
of the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens (Swainson), sport
shery in California from Monterey to the Oregon border,
April through November 1989. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Mar. Res. Div., Admin. Rep. 91-2. 72 p.
Karpov, K.A., J. Geibel, and P. Law. 1997. Relative abun-
dance and size composition of subtidal abalone (Haliotis
sp.), sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus sp.) and abundance
of sea stars off Fitzgerald Marine Reserve, California,
September 1993. Calif. Dept. Fish Game Mar. Res. Admin.
Rep.. No. 97-1, 16 pp.
Karpov, K.A., P.L. Haaker, D.Albin, I.K.Taniguchi, and
D.Kushner.1998. The red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, in
California: importance of depth refuge to abalone man-
agement. J. Shellsh Res. 17:863-870.
Rogers-Bennett, L. and Pearse, J.S.. 1998. Experimental
seeding of hatchery-reared juvenile red abalone in north-
ern California. J. of Shellsh Res. (17)3: 877-880.
Tegner, M.J. 1989. The California abalone shery: produc-
tion, ecological interactions, and prospects for the future.
Pages 401- 420. In: J.F. Caddy (ed.) Marine invertebrate
sheries: their assessment and management. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 97
California
Spiny Lobster low of 152,000 pounds in the 1974-1975 season. Landings
started back up the next season, but remained between
400,000 and 500,000 pounds for nine consecutive seasons
History of the Fishery from 1979-1980 to 1987-1988. The next nine years the
landings ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 pounds with
S ince the late 1800s, there has been a commercial sh- a peak of 950,000 in the 1997-1998 season. Landings
ery for California spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) dropped back down after that. The peaks and valleys that
in southern California. Commercial shermen use box-like have characterized this shery are not unexpected in a
traps constructed of heavy wire mesh to capture spiny shery that is strongly inuenced by the weather, El Niño
lobsters. Traps of other materials, such as plastic, are and La Niña events, and the export market.
allowed, but wire traps remain the most popular. About
About 90 percent of the legal lobsters taken in the com-
100 to 300 traps per sherman is common, but some sh
mercial shery weigh between 1.25 and 2.0 pounds, which
as many as 500 at the peak of the season. The traps are
produces the size of tail desired for the restaurant trade.
baited with whole or cut sh and weighted with bricks,
Most of the harvest in recent years has been exported
cement, or steel. They are shed on the bottom, and
to Asian countries and France. However, depressed econo-
each trap is marked with a buoy bearing the sherman’s
mies overseas have resulted in an effort to re-establish
license number followed by the letter P. High-speed boats
domestic markets. The price paid to the sherman is in
in the 20 to 40-foot size range are popular in this shery,
the range of $6.75 to $8 a pound. The largest portion of
but everything from 15-foot skiffs to 50-foot shing boats
the commercial and sport harvest is always taken during
are used. Most trap boats are equipped with a davit and
the rst month of the season, October, which also is the
hydraulics to assist in pulling the traps.
highest month of trapping effort. The effort and catch
Commercial lobster shing occurs in shallow, rocky areas drop off sharply in January through the middle of March
from Point Conception to the Mexican border and off the (the season’s end). San Diego County, being the most
islands and banks (such as Cortes and Tanner banks) of central to the spiny lobster’s range, usually produces the
southern California. Some marine life refuges and reserves highest landings, followed by Los Angeles/Orange, and
are closed to the take of lobster, as are areas in Santa Santa Barbara/Ventura counties.
Monica and Newport Bays and at Santa Catalina Island.
Commercial and recreational lobster shermen are
Sophisticated electronic equipment enables trappers to
restricted to a minimum size limit of 3 1/4 inches carapace
nd suitable lobster habitat and relocate their traps there.
length (CL). Historically, the season for both has run from
Traps are shed along depth contours in waters less than
early October to mid-March. Since 1992, the sport season
100 feet, or clustered around rocky outcrops on the
has opened the weekend before the rst Wednesday in
bottom. At the beginning of the season the traps are
October, the ofcial commercial season opener. Com-
usually very close to shore. By the end of the season they
mercial sh traps, including lobster traps, must have a
are in 100 to 300 feet of water.
destruct-device of a type approved by the Department of
Seasonal landings in the 200,000 to 400,000 pound range Fish and Game. This is to ensure that lost or abandoned
rose following World War II and peaked in the 1949-1950 traps do not continue to capture marine life indenitely.
season, with a record 1.05 million pounds landed. A gen- Since the 1976-1977 season, it has been required that
eral decline followed for the next 25 years, reaching a lobster traps be tted with rectangular escape ports (2
3/8 by 11 1/2 inches) to minimize the retention of undersized
lobsters. This requirement has been credited with reversing
the long downward trend in landings previous to that.
A formal commercial restricted access program was initi-
ated in April of 1997. All lobster shermen are required
to have an operator permit ($285). Deckhands that assist
them must have a lobster crewmember permit ($125).
Recreational harvesters need a valid sport shing license
with an ocean enhancement stamp, and may use hoop
nets or bare (gloved) hands when skin or scuba diving
for lobster. No appliance, such as a sh spear or a short
hooked pole, may be used to snag the animals from deep
crevices or caves. The daily bag limit for sport shing is
seven lobsters, reduced from 10 in 1971.
California Spiny Lobster, Panulirus interruptus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
98
California Spiny Lobster
1.0
millions of pounds landed
0.8
Spiny Lobster
0.6
0.4
Commercial Landings
0.2 1916-1999, Spiny Lobster
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Status of Biological Knowledge shed its exoskeleton. This process of molting is preceded
by the formation of a new, soft shell under the old one. An
T he California spiny lobster ranges from Monterey Bay, uptake of water expands the new shell before it hardens.
California to Manzanillo, Mexico. There is also a small, Lobsters are vulnerable to predation and physical damage
isolated population of this species at the northwestern right after they molt, until their new shell hardens.
end of the Gulf of California. The majority of the pop- Molt rates for the California spiny lobster are assumed
ulation is found between Point Conception, California to be similar to those of the Japanese spiny lobster. A
and Magdalena Bay, Baja California. Adult lobsters usually 0.24-inch CL specimen goes through 20 molts to reach 1.18
inhabit rocky areas from the intertidal zone to depths of inches CL at the end of its rst year. Four molts during
240 feet or more. the second year will result in a carapace length of two
Spiny lobsters mate from November through May. The inches, and there are three molts in the third year. It
male attaches a putty-like packet of sperm, called a sper- takes a lobster from seven to 11 years to reach a legal size
matophore, to the underside of the female’s carapace. of 3.25 inches CL. Spiny lobsters molt annually, following
When the female releases her eggs, she uses the small the reproductive period, once they reach 2.5 inches CL.
claws at the end of her last (fth) pair of walking legs to Growth rates, or the period between molts, are highly
open the spermatophore and fertilize the eggs with the variable. They have been correlated with food availability,
sperm inside the packet. Fertilized eggs are attached to size, and sex. The larger an animal, the slower it grows.
the underside of the female’s tail primarily in May and Injuries or disease will often result in a slowing or complete
June. “Berried” females are generally in water less than cessation of growth until the injury has been repaired.
30 feet deep and carry their eggs for about 10 weeks. The Juvenile lobsters usually spend their rst two years in
larger the size of the female, the more eggs she produces. nearshore surf grass beds. Sub-adults have also been
Females sampled at San Clemente Island carried between found in shallow rocky crevices and mussel beds. Adult
120,000 (2.6 inches CL) and 680,000 (3.6 inches CL) eggs. lobsters are found in rocky habitat, although they also
Spiny lobster eggs hatch into tiny, transparent larvae will search sandy areas for food. During the day, spiny
known as phyllosomas that go through 12 molts. They have lobsters usually reside in a crevice or hole, dubbed a den.
attened bodies and spider like legs, and drift with the More than one lobster is usually found in a den. At night,
prevailing currents feeding on other planktonic animals. the animals leave their dens to search for a wide range
They may drift offshore out to 350 miles, and may be of food. Adult lobsters are omnivorous and sometimes
found from the surface to a depth of over 400 feet. After carnivorous. They consume algae and a wide variety of
ve to nine months, the phyllosoma transforms into the marine invertebrates such as snails, mussels, sea urchins,
puerulus or juvenile stage. The puerulus is still transpar- and clams as well as sh, and injured or newly molted
ent, but now looks like a miniature adult with extremely lobsters. Lobsters are eaten by sheephead, cabezon, kelp
long antennae. The puerulus actively swims inshore where bass, octopuses, California moray eels, horn sharks, leop-
it settles to the bottom in shallow water and starts to ard sharks, rockshes and giant sea bass.
grow if the habitat is suitable. A large portion of the spiny lobster population makes
The spiny lobster’s outer shell serves as its skeleton, and an annual offshore-onshore migration that is stimulated
is referred to as an exoskeleton. To grow, a lobster must by changes in water temperature. During winter months,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 99
Management Considerations
male and female lobsters are found offshore at depths
California Spiny Lobster
of 50 feet and deeper, although individuals of both sexes
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
have also been found in shallow water in winter. In late
further information.
March, April, and May, lobsters move into warmer onshore
waters less than 30 feet. The higher temperatures on
shore shorten the development time for lobster eggs.
Kristine C. Barsky
Nearshore waters also have a more plentiful supply of
California Department of Fish and Game
food. In late October and November, the onshore waters
cool, and most lobsters move offshore. Winter storms that
cause increased wave action in shallow water encourage
References
this movement. Lobsters generally move after dark and in
small groups across the sand. Bodkin, J.L. and L. Brown. 1992. Molt frequency and
size-class distribution in the California spiny lobster (Panu-
California spiny lobsters of both sexes reach maturity at
lirus interruptus) as indicated by beach-cast carapaces
ve or six years and 2.5 inches CL. After maturity, male
at San Nicolas Island, California. Calif. Fish and Game
lobsters grow faster, live longer, and reach larger sizes
78(4):136-144.
than the females. Males can live up to 30 years, and
females at least 20 years. There are records of male Cali- Booth, J.D. and B.F. Phillips. 1994. Early life history of
fornia spiny lobster weighing over 26 pounds and attaining spiny lobster. Crustaceana 66(3):271-294.
lengths up to three feet. Today, lobsters over ve pounds
Dexter, D.M. 1972. Molting and growth in laboratory
are considered trophy-size. Trophy-size animals are usually
reared phyllosomes of the California spiny lobster, Panuli-
taken by recreational divers.
rus interruptus. Calif. Fish and Game 58:107-115.
Duffy, J.M. 1973. The status of the California spiny lobster
Status of the Population resource. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources
Tech. Rep. No. 10. 15 p.
P opulation size is unknown for the California spiny lob-
Engle, J.M. 1979. Ecology and growth of juvenile California
ster. Commercial landings have uctuated through the
spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). Sea Grant
years and are inuenced by some factors that are inde-
Dissertation Series, USCSC-TD-03-79. 298 p.
pendent of the health of the population.
Lindberg, R.G. 1955. Growth, population dynamics, and
The closed season protects egg-carrying and molting
eld behavior in the spiny lobster Panulirus interruptus.
female lobsters. The size limit ensures that there will be
Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 59(6):157-248.
several year classes of broodstock, even if all legal-size
Mitchell, C.T., C.H. Turner, and A.R. Strachan. 1969. Obser-
lobsters are caught each season. The escape port has
vations on the biology and behavior of the California spiny
been effective in reducing the capture and handling of
lobster, Panulirus interruptus (Randall). Calif. Fish and
juvenile lobster. An illegal market has always existed for
Game 55(2):121-131.
“shorts” (undersized lobsters). Public education and ade-
quate warden enforcement are key elements in reducing
this problem.
The Department of Fish and Game has had a commercial
logbook system in place since 1973. Catch effort, the
numbers of legal and short lobsters taken, number of
traps shed, and depths where the traps are shed are
required information on the logs. The presence of shorts is
generally a good indicator of a healthy shery.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
100
Red Sea Urchin
History of the Fishery During the period 1973 through 1977, 80 to 90 percent
Red Sea Urchin
of the landings originated from these islands. In more
T he commercial shery for red sea urchins (Strongylo- recent years, however, there has been a decrease in
centrotus franciscanus) has been one of California’s the contribution from the northern Channel Islands as
most valuable sheries for more than a decade. This shing effort has shifted south to San Clemente Island,
shery is relatively new, having developed over the last 30 San Nicolas Island, and the San Diego area. This spatial
years, and caters mainly to the Japanese export market. shift occurred at the same time that catches decreased
Archaeological evidence however, shows that sea urchins throughout the region. In 1990, the southern California sea
in California have been shed by coastal American Indians urchin catch peaked at over 27 million pounds, and has
for centuries. The gonads of both male and female urchin declined steadily to 10.9 million pounds in 1999. In the
are the object of the shery and are referred to as “roe” 1990s, the shery was impacted by two El Niños and a
or “uni,” in Japanese. Gonad quality depends on size, weakening yen; both factors have contributed to reduce
color, texture, and rmness. Algal food supply and the shing effort and catches.
stage of gonadal development affect quality and price. Ex-
vessel prices during the season typically range from less
Northern California Fishery
than $0.20 to more than $2 per pound with the highest
prices garnered during the Japanese holidays around the
T he northern California commercial sea urchin shery
new year. Sea urchins are collected by divers operating
began in 1972, and remained insignicant until 1977,
in nearshore waters. Divers check gonad quality and are
when 386,000 pounds were landed in the Fort Bragg
size selective while shing to ensure marketability. In the
region. The second major shery expansion began in
last few years the red urchin shery has become fully
1985, fueled partly by decreasing landings in southern
exploited throughout its range in northern and southern
California and favorable monetary exchange rates. The
California. Because of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) preda-
large and unexploited sea urchin biomass in northern
tion, sea urchin stocks in central California occur at densi-
California sparked a gold rush as hundreds of new sher-
ties too low to sustain a commercial shery. The purple
men enter the unregulated shery. In northern California
sea urchin (S. purpuratus), which occurs over the same
(Half Moon Bay to Crescent City) landings jumped from
geographical range, is harvested in California, but only on
1.9 million pounds in 1985 to 30.4 million pounds in 1988,
a limited basis.
far exceeding landings from southern California. Northern
California sea urchin landings and catch-per-unit effort
Southern California Fishery (CPUE) began a steep decline in 1989, before leveling off
in 1996 at about three to four million pounds annually and
T he shery in southern California began in 1971 as about 700 pounds per shing day per diver. Preliminary
part of a National Marine Fisheries Service program landings data for 1999 show a catch of 3.2 million pounds
to develop sheries for underutilized marine species. The with an ex-vessel value of $2.4 million. In northern Califor-
shery was also seen as a way to curb sea urchins destruc- nia, Fort Bragg has remained the center of the shery,
tive grazing on giant kelp. There have been two periods of while the ports of Albion, Point Arena, and Bodega Bay
rapid shery expansion in California. The rst culminated accounted for about two-thirds of the catch in 1999. Rocky
in 1981 when landings peaked at 25 million pounds in reefs around Crescent City also support a small shery.
southern California. Contributing to this rapid escalation
of the shery was a pool of shermen and boats involved
in the declining commercial abalone dive shery. Sea
urchin landings then decreased following the El Niño of
1982-1983, when warm water weakened or killed kelp,
the primary food source for sea urchins. Catches did not
recover until 1985-1986, helped in part by the strengthen-
ing of the Japanese yen relative to the U.S. dollar, favor-
ing California shermen and exporters. Prices for urchin
from the south are typically higher than for urchins from
northern California due to the longer market presence and
consistently higher gonad quality of the former.
The majority of sea urchin landings in southern California
have come from the northern Channel Islands off of Santa
Red Sea Urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus
Barbara, where large and accessible stocks once occurred.
Credit: Chris Dewees
CA Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 101
Status of Biological Knowledge between these species at sites in northern California con-
Red Sea Urchin
cluded that there is an inverse relationship between red
S ea urchins are locally abundant subtidal herbivores that abalone and red sea urchin abundance at sites where
play an important ecological role in the structure of urchin density is high. Sea urchins may be more successful
kelp forest communities. Sea urchins belong to the phylum in competing for limited food because of their aggressive
Echinodermata, which includes sea stars, brittle stars, sea foraging and ability to survive starvation conditions.
cucumbers, and sand dollars. They have a hard calcareous Fishing abalone and sea urchins has no doubt altered
shell called a test, with spines and small pinchers called these relationships.
pedicellariae. Tube feet are located between the spines Several signicant predators of red sea urchins are known.
which are used in respiration, locomotion, and for grasp- Sea otters, spiny lobsters, sea stars, crabs, white sea
ing food and the substrate. On the bottom, or oral side, is urchins, and shes such as sheepshead eat red sea urchins.
the mouth, consisting of ve calcareous plates making up Within the sea otter’s present range, the red sea urchin
a jaw structure called Aristotle’s lantern. The mouth leads resource has been reduced to a level which precludes
to the digestive system which voids through the anus on shery utilization. Urchin diseases have decimated sea
the top, or aboral, side. urchin populations in the Caribbean islands, however the
Sea urchins are omnivorous, eating primarily foliose algae. dynamics of sea urchin diseases in California remain poorly
The perennial giant kelp is the preferred food in southern understood. Sea urchins in southern California are suscep-
California, whereas in northern California urchins feed on tible to disease during warm water El Niño events.
the annual bull kelp and perennial brown algae. The There are no reliable methods of aging sea urchins since
red sea urchin’s ability to survive during periods of food rings on the test plates are not laid down annually. Sea
shortages contributes to the its ability to persist in high urchin growth rates vary depending on food availability.
densities in areas devoid of algae, known as urchin bar- Growth rates must be determined by tagging and recap-
rens. The formation of barrens in southern California can turing animals. Internal tags (PIT tags) or chemical (uo-
follow oceanographic events such as El Niño during which rescent) tags that bind to calcium have been used to
kelp beds die-off resulting in shortages of standing and successfully tag sea urchins. Tagging studies reveal that
drift algae. These food shortages may trigger urchins to red urchins are long-lived, are certainly older than 50
aggregate and move in fronts denuding the remaining kelp years and large individuals may be older than 100 years.
forest. Based on examination of long-term aerial photos Growth to a harvestable size of 3.5 inches (test diameter,
and on kelp forest ecology studies in northern San Diego exclusive of spines) averages six to eight years. There
county, sea urchin grazing at its most severe probably are no patterns in growth along a latitudinal gradient
accounts for about 20 percent mortality in a given kelp from Baja California to Alaska, however there is a clear
bed. Conversely, the intense shery for red sea urchins in trend in population mortality rates. Mortality estimates
northern California appears to have had a positive effect for southern populations were found to be greater than for
on kelp availability. Aerial photographs of surface kelp northern populations. Likely mechanisms include higher
at one location during the period of concentrated urchin rates of disease and temperature-related stresses as one
shing, showed a 15-fold increase in the surface canopy moves from north to south.
from 1982 to 1989.
Red sea urchins become sexually mature at about two
Red sea urchins may compete with abalone for both space inches. The sex ratio in urchins about one to one. Sea
and food. A recent study on competitive interactions urchin spawning is seasonal but can vary from year to year
and from one locality to another. Food supply and ocean
temperatures play a role in the timing and magnitude of
spawning. In most southern California locations, spawning
generally occurs in winter. In northern California, major
spawning occurs in spring and summer, with some spawn-
ing activity also in December.
As for many marine invertebrates, fertilization is external
and success is highly dependent on density. Subtidal stud-
ies suggest that red urchins at densities of less than
two per square meter can have poor fertilization success.
Females spawn up to several million eggs at a time.
Larval development is dependent on temperature and the
abundance of phytoplankton (single-celled algae) and is
Packing sea urchin gonads
thought to extend for six to eight weeks. As the larvae
Credit: California Sea Grant Extension Program
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
102
mature they settle to the bottom and metamorphose into tion may increase the chances for larvae to encounter
Red Sea Urchin
benthic juveniles. The long planktonic phase suggests that habitat suitable for settlement. Continued recruitment
juvenile sea urchins may disperse long distances from the at present levels, however, is not guaranteed; in fact,
adults that have spawned them. intensive sea urchin harvesting in northern California and
Baja California could result in a decrease in sea urchin
Settlement patterns have been studied for red and purple
larvae in southern California in the future.
sea urchins on articial substrates at sites in northern
and southern California since 1990 and are similar for the Catches in southern California have exhibited a pattern
two species. Peak settlement periods tend to be in spring resembling the serial depletion that characterized the
and early summer although there is substantial year-to- decline and collapse of the abalone sheries in the mid-
year variation both in timing and intensity. Settlement 1990s. The northern Channel Islands have supplied most of
tends to be less variable south of Point Conception and the catch over the years, but beginning in 1992 catches
is depressed during El Niño events. However, El Niño in the northern islands began to decline as effort and
events appear to favor settlement in northern California. harvests started to increase in the southern islands of San
Recruitment patterns of red sea urchins in northern and Nicolas and San Clemente, signaling a shift away from the
southern California generally mirror those of settlement. northern islands. Recently, San Clemente Island catches
Recruitment in southern California appears to be rela- have declined precipitously indicating that the shable
tively constant while in the north, recruitment rates are stock there may be largely depleted. Whether the harvest-
lower and more sporadic. The more variable pattern of able stocks can recover to their previous levels in these
settlement in the north is consistent with more energetic heavily shed areas remains a concern, particularly if sh-
offshore advection of water during spring periods when ing effort remains largely uncontrolled.
larvae are available, especially around headlands. The northern California shery has been characterized by
Newly settled juvenile urchins are highly susceptible to rapid growth to 30 million pounds in 1988 and decline to
mortality. Juveniles appear to suffer increased mortality less than ve million pounds in the late 1990s. Fishery
in the kelp forest habitat, where micro-predators are dependent modeling of the sea urchin shery during the
presumably more abundant than in similar rocky habitats period of rapid decline estimated that the 50,800 tons of
just outside of the kelp beds. Adult sea urchins and red urchins harvested from 1988 through 1994 represented
their spines are important structuring organisms in sub- about 67 percent of the shable stock available at the
tidal communities. The canopy formed by the spines is start of 1988. Effort declined during this period as the 126
a micro-habitat in which juvenile sea urchins, shrimps, divers who had worked exclusively in northern California
crabs, brittle stars, sh, abalone and other invertebrates during 1991 had dwindled to 69 by 1995. Annual catch per
can be found. The spine canopy is most likely an impor- permittee declined by 57 percent from 1990 to 1995.
tant habitat for juvenile sea urchins especially in areas Densities of shable stocks continue to be depressed at
where alternative cryptic habitats (e.g., crevices and subtidal survey sites examined in the Fort Bragg area
undersides of boulders) are rare or absent. since 1988. From 1988 to 1997, legal-sized red urchins
surveyed outside of reserves, declined from 47 percent
to 20 percent of the population, and from 0.8 per square
Status of the Population meter to 0.2 per square meter surveyed. In contrast,
I
during this period densities in two area reserves averaged
n southern California, the red sea urchin resource now
over 3.0 red urchins per square meter. These patterns
produces about 10 million pounds annually, with harvest-
were observed to continue during northern California sur-
able stocks (dened as exceeding the minimum legal size
veys in 1999 and 2000. Episodic and infrequent recruit-
and containing marketable gonads) in decline since 1990.
ment combined with intensive harvesting on the north
Between 1985 and 1995, the percentage of legal-sized
coast have had a serious impact upon catches, as the
red sea urchins at survey sites in the northern Channel
shery has evolved into a recruitment shery, with sher-
Islands declined from 15 percent to 7.2 percent. Although
men targeting harvest of newly recruited sea urchins. For
shing has signicantly reduced density in many areas
example, in 1999, 47 percent of the catch was less than
and catch-per-unit of effort has decreased, localized juve-
3.9 inches, just over the 3.5-inch minimum size limit. The
nile recruitment has, thus far, somewhat mitigated shing
size limit and seasonal closures may help prevent shery
pressure. Consistent recruitment has been noted on arti-
collapse but may not improve recruitment, particularly
cial settlement substrates and along subtidal transects
if its success is primarily a function of oceanographic
over the last decade at monitoring stations along the
factors, spine canopy micro-habitat and maintaining large
southern California mainland coast and the northern Chan-
spawners in the population.
nel Islands. This may be partly due to ocean current pat-
terns in the Southern California Bight, where water reten-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 103
Red Sea Urchin
60
millions of pounds landed
50
Red Sea Urchin
40
30
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Red Sea Urchin
20
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Red Sea Urchin
10
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0 1916
and commercial landing
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
receipts.
Management Considerations in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. Ecol
73:248-254.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Rogers-Bennett, L., H.C. Fastenau, and C.M. Dewees.
further information. 1998. Recovery of red sea urchin beds following experi-
mental harvest. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Proceeds.
9th Intern. Echinoderm Conf. (Eds). R. Mooi and M. Tel-
Peter Kalvass and Laura Rogers-Bennett
ford. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Neth. 805-809.
California Department of Fish and Game
Rogers-Bennett, L., W.A. Bennett, H.C. Fastenau, and C.M.
Dewees. 1995. Spatial variation in red sea urchin repro-
References duction and morphology: implications for harvest refugia.
Ecol. Appl. 5(4):1171-1180.
Botsford, L.W., S.R. Wing, and J.L. Largier. 1998. Popula-
Tegner, M.J. and P.K. Dayton. 1977. Sea urchin recruitment
tion dynamic and management implications of larval dis-
patterns and implications of commercial shing. Science
persal. S.Afr.J.Mar.Sci. 19:131-142.
196:324-326.
Ebert, T.A., J.D. Dixon, S.C. Schroeter, P.E. Kalvass, N.T.
Richmond, W.A. Bradbury, D.A. Woodby. 1999. Growth 60
California Red Sea Urchin Catch
and mortality of red sea urchins Strongylocentrotus fran- 50
and Value in Millions
ciscanus across a latitudinal gradient. Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser.
Red Sea Urchin
40
190:189-209.
30
Ebert, T.A. 1998. An analysis of the importance of Allee 20
effects in management of the red sea urchin Strongylo- 10
centrotus franciscanus. Echinoderms: San Francisco. Pro- 0 1971 1980 1990 1999
ceeds. 9th Intern. Echinoderm Conf. (Eds). R. Mooi and M. Catch in Millions of Dollars
Catch in Millions of Pounds
Telford. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Neth p 619-627.
California red sea urchin catch (lbs) and ex-vessel value.
Ebert, T.A., S.C. Schroeter, J.D. Dixon and P. Kalvass.
Data Source: market receipt database.
1994. Settlement patterns of red and purple sea urchins
(Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in
California, USA. Mar.Ecol.Prog.Ser. 111:41-52.
Kalvass, P.E. and J.M. Hendrix. 1997. The California
red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, shery:
catch, effort and management trends. Mar. Fish. Rev.
59:1-17.
Kato, S. and S.C. Schroeter. 1985. Biology of the red sea
urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, and its shery in
California. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(3):1-20. CPUE (catch per diver day)
Catch (millions of lbs.)
Levitan, D.R., Sewell, M.A. and F.-S. Chia 1992. How dis-
Northern California landings and catch per unit of effort (CPUE).
tribution and abundance inuence fertilization success
Data source: DFG logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
104
Purple Sea Urchin
History of the Fishery before metamorphosis takes place and juveniles are ready
Purple Sea Urchin
to settle to the bottom. Peak settlement periods tend to
P urple sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) have be in spring and early summer and there is substantial
been used by humans in California for thousands of year-to-year variation both in timing and intensity. Set-
years as shown by remains in middens left by American tlement tends to be less variable south of Point Con-
Indians along the coast. Prior to the early 1970s, few ception and is depressed during El Niño events. El
people harvested purple sea urchins and, along with red Niño events appear to favor settlement in northern Cali-
sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus), they were fornia, however. Energetic movements of water to the
considered to be pests because they grazed kelp. offshore in northern California have been associated with
reduced recruitment.
The purple sea urchin has shery potential, its roe being
reported to be very similar in quality to some of the highly Growth is highly variable and strongly linked with food
desirable domestic Japanese species as well as being a availability. At one year of age, purple sea urchins can
desirable product in Mediterranean countries. However, it be between about 0.4 and 1.2 inches. After ve years,
has been harvested only on a limited and experimental size can range from 1.25 to 2.0 inches. Growth rates of
basis in California as an adjunct to the much larger and very small individuals up to an age of one year are not
more lucrative red sea urchin shery. All the requirements well known.
of the restricted access commercial sea urchin permit Predators of purple sea urchins include those for red sea
shery apply to harvest of purple sea urchins except urchins but, because purple sea urchins are common in the
there are no minimum sizes or closed periods. A minor intertidal zone, predators also include sea gulls, oyster
recreational shery for purple urchins also takes place in catchers, and raccoons. Sea otters are able to reduce
southern California with a daily bag limit of 35. sea urchin populations to levels unsuitable for commercial
Since 1990, annual purple sea urchin landings have ranged or recreational shing, but apparently not to levels that
from 14,000 to 388,000 pounds, averaging 139,000. Land- would threaten the species’ continued existence.
ings were less than 50,000 pounds in ve of those years, Purple sea urchins show increased mortality above 73˚F,
with the highest landings of 388,000 and 316,000 pounds which appears in part to be physiological stress, but ele-
in 1991 and 1992 when several attempts were made to vated temperatures also promote development of one or
develop a viable shery for this species for the Japanese more pathogens that can cause mass mortalities. Mass
market. In recent years, purple sea urchins have also mortalities have been observed more frequently in south-
been exported to markets in the Mediterranean region. ern than in northern California especially in association
Harvesting has occurred in both southern and northern with elevated water temperatures during El Niño events.
California with approximately 60 percent of the landings
coming from northern areas since 1990. Unfavorable
Status of the Population
harvesting and processing economics and limited
availability of harvestable quality purple sea urchins for
L arval settlement rates monitored at a number of loca-
the Japanese market have been the main impediments to
tions in southern and northern California over the past
growth of this shery.
10 years do not indicate a change in larval production and
recruitment patterns, which indicates that the status of
Status of Biological Knowledge this species appears to be stable.
G eneral biology of the purple sea urchin is very similar
to the closely related red sea urchin and will not
be repeated in detail here. In addition to external color
differences, maximum size is much smaller for purple sea
urchins and only rarely do they attain a test diameter over
four inches. Purple sea urchins live primarily in shallow
water and are the only abundant sea urchin in intertidal
areas along the California coast. The maximum reported
depth is 500 feet. The published range is from Cedros
Island, Baja California, to Alaska.
Feeding habits and reproduction are quite similar to the
red sea urchin. Age of rst reproduction probably is one
or two years. Larvae spend an uncertain length of time in
the plankton, and it is probably at least six to eight weeks
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 105
Purple Sea Urchin
450
thousands of pounds landed
400
350
Purple Sea Urchin 300
250
200
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Purple Sea Urchin
100
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Purple Sea Urchin 50
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts.
Management Considerations References
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Ebert, T. A. 1968. Growth rates of the sea urchin Stron-
further information. gylocentrotus purpuratus related to food availability and
spine abrasion. Ecology 49: 1075-1091.
Ebert, T. A., S. C. Schroeter, J. D. Dixon and P. Kalvass
David O. Parker
1994. Settlement patterns of red and purple sea urchins
California Department of Fish and Game
(Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in Cal-
Thomas Ebert
ifornia, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 111:41-52.
San Diego State University (emeritus)
Gilles, K.W. and J.S. Pearse. 1986. Disease in sea urchins
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus: experimental infection
and bacterial virulence. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
1:105-114.
Kato, S. and S.C. Schroeter. 1985. Biology of the red sea
urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, and its shery in
California. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(3):1-20.
Kenner, M. C. 1992. Population dynamics of the sea urchin
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus in a central California kelp
forest: recruitment, mortality, growth, and diet. Marine
Biology 112: 107-118.
Pearse, J. S. and A. H. Hines. 1987. Long-term population
dynamics of sea urchins in a central California kelp forest:
rare recruitment and rapid decline. Marine Ecology Prog-
ress Series 39: 275-283.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
106
Dungeness Crab
History of the Fishery 1982-1983, landings have uctuated much less dramatically
Dungeness Crab
and have not been as clearly cyclic. Recent landings have
D ungeness crabs (Cancer magister), also known as ranged from 2.2 to 13.1 million pounds and have averaged
market crabs or edible crabs, were rst taken com- about 6.7 million pounds.
mercially off San Francisco in about 1848. The shery blos- Dungeness shing grounds off northern California are over
somed early, and now the California harvest of this impor- twice the size of those in central California. They extend
tant marine resource occurs from Avila to the Oregon from Fort Bragg to the Oregon border with the prime
border. Before the 1944-1945 season, the shery was cen- area between Eureka and Crescent City. The northern
tered in the San Francisco area, and average annual state- California eet uctuated between 100 and 200 vessels in
wide production was only 2.6 million pounds. The shery the 1950s and 1960s, dropped to a low of 61 in 1973-1974,
expanded into the Eureka-Crescent City area as World War then peaked at 410 during 1976-1977. Since then, effort
II ended. In the early 1940s, crab traps replaced the hoop has been high, averaging 330 vessels per season. Before
net, leading to signicantly increased landings with strong the mid-1970s, most vessels were converted salmon troll-
contributions from northern California. Annual statewide ers 30 to 60 feet in length; however, the complexion of
production since the 1945-1946 season has averaged about the eet changed during the record production years of
10 million pounds and recent ex-vessel annual value has the 1970s. Vessels ranging in size from 22-foot dories to
been about $15 to 20 million. Approximately 75 percent trawlers in excess of 100 feet entered the shery.
of the catch is sold as whole crab (live, fresh-cooked or
The dividing line for management of the northern and
frozen) and the remainder is picked and vacuum packed.
central California areas is the Mendocino-Sonoma county
The commercial shery for Dungeness crabs occurs in two line. Both sheries are managed on the basis of simple
areas: northern and central California. Central California “3-S” principles — sex, season, and size. Only male crabs
shing areas include Avila-Morro Bay, Monterey, and San may be retained in the commercial shery (thus protect-
Francisco-Bodega Bay. The Morro Bay and Monterey sher- ing the reproductive potential of the populations), the
ies have been of minor importance and San Francisco shery has open and closed seasons, and a minimum size
has always been the center of this shery. Central Cal- limit is imposed on commercial landings of male crabs.
ifornia landings were relatively stable from 1945-1946 The central California season opens the second Tuesday
to 1955-1956, and peaked at 8.4 million pounds in the of November and continues through June 30, whereas
1956-1957 season. The shery then steeply declined at a the northern California season opens December 1 and
rate of more than one million pounds per season until continues through July 15. The summer-fall closed periods
1961-1962, when only 710,000 pounds were landed. The are intended to prevent shing on male crabs when they
central California shery remained seriously depressed are soft-shelled. At this time, male crabs would be vulner-
from 1962-63 through 1984-85 when annual landings aver- able to shery-related handling mortality and would have
aged less than one million pounds. More recent landings market quality well below their potential. During open
have averaged closer to two million pounds. seasons, male crabs should be in prime condition (greatest
The central California shery utilizes an area of over 400 meat content) for the market. The opening and closing
square miles, including the Gulf of the Farallones north to are two to three weeks earlier in central California
the Russian River. The eet consisted of 200 to 230 boats than in northern California, because crabs in central Cali-
during the 1950s. When the shery declined in the 1960s, fornia molt earlier and achieve adequate market condition
a reduction in the number of boats followed and the eet earlier than in the north. The director of the department
now consists of about 100 vessels. The central California
crab eet has evolved from, but still includes, some old
“Monterey” style vessels. Larger multiple purpose vessels
are now the norm.
The northern California shery increased substantially
after 1945. Landings reached an initial peak in the late
1950s but, unlike the central California shery, which
peaked and then experienced low production levels for
many years thereafter, the north coast shery then exhib-
ited three 10-11 year “cycles” of production. In these
repeating cycles, about six years of good or outstanding
landings (a record 25.6 million pounds in 1976-1977) were
followed by about four years of poor or extremely poor
Dungeness Crab, Cancer magister
landings (as low as 350,000 pounds in 1973-1974). Since
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 107
Dungeness Crab
40
35
millions of pounds landed
30
Dungeness Crab 25
20
15
10
Commercial Landings
5
1916-1999, Dungeness Crab
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0 1916
and commercial landing receipts. 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
may delay the northern California season opening to as Because California Dungeness crabs are caught almost
late as January 15, if market condition of crabs is not exclusively within three miles of shore and because Cali-
sufciently high on December 1. Depending on crab con- fornia, Oregon and Washington often undertake coordi-
dition, marketable crabs typically yield from 20 to 28
percent of their body weight as cooked meat. 30
Commercial gear for Dungeness crab is essentially the
Central/Northern California
25
millions of pounds landed
same throughout California. It consists of a circular steel
Dungeness Crab
20
trap three to 3.5-feet in diameter weighing 60 to 120 15
pounds. Each trap is required to have two 4.25-inch diam- 10
eter circular openings to allow sublegal male and small
5
female crabs to escape. These escape ports are remark-
0
ably effective in reducing handling of undersize crabs as 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Northern California
most male crabs that are retained are close to or exceed Central California
the minimum size limit for males of 6.25-inches across the
Northern and Central California Landings Per Season
back. Traps must possess a destruction device that causes
1916-1999, Dungeness Crab
traps to open allowing crabs to escape should traps be
Seasonal landings for northern California, including Eureka, Cresecent City, and Fort
lost. The heavily weighted traps rest on the bottom and
Bragg Landing, and central California including Bodega Bay, San Francisco Area,
each is buoyed independently to the surface. Traps are
Monterey, and Morro Bay.
left overnight or longer depending on shing conditions.
Note: data are recorded as seasonal landings, which differ from the DFG Catch Bulletin
Most traps are shed at depths ranging from about 60 to
and commercial landing receipt data, which are reported on an annual basis.
240 feet, but some traps are shed in shallower and in
Data Source: Seasonal Landings determined from reported commercial landings
deeper waters.
recorded by DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
Almost all of the California Dungeness crab catch is landed
millions of pounds landed per week
in the commercial trap shery. Trawl vessels are allowed 3.5
3.0
an incidental take of 500 pounds per trip during the
Dungeness Crab
2.5
regular season, but only a few thousand pounds of trawl-
2.0
caught crabs are landed annually in California. (Com-
1.5
mercial trawling is prohibited within three miles of shore,
1.0
where the vast majority of Dungeness are captured.)
0.5
There is limited sport use of Dungeness crabs in central
0.0
and northern California. The sport size limit is 5.75 inches 1 10 20 30 33
Pounds Landed Per Week 1997-1998 Season
across the back for either sex, and a limit of 10 crabs of Pounds Landed Per Week 1998-1999 Season
either sex may be possessed. The annual sport harvest is Commercial Landings by Week, Dungeness Crab
believed to be less than one percent of the commercial 1997-1998 and 1998-1999, Dungeness Crab Catch data indicate consistent high early
take, but there have not been any recent estimates of season landings of Dungeness crab.
total sport catch. Data Source: Seasonal landings determined from reported commercial landings recorded
by DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
108
nated management activities under the auspices of the Thereafter, they are carried beneath the abdominal ap
Dungeness Crab
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, the shery of the female. The smallest females carry about 500,000
has remained under effective state jurisdiction despite eggs and the largest from 1.5 to 2.0 million. Freshly
repeated federal concerns regarding harvests beyond molted females carry larger numbers of eggs than do
three mile state jurisdictional authority. Although total gravid females that have missed a molt. “Skip-molt”
landings are not restricted by quota, beginning in 1995 females that have extruded eggs but have not molted
California implemented a limited entry program that is recently must rely on stored sperm for fertilization of
designed to achieve an eventual reduction in the number their eggs. Females may store viable sperm for at least
of shery participants. As of March 2000, limited entry 2.5 years. The eggs range in diameter from 0.016 to 0.024
permits have been granted to 604 California residents and inches and are bright orange after extrusion, becoming
70 non-residents. progressively darker as they develop. Hatching occurs
between November and February.
The newly hatched larvae pass through ve zoeal and
Status of Biological Knowledge one megalops stage before metamorphosing into the adult
D
form. Larval development is inversely related to water
ungeness crabs range from the eastern Aleutian
temperature, and in central California 105 to 125 days
Islands, Alaska, to perhaps Santa Barbara; however,
are required to complete the larval stages. Zoeae are
the species is considered rare south of Point Conception.
hypothesized to have an offshore movement regulated by
Temperature apparently determines the distribution, and
factors such as depth, temperature, salinity and ocean
the 38° to 65° F surface isotherms are considered the
currents. They are found near the surface at night and as
limits of the range. The geographic range of the species
deep as 80 feet in daytime. Megalopae are transported
probably depends more on the restricted thermal toler-
to nearshore waters beginning in April. Metamorphosis
ance range of larvae than of adults. Optimal temperatures
occurs from April to June. Estuarine areas such as Hum-
for larval growth and development are 50° to 57° F.
boldt Bay and San Francisco Bay are important nursery
This species has a preference for sandy to sandy-mud
areas for young Dungeness crabs, but most rearing must
bottoms but may be found on almost any bottom type.
take place in nearshore coastal waters.
Dungeness crabs may range from the intertidal zone to a
Growth is accomplished in steps through a series of dis-
depth of at least 750 feet, but are not abundant beyond
crete molts. In northern California, Dungeness crabs of
300 feet.
both sexes molt an average of six times during their
The resource off California has been demonstrated by
rst year and attain an average width of one inch. Six
tagging experiments to consist of ve subpopulations:
more molts are required to reach sexual maturity at the
one each in the areas around Avila-Morro Bay, Monterey,
end of their second year, when they are approximately
San Francisco, Fort Bragg, and Eureka-Crescent City. As
four inches across. Once maturity is reached, growth of
noted above, only the latter three are of commercial
females then slows as compared to males. Females molt
importance. DFG surveys indicate the combined San Fran-
at most once per year after reaching maturity and rarely
cisco and Fort Bragg populations are not as large as
exceed the legal size of males. Maximum female size is
the population extending from Eureka into Oregon. Little
about seven inches. Male crabs usually molt twice during
or no intermixing occurs. Tagging studies have also dem-
their third year and once per year thereafter. The average
onstrated random movement by both sexes. At times, an
size of males three, four and ve years of age is about six,
inshore or offshore migration is observed, but most move-
seven and eight inches, respectively. Males may undergo
ment is restricted to less than 10 miles. Travel up to 100
a total of 16 molts during a lifetime, reaching a maximum
miles has been noted for individual males, but female move-
size of nine inches and age of six to eight years.
ments seem much more limited.
Dungeness crabs are opportunistic feeders not limited by
Female molting and mating occur from February through
abundance or scarcity of a particular prey. Clams, sh,
June in California. Male crabs are able to sense when
isopods and amphipods are preferred, and cannibalism
females are about to molt (presumably through detection
is prevalent among all age groups. Predators on the var-
of pheremones released by females) and carry such
ious life stages of Dungeness crabs, especially pelagic
females in a protective pre-mating embrace for several
larvae and small juveniles, include octopuses, larger crabs
days until they molt. Hard-shelled males then mate with
and as many as 28 species of sh, including coho and
the freshly molted, soft-shelled females. Sperm deposited
chinook salmon, atshes, lingcod, cabezon and various
by males are stored in a spermatheca inside the female.
rockshes.
Fertilization of eggs takes place when internally-develop-
ing eggs are extruded between October and December.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 109
Status of the Population stable long-term mean for more than 30 years. One
Dungeness Crab
might therefore consider this resource to have a healthy
D ungeness crab populations in California have been status. Compared to other sheries of similar importance
fully exploited for at least 40 years and intensity of and economic value, however, the Dungeness crab has
sheries is extreme. In most years, from 80 to 90 percent received less attention than other species. Among other
of all available legal-sized male crabs are captured in the things, no formal shery management plans or stock
sheries. Although such high exploitation rates on adult assessments have been produced for any west coast pop-
males might give rise to concerns that female mating suc- ulations. Fishery management has rested on the very
cess might be reduced as a consequence, recent studies simple, though biologically sound, 3-S principles and typi-
have shown that essentially all molting females receive cally restrictive shery regulations such as landings quotas
attention from males in northern California. Usually one have never been imposed on this shery. A casual assess-
or no more than two year-classes of male crabs dominate ment of healthy status therefore rests on limited informa-
annual landings. Thus, since about 1960, annual landings tion.
provide a reasonable notion of abundance of legal-sized Although imposition of limited entry in California should
males and also provide a strong signal of variation in year- prevent any further increases in the total number of ves-
class strength of recruited crabs. The dramatic decline in sels that participate in the Dungeness crab shery, it does
Dungeness crab catches in the central California shery not prevent increases in shing effort – numbers of traps
during the late 1950s focused considerable research atten- shed and the intensity with which they are shed. With
tion on this resource during the 1970s. No denitive cause declines in abundance and allowable landings of salmon
for the decline in the central California shery has been and groundsh, many larger multipurpose vessels now
established although researchers have assessed the pos- devote greater attention to the Dungeness crab shery
sible effects of changes in ocean climate on survival and and sh upwards of 1,000 traps. In the early season,
development of crabs eggs and larvae, the role of nemer- these larger vessels sh continuously, day and night,
tean worm predation on egg survival, the effects of pol- even in heavy seas. Total annual landings are largely unaf-
lution on survival of juvenile crabs in San Francisco Bay, fected by such increases in trap-days of shing effort,
and possibly unstable internal population dynamics. Of but increased shing effort has produced substantial shifts
these possible causes, a shift to warmer waters during in the distribution of catch over time. Prior to about
and following the decline during the late 1950s seems the 1980, crab landings were normally spread throughout the
most plausible. If correct, the abundance of crabs in the entire open season. In a typical recent season in northern
central California shery may improve over the next two California, more than 80 percent of total landings are
decades if California coastal water temperatures remain made during the month of December.
cooler as a consequence of apparent ocean regime shifts.
Uncontrolled increases in the numbers of traps shed by
The dramatic and periodic landings cycles that were individual vessels and the resulting front-loading of annual
exhibited in the northern California shery from about landings may have important consequences with respect
1945 to 1982 have caused this shery to receive even to allocation of shery income among limited entry permit
greater attention from population dynamics modelers. holders. Also, the shortened period of substantial crab
Possible causes for the uctuations in this shery have landings means that live Dungeness crab, the most valu-
included the nemertean egg predator, various internal able product, are available over a relatively short time
density-dependent processes reecting uctuations in the period, thus possibly diminishing total economic value of
abundance of unharvested females or cannibalism by the shery.
adults on juveniles, and combinations of internal den-
These shery economics issues are the subject of current
sity-dependent controls and variable oceanographic fac-
research efforts.
tors. There seems little doubt that crab populations, with
their extremely large fecundities and extremely vulner-
able early larval stages, are prone to large natural uc- David Hankin
tuations in abundance and that variable oceanographic Humboldt State University
factors (temperature, wind, currents) have important
Ronald W. Warner
impacts on survival of year-classes.
California Department of Fish and Game
Although many crustacean sheries throughout the world
have been overexploited and are now at low abundance
levels compared to historic levels, Dungeness crab popula-
tions off northern California, Oregon and Washington have
produced landings that have uctuated around a fairly
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
110
References
Dungeness Crab
Hankin, D.G., T.H. Butler, Wild, P.W., and Q-L. Xue.
1997. Does intense shing on males impair mating success
of female Dungeness crabs? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
54:655-669.
Higgins, K, A. Hastings, J. Sarvela, and L.W. Botsford.
1997. Stochastic dynamics and deterministic skeletons:
population behavior of Dungeness crab. Science, 276 p.
1431-1435.
Melteff, B.R. (coordinator). 1985. Proceedings of the sym-
posium on Dungeness crab biology and management. Uni-
versity of Alaska Sea Grant Report 85-3. 424 p.
Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission. 1978. Dungeness crab
project of the state-federal sheries management pro-
gram. 196 p.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 111
Rock Crabs
History of the Fishery not been successfully marketed frozen or canned. During
1999, ex-vessel prices for whole rock crabs and crab claws
R ock crabs are shed along the entire California coast. averaged about $1.25 per pound
The catch is made up of three species — the yellow
Several trap designs and materials are used in the rock
rock crab (Cancer anthonyi), the brown rock crab (C.
crab shery. The most popular are single chamber, rectan-
antennarius), and the red rock crab (C. productus). The
gular traps of two by four-inch or two by two-inch welded
commercial shery is most active in southern California
wire mesh. Several types of molded plastic traps are used
(from Morro Bay south), where 85 to 90 percent of the
by some shermen because the traps are collapsible or
landings occur, and of lesser importance in northern areas
nest together on a boat deck. Traps are set and buoyed
(Monterey, Halfmoon Bay, and Eureka yield 10-15 percent),
singly or, perhaps, in pairs if loss to vessel trafc is a
where a shery for the more desirable Dungeness crab
concern. Most trapping occurs in depths of 90 to 240 feet
takes place. A major recreational shery has not devel-
on open sandy bottom or near rocky reef-type substrate.
oped, but recreational crabbing is popular in many areas
Two hundred or more traps may be shed by one boat,
and is often conducted in conjunction with other shing
with a portion pulled up and emptied each day. Traps
activities.
are usually “soaked” for 48 to 96 hours prior to pulling.
In 1950, a separate reporting category for commercial Commercial crab boats are usually small, ranging from
rock crab landings was established. Since then, landings skiffs to vessels of 40 feet or more.
have risen from 20,000 pounds to over two million pounds
Recreational gear ranges from a diver’s or shore picker’s
in 1986. Landings increased by 10 percent per year from
hand to baited hoop nets, collapsible star traps, or tradi-
1957 to 1971, jumped nearly 50 percent in 1972, and
tional traps (north of Point Arguello) shed from piers,
continued a steady increase to two million pounds in 1986.
jetties, and boats. Most of this effort takes place along
Prior to 1987, a portion of the landings calculated whole-
the shallow, nearshore open coast and in bays. Some
crab weights based on landings of claws only. Since then,
increased recreational take has occurred in central and
whole crabs and claws have been reported separately,
northern California in recent years as combination shing
and whole crab landings have showed a commensurate
and crab trips aboard commercial passenger shing ves-
decline. Rock crab landings for 1999 were 790,000 pounds
sels have developed. Traps, primarily targeting Dungeness
and have averaged 1.2 million pounds per year since 1991,
crabs, are set and pulled during these trips. However,
including the landings of claws converted to whole weight.
depending on location and season, rock crabs (brown and
Commercial crabbing has expanded from nearshore areas red) are often taken as well.
around major ports such as San Diego, San Pedro, Santa
Commercial regulations have been enacted to protect
Barbara, and Morro Bay to more distant mainland areas
crabs below reproductive size. Present regulations require
and the Channel Islands. Most rock crabs are landed alive
a minimum harvest size of 4.25-inch carapace width and
for retail sale by fresh sh markets. Often the crabs are
escape rings measuring 3.5 inches in diameter in each
cooked and eaten on site and, depending on the tastes
trap. Due to the multi-species nature of the shery, the
of the consumer, muscle tissue, as well as other organs
minimum size was chosen to accommodate the different
(ovaries in particular) are consumed. Rock crab meat has
characteristics of the three rock crab species. The recre-
ational take is controlled by a four-inch minimum carapace
width and a personal bag limit of 35 crabs per day.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Y ellow rock crabs range from Humboldt Bay into south-
ern Baja California, brown rock crabs from northern
Washington to central Baja California, and red rock crabs
from Kodiak Island to Central Baja California. All three
species inhabit waters from the low intertidal zone down
to depths of 300 feet or more. Although these species may
occur together throughout much of their range, yellow
rock crabs are most abundant in southern California,
brown rock crabs in central California and red rock crabs
in northern California. Yellow rock crabs prefer open sand
Yellow Rock Crab, Cancer anthonyi
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
112
Rock Crabs
2.5
millions of pounds landed
2.0
Rock Crabs
1.5
1.0
0.5 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Rock Crabs
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
or soft bottom habitat, while brown and red rock crabs to feed on rock crabs. Important invertebrate predators
prefer rocky or reef-type substrate. include the octopus and certain sea stars. As rock crabs
grow larger, they become less susceptible to predators
Rock crabs, like other crustaceans, grow in a step-wise
except during the soft-shell post-molt period; however,
fashion with each molt of the external shell. Yellow and
the sea otter is one animal that is an effective predator
brown rock crabs molt 10 to 12 times before reaching
on large rock crabs.
sexual maturity at about three inches carapace width.
Crabs of this size may molt twice a year, while crabs as Rock crabs do not appear to migrate or to undertake
large as six inches carapace width or more may molt once large-scale movements. Tagged adults have moved several
a year or less. Growth-per-molt, as a percentage of size, miles, but no pattern was apparent. Some local move-
decreases as the crab increases in size and age. Males of ments also may occur in relation to mating or molting.
all three species attain sizes 10 to 15 percent larger than Egg-bearing yellow rock crabs are known to congregate in
females. Yellow rock crabs grow to exceed seven inches rock-sand interface habitats.
in carapace width, brown rock crabs 6.5 inches, and red
rock crabs eight inches. While the longevity of rock crabs
Status of the Populations
is not well known, many crabs may reach ve or six years
of age.
I nformation is not available on stock sizes, recruitment
Mating takes place after the females molt and are still and mortality rates, the effects of different oceano-
in the soft-shell condition. In southern California, mating graphic regimes, or potential yield of rock crab popula-
is most common in the spring, but occurs throughout the tions. The commercial shery, however, has had a local-
year. About three months after mating, the eggs are laid, ized effect on crab abundance and size. Fishing areas
then fertilized from a sperm packet left by the male intensively exploited over an extended period show a
during mating. The developing eggs are carried in a mass lower catch-per-trap and a reduced size-frequency dis-
under the abdomen of the female. Depending on size and tribution compared to lightly exploited areas. In Santa
species, nearly four million eggs may be carried by a Monica Bay, an area closed to commercial crab shing for
female rock crab. After six to eight weeks, the eggs hatch decades, experimental catch rates were higher, crab sizes
into planktonic larvae, which undergo seven developmen- larger and size-frequencies broader than in adjacent areas
tal molts before settling to the bottom as juveniles. open to commercial trapping. Future research should be
Rock crabs are both predators and scavengers, feeding aimed at a better understanding of shery-related rock
on a variety of other invertebrates. Strong crushing claws crab population parameters.
allow them to prey on heavy-shelled animals such as
snails, clams, abalone, barnacles, and oysters. The olfac-
tory sense of crabs is well developed and allows them to
detect and locate food at a distance.
Rock crabs, especially juveniles, are preyed upon by a
variety of other marine organisms. Fishes such as cabezon,
barred sand bass and several species of rocksh are known
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 113
Management Considerations References
Rock Crab
Carroll, J.S. 1982. Seasonal abundance, size composition,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
and growth of rock crab, Cancer antennarius Stimpson, off
further information.
central California. J. Crust. Biol. 2:529-561.
Carroll, J.C. and R.N. Winn. 1989. Species proles: life
David O. Parker
histories and environmental requirements of coastal shes
California Department of Fish and Game
and invertebrates (Pacic Southwest) -- brown rock crab,
red rock crab, and yellow crab. U.S. Fish Wild. Serv. Biol.
Rep 82 (11.117). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4.
16 p.
Reilly, P.N. 1987. Population studies of rock crab, Cancer
antennarius, yellow crab Cancer anthonyi, and Kellet’s
whelk, Kelletia kelletii, in the vicinity of Little Cojo Bay,
Santa Barbara County, California. Calif. Fish and Game.
73:88-98.
Winn, R.N. 1985. Comparative ecology of three cancrid
crab species (Cancer anthonyi, C. antennarius and C. pro-
ductus) in marine subtidal habitats in southern California.
Ph.D. dissertation. University of southern California, Los
Angeles. 235 p.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
114
Sheep Crab
History of the Fishery water and the subsequent decline in claw landings, the
Sheep Crab
retail value has substantially decreased. In 1999, the
U ntil 1984, the sheep crab (Loxorhynchus grandis) was retail value was approximately $310,000, with whole crabs
of little commercial or recreational value. Before being sold for up to $4 per pound live and claws up to
that, they were occasionally landed as by-catch and were $3 per pound.
also taken by some recreational divers. Santa Barbara sh- An increase in claw landings seems unlikely given the
ermen and processors began to experiment with market- nature in which the shery was developed (i.e., to provide
ing them and by 1984, 30,000 to 40,000 pounds of whole some value to a by-catch species). In fact, prior to 1991,
crabs were landed. The shery for this underutilized spe- rock crab and spider crab claw landings were combined
cies expanded rapidly, stimulated by development of a in the landings data, with spider crab claws comprising
market for claws. The shery peaked in 1988 with land- 75 percent of the landings. In 1991, a size limit went
ings of 107,609 pounds of live crabs and 385,886 pounds into effect for rock crabs, and shermen were prohibited
of claws (combination of sheep and rock crab claws; 75 from taking any “part” of those crabs. However, the
percent and 25 percent respectively). The sheep crab was loss of supply of rock crab claws has not been compen-
the only shery in the United States with sizable landings sated for by an increase in landings of spider crab claws.
of claws and whole crabs. However, a 1990 California State This is most likely because implementation of the rock
Initiative banned the use of gillnets in shallow water. crab regulations coincided with the banning of gillnets in
Subsequently, landings of sheep crab claws plummeted to shallow water.
an average of only 5,000 pounds annually once gillnets
Fishing effort for, and landings of whole crabs remain
were completely phased out in 1994. During this same
relatively low since shermen generally have to establish
period, landings of live, whole crabs remained fairly con-
their own live markets and be able to hold the crabs alive
stant and relatively low, averaging approximately 75,000
for up to a week or more. In addition, because of the
pounds annually.
heavily calcied carapace of the crab, processing the body
The California sheep crab shery is centered in the Santa meat is presently uneconomical. Thus, current landing
Barbara Channel and off the northern Channel Islands. patterns may increase if new marketing efforts expand
The bulk of the landings are in Santa Barbara and Ventura
counties although most of the crabs are marketed in
the San Pedro and greater Los Angeles area. The shery
primarily operates over sandy bottom, where gear is set
in shallow waters (30-70 feet) in spring and summer and
then moved to deeper waters (120-240 feet) in fall and
winter months. Both male and female adult crabs are
taken for the live, whole body shery. The claw shery is
supported solely by large adult male crabs, as the claws
of adult female crabs and small adult males do not reach
market size.
Crab and lobster trap shermen supply the bulk of live
crabs. Modied rock crab or lobster traps with an enlarged
funnel are used, permitting entry of large adult male
and female crabs. Set gill-netters supply the claw market,
usually killing the crab in the claw removal process.
Sheep crabs are a nuisance to gillnet shermen because
they become tangled in the gear and their removal from
the nets is time consuming, usually resulting in damage
to the animals. However, with the development of the
claw shery the crabs became a valuable resource for
gill-netters.
At the peak of the shery, the retail value of the com-
bined catch was about $1.9 million per year, with claws
being sold for $5.75 per pound and whole crabs going
for $3 per pound live and $4.25 per pound cooked. Claw the live markets or if processing of whole crabs becomes
landings and value far exceeded those of the whole body
Sheep Crab, Loxorhynchus grandis
shery. However, with the banning of gillnets in shallow Credit: Diane Pleshner
CA Seafood Council
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 115
Sheep Crab
120
thousands of pounds landed
100
80
Sheep Crab
60
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Sheep Crab
40
Sheep crab landings are
recorded by DFG as spider
20
crab. Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
economically feasible. Such expansion seems likely given can reach a length of 6.8 inches; thus, size alone is
the continued interest in the California shery and the insufcient to determine maturity. The presence of a gap
recent development of an experimental sheep crab shery in the serrated gape of the claw of adult male crabs
off Baja California. distinguishes them from juvenile males. It is uncertain
how morphometric maturity relates to physiological and
behavioral maturity.
Status of Biological Knowledge The abundance of berried females peaks in late spring and
S
remains high throughout the summer, although they can
heep crab is the common name of one species within a
be found throughout the year. Adult females are able to
family of crabs (Majidae), which collectively are often
mate when soft or hard shelled. Sperm storage allows
called spider crabs. Consequently, the sheep crab is often
for multiple broods to be oviposited even in the absence
called a spider crab and is the largest member of the Cali-
of males. Egg numbers probably increase with size of
fornia majid crabs. They range from Cordell Bank (Marin
brooding female crabs. Small broods contain 125,000 eggs,
County) south to Cape Thurloe, Baja California, in depths
whereas large broods can have as many as 500,000 eggs.
of 20 to 410 feet. It is not known whether the entire
Laboratory observations suggest that sheep crabs feed on
resource consists of just one or of a number of different
a variety of prey. They readily eat dead sh, crushed
populations. Sheep crabs are apparently most abundant
mussels, and kelp. Cannibalism of newly molted animals
off southern California.
occurs in the laboratory when crabs are not well fed. No
Longevity is currently unknown, but many adults appear
observations are available on foraging behavior in nature,
to be at least four years old. In contrast to most other
nor have gut contents been analyzed.
commercially important crustaceans, most majid crabs are
Predatory interactions have not been observed in the
believed to cease molting upon reaching maturity. Studies
eld either, but it is likely that small crabs are preyed
of molt staging, limb regeneration, and molting frequency
upon by cabezon, sheephead, octopus, sharks and rays.
support the existence of a terminal molt in sheep crab.
Small sheep crabs disguise themselves by decorating their
After this molt, crabs do not increase in size nor do
carapace with algae, sponges, or other encrusting materi-
they regenerate limbs. This phenomenon is an important
als. Large crabs probably have few predators.
biological characteristic that may require development
of a management scheme different from those of other Two parasitic infections could potentially impact recruit-
California crab sheries. ment — an undescribed species of nemertean or ribbon
worm and a rhizocephalan barnacle. The former consumes
Maturation is dened only in morphometric terms. At
the developing embryo in the egg. The latter eliminates
maturity the relative width of the abdomen of females
reproductive output and also inhibits growth of the crab.
and the length of the claw of males increase markedly
Preliminary observations indicate that certain areas con-
when compared to a standard measure of body size such
tain a high prevalence of individuals parasitized by the
as carapace length. Females become morphometrically
rhizocephalan and that crabs are infected as juveniles.
mature between 4.2 and 6.8 inches carapace length (from
margin of orbit). Adult males range in size from 4.2 to 9.6 Male crabs winter in deep water. Both sexes migrate
inches. However, morphometrically juvenile male crabs onshore in early spring, and piles of adult females have
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
116
been observed in spring and summer. Large adult males
Sheep Crab
have been seen on the perimeter of these aggregations.
The biological signicance of the piles is apparently
related to mating, as the majority of females are gravid,
the males often exhibit competitive behavior for mates
and there are many obstetrical pairs (a mating behavior
where a male and female crab are hooked together
back-to-back by the males back limbs). Similar aggregate
mating phenomena have been reported for other
spider crabs.
Status of the Population
T he abundance of sheep crabs is unknown. Abundant
populations have been reported off Los Angeles and
San Diego. Furthermore, although this spider crab has
been a by-catch for many years, there is no evidence of
declining populations in the Santa Barbara Channel where
most shing takes place. However, some have reported a
decrease in overall crab size. Such a phenomenon could
be due to the immense shing pressure on large males
both for claws and whole body. Because this species
undergoes a terminal molt, removal of large crabs may
leave only small animals to contribute to the gene pool.
If the terminal molt is genetically regulated, this could
result in a population of smaller crabs.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Carolynn S. Culver and Armand M. Kuris
University of California, Santa Barbara
References
Anonymous. 1983. Guide to underutilized species of Cali-
fornia. National Marine Fisheries Service Admin. Rept.
T-83-01. 29 p.
Culver, Carolynn S. 1991. Growth of the spider crab, Loxo-
rhynchus grandis. M.A. Thesis, Univ. of Calif. Santa Bar-
bara, California. 101 p.
Pleschner, D.B. 1985. Fish of the Month: Spider Crab.
Pacic Fishing Magazine. 8(6): 33-39 p.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 117
Ocean Shrimp
History of the Fishery shermen were limited to the use of beam trawls with a
minimum mesh size of 1.5 inches between the knots. In
T he commercial shery for ocean shrimp (Pandalus jor- 1963, shrimpers were permitted to use otter trawls with
dani), also called pink shrimp, started in 1952 after the same size mesh. The mesh size was reduced from 1.5
commercial quantities were found by DFG research vessels inches to 1 3/8 inches in Areas A, B-1, and B-2 in 1975.
in 1950 and 1951. The California Fish and Game Commis- Prior to 1974, all shrimp boats in California pulled a single
sion established regulations for the new shery in 1952, rig of one net and two doors, but starting with the 1974
including net type with mesh restrictions and a season. season, vessels towing a double rig from outriggers, one
The rst catches were made later that same year. Three on each side of the boat, entered the shery. The double-
regulation areas were also designated and catch quotas rigged vessels are approximately 1.6 times more effective
established for each. The three regulatory areas were than single-rigged vessels.
Area A, Oregon border to False Cape; Area B, False Cape
During the rst year of the shery, only six boats partici-
to Pigeon Point; and Area C, Pigeon Point to the Mexican
pated. The number of boats increased to 27 by 1960, then
border. In 1956, Area B was divided into two areas; B-1
averaged 24 boats per season over the next 16 years.
extended from False Cape to Point Arena and B-2 from
The record catch in 1977 started a rapid inux of boats
Point Arena to Pigeon Point.
into the shrimp shery and reached a high of 104 vessels
Catch quotas governed the shrimp take from 1952 to 1976. during 1980, but the number declined to 33 during 1983
Quotas were based on recommendations by DFG and were when the catch fell to a low of 1,176,000 pounds. As
set each year by the Fish and Game Commission. In 1976, the catch recovered from that El Niño-induced low, many
all quotas were dropped in favor of four criteria believed boats reentered the shery. The number of vessels per
to protect the resource. The criteria were: 1) a season season averaged 88 from 1983 through 1999. A record-high
from April 15 through October 31, designed to protect egg- 155 boats shrimped during the 1994 shery, the rst year
bearing females; 2) a net mesh size of 1 3/8 inches, to of a moratorium on new shrimp permits —ß probably the
allow escapement of small zero- and one-year-old shrimp; cause of the large increase in the number of vessels.
3) a count per pound of 170 or less, intended to protect
California landings have averaged 4,843,000 pounds annu-
one-year-old shrimp; and 4) a minimum catch rate of 350
ally from 1952 through the 1999 season, ranging from a
pounds per hour to protect shrimp when the population
low of 206,000 pounds in 1952 to a high of 18,683,000
is at a low level. If these requirements were not met,
pounds in 1992. Average landings have increased each
the DFG had the option to close the shery. In 1981,
decade since the start of the shery in the 1950s: 969,000
the regulations were changed again to bring them into
pounds in the 1950s, 1,810,000 pounds in the 1960s,
accord with an agreement with Oregon Department of Fish
5,679,000 pounds in the 1970s, 5,871,000 pounds in the
and Wildlife and Washington Department of Fisheries to
1980s and 9,127,000 pounds in the 1990s. Area A has been
have coast-wide uniform regulations. The new regulations
the most consistent producer and, since 1954, has had the
included a season from April 1 through October 31, a
highest annual landings. The only exception was the El
maximum count per pound of 160, and a minimum mesh
Niño year of 1983, when Area C had the highest landings.
size of 1 3/8 inches measured inside the knots. These
Since the inception of the shery, 86.8 percent of the
regulations are still in effect. From 1952 to 1963, shrimp
shrimp have been landed in Area A ports, 5.4 percent
in Area B-1, 2.9 percent in Area B-2, and 4.9 percent in
Area C.
The price paid to the shermen (ex-vessel price) has
ranged from a low of $0.07 per pound in 1955 to a high
of $0.87 per pound in 1987. The ex-vessel price remained
fairly constant at $0.10 per pound during the 1950s and
1960s, increased in price from $0.12 per pound to around
$0.30 per pound in the 1970s, and since has uctuated
around $0.50 per pound.
The largest portion of ocean shrimp landed in California
is picked and individually quick-frozen. Small amounts are
sold fresh whole, as cooked picked meat or packed in
vacuum cans. Most of California’s shrimp catch was hand
picked until 1969, when machines were introduced in the
Eureka area. Shrimp machines have enabled the shrimp
Catch of Ocean Shrimp, Pandalus jordani
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
118
industry to pick much smaller shrimp than was possible begin extruding eggs in October. The female carries the
Ocean Shrimp
with hand picking. eggs between the posterior swimming appendages until
the larvae hatch. The peak of hatching occurs during late
March and early April. Ocean shrimp go through a larval
Status of Biological Knowledge period that lasts 2.5 to three months. The developing
juvenile shrimp occupy successively deeper depths as they
O cean shrimp are found from Unalaska in the Aleutian
develop, and often begin to show in commercial catches
Islands to off San Diego, California, at depths from 150
by late summer. Shrimp grow in steps by molting or shed-
to 1200 feet. In California, this species is generally found
ding their shells. Growth rates for ocean shrimp vary
from depths of 240 to 750 feet. Spawning probably occurs
according to region and also by sex and year class. There
throughout the range, but commercial harvest is limited
is a clear pattern of seasonal growth despite the varia-
to the area between Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
tions mentioned, with very rapid growth during spring
and Point Arguello, California.
and summer and slower growth over the winter. The
Concentrations of shrimp generally remain in well-dened growth rate decreases as the shrimp age. Shrimp growth
areas or beds from year to year. These areas are associ- rates increased markedly in Oregon after 1979, suggesting
ated with green mud and muddy-sand bottoms. Although a density dependent growth response to shing. Ocean
there is some evidence of minor onshore-offshore and shrimp may reach 5.5 inches in total length, but the
coast-wide movement within the connes of a bed average catch size is about four inches. In California, few
throughout the year, no convincing evidence of migratory shrimp survive beyond their fourth year.
behavior has been produced. Horizontal movements prob-
Studies on natural mortality estimate that the survival
ably are governed by feeding activities and prevailing
between shing seasons (over winter) is 46 percent, 76
currents. Ocean shrimp also exhibit vertical migrations.
percent, and 43 percent for ocean shrimp during their
These movements toward the surface during periods of
rst, second, and third winters of life, respectively.
darkness appear to be associated with feeding on plank-
ton. Adults from the different beds probably intermix
Status of the Population
rarely, but the planktonic larvae undoubtedly intermingle,
as there are no indications of genetically distinct subpopu-
P
lations. Genetic stock identication work on ocean shrimp opulation estimates of the various shrimp beds were
has failed to isolate any genetic differences between obtained by department sea surveys from 1959 to
ocean shrimp from off the coasts of California, Oregon, 1964; catch quotas were set at one quarter of the esti-
Washington and British Columbia. mated population. Area A sea survey continued until 1969.
The highest Area A population estimate from sea surveys
Ocean shrimp feed mostly at night on planktonic animals.
was 10,700,000 pounds in the fall of 1967. Because the
The stomach contents of shrimp taken at night indicated
cost of sea surveys was quite high, another method of
that the most common food items were euphausiids and
estimating population was needed. A mathematical popu-
copepods, while the stomachs of shrimp collected during
lation model, designed by department statisticians, was
daytime contained little food. Identiable food items
used to estimate the population size and set the quota
included polychaete worms, sponges, diatoms, amphipods,
from 1969 until 1976, when the model was dropped and no
and isopods.
further attempts to estimate the population were made.
Many species of sh prey on ocean shrimp. Major sh
It was established that the ocean shrimp population abun-
predators include Pacic hake, arrowtooth ounder, sable-
dance off California is determined by environmental con-
sh, petrale sole and several species of rocksh.
ditions, which causes natural uctuations in recruitment
Ocean shrimp are protandric hermaphrodites; that is,
that are apparently unrelated or minimally related to
during their rst year and a half of life most will function
commercial shing effort. Since the abandonment of
as males, then pass through a transitional phase to
quotas, the shrimp population, as evidenced by the com-
become females. During some years, large percentages
mercial catch, has gone through two extreme highs (1977
(up to 60 percent) of the one-year-old shrimp become
- 15,600,000 pounds; 1992 - 18,683,000 pounds) and two
females and never mate as males. Female shrimp usually
lows (1983 - 1,200,000 pounds - primarily in Area C; 1998
carry between 1,000 and 3,000 eggs. Small individuals in
- 1,836,000 pounds). The population appears to be headed
their second year have been found carrying as few as 900
up again since the 1998 low.
eggs, whereas larger shrimp in their third or fourth year of
Investigations of the population dynamics of shrimp off
life have been found with up to 3,900 eggs. Mating takes
Oregon suggest shrimp are inherently resistant to oversh-
place during September and October, and the external
ing. Annual recruitment success has been shown to be
fertilization of the eggs takes place when the females
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 119
Ocean Shrimp
20
millions of pounds landed
15
Ocean Shrimp
10
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Ocean Shrimp
Data Source: DFG Catch
5
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. No commercial
0 1916
landing are reported for ocean
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
shrimp prior to 1952.
linked to the strength and timing of the spring transition with Pacic hake (Merluccius productus). Can. J. Fish
in coastal currents immediately following larval release. Aquat. Sci. 52:1018-1029.
An early, strong transition produces large year classes. Hannah, R. W., S.A. Jones and M. R. Long. 1995. Fecundity
Shrimp are short-lived and exhibit exible rates of sex of the ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
change that act to maintain a roughly balanced sex com- Sci. 52:2098-2107.
position, despite highly variable mortality rates. Other
Hannah, R.W. 1993. The inuence of environmental varia-
evidence also suggests that shrimp exhibit density-depen-
tion and spawning stock levels on recruitment of ocean
dent growth. In combination, these biological traits
shrimp (Pandalus jordani). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
increase the shing pressure a stock can withstand with-
50(3):612-622.
out suffering decline. Nonetheless, some evidence has
Hannah, R.W. and S.A. Jones. 1991. Fishery induced
been presented recently suggesting shrimp are periodically
changes in the population structure of pink shrimp (Pan-
“recruitment-overshed” in a manner that delays the stock’s
dalus jordani). Fishery Bulletin. U.S. 89:41-51.
rebound from El Niño-related recruitment failures. However,
overshing in such a short-lived resource has relatively minor Hannah, R.W. and S.A. Jones. 1973. Status of the Califor-
impacts on yield and changes in management await addi- nia ocean shrimp resource and its management. Calif.
tional research on how shing is altering yield. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech. Rep. 14. 17 p.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1980. Draft of the
shery management plan and environmental impact state-
Patrick C. Collier
ment for the pink shrimp shery off Washington, Oregon
California Department of Fish and Game
and California. Pac. Fish. Mgmt. Council, 526 S.W. Mill St.,
Robert W. Hannah
Portland, OR. 191 p.
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
Pearcy, W.G. 1970. Vertical migration of the ocean shrimp,
Pandalus jordani: a feeding and dispersal mechanism.
References Calif. Fish and Game, 56:125-129.
Rothlisberg, P. C. 1975. Larval ecology of Pandalus jordani
Dahlstrom, W.A. 1970. Synopsis of biological data on the
Rathbun. Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University, Cor-
ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani Rathbun, 1902. FAO Fish.
vallis, Oregon. 117 p.
Rep. 57(4):1377-1416.
Hannah, R. W. 1999. A new method for indexing spawning
stock and recruitment in ocean shrimp, Pandalus jordani,
and preliminary evidence for a stock-recruitment relation-
ship. Fish. Bull. 97:482-494.
Hannah, R. W. 1995. Variation in geographic stock area,
catchability and natural mortality of ocean shrimp (Panda-
lus jordani): some new evidence for a trophic interaction
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
120
Spot Prawn
History of the Fishery trawl, northern California trap, southern California trawl
Spot Prawn
and southern California trap. From 1994 until 1998, state-
T he shery for spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) origi- wide landings nearly doubled from 444,000 pounds to a
nated nearly 68 years ago in Monterey when prawns historic high of 780,000 pounds. All of the shery compo-
were caught incidentally in octopus traps. It was a minor nents showed some growth with the northern trawl shery
shery with landings averaging around 2,000 pounds annu- experiencing a 14-fold increase in landings while southern
ally until the early 1970s. In 1974, trawl shermen shing trawl and northern trap showing a four-fold increase and
out of Santa Barbara caught over 182,000 pounds. Trawl southern trap almost doubling its landings. There were
landings steadily grew as more shermen entered this new several reasons for this rise including increased market
shery and new areas were explored reaching a peak of demand, which raised the average price for live prawns
more than 375,500 pounds in 1981. Landings fell drasti- from $6 per pound to $8; increased effort by California
cally in the next few years causing concern by shermen and Washington shermen displaced from other sheries;
and DFG biologists. An area and season closure was insti- changes in gear design, specically the use of large
tuted between Point Conception and Point Mugu during rollers (rock hopper gear) on the groundline of the trawl
the peak egg-bearing months of November, December and nets; and increased availability due to strong spot prawn
January in 1984. Following the implementation of an area recruitment in 1996 and 1997.
closure, trawl landings remained low until 1993 averaging The advent of rock hopper gear allowed shermen to sh
about 54,000 pounds annually. The low catch rates for the areas once off limits because of the rocky nature of the
trawl eet were due in part to the development of other bottom. These areas had previously acted as de facto
sheries such as ridgeback prawn, sea cucumber and the reserves, providing new recruits for adjacent areas tradi-
increased demand for fresh sh, which caused growth in tionally worked by trawl vessels. The rise in the number
the groundsh trawl shery. of participants and a 21 percent decline in statewide
In 1985, a trap shery for spot prawn developed in the 1999 landings, prompted shermen once again to ask for
Southern California Bight. The trap shery was concen- further regulation and a limited access plan. An ad-hoc
trated around all of the Channel Islands and along coastal committee of trap and trawl shermen and department
submarine canyons in water depths between 600 and biologists developed several management recommenda-
1,080 fathoms. Fishing was now occurring in areas of tions, which included a limit on the size of roller gear to
southern California that the trawl eet did not have access 14-inches. In 2000, the Commission adopted some but not
to because trawling was not allowed within three miles all of the proposed regulations with slight modication.
of the shore. The advent of the trap shery also meant Instead of a simultaneous closure for trap and trawl sher-
the start of a live prawn shery for the Asiatic community ies north of Point Conception, a May to August closure for
locally and overseas. With traps, prawns could be kept the trap shery was selected by the Commission. While
alive using holding tanks set at optimum water tempera- northern California trappers can catch prawns during the
tures. Annual landings in the trap shery grew from 8,800 peak egg-bearing season, they are limited to 300 traps
pounds in 1985 to over 247,000 in 1991. During this period, within state waters. Other regulations adopted by the
trapping accounted for 75 percent of statewide landings; Commission for this shery included a requirement for
trawling accounted for the remaining 25 percent. bycatch reduction devices on trawl nets, and an observer
Two years of declining landings in the trap shery and
the continued low landing levels by the trawl eet lead
shermen and biologists once again to address manage-
ment of California’s spot prawn resource. The Fish and
Game Commission, with the support of the trap and trawl
shermen, expanded the trawl area and season closure to
include the entire Southern California Bight in 1994. They
also instituted the rst regulations for the trap shery by
requiring a one inch by one inch trap mesh size, limiting
traps per vessel to 500, and initiating an area and season
closure for the same area and time period as the trawl
shery.
Following these management measures, the spot prawn
shery underwent signicant changes in composition and
statewide growth. The spot prawn shery was now com-
Spot Prawn, Pandalus platyceros
prised of four shery components: northern California
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 121
Spot Prawn
900
thousands of pounds landed
800
700
600
Spot Prawn
500
400
300
Commercial Landings
200
1916-1999, Spot Prawn
100
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
program for all components of the spot prawn shery. A boats are about 30 to 60 feet in length and usually sh
control date for limited entry was established, but the rest for salmon during the summer. Currently, there are about
of the plan was put on hold. six boats shing the Monterey Bay area, and they sh 10
months a year. The southern California trap eet ranges
The 1999 price for live prawns ranged from $6 to $10
between 30 and 40 boats depending on prawn availability.
per pound, whereas dead (heads-on) prawns bring only
These boats range in size from 20 to 75 feet with an aver-
$4.50 to $5.50 per pound. Live prawns are now taken
age of 34 feet. Trap designs are limited either to plastic
by trap and trawl vessels and account for 95 percent of
oval-shaped traps or to the more popular rectangular wire
landings. The change from a trap-only live shery follows
traps. The dimension of the single chamber plastic traps is
experimentation by trawl shermen on net design and tow
approximately 2.5 feet by 1.5 feet while the typical size of
duration, which maximizes prawn catch while reducing or
the wire traps is 3.0 feet by 1.5 feet by 1.0 foot with two
eliminating incidental take of non-target species.
chambers. Normally, a sherman will set 25 to 50 traps
The trawler eet consists of approximately 54 vessels
attached to a single groundline (string) with anchors and
operating coast-wide from Bodega Bay to the United
buoys at both ends. In both shing areas, traps are set at
States-Mexico border. Most vessels operate out of Mon-
depths of 600 to 1,000 feet along submarine canyons or
terey, Morro Bay, Santa Barbara, and Ventura, although
along shelf breaks.
a number of Washington-based vessels participate in this
shery during the fall and winter. The vessel length of
Status of Biological Knowledge
the trawl eet ranges from 28 to 85 feet with an average
vessel length of 47 feet. Standard gear is a single-rig
S
shrimp trawl of a semi-balloon, or Gulf Shrimp Act, design. pot prawns range from Alaska to San Diego, California,
Occasionally, double-rig or paired shrimp trawls are used. in depths from 150 to 1,600 feet. Areas of higher
The body of the trawl net is typically composed of a single abundance in California waters occur off of the Farallon
layer of 2.5- to three-inch meshes with a 36-square inch Islands, Monterey, the Channel Islands and most offshore
bycatch reduction device, and a minimum codend mesh banks. This species is a protandric hermaphrodite, begin-
size of 1.5 inches. Many shermen prefer to use a double ning life as a male. Sexual maturity is reached during
codend composed of two- to three-inch mesh. A variety the third year averaging 1.5 inches carapace length (CL).
of roller gear is added to the groundline of the trawl By the fourth year, many males begin to change sex to
net, which keeps the ground off the bottom and prevents the transitional stage. By the end of the fourth year, the
a variety of benthic invertebrates such as sea stars, sea transitionals become females averaging 1.75 inches CL.
fans, and anemones as well as rocks from being scooped Maximum observed age is estimated at over six years but
into the net. Standard roller gear, which spins freely there are considerable differences in age and growth of
around the groundline, varies in size from eight-inch disks spot prawns between areas. Animals from Canada live no
to 28-inch tires. longer than four years, whereas the prawns from southern
California can reach six years. Studies indicate that prawns
The spot prawn trap eet operates from Monterey Bay to
grow faster in a temperate environment than in a cold
southern California. The northern trap shery continues to
environment.
produces prawns, although it has never reached the large
volume of the southern California shery. Monterey-area
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
122
References
Spawning occurs once a year, and each individual mates
Spot Prawn
once as a male and once or twice as a female. Females
Butler, T.H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution
spawn at a carapace length of 1.75 inches. Spawning takes
of pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
place at depths of 500 to 700 feet. September appears
Canada. 21:1403-1452.
to be the start of the spawning season, when the eggs
are extruded onto the female’s swimmerets. She carries Butler, T.H. 1986. Growth and reproduction of spot prawns
the eggs for a period of four to ve months before they in the Santa Barbara Channel. Calif. Fish and Game.
hatch. By April, only 15 percent of females still carry eggs. 72:83-93.
Fecundity varies with size, ranging from 1,400 to 5,000
California Department of Fish and Game. 1980 to 1999.
eggs for the rst spawning down to 1,000 eggs for the
Final Bulletin Tables for California Commercial Landings -
second spawning. Eggs hatch over a 10-day period and the
Table 15. The Resources Agency, State of California.
larvae are planktonic. As they develop into the juvenile
California Department of Fish and Game. 1995. Final Envi-
stage, they begin to settle out at depths as shallow as 175
ronmental Document - Spot Prawn Commercial Fishing
feet, but move deeper as they reach adulthood.
Regulations (Section 120 and 180, Title 14, California Code
Spot prawns feed on other shrimp, plankton, small mol-
of Regulations). State of California. Resources Agency. 131
lusks, worms, sponges, and sh carcasses. They usually
pps + appendices.
forage on the bottom throughout the day and night.
Sunada, J.S. 1984. Spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) and
ridgeback prawn (Sicyonia ingentis) sheries in the Santa
Status of the Population Barbara Channel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep.
25:100-104.
E xploratory surveys conducted by the DFG during the
1960s revealed the presence of prawns along the
coast, but no estimates of population size were made.
During the 1980s, additional surveys were conducted in
southern California to further dene distribution and
range. The development of the southern California trap
shery in the mid-1980s detected sizable aggregations of
this species, which were previously unknown. The intro-
duction of roller gear on trawl nets in the 1990s led to the
exploration of even more areas and location of additional
habitat suitable for spot prawns. Thus, it appears that this
species is more numerous and widespread than previously
believed as attested by the geographic expansion and rise
in total landings.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Mary L. Larson
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 123
Ridgeback Prawn
History of the Fishery regulations include a prohibition of trawling within state
waters (three-miles from the mainland shore and islands),
I ntermittent catches of small numbers of ridgeback a minimum shing depth of 25 fathoms, a minimum mesh
prawns (Sicyonia ingentis) in Santa Barbara-area sh size of 1.5 inches for single-walled codends or three inches
trawls led to the development of regulations to allow the for double-walled codends and a logbook requirement.
take of prawns with small mesh trawl nets. Enactment of Demand for this resource continues to be high, as its
these regulations in 1965 resulted in the landing of 30,200 sweet avor and low price make it a favorite among fresh
pounds of prawns the following year; however, landings sh buyers. As this species does not freeze well, it is
quickly slumped when prawns proved difcult to market. primarily sold as fresh whole prawns; however, prawns
Annual landings were below 5,000 pounds from 1974 to are often landed live to supply a secondary live prawn
1977, except in 1975 when they were 28,000 pounds. The market, and also to prevent discoloration from a black
catch increased to 356,000 pounds in 1979, but declined to pigment that forms after death, which lowers consumer
129,000 pounds three years later. In 1985, landings peaked appeal. In 1999, live prawns accounted for 28 percent of
at nearly 900,000 pounds, but they subsequently declined the landings, but have been as high as 68 percent in 1997.
to 142,000 pounds in 1988 following several year-class The median ex-vessel price in 1999 for all ridgeback prawn
failures. Landings reached a low of 64,000 pounds in 1992, was $1.30 per pound. Live prawns sold for a median price
but increased to 607,000 pounds in 1996. After a dip to of $2 per pound, with a range of $1 to $5 per pound, while
387,000 pounds in 1997, ridgeback prawn landings reached fresh dead prawns sold for a median of $1 with a range of
a new high of about 1,391,000 pounds in 1999. $0.20 to $3.35 per pound.
The shery is centered in the Santa Barbara Channel and
off Santa Monica Bay. In 1999, 32 boats participated in the
Status of Biological Knowledge
shery. Traditionally, a number of boats sh year round
for both ridgeback and spot prawns, targeting ridgeback
R idgeback prawns occur from Monterey, California to
prawns during the closed season for spot prawns and
Cedros Island, Baja California, at depths ranging from
shing for spot prawn during the ridgeback closure. Most
less than 145 feet to 525 feet. Major concentrations occur
boats typically use single rig trawl gear (only one boat was
in the Ventura-Santa Barbara Channel area, Santa Monica
noted to be using double rig gear in 1999). The average
Bay, and off Oceanside. One study found ridgeback prawns
trawler length is 45 feet with a range of 28 to 76 feet. Six
to be one of the most common invertebrates to appear
of these boats are over 50 feet in length.
in its trawls, occurring in 59 percent of tows along the
Following the 1981 decline in landings, a summer closure mainland shelf within the Southern California Bight. Other
(June 1 through September 30) was adopted by the Cali- pockets of abundance are found off Baja California. This
fornia Fish and Game Commission to protect spawning species occurs on substrates of sand, shell and green
female and juvenile ridgeback prawns. An incidental take mud. As these animals are relatively sessile, little or
of 50 pounds of prawns or 15 percent by weight is no intermixing occurs. Their maximum life span is ve
allowed during the closed period. During the season, a years and sexes are separate. Females reach a maximum
maximum of 1,000 pounds of other sh may be landed length of 1.8 inches carapace length (CL), and males 1.5
with ridgeback prawns. Any amount of sea cucumbers may inches CL.
be landed with ridgeback prawns as long as the vessel
These shrimp are free spawners, as opposed to other
owner/operator possesses a sea cucumber permit. Other
shrimps, which carry eggs. Both sexes spawn as early as
the rst year, but most spawn during the second
year at a size of 1.2 inches CL. The spawning period
is more seasonal than with other penaeid shrimp.
Studies suggest that this species undergoes multiple
spawning from June through October. Following spawning,
both sexes undergo molting and continue molting
throughout winter and spring. The number of eggs pro-
duced averages 86,000.
The food habits of the ridgeback prawn are unknown, but
it may be a detritus feeder like closely related species.
In Baja California, ridgeback prawns are preyed on by
several species of sea robins. In southern California, it is
presumed other groundsh such as rocksh and lingcod
Ridgeback Prawn, Sicyonia ingentis
Credit: David Ono, DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
124
Ridgeback Prawn
1.6
1.4
millions of pounds landed
1.2
Ridgeback Prawn
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Commercial Landings
0.2 1916-1999, Ridgeback Prawn
0.0 1916 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts.
Management Considerations
prey on them as well. Other likely predators include octo-
pus, sharks, halibut, and bat rays.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Status of the Population
Y John S. Sunada
early sea surveys between 1982 and 1991 documented
California Department of Fish and Game
relative abundance and year-class strengths of juvenile
ridgeback prawns. Relative abundance in terms of num- John B. Richards
bers of animals per 15-minute tow began increasing from University of California, Santa Barbara
66 animals per tow in 1982 to 1,200 animals per tow by
Revised by Leeanne M. Laughlin
1984, but began to decline in 1985 when the catch fell to
California Department of Fish and Game
132 per tow. These trends mirrored the rise and fall of
yearly commercial catches. The population of ridgeback
prawns in the Ventura area increased dramatically during
References
1983 to 1985, but then began declining.
Allen, M.J., and S.L. Moore. 1997. Recurrent groups of
Ridgeback prawn trawl logs, required since 1986, show
megabenthic invertebrates on the mainland shelf of south-
an average of 147 pounds of ridgeback prawn caught per
ern California in 1994. pp. 129-135 in: S.B. Weisberg,
tow/hour, dropping to a low of 32 pounds per tow/hour in
C. Francisco, and D. Hallock (eds.), southern California
1992, and steadily increasing to 213 pounds per tow/hour
Coastal Water Research Project Annual Report 1996.
in 1999. This increase is in addition to an increase in
southern California Coastal Water Research Project. West-
the number of vessels (from 17 in 1992, a high of 43
minster, CA.
vessels in 1995, to 32 in 1999), and more effort directed at
ridgeback prawns during the spot prawn closed season. Anderson, S.L., L.W. Botsford, and W.H. Clark, Jr. 1985.
Size distributions and sex ratios of ridgeback prawns (Sicy-
Potential causes for this increase are the effects of El
onia ingentis) in the Santa Barbara Channel (1979-1981).
Niño, which may have provided optimum conditions for
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 26:169-174.
growth and recruitment; reduced predator populations;
and regulatory restrictions on the shery. No population Anderson, S.L., W.H. Clark, and E.S. Chang. 1985. Multiple
estimates were available for any of the major shing spawning and molt synchrony in a free-spawning shrimp
grounds, although the majority of catches consisted of (Sicyonia ingentis: Sicyoniidae). Biol. Bull. 168:377-394.
two- and three-year-old animals.
Herkelrath, J.M. 1977. Some aspects of the growth
and temperature tolerance of ridgeback prawn, Sicyonia
ingentis (Burkenroad), in southern California waters. M.S.
thesis. Department of Biology, Whittier College.
Pérez Farfante, I. 1985. The rock shrimp genus Sicyonia
(Crustacea: Decopoda: Penaeoidea) in the eastern Pacic.
Fish. Bull., U.S. 83:1-79.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 125
Price, R.J., Tom, P.D., and Richards, J.B. 1996. Recom-
Ridgeback Prawn
mendations for handling ridgeback shrimp. UCSGEP 96-1,
Sea Grant Extension Program, University of California,
Davis, CA.
Schmitter-Sotol, J.J., and Castro-Aguirre, J.L. 1996. Tro-
phic comparison among Triglidae (Pisces: Scorpaeni-
formes) off Baja California Sur, Mexico. International Jour-
nal of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 44(2).
Sunada, J.S. 1984. Spot prawn (Pandalus platyceros) and
ridgeback prawn (Sicyonia ingentis) sheries in the Santa
Barbara Channel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep.
25:100-104.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
126
Red Rock Shrimp
History of the Fishery pounds per trap. Bycatch in the traps consists primarily
Red Rock Shrimp
of octopus, rock snails, sea cucumber, and an occasional
T clingsh. Purple sea urchins and Kellet’s whelks are often
he red rock shrimp (Lysmata californica) shery has
found clinging to the underside of the traps.
been sporadic and of small magnitude since the late
1950s. It has persisted, however, due to the relatively high The shery is seasonal, from October to April, for several
market value of this species for recreational shing bait. reasons, including: 1) market competition from more plen-
Fishermen typically receive up to $25 a pound (about 100 tiful summertime baits, such as sand crabs; 2) higher rates
shrimp per pound) when sold to retail bait stores. Bait of trap vandalism due to increased shoreline recreational
stores will then sell the shrimp either by the dozen or the shing activity during summer months; 3) participation
ounce at approximately twice the wholesale price. Red in other commercial sheries during the summer such as
rock shrimp are highly regarded by anglers as the bait of barracuda, white seabass and tunas; and 4) decreased
choice for opaleye, black croaker, rubberlip surfperch, pile shrimp availability in traditional trapping areas beginning
perch and other sh found along breakwaters, jetties and in the spring.
sea walls. In order to bring a premium price, the shrimp
The red rock shrimp shery is regulated by the Fish and
must be delivered to the bait stores alive. This requires
Game Commission. Prior to 1986, a tidal invertebrate
special handling on the part of the sherman as well as by
permit and a general trap permit were required. Regula-
the bait store. The shrimp are kept in aerated bait tanks
tions include marking traps with buoys, servicing traps
or in oating "receivers" by the sherman until delivery to
once every 96 hours, and trap destruct-devices to prevent
the store. The bait stores are able to keep the shrimp alive
ghost shing of lost gear. Legislation enacted in 1986
for 24 to 48 hours by covering them with rags soaked in
generally restricted the use of trap gear for shrimp and
seawater. Dead shrimp can be salted or sugar cured but
prawns to water 50 fathoms or greater. This included
are then usually sold at a lower price. A secondary market
the harvest of red rock shrimp. As a result, shermen
for the shrimp is the aquarium trade. Pet and aquarium
have had to apply to the Fish and Game Commission for
stores that sell marine sh will often buy red rock shrimp
an experimental gear permit to harvest red rock shrimp.
to sell to their customers. Wholesale prices may range up
Under this permit, a sherman has ve years to establish
to ten dollars per shrimp. The shrimp must be in excellent
a viable shery, with annual requests for renewal. In
condition, which requires special care in handling.
recent years the commission has required shermen to
The red rock shrimp shery is concentrated in shallow take onboard observers supplied by the Department of
waters along breakwaters and sea walls where the shrimp Fish and Game, report their shing activity through sub-
congregate in rock crevices. This makes the shery ideally mission of shing activity logs, including any bycatch,
suited to small shing boats, usually around 20 feet long. A and immediately returning all incidental species to the
small boat is easier and safer to maneuver in the shallow, sea. In addition to the experimental gear permit, sh-
rocky waters. However, sherman can only carry about 20 ermen must also follow the general trap and tidal
traps on a boat of that size. The traps are typically made invertebrate regulations.
of 1 1/4-inch wood lath, spaced about 1/8-inch apart.
Traps measure about 18 inches on a side. A funnel-shaped
Status of Biological Knowledge
opening enters the trap from the bottom. About 20 pounds
of concrete, either poured or in the form of blocks,
R ed rock shrimp occur from Santa Barbara, California,
is added to each trap to keep it rmly on the rocky
south to Bahia Viscaino, Baja California. They are
bottom. Fishermen have also experimented with pegboard
often found in low intertidal pools and crevices and
and berglass frames, which add strength while weighing
extend subtidally to a depth of more than 180 feet.
less than waterlogged wood. Additionally, modied metal
They tend to occur in groups of several hundred, dispers-
minnow traps have also been tried but catch rates rarely
ing somewhat at night but regrouping in sheltered areas
equal those of the lath traps. Because the traps are set in
during the day. It should be noted that since about 1990
shallow water and are often visible from shore, vandalism
a population of red rock shrimp has appeared annually
is a problem for the sherman. Up to 25 percent of traps
in the open ocean lter housing of the Monterey Bay
are vandalized per week of shing.
Aquarium (MBA). The MBA staff has conducted surveys
The traps are baited with whatever sh or sh trimmings
of the local intertidal and subtidal areas, but has not
may be available to the shermen. Occasionally unbaited
discovered any other populations of red rock shrimp. The
traps will also have good catches since shrimp will enter
exact mechanism for this occurrence north of the normal
the traps for cover. Traps are usually left to soak for 24
range has not been determined but suggests that oceano-
to 48 hours. Catch rates average one pound per trap,
graphic events can signicantly affect the distribution of
but occasionally a very good catch will be four to ve
this species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 127
Red Rock Shrimp
3.0
thousands of pounds landed
2.5
Red Rock Shrimp
2.0
1.5
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
1.0
Red Rock Shrimp
Data Source: DFG Catch
0.5
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Landing data
0.0
not available prior to 1993. 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Management Considerations
These shrimp grow to a length of about three inches. They
are conspicuously colored with longitudinal broken stripes
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
of red on a transparent body. Red rock shrimp may be
further information.
simultaneous hermaphrodites like several other species of
Lysmata. Captive berried females will continue to produce
viable clutches following removal of the larvae. Eggs on
Kevin Herbinson
ovigerous females are red following initial deposition on
Southern California Edison Co.
the pleopods and turn pea green just before hatching.
Mary Larson
Eggs have been noted as early as April but are more
California Department of Fish and Game
common in May, June, and July. Preliminary examination
of berried females has shown that each female carries
about 4,000 eggs. California’s red rock shrimp is one of
References
the larger, but less specialized, of the “cleaning” shrimp.
They are often seen sharing crevices with, and cleaning,
Bauer, R. T. and G.J. Holt. 1998. Simultaneous hermaph-
California morays. They are also known to perform clean-
roditism in the marine shrimp Lysmata wurdemanni (Cari-
ing activities on divers’ hands when placed in their vicin-
dea: Hippolytidae): an undescribed sexual system in the
ity, paying particular attention to areas around ngernails
decapod Crustacea. Marine Biology 117: 129-143.
or scratches on the skin.
Chace, Jr., Fenner A. and D. P. Abbott, 1980. Caridea:
The “cleaning” activity does not seem to be highly evolved
The Shrimps. In Intertidal Invertebrates of California (ed.
and probably only supplements the diet. Most of the diet
R.H. Morris, D.P. Abbott and E. C. Haderlie), pp. 567-576.
seems to come from scavenging scraps of decaying tissue
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
on rocky surfaces or, when the opportunity arises, feeding
Feder,H.M., C.H. Turner, and C. Limbaugh. 1974. Observa-
on carcasses of dead sh and invertebrates.
tions on shes associated with kelp beds in southern Cali-
fornia. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 160:1-138.
Status of the Population MacGinitie, G. E., and N. MacGinitie. 1968. Natural history
of marine animals. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 523
There are very few data available regarding population
pp.
size and distribution of red rock shrimp. At the present
Ricketts, E.F., and J. Calvin. 1968. Between Pacic
time, the bait shery for red rock shrimp appears to have
Tides. 4th ed. Revised by J. W. Hedgepeth. Stanford,
little effect on the population. Diver observations suggest
Calif.:Stanford University Press. 614 pp.
that they are widespread throughout southern California.
Fishing effort, however, is very limited and concentrated
at only a few locations such as breakwaters and sea walls.
Since these shrimp are relatively short lived, there are
probably large uctuations in annual abundance.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
128
Coonstripe Shrimp
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Coonstripe Shrimp
T C
he commercial shery for coonstripe shrimp (Pandalus oonstripe shrimp, called dock shrimp in Oregon,
danae) occurs off Crescent City, California primarily Alaska and Canada, are red-brown shrimp and derive
in depths ranging from 23 to 28 fathoms. This species, the name “coonstripe” from the irregular, black-edged
also known as dock shrimp, is often caught incidentally in brown or red striping found on the abdominal area. The
ocean shrimp trawl nets and Dungeness crab traps along surface of the species is nely pitted and has 10 to 12
the northern California coast. Early efforts to develop a median dorsal spines. The rostrum is a little longer than
targeted commercial trap shery were unsuccessful prior the carapace. They range from Sitka, Alaska to San Luis
to 1995. The rst signicant commercial landings of 2,488 Obispo Bay, California in 10 to 100 fathoms, and prefer
pounds were made in 1995. The developing live market sand or gravel substrate in areas of strong tidal current.
and high price led to effort yielding 79,269 pounds in Exploratory trap surveys conducted in northern California
1997. Landings dipped to 64,718 pounds in 1998 and then yielded catches off Tolo Bank, False Cape, Patrick’s Point
climbed to 75,540 pounds in 1999. Two vessels pioneered and the Saint George Reef. Coonstripes have also been
this shery in 1995, while effort through 1999 ranged from found in trawl surveys ranging in depth from 11 to 100
eight to 20 vessels per year. The initial ex-vessel value in fathoms off the Eel River, Table Bluff, Humboldt Bay, Mad
1995 was $1.50 per pound. However, since this species was River, Trinidad Head, Big Lagoon, Patrick’s Point, Redding
destined for the live market, coonstripe shrimp quickly Rock, Klamath River and Point Saint George. This species
rose in value, averaging over $4 per pound in 1998. Coon- is a protandrous hermaphodite - initially maturing as male
stripe shrimp ranked eighth in single species value for the and then undergoing transition to female. Egg bearing
Crescent City port during 1997 and 1998. The ex-vessel females may be found throughout the year, but gravid
value rose again in 1999 to an average of $4.22 per pound females primarily occur from November to April. Average
with some businesses paying as much as $7.50 per pound. fecundity is 1,140 eggs, and a progression of ve larval
stages occurs near the place of hatching. Research off
The coonstripe shrimp trap shery uses various trap con-
British Columbia, showed that metamorphosis takes place
gurations. The most common design is a rectangular
by late June. Growth is rapid until October, when most
trap covered in 1 3/8-inch mesh shrimp trawl webbing,
shrimp mature as males at an average size of 0.50-inch
with two circular openings. The traps are set in areas of
carapace length (CL). Primary females, those maturing
high currents, such as along Saint George Reef from May
directly as females, also may be found. Some shrimp
through October. The traps are set in strings composed
remain as males for another year and average 0.68 inch
of between 20 and 30 traps per string. Fishermen report
CL. Shrimp that transition to females over the rst winter
using 300 to 400 traps during the shing season. Many
average 0.71 inch CL. Second year females average 0.85
types of bait are used including small pelagic sh such as
inch CL. All shrimp are females by the third year and prob-
herring, sardine, and mackerel.
ably do not survive into the fourth year. Off Crescent City,
To participate in the commercial shery, a sherman
count per pound for trap-caught females taken during the
must be a registered commercial sherman, have a com-
1997 spring period ranges from 25 to 30 and males from 40
mercial vessel registration and a general trap permit. In
to 65. Large shrimp attain a length of ve inches.
addition, a commercial coonstripe shrimp trapper must
Data are lacking on the specic food habits of coonstripe
comply with all trap regulations regarding size of traps,
shrimp, but most likely their diet is similar to that of
destruct devices, marking the trap, and trap servicing.
other shrimp, feeding on planktonic and small benthic
Currently, there are no other management restrictions on
organisms. It is assumed that various species of sh
this shery.
such as lingcod, rocksh, ounder, hagsh, sole, or whit-
The developing commercial shery led to an interest in a
ing, which prey on other shrimp species, are major preda-
sport shery for this resource since the shrimp are close
tors. Like spot prawns, coonstripe shrimp undergo an
to shore and are caught in small, lightweight traps. The
onshore-offshore spawning migration pattern; however,
sport shing daily bag and possession limit was increased
along-shore movement within their range is unknown.
from 35 shrimp to 20 pounds per day in 1997. Data are
not available on sport harvest, but take is thought to
be minimal.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 129
Coonstripe Shrimp
90
thousands of pounds landed
75
Coonstripe Shrimp
60
Commercial Landings
45
1916-1999,
Coonstripe Shrimp
30
Commercial landing for
Coonstripe Shrimp were not
15
reported prior to 1996. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
Status of the Population References
D ue to the recent development of this shery, there is Berkeley, A. A. 1930. The post-embryonic development of
too little shery dependent data to determine what the common pandalids of British Columbia. Contributions
effect the commercial shery has had on the coonstripe Canadian Biology., N.S., 6(6): 79-163.
shrimp population or on the size composition of the popu- Butler, T. H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution
lation. To date there has been no shery-independent of Pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. Journal of the
estimates of population or structure. Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 21(6): 1403-1452.
Butler, T. H. 1980. Shrimps of the Pacic coast of Canada.
Management Considerations Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. No.
202.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Nelson, N. E. 1971. Cruise Report 71-S-2. Prawns. Califor-
further information. nia Department of Fish and Game.
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1994. Develop-
Ronald W. Warner and Mary Larson mental Fisheries Program. Staff Report: 40-42.
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
130
Sea Cucumbers
History of the Fishery enhancing properties, including lowering high blood pres-
Sea Cucumbers
sure, aiding proper digestive function, and curing impo-
T wo species of sea cucumbers are shed in California tency. Studies of the biomedical properties of various sea
– the California sea cucumber (Parastichopus califor- cucumber chemical extracts, such as saponins, and chon-
nicus) also known as the giant red sea cucumber, and droiton sulfates, are being conducted by western medical
the warty sea cucumber (P. parvimensis). The warty sea researchers investigating the efcacy of these substances
cucumber is shed almost exclusively by divers. The Cali- for pharmaceutical products.
fornia sea cucumber is caught principally by trawling in There is no signicant sport shery for sea cucumbers in
southern California, but is targeted by divers in northern California. Few sport shermen have shown an interest in
California. Sea cucumber sheries have expanded world- sea cucumber as a food item, and sport shing regulations
wide, and on this coast there is a dive shery for warty forbid their take in nearshore areas in depths less than
sea cucumbers in Baja California, Mexico, and dive sher- 20 feet.
ies for California sea cucumbers in Washington, Oregon,
A special permit to sh for sea cucumbers commercially
Alaska, and the coast of British Columbia, Canada.
was required beginning with the 1992-1993 shing season.
The rst recorded commercial landings of sea cucumbers Qualications for the permit were based upon meeting a
in California were made in 1978 at Los Angeles area ports. minimum 50 pound landing requirement during a four-year
Divers shing sea cucumbers at Santa Catalina Island “window” period. In 1997, legislation was enacted that
were the rst to make landings, but they were soon imposed a new regulatory regime on the sea cucumber
joined by trawl vessels. Annual landings remained under shery. The major regulatory changes included creating
100,000 pounds until 1982 when the principal shing area separate permits for each gear type, and limiting the
shifted to the Santa Barbara Channel. In that year, 140,000 number of permittees in the sea cucumber shery. The
pounds were landed with an ex-vessel value of about maximum number of permits allocated was based on the
$25,000. Recorded landings uctuated between 52,350 to number of permits issued during the 1997-1998 permit
160,000 pounds over the next eight years, and in 1991 year, and the meeting of a minimum landing requirement.
reached more than 577,390 pounds. Through the rst 18 There are currently 113 sea cucumber dive permittees
years of the shery, trawl landings composed an average and 36 sea cucumber trawl permittees. A permit transfer
of 75 percent of the annual sea cucumber harvest. In procedure and transfer fee of $200 was also initiated
1996, combined trawl and dive sea cucumber landings by the 1997 legislation. Sea cucumber dive permits can
reached an all time high of 839,400 pounds with an ex- be transferred only to other dive shermen, while sea
vessel value of $582,370. Between 1997 and 1999, sea cucumber trawl permits can be transferred to either trawl
cucumbers landed by divers accounted for more than 80 or dive shermen.
percent of the combined dive and trawl landings. During
that time period, trawl effort declined substantially, due
primarily to court cases pursued by the department which
ruled that 16 trawl shermen had fraudulently obtained
their sea cucumber permits. Those shermen were subse-
quently excluded from the shery. Diver effort and land-
ings, in contrast, increased markedly during those three
years, driven by both a 1997 moratorium of the abalone
shery, a sea urchin shery depressed by El Niño condi-
tions, and a poor Japanese export market. Beginning in
1997, many commercial sea urchin or abalone divers, who
also held sea cucumber permits, targeted sea cucumbers
more heavily than before.
Most of the California and warty sea cucumber product is
shipped overseas to Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, and Korea.
Chinese markets within the United States also purchase a
portion of California’s sea cucumber catch. The majority
are boiled, dried, and salted before export, while lesser
quantities are marketed as a frozen, pickled, or live prod-
uct. The processed sea cucumbers can sell wholesale for
up to $20 per pound. In Asia, sea cucumbers are claimed
California Sea Cucumber, Parastichopus californicus
to have a variety of benecial medicinal or health Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 131
Sea Cucumbers
900
thousands of pounds landed
750
Sea Cucumbers
600
Commercial Landings
450
1916-1999, Sea Cucumbers
1916-1999, Sea Cucumber
300
No commercial landings are
reported for sea cucumber
150
prior to 1978.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts
Status of Biological Knowledge Sea cucumbers can reach moderately high densities and
are thought to be important agents of bioturbation. During
S ea cucumbers are long, soft-bodied, marine inverte- feeding and reworking of surface sediments, sea cucum-
brates in the class Holothuroidea. They are related to bers can alter the structure of soft-bottom benthic com-
other organisms in the phylum Echinodermata such as sea munities. The California sea cucumber crawls an average
urchins and sea stars. Their skeleton has been reduced to of 12 feet per day with no directional bias, presumably
small calcarious pieces (ossicles) in the body wall, which due to the even distribution of detrital food. Tagging
have distinct species-specic shapes. studies are difcult since external tags are frequently
lost and internal tags can be shed through the body
The California sea cucumber reaches a maximum length
wall. Sea cucumbers are also known to have a predator
of 24 inches and is red, brown or yellow in color with
escape response involving a rapid creeping or swimming
red-tipped papillae. The warty sea cucumber is 12 to 16
behavior propelling the sea cucumber away. Water can
inches in length and chestnut brown with black-tipped
also be taken up in the respiratory tree and then force-
papillae on the ventral surface. Size however, is difcult
fully discharged. Predators include sea stars, various shes
to determine, as sea cucumbers can contract, making
such as kelp greenlings, sea otters and crabs. Compara-
length measurements unreliable, and they can take up
tively few studies have been done with sea cucumbers,
water, rendering body weights unreliable.
and as recently as 1986, a new species, P. leukothele,
The California sea cucumber is distributed from Baja
was described that is distributed from Pt. Conception,
California to Alaska. The warty sea cucumber is distrib-
California to British Columbia, Canada.
uted from Baja California to Monterey Bay, although it
Sea cucumbers are broadcast spawners with fertilization
is uncommon north of Pt. Conception. The California sea
in the water column. Sea cucumbers have a distinctive
cucumber is found from the low intertidal to 300 feet and
spawning posture, detaching from the substrate and form-
the warty sea cucumber from the low intertidal to 90 feet,
ing an “S” shape to release their gametes up and away
generally in areas with little water movement.
from the benthic boundary layer. There are separate
Sea cucumbers are epibenthic detritivores that feed on
sexes and the sex ratio is one to one. Individuals do not
organic detritus and small organisms within sediments
form spawning aggregations. Spawning is partially synchro-
and muds. Buccal tentacles trap food particles using an
nous with a portion of the population spawning simulta-
adhesive mucus. Sea cucumbers are non-selective with
neously. Triggers for spawning are largely unknown, how-
respect to grain size and ingest only the top few mil-
ever spawning is thought to coincide with phytoplankton
limeters of sediment. One study of warty sea cucumbers
blooms during sunny days in late spring and summer.
around Santa Catalina Island found that those living on
Oocytes are light orange in color and surrounded by a
rock rubble were 27 percent smaller and seven times more
jelly coat. After fertilization, the embryo hatches into
numerous than those residing on sandy substrates. The
the gastrula (64 hours) and starts to swim. A feeding
detritus on rock rubble was found to have three times
auricularia larva develops 13 days after fertilization and
more organic material per gram compared to the detritus
begins ingesting phytoplankton. Auricularia develop into
from the sand substrate, and sea cucumbers on the sand
doliolaria larvae (37 days post-fertilization) losing up to
ingested eight times more sediment.
90 percent of its body volume and rearranging its ciliary
bands. The nal doliolaria larval stage metamorphoses
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
132
(51 to 91 days post-fertilization) into newly settled pen- an established reserve in northern California (Cabrillo
Sea Cucumbers
tactula. Pentactula have ve primary buccal tentacles, Reserve) at depths of 150 to 180 feet revealed densities
and attach to the substrate using a single pedicle. In the averaging around 1,000 per acre. By comparison, densities
eld, juveniles recruit to a variety of substrates including at a newly established reserve (Punta Gorda Ecological
rock crevices, polychaete worm tubes, and lamentous Reserve) were much lower, ranging from 120 to 350 per
red algae. Growth is slow in sea cucumbers. Juveniles acre. Only the large size classes were observed in these
become reproductively mature at four to eight years. surveys, suggesting low levels of recruitment.
Both species of sea cucumber undergo visceral atrophy
each year. During atrophy the gonad, circulatory system,
Management Considerations
and respiratory tree are resorbed and reduced in size, and
the gut degenerates. Feeding and locomotion stop prior See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
to visceral atrophy, which occurs in the fall. Following further information.
the resorption of the visceral tissue, the animal loses 25
percent of its body weight. The weight of the body wall
Laura Rogers-Bennett and David S. Ono
cycles during the year, being the lowest early in the
California Department of Fish and Game
year and the highest in early fall, prior to the start of
visceral atrophy. Within two to four weeks regeneration
begins, starting with the gut tube, then the respiratory
tree and circulatory system, and nally the gonad regrows
branched tubules. Juveniles also undergo yearly visceral
atrophy; however, they do not have gonads at this stage.
In the fall, animals may spontaneously eviscerate internal
tissues if handled roughly, although this is not a common
occurrence.
Status of the Population
T here is presently very little known about populations
of California and warty sea cucumbers in California.
The distribution of these species on rocky or sandy sub-
strates is characterized as patchy, without any apparent
seasonal aggregating, spawning, or feeding behavior. Sea
cucumbers undergo sporadic recruitment, have a rela-
tively high natural mortality, and are slow growing. Spe-
cies with these life history traits tend to have a low
maximum yield per recruit and are particularly vulnerable
to overshing.
The Channel Islands National Park Service has been moni-
toring warty sea cucumbers at 16 sites in the northern
Channel Islands and Santa Barbara Island since 1982.
These shery-independent data show that populations
of warty sea cucumber are variable but have been declin-
ing at shed sites since 1990. Meanwhile, sea cucumber
catches from the dive shery have increased at some of
these sites. Recent analytical work comparing population
trends at shed sites to those of two small reserves where
shing is prohibited indicate that the population at shed
sites range from 50 to more than 80 percent lower than
at protected sites.
Density of Warty Sea Cucumber, 1982 to 1999
Fishery-independent sea cucumber density estimates have Density of warty sea cucumber from 16 Channel Islands National Park sites
also been made using underwater video technology. Pre- at five of the northern Channel Islands, San Miguel Island, Santa Rosa Island,
Santa Cruz Island, Ancapa Island, and Santa Barbara Island from 1982 to 1999.
liminary observations of California sea cucumbers in
Data Source: California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 133
Sea Cucumbers
Representative of spawning and development through settlement and metamorphasis of P. californicus. Development does not deviate significantly from
that expected for an aspidochirote holothurian with planktotrophic larvae.
Drawing not to scale.
References Mottet. M.G. 1976. The shery biology and market prepa-
ration of sea cucumbers. Wash. Dept. Fish. Shellsh Pro-
Anonymous. 1983.Guide to the underutilized species of gram, Tech. Rep. 22. 57 p.
California. Natl Mar. Fish. Serv. Admin. Rept. No. T-83-01. Muse, B. 1998. Management of the British Columbia sea
P.24. cucumber shery. Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Com-
Cameron, J.L. and P.V. Fankboner. 1986. Reproductive mission, Alaska. 19 p.
biology of the commercial sea cucumber Parastichopus Phillips, A.C. and J.A. Boutillier. 1998. Stock assessment
californicus (Stimpson) (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea). and quota options for the sea cucumber shery. In (eds).
2. Observations on the ecology of development, recruit- Waddell, B.J. Gillespie, G.E. and Walthers, L.C. Inver-
ment, and the juvenile life stage. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. tebrate Working Papers reviewed by the Pacic Stock
127: 43-67. Assessment Review Comm. (PSARC) Can. Tech. Rep. Fish.
Lambert, P. 1997. Sea cucumbers of British Columbia, Aquat. Sci./ Rapp. Tech. Can. Sci. 2215: 147-165.
southeast Alaska and Puget Sound. University of British Schroeter, S.C., D. Reed, D. Kushner., J. Estes, and
Columbia Press. 166 p. D.S. Ono. 2000. The use of marine reserves for shery
independent monitoring: a case study for the warty sea
cucumber, Parastichopus parvimensis. mss in prep.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
134
Pismo Clam
History of the Fishery Recreational clamming is regulated by bag limit (10), a
Pismo Clam
minimum size (5.0 inches north of and 4.5 inches south of
H umans and other predators have utilized the Pismo the San Luis Obispo/Monterey county line), the immediate
clam (Tivela stultorum) resource for thousands of measuring and reburial of sub-legal clams, and closed
years. The Pismo clam has been found in 25,000-year-old seasons and areas. The objectives of these regulations
Pleistocene (ice age) deposits and in American Indian are to prevent the depletion of the clam population and to
kitchen middens 200 to 2,000 years old. Indians used maintain a population of sexually mature clams that have
the clam for food and the shells for digging, scraping and a chance to spawn several times before being harvested.
ornaments. The name Pismo is derived from the Indian
word pismu meaning tar. Natural deposits of tar are found
Status of the Biological Knowledge
in the Pismo Beach area.
Records of the commercial harvest of Pismo clams began
T he Pismo clam shell is thick, heavy, and strong, and
in 1916, and were kept through 1947 when the commercial the outside is smooth with ne concentric growth
shery in California was prohibited. During that period, lines. The inside of the shell is white and the outside
approximately 3,137 tons were commercially harvested. has a varnish-like periostracum, usually yellowish, tan or
The majority was harvested from the Pismo Beach and greenish. Shells of individual clams vary considerably in
Morro Bay areas, with a small percentage from Monterey both color and pattern, ranging from pale beige to brown,
Bay. Annual landings ranged from a high of 332.8 tons occasionally with brown radiating marks running from the
in 1918 to a low of 13 tons in 1945. The average annual umbo to the margin on a light background.
harvest was approximately 98,600 clams (average two
The historic range of the Pismo clam is Half Moon Bay,
pounds each) with a high of 334,700. The clams were
California to Socorro Island, Baja California Sur, Mexico,
purchased by restaurants, were sold whole and canned in
including two of the Channel Islands (Santa Cruz and
markets, and were used as bait and animal food.
Santa Rosa Islands). However, it has not been found at
The importation of Pismo clams from Baja California Half Moon Bay for decades and its present range extends
occurred as early as 1919 and most likely continues to northward only to Monterey Bay. It is found in the inter-
this day. After 1962, clam imports from Mexico into the tidal zone and offshore to 80 feet on relatively at,
United States have not been identied by species. From sandy beaches of the open coast. Occasionally, it is also
1919 through 1962, 232 tons of Pismo clam, mostly canned, found in entrance channels to bays, sloughs and estuaries.
were imported into the United States. In Baja California Because of its short siphons, the Pismo clam generally
Norte, from 1990 through 1999 Pismo clam landings ranged lives close to the surface of the sand and seldom burrows
from a low of 411 tons in 1994 to high of 1,025 tons in deeper than six inches, but it has been found eight to
1992, with a 10-year average of 434 tons. In Baja California 12 inches deep in southern California. The clam charac-
Sur, from 1978 through 1995 landings ranged from a low teristically orients vertically with the hinge and excurrent
of 1,213 tons in 1984 to high of 6,505 tons in 1981, with a siphon toward the ocean, the mantle edge and incurrent
18-year average of 3,234 tons.
The usual method of collection by recreational clammers
is by using a four- to six-tined garden fork. During a low
tide the clammer selects a section of beach with exposed
wet sand or water of wading depth and probes in the sand
until encountering a clam. Another method is to shufe
one’s bare feet along the bottom until a siphon or shell
is felt. Pismo clams can also be found by looking for
the half-inch-long tufts of the commensal hydroid (Clytia
bakeri) which attaches to the shell and is exposed above
the sandy surface. Divers search for the clams by probing
with a knife or looking for exposed shells, siphons, or tufts
of hydroids.
Pismo clams have a distinctive and excellent avor; they
are prepared as chowder, seafood cocktail, fried or eaten
raw. Pismo clams have been implicated in several human
fatalities involving Paralytic Shellsh Poisoning (PSP). It is
Pismo Clam, Tivela stultorum
advised that only the white meat be consumed and that
Credit: DFG
all dark meat and digestive organs be discarded.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 135
siphon toward the beach, and the ligament at the center byssal threads degenerate. In laboratory culturing experi-
Pismo Clam
of the hinge oriented up. Burrowing is accomplished by ments, fertilized eggs hatched into larvae in approxi-
moving the foot rapidly to loosen the surrounding sand. mately 48 hours. Larvae 60 to 72 hours old displayed
Then jets of water eject the loosened sand up along the the behavior of settling to the bottom and remaining
shell sides, and the weight of the clam and pull of the foot benthic or near-benthic throughout larval development. If
together drag the clam down through the sand. larval Pismo clams in nature also exhibit a benthic phase,
larval transport by nearshore currents may be limited.
The age of Pismo clams has been determined by observa-
Larvae larger than 0.009 inch and 22 to 50 days old have
tion of marked individuals and by growth rings on the
completed metamorphosis, developed a foot, and buried
shell. In California, a growth ring is generally formed
themselves in the sand. At day 120, post-larval clams
during the winter months when water temperatures are
(0.048 inch) have the triangular appearance of an adult.
cool and food abundance is relatively low. In Baja Califor-
No byssal threads were observed on laboratory-cultured
nia, most clams form a growth ring during the August-
post-larval Pismo clams.
October period, although some may form a ring at any
time of the year. Little is known of post-larval conditions in nature; how-
ever, in laboratory cultures post-larval growth was rela-
The Pismo clam is about 0.009 inch at metamorphosis and
tively slow, and survival generally poor. Although spawn-
may grow to more than 7.3 inches in length. Growth is
ing probably occurs every year, it is not always measurably
continuous throughout the clam’s life, with the average
successful. In some years, virtually no young-of-the-year
length increasing by approximately 0.84 inch per year for
clams settle on beaches. Recruitment success appears
the rst three years. Increases in shell length are greatest
to be inuenced by oceanographic conditions (water tem-
in spring, summer and early fall. Growth of older clams is
perature, currents), which in turn inuence phytoplankton
slower. At age 10, the increase in shell length is usually
availability. Unfortunately, the necessary conditions for
not more than 0.2 inch per year. A 4.5-inch clam may be
optimum spawning success are not known.
from ve to nine years old. At Pismo Beach, clams reach
4.5 inches between ages seven and eight. The Pismo clam is a lter feeder. Water taken in through
the incurrent siphon passes over the gills, where food par-
In California, the largest Pismo clam reported was 7.32
ticles are removed. Food includes organic and inorganic
inches long and estimated to be 23 years old. The oldest
particles such as phytoplankton, bacteria, zooplankton,
Pismo clam was estimated to be 53 years old. In Baja Cali-
eggs, sperm, and detritus from the disintegration of plants
fornia, the largest Pismo clam reported was 7.36 inches
and animals. The inhalant siphon has a very ne net of
long and estimated to be 26 years old. Several Pismo clams
delicately branched papillae across the opening, forming
from Baja have been aged to be 43 years old. The smallest
a screen that excludes the entrance of large particles but
Pismo clam reported from the wild was 0.24 inch long.
permits the intake of water and food particles. Despite
In the majority of Pismo clams, the sexes are separate
this elaborate system, half of the stomach contents is
with equal numbers of males and females. Fertilization
sand. An actively feeding three-inch clam lters as much
occurs externally when the male releases sperm and the
as 15 gallons of water per day.
female releases eggs into the surrounding water. Pismo
Pismo clams have many predators, including moon snails,
clams are mature at one year in southern California and
rock crabs, sharks, rays, some surf shes such as the Cali-
two years in central and northern California. The smallest
fornia corbina in southern California, gulls, sea otters, and
known mature clam in southern California was 0.7 inch
humans. Otters were estimated to have eaten 520,000
and in northern California was 0.5 inch.
to 700,000 Pismo clams in one year at Monterey Bay.
Spawning can occur anytime, but the majority spawn from
A single sea otter was observed to eat 24 clams in 2.5
June to September. The number of eggs per female
hours. The extension of the sea otter’s range to Monterey
increases with increased shell size and ranges from 10
Bay in 1972, Morro Bay in 1973 and Pismo Beach in 1979
to 20 million eggs per female, with an average of 15
has precluded the recreational shery for Pismo clams in
million per ve-inch female. In laboratory-held clams,
those areas.
egg numbers were roughly proportional to clam size. The
Parasites of the Pismo clam include a polychaete worm
number of eggs ranged from as many as 4.7 million in a
that bores into the clamshell, and larval cestodes, which
2.9-inch female to 0.4 million in a 1.2-inch female. Eggs
have been found inside the clam as 0.15-inch diameter
range in diameter from 0.00296 to 0.00324 inch.
yellowish-white cysts. The cestodes can impair the clam’s
The larvae metamorphose, settle to the sandy bottom,
sexual development but are not harmful to man if eaten.
and attach themselves to the sand grains by means of
Trematodes have been reported in some clam popula-
byssal threads. After several months, when the clam is
tions. A commensal hydroid is often found attached to the
more able to maintain a position on the sandy bottom, the
external shell of the clam, and commensal pea crabs are
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
136
Management Considerations
occasionally found in the mantle cavity and feed on food
Pismo Clam
particles collected by the clam’s gills.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Status of the Population
P Christine A. Pattison
ismo clam populations have been highly variable over
California Department of Fish and Game
the years and from beach to beach. Settlement and
recruitment have also been highly variable from year to
year. The Department of Fish and Game rst examined
References
Pismo clam recruitment in 1919, and annual surveys have
been conducted from 1923 to 2000 to obtain information
Coe, W.R. 1947. Nutrition, growth and sexuality of the
on age, recruitment, year class strength, and exploitation
Pismo clam, Tivela stultorum. J. Exp. Zool. 104(1):1-24.
trends. Through 1948, only Pismo Beach was surveyed.
Coe, W.R. and J.E. Fitch. 1950. Population studies, local
Since 1948, beaches in Morro Bay, Cayucos, Monterey
growth rates and reproduction of the Pismo clam (Tivela
County, and from Santa Barbara County to San Diego
stultorum). J. Mar. Res. 9(3):188-210.
County were subsequently included.
Herrington, W.C. 1930. The Pismo clam: further studies of
During the storms of 1982-1983, Pismo clam populations
the life history and depletion. Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
along southern California beaches were severely depleted,
Fish Bull. 18. 69 p.
resulting in limited recreational sheries after 1983. The
Pismo Beach clam populations had three successive strong Searcy-Bernal, R. 1989. Periodicity of internal growth
year classes (1986, 1987, and 1988), resulting in the largest ring deposition in the Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum)
number of sublegal clams ever recorded from surveys on from Playa San Ramon, B.C., Mexico. Ciencias Marinas
Pismo Beach. Because of the exceptional recruitment in 15(3):45-56.
the Pismo Beach area and low abundance in southern
McLachlan, A., J. E. Dugan, O. Defeo, A. D. Ansell, D.
California, 10,000 clams were transplanted from the Pismo
M. Hubbard, E. Jarmill, and P. E. Penchaszadeh. 1996.
Beach area to Huntington State Beach in 1989. The rst
Beach Clam Fisheries. Oceanography and Marine Biology:
follow-up survey found only 142 clams, the second only 14
an Annual Review 34, 163-232.
clams and three partial shells. Biologists are uncertain as
Weymouth, F.W. 1923. The life-history and growth of the
to the fate of the clams. At the same time, approximately
Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum Mawe). Calif. Fish and Game
1,000 clams were transplanted within the Channel Island
Commission, Fish Bull. 7. 120 p.
National Park.
In 1990, abundance of young Pismo clams appeared to
be a widespread phenomenon along southern and central
California from San Diego to Pismo Beach. Densities were
documented at Ventura County and Pismo Beach of ve
clams per square foot (one- to three-year olds) and 26
clams per square foot (one- to six-year olds), respectively.
From 1990 to the present, recreational shing for Pismo
clams continues on a few southern California beaches.
From 1990 to 1993 a recreational shery occurred in the
Pismo Beach area for the rst time since 1982. During this
period, sea otters were foraging off shore and in other
areas. In 1992, sea otters were again observed foraging in
the Pismo Beach area and in 1993 the last take of a legal
size Pismo clam was reported there. Pismo clam surveys
in the Pismo Beach and Morro Bay areas from 1992 through
2000 indicated low levels of recruitment.
No population estimates have been made for the total
Pismo clam resource in California. Whether successful
recruitment will result in ongoing recreational sheries in
light of continuing human growth and the expansion of the
sea otter’s ranges is unclear.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 137
Sand Crab
History of the Fishery Based on recent catch records, there appears to be poten-
tial for expanding the current market for sand crabs
T he rst complete commercial catch records for sand as bait.
crabs (Emerita analoga) were collected in 1963, when
4,673 pounds were landed. By 1967, reported landings
Status of Biological Knowledge
totaled over 8,300 pounds of sand crabs worth $17,152
to shermen. Since 1977, catch records indicate a greatly
T he sand crab occurs from British Columbia to Magda-
reduced utilization of sand crabs for bait; the annual
lena Bay, Baja California. Although found on nearly all
catch has ranged from zero to 96 pounds averaging only
open-coast sandy beaches, there are gaps in this range
22 pounds per year. This reduced catch should not be
where no sand crabs can be found.
interpreted as a reduction in the size of the sand crab
When feeding, sand crabs burrow tail-rst into the sand
population. Sand crab populations are still robust, though
leaving only the tip of their heads and their large, feath-
they uctuate annually depending on oceanic and climatic
ery antennae protruding. The antennae are extended into
conditions. Instead, the reduced catch is probably due
the backwash of a receding wave and strain food particles
to reduced harvest effort and replacement of sand crabs
from the water. Food particles are transferred to the
with other bait such as ghost shrimp, clams and mussels.
mouth by wiping the antennae through the mouthparts.
Sand crabs are collected in 30 to 36-inch wire mesh nets
The extended antennae produce characteristic V-shaped
by sport and commercial shermen. Mesh size varies from
ripple marks on the beach that indicates the presence of
0.25 to 0.50 inch. The shermen wade into the surf
sand crabs.
and place the net on the bottom as a wave begins to
Mating occurs mostly in spring and summer, but some
recede. The backwash carries the sand crabs into the net,
mating and egg-bearing females are seen year-round.
from which they are removed and placed in a container
Females are larger than males, reaching 1.5 to two inches
held on a belt around the sherman’s waist. Usually only
in length; males seldom exceed 0.75 inch. A two-inch
“soft shelled” crabs (those that have molted recently) are
female may produce as many as 30,000 eggs. The number
saved. Commercial shermen usually sell sand crabs by
of eggs varies with the size of the animal as well as with
the dozen. The size of sand crabs varies widely depending
temperature and food availability. The eggs are carried on
on season and location where they are taken. Because of
the female’s abdomen (pleopods) until hatched. It takes
this, the price per dozen may go up or down based on the
the young two to four months to pass through nine to
size of the crabs available. Demand for sand crabs is often
ten larval stages before they resemble adults. During their
higher through the winter months because of weather-
various larval stages the young Emerita drift at the mercy
related shifts in shing effort from offshore species to
of the currents and may be carried for long distances.
nearshore species. The demand is also increased when
Shifting currents, which carry the larvae “off course,” may
bait stores sponsor perch shing contests. In winter, when
account for population uctuations on a given beach. In
soft-shelled sand crabs are difcult to nd, hard-shelled
southern California, the megalops larvae arrive on the
crabs are also sold. These are often sold by the gallon
beach in the greatest numbers from April to July. Sand
(further complicating commercial catch landing records).
crabs reproduce during their rst year of life in southern
California, and may not live more than two or three years.
Sand crabs that settle in sub-optimal habitat may not
survive their rst winter. Sand crabs in colder waters
might not reproduce in their rst year.
Shore birds, sea gulls, surf scoters, otters and other
marine mammals include sand crabs in their diet. In
addition, many sh eat sand crabs, including surf sh such
as corbina, yellown croaker, spotn croaker and barred
surfperch. For this reason, they make excellent bait for
sport sh, especially for shing from sandy beaches. They
also make good bait for shing from rocky shores or
breakwaters for opaleye.
Sand Crab, Emerita analoga
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
138
Sand Crab
1.2
thousands of pounds landed
1.0
0.8
Sand Crab
0.6
Commercial Landings
0.4
1916-1999, Sand Crab
Data Source: DFG Catch
0.2
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Landings data
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 not available prior to 1992.
Status of the Population Management Considerations
T he reported harvest in 1967 was 8,303 pounds or about See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
two million sand crabs. Most of the catch came from further information.
about 20 miles of beach in the southern part of the
state. Southern California has more than 200 miles of
Kevin Herbinson
sandy beaches, and the total population of sand crabs,
Southern California Edison Company
while undetermined, is extensive. Since only the recently
Mary Larson
molted, soft-shelled sand crabs are usually taken and the
California Department of Fish and Game
hard-shelled crabs are returned, there is little danger
of overshing. A high market demand for hard-shelled
crabs, however, perhaps for purposes other than bait,
References
could result in a shery that would be detrimental to
the population. Though extensive in range, sand crabs are
Cubit, J. 1969. Behavior and physical factors causing
vulnerable to capture because of their habit of forming
migration and aggregation of the sand crab Emerita
dense aggregations near piers and jetties, especially at
analoga (Stimpson). Ecology 50:118-23.
night. Although population sizes are not well known, and
Dillery, D. G., and L. V. Knapp. 1977. Longshore move-
the number of sand crabs on any given beach may uctu-
ments of the sand crab, Emerita analoga (Decapoda, Hip-
ate from year to year, the resource appears to be in good
pidae). Crustaceana 18:233-40.
condition. Although sand crab commercial landings have
been low in recent years, casual observations indicate Dugan, J. E. and D.M. Hubbard. 1996. Local variation in
that the population is as strong as it was in the 1960s. populations of the sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson)
There does not appear to be any reason why annual on sandy beaches in southern California. Revista Chilena
harvests could not equal the 8,000 pounds that were de Historia Natural. 69:579-588.
harvested in 1967 when no apparent detriment to the
Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard and A. M. Wenner. 1994.
population was detected.
Geographic variation in life history in populations of the
sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson), on the California
coast: relationships to environmental variables. J. Exp.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 181: 255-278.
Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard and A. M. Wenner. 1991.
Geographic variation in the reproductive biology of the
sand crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson), on the California
coast. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 150: 63-81.
Fusaro, C. 1978. Growth rate of sand crabs, Emerita
analoga (Hippidae), in two different environments. Fish.
Bull. 76:369-75.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 139
Wavy Turban Snail
History of the Fishery ing license to harvest these snails. The only regulations
that restrict harvesting are the commercial tidal inverte-
T he California commercial shery for wavy turban snails brate regulations that prohibit the harvest of any snail
(Megastrea undosa) is a small emerging shery that species within 1,000 feet of the low tide mark on shore.
began in the early 1990s. Today, turban snails are of com- This regulation has prevented expansion of the shery
mercial value in southern California and Baja California, from the San Diego area to the Channel Islands where most
Mexico. Although still in its infant stages with a small of the snail habitat occurs within this restricted zone.
number of participants and a limited market, this shery
has the potential for rapid growth in light of the snail’s
Status of Biological Knowledge
increased market value and the closure and decline of
other dive sheries. Archaeological evidence suggests that
L ittle is known about the biology of the wavy turban
native peoples shed wavy turban snails prior to European
snail. Its classication is problematic, as there have not
and Asian settlement of California.
been analyses of related genera worldwide. This results
Wavy turban snails are harvested by divers, and the shing in a question of whether Megastraea is proposed as a
gear is identical to gear used in the commercial shery full genus, as we have done here, or is recognized as
for red sea urchins. Participants in the shery are also a subgenus of Astraea. A closely related species is M.
commercial sea urchin harvesters. Recorded landings of turbanica, which was rst discovered on the outer coast of
this species began in 1992 with overseas markets for Baja California, Mexico.
the meat (foot) and the shell (made into buttons). Land-
This species of snail is one of the largest turbinid gastro-
ings peaked in 1993 and crashed the following year with
pods living in California waters. Shells reach six inches in
the loss of market demand. Landings uctuated between
diameter and have heavy, sculptured, undulating ridges.
1995 and 1997 with the development of new markets and
The base of the shell is at and the operculum is hard,
peaked again at a higher level in 1998. The snail shery
thick, oval, and uncurved, with well-dened rough ridges.
is centered in the area off San Diego with most of the
The shell is covered with a brous periostracum that gives
landings coming from Point Loma.
the shell a light brown or tan color. The periostracum is
Current market demand for the species is for the foot, often covered with coralline algae and other epiphytes.
which is processed and sold to restaurants as an aba- Wavy turban snails are commonly found on rock substrate
lone-like product called wavalone. Other potential mar- from Point Conception, California to Isla Asuncion, Baja
kets occur in Mexico, where a shery for this species California. They range in depths from the intertidal zone
“caracol panocha” has existed for years. In Mexico, the down to over 250 feet.
wavy turban snail shery produces a canned meat prod-
The wavy turban snail is a herbivorous generalist and
uct. Future expansion of the California shery may rely on
individuals have been observed feeding on kelp and cor-
export of snails to Mexico for the canned product market.
alline algae. Predators of this snail are likely the sea
In California, the wavy turban snail shery has virtually no stars and the Kellet’s whelks based on demonstrated
regulations governing the harvest of the species. Fishery escape responses in laboratory experiments. Other preda-
participants need only a valid California commercial sh- tors include octopuses, lobsters, and shes.
Wavy turban snails exhibit differential distribution in size
and density by depth, which may be correlated with physi-
cal (water motion) and biological (intraspecic competi-
tion, predation) processes. Smaller snails are found in
shallow areas with a high density of individuals, and larger
snails are found in deeper depths at lower densities. In
extreme shallow (less than 10 feet) and deep portions
of the depth range, snail densities are also very low. To
escape predation within kelp forests wavy turban snails
crawl or migrate up into the canopy of the giant kelp
plants each night. Large snails can be found in deep water.
For example, a six-inch diameter snail weighing 2.7 pounds
was recently collected from Farnsworth Bank, near Santa
Catalina Island, in 120 feet of water.
A growth study on a population of wavy turban snails
Wavy Turban Snail, Megastrea undosa at Santa Catalina Island indicates that these snails are
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
140
Commercial Landings
Wavy Turban Snail
70 1916-1999,
thousands of pounds landed
Wavy Turban Snail
60
Prior to 1996, there was no specific
Wavy Turban Snail
50 species code for wavy turban snail
landings on the DFG Commercial
40 Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy
turban snail data for 1992-1996
30
were derived from commercial land-
20 ing receipts that were recorded under
the miscellaneous sea snail and com-
10 mercial dive gear codes. Data Source:
DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Management Considerations
slow growing. Growth rates in this study varied both by
snail size and density. As is typical for many marine
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
invertebrates, growth rates are higher for smaller sized
further information.
snails and progressively slower as size increases. Aside
from a slow growth rate, this study also reports sexual and
seasonal variations in growth. Two different growing peri-
Ian Taniguchi and Laura Rogers-Bennett
ods during the year were identied, a low growth period
California Department of Fish and Game
in the spring and summer months and a high growth period
in fall and winter. Sexual differences in growth rate were
observed with females growing more slowly than males.
References
Studies on reproduction conducted in Baja California sug-
Alfaro, A.C. and R.C. Carpenter. 1999. Physical and biologi-
gest that reproductive activity is year-round with major
cal processes inuencing zonation patterns of a subtidal
peaks in the spring and fall. Immature gonads were
population of the marine snail, Astraea (Lithopoma) undosa
observed in juveniles less than 2.2 inches in shell diam-
Wood 1828. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 240(2): 259-283.
eter. Fully mature gonads were observed in females with
shell diameter greater than 3.5 inches and males greater Bea, A.G. and W.F. Ponder 1979. A revision of the species of
than 3.1 inches. Histological examination of gonad samples Bolma Risso, 1826 (Gastropod: Turbinidae). Records of the
showed that the snails might spawn either completely, Australian Museum 32: 1-68.
partially, incompletely, or not at all. In shallow water,
Belmar Perez, J., S.A. Guzman del Proo, and I. Martinez
partial spawners were more abundant than in deeper
Morales. 1991. Gonadic maturity and reproductive cycle of
water (60 feet). Complete spawners were dominant. Three
wavy turban snail (Astrea undosa Wood, 1828: Gastropoda:
reproductive phases occur during the year. Gonad growth
Turbinidae) in Bahia Tortugas, Baja California Sur. Anales
and maturity take place during the spring and early
del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia, Universidad
summer, followed by spawning in late summer. Somatic
Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. 18: 169-187.
growth occurs during the fall and winter. Recruitment of
German, F. and G. Torres. 1996. Age and growth of Astraea
new juveniles has been observed from January to April.
undosa Wood. in Baja California, Mexico. Bull. Mar. Sci.
59(3): 490-497
Status of the Population Halliday, E.B.B. 1991. The natural history and ecology of
Astraea undosa in a southern California kelp forest. M.S.
A lmost nothing is known about the population densities
Thesis, University of California , Santa Cruz.
of wavy turban snails in California. Estimates of popu-
McLean, J.H. 1970. New Eastern Pacic Subgenera of Turbo
lation abundance of wavy turban snails are made periodi-
Linnaeus, 1758 and Astraea Röding, 1798. The Veliger
cally by the Channel Islands National Park Kelp Forest
13:71-72.
Monitoring Program each year. These shery-independent
surveys from the northern Channel Islands and Santa Bar- Morris, R.H., D.P., Abbott, and E.C., Haderlie. 1980. Inter-
bara Island have been conducted since 1982. Density sur- tidal Invertebrates of California. Stanford University Press,
veys indicate interesting temporal patterns in abundance Stanford California.
with abundance in 1998 and 1999 the greatest in the
time series.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 141
Rock Scallop
History of the Fishery shellsh measures ve to six inches in shell diameter, but
occasionally individuals exceeding eight inches are found.
P urple-hinge rock scallops (Crassadoma gigantea,
Sexes are separate although cases of hermaphroditism
referred to in earlier literature as Hinnites multirugo-
have been reported. An increase in number of females
sus) are very popular among sport divers and shore col-
relative to males among larger adults has suggested pro-
lectors in California, Mexico, and the Pacic Northwest.
tandry (functioning early as males, but later becoming
The shellsh is prized for its avorful, almost sweet, meat
females). Other possible explanations for this nding
(adductor muscle). No commercial taking of rock scallops
include differential growth rates and/or survival. southern
has been allowed in California. The California Department
California rock scallops exhibit a bimodal annual repro-
of Fish and Game (DFG) determined several decades ago
ductive cycle with spawning periods in late spring-early
that these mollusks were patchy in distribution and com-
summer and again in mid-fall.
mercial exploitation would endanger their survival. Thus,
Rock scallops are lter feeders deriving the bulk of their
rock scallops have remained in the domain of the non-
nutrition from phytoplankton. Dinoagellates appear to
commercial collector. Large numbers of rock scallops are
dominate the diet. Detritus may also be utilized as food.
taken by collectors at low tides and by divers near shore
Predation may limit numbers of rock scallops chiey due
or aboard sport diving vessels in southern California.
to losses of early free-living and newly cemented juveniles
It is difcult to estimate landings of rock scallops since
to sea stars and crabs, but adults enjoy a high degree of
many are taken incidentally. However, records of the DFG
immunity to such activity by virtue of their ability to close
1978-1987 indicate an average of 928 were taken per year
sharp margined valves quickly. However, sea otters may
by divers from commercial passenger sport diving boats
succeed in breaking the shells of adult rock scallops using
operating largely at the Channel Islands.
their favored tools, cobble stones.
The scallops are usually pried from their attachment sur-
An intensive study of the biology and aquaculture poten-
faces with an “abalone iron.” The large adductor muscle is
tial of the rock scallop was undertaken in the mid-1970s
easily shucked from the opened shells and separated from
by researchers at San Diego State University, supported
mantle and viscera. Divers often eat the scallops fresh
by the UC Sea Grant Program. Basic biological information
from the shell, either underwater or above! As part of
was gained concerning reproduction, culture, foods, and
a research program at San Diego State University, rock
environmental requirements. Under the most favorable
scallop adductor muscle samples were analyzed by a pro-
conditions, growth rate of juveniles and young adults held
fessional taste panel, compared to common brands of
in the sea in suspended culture exceeded two inches per
commercial scallops. By almost all criteria, rock scallops
year. It was established that the rock scallop could be
ranked superior to others.
reared from the microscopic egg to marketable size (four
to ve inches) in about two and a half years.
Status of Biological Knowledge Rock scallops proved intolerant of salinity reduction
greater than 30 percent. Thus, the species is not found
T he purple-hinge rock scallop is distinctive, typically in estuaries and bays where freshwater dilutes the saline
having an irregular oval outline, a rather rugose upper water to levels below 25 parts per thousand. In areas with
free shell (left valve) and a tentacle-bearing mantle, usu- well-circulated oceanic water, adults proved amazingly
ally orange or gray. The interior aspect of the hinge line hardy; survival from juvenile to adult stages was usually
on both valves bears a zone of purple pigment. Adults close to 100 percent.
typically are rmly attached to the substratum, in contrast
For many years, oyster farmers at Point Reyes have reared
to most other scallops that live free on sand or mud
rock scallops in pens for sale at a local retail market.
bottom. After passing a free-living juvenile life, attach-
Juveniles set naturally among the oysters under cultiva-
ment is achieved by temporary byssal threads. Permanent
tion in Drakes Estero are recovered and placed in sub-
attachment occurs once the young scallop reaches a size
merged mesh cages for rearing to a size of about ve
of about one-inch through deposition of shell material by
inches (about two years). These scallops are sold for about
the right valve in conformity to the microrelief of the
$1 each. The adductor muscle in scallops of that size
substratum.
weighs about a tenth of a pound. Rock scallop meats,
Throughout its range from Sitka, Alaska, to Magdalena therefore, were valued (1982) at $10 per pound.
Bay, Baja California, Mexico, the rock scallop is generally
While rock scallops in southern California show two spawn-
found from the lower intertidal to depths as great as 100
ing peaks during the year, some northern populations
feet. Offshore reefs are typically populated, but concrete
spawn only once a year. Year-round spawning can be
pier pilings and jetty rock at entrances to bays in southern
achieved in the hatchery. Larvae are reared through their
California have become favored habitats. Commonly this
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
142
Status of the Population
planktonic stages (about ve weeks) and fed unicellular
Rock Scallop
algae until settlement and the onset of metamorphosis.
T his shellsh is locally common, especially on offshore
Early juvenile stages at 1/16- to 1/8-inch cling to the
reefs, but in no case is it numerous. Heaviest take of
substrate by byssal threads. These anchoring laments
rock scallops occurs at spots frequented by sport diving
may be detached by the young scallop, allowing swimming
vessels. Larger adults are becoming rare in these locations
for brief periods and relocation if necessary. When the
and individuals as small as two inches are being taken
juvenile scallop reaches one-half to one inch (about six
in large numbers. The present bag limit is 10, but rock
months), attachment becomes permanent through cemen-
scallops may benet from some size, bag, and seasonal
tation. Usually rm substrates such as rock and shell are
limitation.
preferred in nature. Specially formed plastic surfaces are
provided for cementation in aquaculture.
Through experiments conducted at San Diego State Uni-
Management Considerations
versity, it was found that metamorphosing young rock
scallops may be collected from the plankton using “spat See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
collectors” developed in Japan for the Japanese sea scal- further information.
lop. The spat collectors, onion bags packed with monola-
ment gillnetting, are now known to be attractive to larvae
David L. Leighton
of many species of scallops, regardless of adult habitat.
Marine Bioculture and Carlsbad Aquafarm
As an alternative to production of young in a hatchery
system, the simple placement of spat collectors at inter-
mediate depths in the ocean for several months’ time
References
is an economic advantage. Several aquaculture groups in
California, Washington state, and British Columbia, have
Leighton,D.L. 1991. Culture of Hinnites and related scal-
tested the concept of rock scallop spat collection. The
lops on the Pacic American coast. Chapter 7 in: Estuarine
principal difculties encountered so far are coincident col-
and Marine Bivalve Mollusk Culture. W. Menzel, Ed. CRC
lection of pink and spiny scallops and in northern waters,
Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
and kelp scallops in southern waters, making separations
Leighton, D.L. and C.F. Phleger. 1981. The Suitability of
tedious. Typically, a single spat collection bag, approxi-
the Purple-hinge Rock Scallop for Marine Aquaculture.
mately one cubic foot, immersed at a depth of 20 feet for
Univ. Calif. Sea Grant Program, Technical Series. San Diego
two months, will yield between 100 and 500 juvenile scal-
State University, Center for Marine Studies, Contribution
lops, perhaps 25 percent being rock scallops. Until com-
No. 50.
mercial hatcheries are developed to produce substantial
numbers of juvenile stock available to growers at a few MacDonald, B.A., and N.F. Bourne. 1989. Growth of the
cents each, the use of spat collectors seems a preferred purple-hinge rock scallop, Crassadoma gigantea Gray, 1825
practice. In addition, commercial hatcheries in Washing- under natural conditions and those associated with sus-
ton state and Alaska have produced commercial quantities pended culture. Jour. Shellsh Res. 8(1): 179-186.
of seed for their own use. The seed is available to other
shellsh growers for purchase at reasonable prices.
Generally, rock scallops have not been subject to prob-
lems associated with pollutants. The adductor muscle is
usually all that is consumed. That tissue is not a storage
organ for metabolites or toxins. A single case of paralytic
shellsh poisoning was reported in 1980 during a red tide
off northern California. In this instance, which was fatal, a
diver consumed viscera in addition to the adductor muscle
from several scallops. This unique case is thought to have
been exacerbated by alcohol consumed by the victim at
the same time.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 143
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Black Green Pink Red White Unidentified All Purple Sea Red Sea
Abalone1
Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Urchin Urchin
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 762,001 762,001 ---- ----
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 637,780 637,780 ---- ----
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 602,919 602,919 ---- ----
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 759,203 759,203 ---- ----
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 806,716 806,716 ---- ----
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,481,170 1,481,170 ---- ----
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,523,394 1,523,394 ---- ----
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,555,134 1,555,134 ---- ----
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,241,812 2,241,812 ---- ----
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,352,861 2,352,861 ---- ----
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,060,770 2,060,770 ---- ----
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,816,530 2,816,530 ---- ----
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,066,243 2,066,243 ---- ----
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,438,858 3,438,858 ---- ----
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,176,513 3,176,513 ---- ----
1931 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,262,166 3,262,166 ---- ----
1932 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,817,345 2,817,345 ---- ----
1933 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,756,188 2,756,188 ---- ----
1934 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,223,492 3,223,492 ---- ----
1935 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,870,921 3,870,921 ---- ----
1936 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,302,195 3,302,195 ---- ----
1937 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,863,175 2,863,175 ---- ----
1938 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,121,468 2,121,468 ---- ----
1939 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,804,440 1,804,440 ---- ----
1940 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,724,084 1,724,084 ---- ----
1941 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,002,330 1,002,330 ---- ----
1942 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 164,462 164,462 ---- ----
1943 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 680,274 680,274 ---- ----
1944 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,630,402 1,630,402 ---- ----
1945 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,429,312 2,429,312 ---- ----
1946 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,095,762 2,095,762 ---- ----
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,669,285 2,669,285 ---- ----
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,195,852 3,195,852 ---- ----
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,599,998 3,599,998 ---- ----
1950 ---- 9,958 2,019,710 1,431,071 ---- ---- 3,460,739 ---- ----
1951 ---- 8,367 2,719,381 1,352,317 ---- ---- 4,080,065 ---- ----
1952 ---- 4,186 3,587,636 1,182,022 ---- ---- 4,773,844 ---- ----
1953 ---- 5,852 3,439,657 1,412,948 ---- ---- 4,858,457 ---- ----
1954 ---- 1,223 2,703,219 1,394,595 ---- 108 4,099,145 ---- ----
1955 ---- 1,225 2,189,039 1,996,511 ---- ---- 4,186,775 ---- ----
1956 660 14,002 1,845,006 2,428,393 ---- ---- 4,288,061 ---- ----
1957 1,950 47,880 2,804,111 2,566,813 ---- ---- 5,420,754 ---- ----
1958 ---- 905 2,545,709 1,677,404 ---- ---- 4,224,018 ---- ----
1959 ---- 560 2,375,531 2,180,658 5,075 ---- 4,561,824 ---- ----
1960 ---- 455 1,572,096 2,693,857 ---- ---- 4,266,408 ---- ----
1961 ---- 526 1,678,275 2,873,628 1,337 ---- 4,553,766 ---- ----
1962 ---- 3,710 1,717,271 2,462,200 ---- ---- 4,183,181 ---- ----
1963 ---- 33,319 1,502,639 2,807,920 ---- ---- 4,343,878 ---- ----
1964 ---- 97,273 1,612,376 2,369,564 ---- ---- 4,079,213 ---- ----
1965 ---- 12,129 2,071,242 2,490,875 438 ---- 4,574,684 ---- ----
1966 ---- 145,420 2,162,941 2,656,408 ---- ---- 4,964,769 ---- ----
1967 200 106,545 1,619,746 2,697,610 4,100 ---- 4,428,201 ---- ----
1968 700 427,135 2,270,108 1,776,054 845 ---- 4,474,842 ---- ----
1969 4,991 157,263 1,900,206 1,564,205 28,009 ---- 3,654,698 ---- ----
1970 15,327 270,200 1,408,921 1,194,788 11,212 ---- 2,900,448 ---- ----
1971 46,650 1,089,706 347,983 1,193,948 36,741 ---- 2,715,189 ---- 200
1972 1,014,892 424,808 403,709 1,104,462 143,819 ---- 3,093,558 ---- 76,457
1973 1,912,519 156,804 371,352 663,919 83,112 ---- 3,192,730 ---- 3,594,695
1974 1,145,396 121,563 455,324 751,060 113,765 ---- 2,594,993 ---- 7,101,815
1975 684,793 170,927 458,235 742,769 71,821 ---- 2,135,839 ---- 7,567,154
1976 356,951 120,489 431,143 739,621 81,907 ---- 1,733,147 ---- 11,106,426
1977 463,301 97,457 318,494 537,450 17,603 ---- 1,435,172 ---- 16,536,295
1978 420,045 92,987 287,052 488,800 3,633 ---- 1,293,058 ---- 14,427,547
1979 331,489 61,166 156,491 439,476 502 ---- 989,389 ---- 20,558,950
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
144
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Black Green Pink Red White Unidentified All Purple Sea Red Sea
Abalone1
Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Abalone Urchin Urchin
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 518,619 63,234 139,267 516,304 1,071 ---- 1,238,566 ---- 22,167,108
1981 521,007 64,003 94,257 429,922 162 112 1,109,494 ---- 26,433,986
1982 633,400 88,696 86,282 430,902 907 256 1,240,455 ---- 19,441,151
1983 484,366 56,910 67,239 230,973 482 55 840,074 ---- 17,756,472
1984 436,620 31,945 57,495 300,173 498 1,156 827,966 2,575 14,978,869
1985 359,898 24,152 68,914 368,689 1,655 1,015 824,329 2,260 19,998,191
1986 273,927 25,943 51,872 267,709 1,228 6,048 626,787 1,430 34,134,025
1987 311,666 28,985 31,631 396,705 2 1,550 770,546 ---- 46,061,653
1988 203,443 23,521 19,025 324,461 2 75 570,526 ---- 51,987,994
1989 228,955 20,150 22,554 475,264 22 775 747,719 1,500 51,188,502
1990 94,193 27,333 23,268 378,915 17 217 523,942 89,633 45,269,659
1991 27,220 8,162 12,883 330,975 3 2,812 382,057 388,000 41,938,120
1992 37,714 10,304 18,229 448,841 ---- ---- 515,088 316,134 32,366,557
1993 2,031 10,858 19,933 428,591 ---- ---- 461,414 165,032 26,852,646
1994 ---- 992 15,575 285,990 47 15 302,664 137,613 23,770,707
1995 ---- 1,073 16,398 245,524 37 ---- 263,079 79,802 22,260,967
1996 ---- 56 4 233,816 ---- 138 234,020 55,701 20,066,110
1997 ---- ---- ---- 124,808 ---- ---- 124,808 122,004 18,020,774
1998 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 14,068 10,554,835
1999 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 29,797 14,173,288
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented here indicates
that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was closed after 1997.
2
Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
3
Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for 1992-1996 was
derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 145
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Sea Dungeness Rock Sand Spider Spiny Coonstripe Ocean Red Rock
Crab 2
Cucumber Crab Crab Crab Lobster Shrimp Shrimp Shrimp
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- 1,296,912 ---- ---- ---- 250,632 ---- ---- ----
1917 ---- 2,580,840 ---- ---- ---- 355,259 ---- ---- ----
1918 ---- 1,619,280 ---- ---- ---- 195,750 ---- ---- ----
1919 ---- 1,304,904 ---- ---- ---- 256,894 ---- ---- ----
1920 ---- 1,220,568 ---- ---- ---- 247,156 ---- ---- ----
1921 ---- 800,952 ---- ---- ---- 334,271 ---- ---- ----
1922 ---- 860,328 ---- ---- ---- 376,310 ---- ---- ----
1923 ---- 1,075,800 ---- ---- ---- 384,381 ---- ---- ----
1924 ---- 1,506,816 ---- ---- ---- 294,356 ---- ---- ----
1925 ---- 3,234,312 ---- ---- ---- 432,059 ---- ---- ----
1926 ---- 3,296,280 ---- ---- ---- 442,198 ---- ---- ----
1927 ---- 2,960,712 ---- ---- ---- 508,123 ---- ---- ----
1928 ---- 3,574,464 270 ---- ---- 355,800 ---- ---- ----
1929 ---- 1,792,776 ---- ---- 396,764 ---- ---- ----
1930 ---- 1,992,384 12 ---- ---- 374,450 ---- ---- ----
1931 ---- 2,231,384 56 ---- ---- 383,697 ---- ---- ----
1932 ---- 2,433,987 145 ---- ---- 319,307 ---- ---- ----
1933 ---- 3,208,494 14,818 ---- ---- 380,014 ---- ---- ----
1934 ---- 3,768,081 24,570 ---- ---- 366,651 ---- ---- ----
1935 ---- 3,680,188 12,817 ---- ---- 371,661 ---- ---- ----
1936 ---- 2,311,802 16,202 ---- ---- 414,183 ---- ---- ----
1937 ---- 1,627,753 1,710 ---- ---- 393,242 ---- ---- ----
1938 ---- 3,873,600 3,847 ---- ---- 308,378 ---- ---- ----
1939 ---- 5,953,361 3,984 ---- ---- 376,928 ---- ---- ----
1940 ---- 5,151,014 3,460 ---- ---- 281,102 ---- ---- ----
1941 ---- 4,260,340 2,645 ---- ---- 357,334 ---- ---- ----
1942 ---- 2,414,110 80 ---- ---- 168,641 ---- ---- ----
1943 ---- 2,315,338 ---- ---- ---- 298,377 ---- ---- ----
1944 ---- 2,934,776 540 ---- ---- 512,490 ---- ---- ----
1945 ---- 4,334,383 12,188 ---- ---- 478,619 ---- ---- ----
1946 ---- 9,624,368 11,600 ---- ---- 690,272 ---- ---- ----
1947 ---- 10,733,398 15,244 ---- ---- 593,401 ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- 11,892,891 20,938 ---- ---- 563,520 ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- 11,115,476 18,636 ---- ---- 834,658 ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- 11,704,648 20,007 ---- ---- 933,449 ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- 11,568,353 22,592 ---- ---- 824,611 ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- 12,997,451 16,977 ---- ---- 807,070 ---- 205,485 ----
1953 ---- 8,278,519 49,300 ---- ---- 749,245 ---- 287,410 ----
1954 ---- 7,829,651 39,058 ---- ---- 901,293 ---- 296,797 ----
1955 ---- 6,119,320 54,051 ---- ---- 855,416 ---- 838,656 ----
1956 ---- 14,320,549 59,171 ---- ---- 735,869 ---- 1,168,519 ----
1957 ---- 19,118,484 151,131 ---- ---- 647,281 ---- 1,376,641 ----
1958 ---- 17,282,766 166,962 ---- ---- 632,618 ---- 1,728,680 ----
1959 ---- 17,262,261 129,534 ---- ---- 505,947 ---- 1,785,228 ----
1960 ---- 14,876,148 120,903 ---- ---- 351,032 ---- 2,026,787 ----
1961 ---- 11,711,327 151,782 ---- ---- 412,453 ---- 2,002,709 ----
1962 ---- 3,222,580 200,304 ---- ---- 515,816 ---- 1,782,955 ----
1963 ---- 1,951,461 240,611 ---- ---- 584,192 ---- 2,093,063 ----
1964 ---- 1,815,363 263,885 ---- ---- 446,655 ---- 1,100,147 ----
1965 ---- 4,803,906 328,686 ---- ---- 480,325 ---- 1,422,364 ----
1966 ---- 12,376,390 330,843 ---- ---- 489,088 ---- 1,190,197 ----
1967 ---- 11,716,488 324,386 ---- ---- 449,874 ---- 1,412,513 ----
1968 ---- 16,015,581 351,657 ---- ---- 312,483 ---- 2,274,770 ----
1969 ---- 7,938,996 504,076 ---- ---- 309,472 ---- 2,947,563 ----
1970 ---- 15,413,589 539,579 ---- 1,032 225,399 ---- 4,047,589 ----
1971 ---- 9,662,265 542,732 ---- ---- 224,486 ---- 3,080,583 ----
1972 ---- 1,563,006 843,530 ---- ---- 398,217 ---- 2,489,970 ----
1973 ---- 1,022,873 955,788 ---- ---- 233,179 ---- 1,239,976 ----
1974 ---- 685,000 864,033 ---- 52 190,950 ---- 2,387,366 ----
1975 ---- 3,934,663 1,201,867 ---- ---- 201,412 ---- 4,998,369 ----
1976 ---- 15,726,774 1,227,766 ---- ---- 292,534 ---- 3,500,788 ----
1977 ---- 33,647,863 1,083,015 ---- ---- 251,568 ---- 15,871,332 ----
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
146
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Sea Dungeness Rock Sand Spider Spiny Coonstripe Ocean Red Rock
Crab 2
Cucumber Crab Crab Crab Lobster Shrimp Shrimp Shrimp
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1978 8,780 9,362,197 956,874 ---- 1,919 560,986 ---- 13,887,379 ----
1979 69,438 12,978,505 953,590 ---- 14,402 419,529 ---- 5,182,703 ----
1980 23,060 15,934,778 1,083,957 ---- 9,869 416,249 ---- 3,868,214 ----
1981 ---- 10,435,441 1,375,227 ---- 10,914 478,863 ---- 4,164,495 ----
1982 139,487 6,973,679 1,277,872 ---- 16,495 524,710 ---- 4,543,806 ----
1983 163,495 5,301,828 1,397,109 ---- 47,108 525,087 ---- 1,132,742 ----
1984 52,354 5,340,088 1,676,298 ---- 56,338 444,998 ---- 1,628,992 ----
1985 ---- 6,210,272 1,739,835 ---- 41,777 447,848 ---- 3,381,117 ----
1986 77,967 7,758,277 2,097,408 ---- 34,678 488,804 ---- 6,757,818 ----
1987 107,678 6,857,118 1,567,138 ---- 99,556 449,778 ---- 8,023,390 ----
1988 159,106 11,297,300 1,237,934 ---- 107,609 610,859 ---- 11,236,298 ----
1989 160,011 5,717,145 1,302,687 ---- 70,066 742,571 ---- 13,351,218 ----
1990 147,284 10,367,719 1,784,135 ---- 93,451 705,341 ---- 8,700,916 ----
1991 581,974 4,246,029 1,594,010 ---- 99,269 589,240 ---- 10,364,782 ----
1992 549,191 8,327,150 1,468,309 57 89,871 585,556 ---- 18,682,775 ----
1993 646,210 11,958,039 1,287,378 1,072 71,173 554,438 ---- 7,126,933 2,564
1994 646,926 13,491,363 1,002,397 127 67,290 470,144 ---- 11,225,390 27
1995 589,888 9,236,191 935,535 51 59,427 616,382 ---- 5,784,944 186
1996 839,382 12,331,365 1,040,812 4 58,852 668,453 10,142 9,351,086 94
1997 452,640 9,908,520 1,181,159 216 95,801 915,272 79,173 13,983,357 12
1998 770,679 10,692,760 1,234,160 3 99,797 735,703 64,718 1,843,246 63
1999 600,875 8,713,702 790,437 65 68,621 493,201 75,540 4,241,744 308
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented here indicates
that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was closed after 1997.
2
Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
3
Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for 1992-1996 was
derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 147
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Invertebrates, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Invertebrates
Ridgeback Spot Wavy
Ridgeback Spot Wavy
Turban Snail 3
Prawn Prawn
Turban Snail 3
Prawn Prawn
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 281,661 213,826 ----
1916 ---- ---- ----
1981 192,637 370,536 ----
1917 ---- ---- ----
1982 129,402 302,268 ----
1918 ---- ---- ----
1983 153,779 109,096 ----
1919 ---- ---- ----
1984 589,998 50,464 ----
1920 ---- ---- ----
1985 896,816 63,941 ----
1921 ---- 1,006 ----
1986 670,573 102,486 ----
1922 ---- ---- ----
1987 241,872 88,535 ----
1923 ---- ---- ----
1988 142,694 166,670 ----
1924 ---- ---- ----
1989 165,527 189,878 ----
1925 ---- ---- ----
1990 90,842 317,655 ----
1926 ---- ---- ----
1991 128,732 311,431 ----
1927 ---- ---- ----
1992 75,757 225,441 324
1928 ---- ---- ----
1993 80,532 347,792 17,777
1929 ---- ---- ----
1994 162,761 444,354 1
1930 ---- 8,736 ----
1995 414,660 394,986 4,640
1931 ---- 4,114 ----
1996 574,724 527,581 1,571
1932 ---- 982 ----
1997 387,549 761,605 2,414
1933 ---- 798 ----
1998 435,837 787,857 65,605
1934 ---- 910 ----
1999 1,392,370 613,129 24,276
1935 ---- 2,351 ----
1936 ---- 1,861 ----
- - - - Landings data not available.
1937 ---- 3041 ----
1938 ---- 3,285 ----
1
Prior to 1949 commercial abalone landings consisted primarily of red abalone. Since
1939 ---- 4,271 ----
identification of species landed was not required prior to 1950, the data presented
1940 ---- 2,361 ----
here indicates that the species was unidentified. The Commercial abalone fishery was
1941 ---- 5,357 ----
closed after 1997.
1942 ---- ---- ----
2
Sheep Crab landings data recorded by DFG as Spider Crab
1943 ---- 43 ----
3
Prior to 1996 there was no specific species code for wavy turban snail landings
1944 ---- ---- ----
on the DFG Commercial Landing Receipts. Therefore, wavy turban snail data for
1945 ---- 1,452 ----
1992-1996 was derived from commercial landing receipts that were recorded under
1946 ---- 5,175 ----
the miscellaneous sea snail and commercial diving gear codes.
1947 ---- 1,687 ----
1948 ---- 2,771 ----
Data was compiled from DFG Catch Bulletins and DFG Commercial Landing Receipt data.
1949 ---- 3,952 ----
1950 ---- 5,790 ----
1951 ---- 2,694 ----
1952 ---- 3,016 ----
1953 ---- 2,723 ----
1954 ---- 2,695 ----
1955 ---- 1,182 ----
1956 ---- 1,233 ----
1957 ---- 767 ----
1958 ---- 911 ----
1959 ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- 147 ----
1961 ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- 694 ----
1963 ---- 8,445 ----
1964 ---- 5,775 ----
1965 ---- 697 ----
1966 ---- 3,575 ----
1967 ---- 2,590 ----
1968 ---- 7,239 ----
1969 ---- 5,073 ----
1970 ---- 22,259 ----
1971 ---- 11,773 ----
1972 ---- 20,970
1973 ---- 24,384 ----
1974 4,015 218,167 ----
1975 28,522 173,498 ----
1976 3,130 112,069 ----
1977 2,972 53,838 ----
1978 45,716 67,547 ----
1979 356,715 83,778 ----
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
148
Nearshore Ecosystem
Fish Resources: Fishery Management Plan. The status of most nearshore
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
shes is still uncertain, and it is expected to take time
Overview to determine the effects of current management of
individual stocks.
A
Non-rocksh species have differing afnities (generally
bout 450 species of nsh occupy California’s near-
dened by their adult behavior) to the nearshore eco-
shore ecosystem within the limits of the continental
system habitats. They include the open-water, coastal-
shelf. The 60 plus species addressed in this chapter exhibit
migratory species (e.g., yellowtail, California barracuda,
a wide range of distribution, habitat preferences, move-
white seabass, and Pacic bonito); the nearshore sandy-
ment patterns, reproductive characteristics, age, and
bottom dwellers (e.g., California halibut, sanddabs, starry
growth. Their contributions to the sheries of California
ounder, Pacic angel shark, skates and rays); kelp and/or
are varied as well. As a group these sh inhabit all avail-
rocky reef inhabitants (e.g., kelp bass, giant sea bass,
able nearshore habitats (e.g., kelp forests, rocky inter-
lingcod, opaleye and halfmoon); and those that spend
tidal, sandy bottom, open water) in the nearshore ecosys-
most of their lives in or near the surf-zone (e.g., California
tem at some stage in their life-cycle.
corbina, surfperches, grunion, and the croakers). Most of
The kinds and distributions of sh occupying the nearshore
these species are commercially harvested, but a few have
ecosystem off California are inuenced by several envi-
been designated for sport sh use only (e.g., kelp bass,
ronmental factors, water temperature being perhaps the
barred sand bass, spotted sand bass, California corbina,
most important. California’s lengthy coastline spans nearly
and spot and yellown croakers). Giant sea bass has been
10 degrees of latitude resulting in waters varying from
managed under a moratorium on both commercial and
cool-temperate in the north to warm-temperate in the
recreation take since 1982. While very little has been
south. Warmer waters off southern California and Baja
done to assess the population size of most of these spe-
California, Mexico, support several game sh and other
cies, catch and landing trends can often be used to
locally important sh that are found infrequently if at all,
gauge the health of the resource. For example, California
north of Point Arguello, the northern reach of the South-
halibut catches have been remarkably stable over the last
ern California Bight. By contrast, species common north
two decades, and, while both lingcod and Pacic bonito
of Point Arguello may nd preferred water temperatures
catches show precipitous declines in landings, California
to the south by moving deeper in the water column. In
barracuda sport sh catches have increased to the levels
addition, seasonal, annual, and decadal changes in water
of the 1950s. However, the status of most is uncertain.
temperature (e.g., El Niño) result in northerly movements
This uncertainty stems from a lack of historic and current
of sh that might otherwise be found mostly off Baja Cali-
sheries data useful in stock assessments, absence of
fornia, or southern California. Besides water temperature,
life history and recruitment data, as well as insufcient
habitat preferences and general ecological requirements
understanding of habitat relationships and requirements,
control distributions.
and the probable effects of habitat alterations (including
Nineteen species, mostly rocksh, have been included pollution) on stocks.
in the Nearshore Fisheries Management Plan required by
Commercial sheries for these species utilize a variety of
the Marine Life Management Act of 1998. These species
gear, which has been made more efcient over the past
occur coast-wide, but some are rarely seen in southern
century through the introduction of modern net, line, and
California (e.g., quillback, China and black rockshes, kelp
greenling and monkeyface prickleback), while others are
rare north of Point Conception (e.g., California sheephead,
California scorpionsh, calico rocksh and treesh). Col-
lectively, these species are relatively long-lived, slow-
growing sh that take several years to reach maturity
and spawn. Most of the species were seldom harvested
commercially until the development of the live-sh shery
during the early 1990s. No estimates of abundance exist
on a coast-wide basis for any of the species. Managers,
shermen, and scientists are all concerned about the sus-
tainability of the shery. These concerns have resulted in
the imposition of several recent management measures to
balance harvests with available resources, reduce sport-
commercial conicts, and stabilize the nearshore shery
Surf
pending completion of a more comprehensive Nearshore
Credit: Darrel Deuel
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 149
trap materials, modied shing techniques and strategies, and peaked during the 1980s (1,122 General Gill and Tram-
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
improved deck machinery and hydraulics, and advances in mel Net Permits issued during 1985). However, these nets
sh nding electronics. Some gear determined to be too have since been largely restricted to deeper waters from
effective or not sufciently selective has been prohibited. one to ten miles offshore, and prohibited in the inshore
Historically and currently used commercial gear includes rocksh shery. They are also prohibited north of Point
ve general types as follows: 1) traps; 2) hook-and-line; Reyes, Marin County. Restrictions on the use of this gear
3) gill and trammel nets; 4) trawl nets; and 5) round were enacted to address problems with accidental entan-
haul nets. glement and drowning of seabirds and marine mammals
and to address sport-commercial shery allocation con-
Traps: The nsh trap is a relative newcomer to nearshore
icts. Gill and trammel net use in the nearshore ecosys-
commercial sheries. During the late 1980s, nsh traps
tem has declined since the mid-1980s (presently about 220
were introduced into nearshore waters off southern Cali-
permits issued annually), but the gear is still used to vary-
fornia for taking several shallow-water species (including
ing degrees to take lingcod, white seabass, California bar-
California sheephead, cabezon, kelp and rock greenling,
racuda, California halibut, and rocksh in waters seaward
California scorpionsh, several species of rocksh, and
of areas closed to its use. California halibut and rocksh
moray eel). The nsh trap shery has since expanded in
taken in gill and trammel nets have increasingly appeared
number of participants and number of species harvested,
in the live/premium sh shery, while nets (trawl and gill
and has progressed northward to nearshore waters off
and trammel nets) accounted for about 23 percent of 1999
central and northern California. Traps accounted for about
landings of live/premium sh. Restrictions on the use of
seven percent of the statewide live/premium sh landings
gill and trammel nets include minimum mesh sizes for
during 1999. The nsh trap shery off southern California
several species, limits on the length of net that may be
has operated under a nsh trap permit as a limited entry
shed for various species, and several depth closures.
shery since 1996. North of Point Arguello a nsh trap
permit is not required, but a recent moratorium on issuing Trawl nets: Early commercial trawls such as paranzella
general trap permits restricts entry pending evaluation of and beam trawls have been largely replaced by otter
comprehensive limited access measures. trawls used to take bottom and midwater shes including
rocksh, lingcod, California halibut, and other atshes.
Hook-and-Line: A variety of commercial hook-and-line
Trawl nets are presently authorized for use to take
gear (vertical and horizontal setlines, troll lines, rod and
nsh three or more nautical miles offshore, and to
reel, and “stick gear”) is employed to take a variety of
take California halibut in the halibut trawl grounds off
nsh in the nearshore ecosystem. Of most immediate
southern California. Restrictions on trawl nets include
interest (and concern) is the live sh hook-and-line shery
minimum cod-end mesh sizes to enable the release of
that employs primarily rod-and-reel and “stick” or “pipe”
sub-adult shes.
gear. In general, this gear is used to harvest the same spe-
cies of live/premium sh as nsh traps and is conducted Round Haul Nets: Round haul gear (purse seine and lam-
under the same nearshore shery permit. Seventy percent para) used during the 1920s to harvest millions of pounds
of the statewide live/premium sh landings were caught of white seabass, barracuda, and yellowtail is now prohib-
on hook-and-line gear. The number of nearshore hook-and- ited for these species. Presently, smaller scale round haul
line shery participants increased during the past decade, gear in the form of lampara and drum seines (bait nets)
with about 1,130 permits issued during 1999. This number is used to take white croaker, perch, and bait species that
is expected to remain stable with recent adoption of the include smelt, white croaker, and queensh, but this take
moratorium on new permits. Commercial vessels using is relatively small.
shing lines within one mile of the mainland shore are Early recreational shing during the late–1800s off Califor-
limited to a maximum of 150 hooks per vessel and 15 nia targeted giant sea bass, tuna, white seabass, and
hooks per line. These restrictions were enacted in 1995 yellowtail using handlines and early rod-and-reel shing
to address initial concerns for the rapidly expanding com- gear from private or chartered craft. During the 1920s and
mercial hook-and-line shery that included some vessels 1930s, early commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFV)
employing thousands of hooks. Other hook-and-line gear began to carry anglers to nearby popular shing grounds,
include troll lines used to harvest California halibut in enabling catches of game shes that were not as readily
the San Francisco Bay area and rod-and-reel used to take available to those shing from shing barges, piers, jet-
redtail surfperch in northern California. ties, and beaches. Following World War II, the number
Gill and Trammel Nets: The use of gill and trammel nets to of CPFV increased dramatically to serve a public eager
harvest rocksh, California halibut, white seabass, Califor- to go shing. In southern California, the CPFV shery
nia barracuda, soupn shark, angel shark, white croaker, expanded during the 1960s into winter shing for rocksh
and other nearshore species, increased during the 1960s and lingcod to make year-round what had been a spring-
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
150
through-fall shery. Also, improved rod-and-reel shing
Nearshore Ecosystem Fish Resources: Overview
equipment, the introduction of skin and SCUBA diving
equipment, and accelerated private boat ownership begin-
ning in the 1950s helped to increase the recreational
take of sh during the latter half of the 1900s. By the
1950s, ocean sport shing was becoming a recognized
factor in the potential over-harvest of some species, and
regulations affecting the take of popular nearshore shes
were promulgated along with commercial restrictions to
maintain stocks of shes in the nearshore ecosystem.
Other hook-and-line gear types include handlines that still
are seen occasionally on piers, and the “poke pole” used
in intertidal areas along the north coast to capture cabe-
zon, greenling, and an occasional shallow water rocksh
or prickleback. Most commercial forms of nets and traps
are prohibited for sport use. However, baited hoop nets
are permitted for taking certain species, and beach nets
may be used to take surf smelt north of Point Conception.
Spears, harpoons, and bow-and-arrow shing tackle may
be used to take all varieties of skates, rays, and sharks
(except white shark) and grunion may be taken only by
hand. Recreational divers operating from shore or from
vessels use spearshing equipment with or without aid
of SCUBA gear. Anglers seeking game sh generally use
live bait when available (anchovy, sardine, squid, and
small croakers), but are often equally effective with the
extensive arsenal of articial lures available ranging from
shrimp ies to one-pound or greater hexagon steel bars
tipped with a single or treble hook (often used for ling-
cod). A variety of sand worms, sand crabs, mussels and
squid are favored bait for shore shing while squid is the
standard for most rockshes.
The outlook for sustaining healthy nearshore sh stocks
and sheries has generally improved in the eyes of manag-
ers with enactment of California’s recent landmark legisla-
tion, the Marine Life Management Act of 1998. Fishery
management plans for nearshore sh and white seabass
should be close to adoption by the California Fish and
Game Commission as this report nears publication date.
The draft master plan, which is also a required by MLMA,
calls for additional FMPs to be developed for California
halibut, skates and rays, surfperches, kelp bass and barred
sand bass.
Don Schultze
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 151
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
154
California Sheephead
History of the Fishery family Labridae. All have protruding canine-like jaw teeth
California Sheephead
and large cycloid scales. The sheephead is easily dis-
A lthough the commercial catch of California sheephead tinguished from the others by its color pattern, greater
(Semicossyphus pulcher) dates back to the late 1800s, body depth, and large size. Males have a black head and
a renewed interest in this shery has developed only tail separated by a reddish middle section. The chin is
recently. Today, it is exploited by sport divers, anglers, white in both sexes but females are uniformly pinkish.
and especially by a growing live sh commercial industry. Young-of-the-year are bright reddish orange with a lateral
longitudinal white stripe and large black spots at the
In the late 1800s, Chinese shermen took large quantities
rear of the dorsal n and upper caudal. Although the
of sheephead for drying and salting. Since that time,
sheephead ranges from Monterey Bay, California to the
except for brief periods, sheephead was not a targeted
Gulf of California, it is not common north of Point Concep-
species until the 1980s. In the recently developed live sh
tion. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, beginning life
shery, the sh are trapped and taken live to supply Asian
as a female with older, larger females developing into
seafood restaurants. Because small sh, usually females,
secondary males. Female sexual maturity may occur in
are easier to keep alive in small aquaria, prereproductive
three to six years and shes may remain female for up
individuals have often been taken. A recent minimal size
to fteen years. Timing of the transformation to males
limit of 12 inches should reduce this possibility.
involves population sex ratio as well as size of available
The largest commercial catches of California sheephead
males and sometimes does not occur at all.
were from 1927 to 1931, peaking in 1928 at more than
Males have been aged at around 50 years, and can achieve
370,000 pounds. During and shortly after World War II
a length of three feet and a weight exceeding 36 pounds.
(1943-1947), the sheephead catch increased from 50,000
As growth rates are higher and mortality lower at the
to 267,00 pounds, probably because of easy availability
northern end of the range, the sexual transformation
close to port. Since the 1940s and until the late 1980s, the
occurs later there and the males are larger. Batch spawn-
average annual landing has been about 10,000 pounds and
ing occurs between July and September, and estimates
the price of this catch was under $0.10 per pound. During
of yolky oocytes present in the ovary vary from 36,000
the 1980s, the price and catch increased slightly until the
to 296,000 for sh from eight to 15 inches. Larval drift
live sh market began in the late 1980s. The price of live
ranges from 34 to 78 days with two settlement patterns.
sh has reached as high as $9 per pound. Between 1989
Most larvae settle at about 37 days, but some slow their
and 1990, the catch quadrupled and reached a peak in
growth at this time and may continue as pelagic larvae
1997 of 366,000 pounds and a market value of $840,176.
for another month. Settlement size remains between 0.5
During 1994 to 1999, the live catch varied between 87.8
and 0.6 inches. The sheephead has a broad diet with
percent and 73.7 percent of the total sheephead landings.
crabs, barnacles, mollusks, urchins, polychaetes and even
The catch has decreased from 1997 to 1999, but the
bryozoa occasionally dominant. There appears to be no
market value has remained high.
evidence of its preference for abalone and lobster as cited
The estimated recreational catch of sheephead between
in earlier literature. Because of its large size of adult
1983 and 1986 averaged 312,400 pounds with a maximum
males, there are few known predators. The sheephead is a
estimate of 448,800 pounds for 1986. Commercial pas-
rocky reef, kelp bed species found to depths of 280 feet.
senger shing vessel data from 1947 to 1998 indicate an
Adults are usually solitary, but sometimes are seen in large
average take of 28,030 sh per year with a maximum in
schools, perhaps associated with spawning aggregations.
1983 of about 69,000 sh. Using an average weight of two
pounds per sh (a low estimate) the sport catch, except in
the cited maximal periods, often exceeds the commercial
catch. During the 1930s, sheephead were considered “junk
sh” by most recreational anglers and were not kept
because of their soft esh. However, the large size, ne
avor, and use as a lobster substitute in salads and other
recipes has more recently made them a preferred and
even targeted species by anglers and divers.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he California sheephead and two other common South-
California Sheephead (male), Semicossyphus pulcher
ern California species, the rock wrasse and the seno-
L.Sinclair
rita are members of the mostly tropical, worldwide wrasse Miller & Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 155
California Sheephead
400
thousands of pounds landed
350
California Sheephead
300
250
200
150
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
100
California Sheephead
50
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
Management Considerations
They are considered resident species and no systematic
movements have been described.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Status of the Population
T John Stephens
here has been no ongoing analysis of the status of
Occidental College-retired
the California sheephead. Long-term studies at two
localities in southern California, Palos Verdes Point and
the King Harbor breakwater, have shown that the species
References
was not abundant in the cool period of the early 1970s.
The population increased at both sites with the onset
Cowen, R.K. 1991. Variation in planktonic larval stage
of the little El Niño of 1977-1978. At King Harbor, the
duration of Semicossyphus pulcher Mar. Ecol. Prog. Series
.
population peaked in 1978, decreased through the end of
69, 1-2:9-15.
the great El Niño of 1982-1983, and remained low until
Cowen, R.K. 1990. Sex change and life history patterns of
the early 1990s when it again reached a large size (1994
the labrid Semicossyphus pulcher across an environmental
and 1998). With the exception of 1982-1983 El Niño, the
gradient. Copeia 1990(3):781-795.
population seems to increase during El Niño conditions
and this is reected in increased recruitment. At Palos Cowen, R.K. 1985. Large scale patterns of recruitment
Verdes, the population peaked in 1981, then declined until by the labrid Semicossyphus pulcher; causes and implica-
1983, but has remained relatively stable since. At maxi- tions. J. Mar. Res. 43(3)1985:719-742.
mum, the density of sheephead at the Palos Verdes kelp
Victor, B.C. 1987. Growth, dispersal, and identication of
bed was three times that of the King Harbor breakwater.
planktonic labrid and pomocentrid reef sh larvae in the
There is no evidence from these very limited data that the
Eastern Pacic ocean. Mar. Biol. 95(1):145-152.
population is threatened by existing shery practices. The
Warner, R.R. 1975. The reproductive biology of the
projected decrease in landings during 1999 may reect
protogynous hermaphrodite, Pimelometopon pulchrum
the imposition of a minimum size limit.
(Pisces:Labridae) Fish. Bull. U.S. 73:262-283.
80
thousands of fish landed
California Sheephead
60
40
20
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Sheephead
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
156
Cabezon
History of the Fishery Concerns over the increased harvesting of nearshore spe-
Cabezon
cies and potential impacts on shed populations led to
E vidence exists for subsistence use of cabezon (Scorpae- passage of legislation known as the Marine Life Manage-
nichthys marmoratus) by prehistoric native Americans ment Act of 1998 (MLMA) which was enacted in January of
along the central California coast. Cabezon represented 1999. Within the MLMA, minimum commercial size limits
ve percent of the sh remains taken from exposed rocky were implemented for several nearshore species including
coastal archaeological sites. a 14-inch size limit for cabezon. Implementation of the
size limit may have been responsible for the decline in
As game sh, cabezon are prized by sport divers for
landings between 1998 and 1999.
edibility, size, and ease of capture. The recreational take
aboard commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs) does
not comprise a large proportion of the catch, but those
Status of Biological Knowledge
that are taken are usually of a good size, averaging
around 3.5 pounds. In central California, cabezon gener-
T he cabezon is the largest member of the cottid family.
ally account for less than one percent of observed annual In Spanish, cabezon means bigheaded or stubborn and,
CPFV catches. Recreational landings data are available proportionally, the massive head is denitely the largest
from 1980 to 1999 for CPFV and private boat anglers as feature of this sh. The specic name marmoratus refers
well as shore and pier anglers from the National Marine to the marbled or mottled appearance of the body, which
Fisheries Service Recreational Fisheries Information Net- can be reddish, greenish, or bronze. Generally the belly
work (RecFIN). RecFIN data from 1982 to 1999, for all four is a pale turquoise or white, and there are no scales on
modes of recreational shing showed a 40 percent decline the body.
in average annual landings between the 1982 through 1989
Populations range along the eastern Pacic coast from
and 1993 through 1999 periods, from 122 to 74 tons. Data
Point Abreojos, Baja California to Sitka, Alaska. They are
from RecFIN also suggest that cabezon are more common
found on hard bottoms in shallow water from intertidal
in catches north of Point Conception and more frequently
pools to depths of 250 feet. Fish frequent subtidal habitats
caught by anglers shing on private boats and from shore
in or around rocky reef areas and in kelp beds.
than on CPFVs.
Cabezon may reach an age in excess of 20 years. The
Cabezon were taken incidentally in commercial catches
largest recorded size is 39 inches in length and over 25
by boats shing for rocksh using hook-and-line or gillnets
pounds. Limited information available on age at sexual
until 1992. From 1916 to 1992, commercial landings only
maturity in published literature suggests that in central
exceeded 30,000 pounds in 1951 and again from 1979
California males begin to mature in their third year and
to 1982, when reported landings reached 62,614 pounds.
all are mature by their fourth year. Average size of males
Development of the live/premium shery in the late 1980s
in their fourth year is 17 inches. Some females begin to
resulted in increasing commercial catches of many species
mature in their fourth year between 16 and 20 inches in
occupying the nearshore environment in and around kelp
length, and all females are sexually mature by the sixth
beds. The commercial catch of cabezon started increasing
year when they are 19 to 23 inches in length. These
in 1992 with the expansion of marketing live sh to mar-
data collected from 1950-1951 suggest a size of female 50
kets and restaurants in California’s Asian communities.
percent maturity greater than 16 inches. Unpublished DFG
Most of the initial increase in landings was from the Morro
data collected in the Morro Bay area from 1996 to 1999
Bay area, but by 1995, landings in most central and north-
indicates that half of females are mature at 14 inches.
ern California ports had increased dramatically. Sampled
catches from the Morro Bay area from 1995 to 1998 sug-
gested a large proportion of landings were immature sh.
Commercial landings continued to increase through 1998
with over 373,000 pounds reported, then declined slightly
in 1999 but remained over 300,000 pounds. Live sh are
taken primarily by trap and hook-and-line gear. About 90
percent of the catch is landed live. Markets demanded top
quality live sh, and shermen received premium prices
for their catches evidenced by the increase in average
price per pound from $0.85 in 1990 to $3.30 in 1998.
The estimated value of reported landings in 1998 was
$1,231,700.
Cabezon, Scorpaenichthys marmoratus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 157
Cabezon
In California, spawning commences in late October, peaks Cabezon normally occur nearshore, except as larvae. Usu-
in January and continues until March, whereas in Washing- ally solitary, juveniles and adults are common on rocky
ton, the spawning season begins in November and extends bottom areas with dense algal growth. They are often in
to September with a peak in March and April. There is the vicinity of kelp beds, jetties, isolated rocky reefs or
some evidence that females may spawn more than once pinnacles, and in shallow tide pools.
in a season. Females spawn their eggs on subtidal, algae- Most of their time is spent lying in holes, on reefs, in
free rocky surfaces, which can be horizontal or vertical in pools, or on kelp blades beneath the canopy. As sh get
orientation. Up to 152,000 eggs can be expected from a older and larger they tend to migrate to deeper water. In
large female (30 inches, 23 pounds). Masses of the pale shallower water, they migrate in and out with the tide to
green or reddish eggs are up to 18 inches in diameter and feed. Their habit of lying motionless makes them an easy
up to two to four inches thick. As the eggs develop they target for sport divers.
change to an olive green color.
There have been several reports on the toxicity of cabe-
Status of the Population
zon roe. In the 1950s, the well-known ichthyologist Carl
Hubbs published a personal account of eating cabezon roe.
L imited information is available on population biology
As part of an ongoing search for another caviar, Hubbs
or changes in biomass over time. Recent increases in
and his wife consumed the roe and esh of a cabezon
commercial shing pressure on cabezon have intensied
for dinner. Four hours later they “... awoke in misery ...
efforts to learn more about their life history charac-
and were violently ill throughout the rest of the night.”
teristics, population biology, and to assess stock size.
Laboratory evidence indicates that the roe is lethal to
Recreational landings have declined concurrent with the
mice, rats, and guinea pigs. Anecdotal information on egg
increase in commercial shing efforts and reported com-
masses exposed at low tide suggests they are not preyed
mercial landings. As shing effort increases, it is likely
upon by natural predators such as raccoons, mink, or
that populations living in heavily utilized areas will decline
birds. Observations of captive cabezon have documented
further.
a female eating her own eggs with no resulting ill effects.
Males fertilize the eggs after spawning by the female, and
Management Considerations
the male guards the nest. Apparently the same nest sites
are used from year to year. Fish are very protective of
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
the nests for the two to three weeks it takes the eggs to
further information.
develop and hatch.
Pelagic juveniles are silvery when small, spending their
rst three to four months in the open ocean feeding on Deborah Wilson-Vandenberg and Robert Hardy
tiny crustaceans and other zooplankton. At a size of about California Department of Fish and Game
1.5 inches, juveniles leave the open water and assume a
demersal existence. They appear in kelp canopies, tide
References
pools, and other shallow rocky habitats such as breakwa-
ters from April to June in California.
Fuhrman, F.A., G.J. Fuhrman, D.L. Dull, and H.S. Moser.
Cabezon can be aptly described as “lie-in-wait” predators.
1969. Toxins from eggs of shes and amphibians. J. Agric.
Their mottled coloration lets them blend in with the sur-
Food and Chem. 17:417-424.
roundings, as they lie motionless to wait for their next
Gobalet, K.W. and T. L. Jones, 1995. Prehistoric Native
meal. With large, robust pectoral ns set low on the body
American sheries of the central California coast. Trans.
and a powerful tail, they quickly lunge after unwary prey,
Amer. Fish Soc. 124:813-823.
engulng it in their large mouth.
Lauth, R.R. 1989. Seasonal spawning cycle, spawning fre-
Their diet consists mainly of crustaceans, although large
quency, and batch fecundity of the cabezon, Scorpaenich-
and small cabezon have different diets. Adult sh eat
thys marmoratus, in Puget Sound, Washington. Fish. Bull.,
crabs, small lobsters, mollusks (abalone, squid, octopus),
U.S. 87:145-154.
small sh (including rockshes), and sh eggs. Small juve-
niles depend mainly on amphipods, shrimp, crabs, and O’Connell, C.P. 1953. The life history of the cabezon
other small crustaceans. Scorpaenichthys marmoratus (Ayres). Calif. Dept. Fish and
Game, Fish Bull. 93. 76 p.
Juveniles are eaten by rockshes and larger cabezon, as
well as by lingcod and other sculpins. Large cabezon may
be preyed upon by harbor seals or sea lions.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
158
Cabezon
400
thousands of pounds landed
350
300
Cabezon
250
200
150
Commercial Landings
100
1916-1999, Cabezon
50 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
30
thousands of fish landed
25
20
Cabezon
15
10
5
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Cabezon
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 159
California Scorpionfish
History of the Fishery sh mature at six inches (one year), over 50 percent are
mature by seven inches (two years) and all reproduce by
T he California scorpionsh (Scorpaena guttata) is a nine inches (four years). Spawning occurs from April to
valuable commercial sh in southern California. For August, peaking in June and July. Scorpionsh are ovipa-
many years, the shery experienced a long decline, with rous, have external fertilization, and females produce
peak catches of 223,000 pounds in 1925 and uctuating eggs imbedded in the gelatinous walls of hollow, pear-
catches thereafter. However, the rise of the live sh shaped “egg-balloons.” These paired structures, each ve
shery in the 1990s led to the shery’s resurgence, as this to 10 inches long, are joined at their small ends. The walls
species’ bright red color and hardiness after capture has of these “balloons” are about 0.1 inch thick, transparent
made it a favorite target. Today, about 85 percent of the or greenish in color, and contain a single layer of eggs.
commercial California scorpionsh catch goes to the live Each egg is about .05 inch in diameter. The egg masses
sh shery. Catches in 1998 totaled about 75,000 pounds oat near the surface and the eggs hatch within ve
valued at $175,000. Most sh are taken in traps or by days. Very young sh live in shallow water, hidden away
hook-and-line. in habitats with dense algae and bottom-encrusting organ-
isms. Small crabs are probably the most important food
California scorpionsh are a moderately important part
of California scorpionsh, although other items, such as
of the sport shery in southern California. They are
small shes, octopuses, shrimps and even pebbles are
taken primarily from party boats and private vessels, and
sometimes eaten. These animals are primarily nocturnal
occasionally from piers and jetties, mostly from Point
and feed at night. Octopuses prey on small individuals.
Mugu southward.
California scorpionsh make extensive spawning migra-
tions in late spring and early summer, when most adults
Status of Biological Knowledge move to 12 to 360 foot depths, forming large spawning
aggregations on or near the bottom. During spawning,
C alifornia scorpionsh are easily distinguished from these aggregations rise up off the bottom, sometimes
most other California shes. They are a relatively approaching the surface. Spawning occurs in the same
heavy-bodied species, with strong head and n spines, areas year after year, and it is likely that the same
ranging in color from red to brown, often with purple sh return repeatedly to the same spawning ground.
blotches and always covered with dark spots. They reach When spawning ends, the aggregations disperse and many
a length of 17 inches. (though not all) of the sh move into shallower waters.
California scorpionsh live from tide-pool depths to about The sharp spines on the dorsal, anal and pelvic ns are
600 feet (usually in about 20-450 feet) from Santa Cruz to poisonous. The toxin is produced in glands that lie at
southern Baja California, and in the northern part of the the base of each spine and run up to the tip through a
Gulf of California. Preferring warmer water, the species groove. A wound, although painful, is seldom fatal, and
is common as far north as Santa Barbara. While they are bathing the wound in hot water can reduce the pain. The
most abundant on hard bottom (such as rocky reefs, sewer heat alters the toxin’s structure making it harmless. One
pipes and wrecks), they are also found on sand. should be careful not to make the water so hot as to
damage tissue.
California scorpionsh grow to 17 inches and some live
at least 21 years. After four years of age, females grow
faster than males and reach a larger size. Although a few
Status of the Population
N o population estimates exist for California scorpi-
onsh. However, data from trawl studies conducted
by the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Southern
California Coastal Water Research Project and the Orange
County Sanitation District from 1974-1993 show that there
are substantial short-term uctuations in California scorpi-
onsh abundance within the Southern California Bight.
California Scorpionfish, Scorpaena guttata
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
160
California Scorpionfish
250
thousands of pounds landed
California Scorpionfish
200
150
100 Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
50 California Scorpionfish
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Management Considerations 250
thousands of fish landed
California Scorpionfish
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for 200
further information. 150
100
Milton Love 50
University of California, Santa Barbara
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Scorpionfish
References CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (Party Boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
Love, M. S., B. Axell, P. Morris, R. Collins and A. Brooks.
1987. Life history and shery of the California scorpi-
onsh, Scorpaena guttata, within the southern California
Bight. Fish. Bull. US 85(1):99-116.
Stull, J. K. and C.-L. Tang. 1996. Demersal sh trawls off
Palos Verdes, southern California, 1973-1993. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Res. Rep. 37:211-240.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 161
Black Rockfish
History of the Fishery vessel (CPFV) catches from Fort Bragg south to the San
Francisco/Princeton area. Black rocksh also are impor-
B lack rocksh (Sebastes melanops), also known as black tant to divers. In a 1972 survey in northern and central
snapper and black bass, are a minor to moderate California, black rocksh comprised approximately eight
component of nearshore commercial and recreational sh- percent of all sh taken by divers, and were primarily
eries, with increasing importance from the San Francisco taken in northern California.
area northward. The Eureka area accounts for 80 percent A six- to seven-fold increase in estimated annual landings
to 90 percent of all commercial landings in the “black of black rocksh in the recreational shery occurred
rocksh” market category (which may contain other spe- between 1957 through 1961 and 1979 through 1986, which
cies, most commonly blue rocksh). Annual statewide reects a substantial increase in shing effort between
landings in the 1990s ranged from 189,000 to 277,000 the two periods. Since then, estimated total recreational
pounds, except in 1993 when only 86,000 pounds were catch has been variable and has not continued to increase
landed. Landings from port areas south of San Francisco steadily. During the 1990s, the annual estimated take of
have never comprised more than 10 percent of total land- black rocksh in the recreational shery was fairly similar
ings in the market category. In the San Francisco port to that of the commercial shery.
area, “black rocksh” landings increased fteen-fold from
In 1992, DFG initiated a voluntary catch-and-release pro-
1989 to 1992. The majority of black rocksh in commercial
gram in recreational and commercial sheries for black
sheries are landed dead but a small portion are now
rocksh less than 14 inches in total length in response
landed live in the recently expanded live sh shery,
to concerns over the lack of larger sh in sampled rec-
primarily from Morro Bay north to Fort Bragg. They are
reational catches, particularly in the San Francisco/Half
also taken incidentally in the commercial salmon troll sh-
Moon Bay area. The program was unsuccessful in the
ery. Black rocksh also comprise minor to signicant pro-
primary target area (Bodega Bay to Santa Cruz) and was
portions of other market categories, in particular “blue
not continued due to two factors: 1) increased recruit-
rocksh,” “small rocksh,” and “unspecied rocksh.”
ment of sub-adult sh to the shery (i.e., recreational
Black rocksh are an important recreational species, par- anglers were unwilling to return a substantial portion of
ticularly in northern California. Long-term monitoring of their catch to the water); and 2) perceived competition
the recreational skiff shery in the Eureka/Crescent City for the same resource from non-cooperative shermen.
area showed them as the most frequently taken species
every year in the 1990s; in 1997, for example, black
Status of Biological Knowledge
rocksh comprised 58 percent of the observed catch.
During the period from 1981 through 1986, the Marine
B lack rocksh range from Amchitka Island, Alaska to
Recreational Fisheries Statistical Survey (MRFSS) showed
Santa Monica Bay in southern California, but are
that in Humboldt and Del Norte Counties (northern Cali-
uncommon south of Santa Cruz. They frequently occur in
fornia), black rocksh comprised from 15 to 31 percent
loose schools ten to twenty feet above shallow (to 120
annually of the estimated total marine recreational catch
feet) rocky reefs, but may also be observed as individuals
for all shing modes combined. South of the Eureka
resting on rocky bottom, or schooling in midwater over
area, black rocksh gradually decrease in importance
deeper (to 240 feet) reefs. They may attain a maximum
in the recreational catch and are infrequently observed
length of 25.5 inches in California, although individuals
south of Santa Cruz. They are often among the top 10
over 20 inches are rarely observed today. Average size
species observed annually in commercial passenger shing
observed in commercial and recreational sheries now is
14 to 15 inches in northern California and 11 to 13 inches
in central California.
Black rocksh have a relatively fast growth rate. First
year growth is usually 3.5 to 4.0 inches. Most individuals
become available to the shery by the time they have
reached three to four years of age and are approximately
10 to 11.5 inches. They are larger at equal age then blue
rocksh; four-to-seven-year old black rocksh may average
from 11.5 to 13.8 inches, while blue rocksh range from 10
to 12 inches within that age range. By age ve, growth
rate of female black rocksh surpasses that of males, and
Black Rockfish, Sebastes melanops
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
162
by age 15, female black rocksh may average 2.4 inches
Black Rockfish
600
longer than males.
thousands of fish landed
500
At six years, or about 14 inches, half of all males are
Black Rockfish
400
sexually mature. At seven to eight years, or about 16 300
inches, half of all females are sexually mature.
200
As with all members of the genus Sebastes, fertilization 100
and development of embryos takes place within the 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
female’s body. Black rocksh mating generally occurs
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Black Rockfish
between September and November. Females store the
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
sperm until their eggs mature in December or January, at
which time the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm.
shes) showed an afnity to the same habitat and depth
The larvae develop within thirty days, at which time
range as black rocksh. It is commonly known among
black eyespots become visible to the naked eye. The eyed
shermen that black rocksh in central California are char-
larvae are released into the water from late January to
acterized by localized areas of relatively high abundance
May, peaking in February off of California.
in the nearshore area.
Larvae may remain in the ocean’s surface waters for
The DFG has conducted limited tagging studies on juvenile
three to six months where they are dispersed by currents,
and adult black rockshes. Between 1978 and 1985, 89
advection, and upwelling. They begin to reappear as
black rocksh were tagged in central California. Four tags
young-of-the-year (YOY) in shallow, nearshore waters by
were returned from sh which had been at liberty from
May, but the major recruitment event usually occurs from
18 to 552 days; all sh were recaptured in the same areas
July to August. YOY black rocksh generally recruit to the
where they were released.
shallower portions of kelp beds (15- to 40-foot depth) as
well as semi-protected sandy areas of the coast. As newly
settled YOY (approximately 1.5 inches) they most closely
Status of the Population
resemble yellowtail rocksh YOY. As they grow, YOY black
rocksh more closely resemble YOY blue rocksh in pig-
A lthough no shery-independent population estimates
mentation but lack the mottling on the sides, which are
have ever been made of black rocksh stocks in Cali-
a uniform tan to light brown. As juveniles and adults,
fornia, substantial information exists on relative abun-
black rocksh are frequently mistaken for blue rocksh.
dance and length frequency from shery-dependent sur-
The best characteristics that separate black from blue
veys. Data from the 1981-1986 MRFSS survey showed
rocksh are a wide, unmottled, light blue-gray area along
a 23 percent decline in the average weight of black
the lateral line, a relatively large mouth, the shape of the
rocksh taken compared with sh harvested from 1958
anal n, and black speckling in the dorsal n.
through 1961.
Although black rocksh may occur with blue rocksh, par-
Onboard observations from CPFVs in the San Francisco
ticularly in central and northern California, they are not
area documented a signicant change in the length fre-
considered to be competitors because their diets share
quency of the sampled catch from 1989 to 1990. During
little in common. Juvenile and adult black rocksh primar-
that period, the occurrence of larger adult black rocksh
ily consume crab megalopae, amphipods, isopods, and
(greater than 15 inches) declined precipitously. This
other shes, including YOY rockshes,.
occurred during a time when nearshore commercial hook-
Major predation occurs on all rockshes from the moment and-line shing effort and landings were expanding, as
of larval release throughout the rst year by a variety of mentioned previously. Mean length in the sampled catch
shes and invertebrates, as well as marine birds. Larger from the San Francisco area declined from 14.3 inches
black rocksh are preyed upon by lingcod and marine in 1988-1989 to 12.1 inches in 1990-1991, and has ranged
mammals such as sea lions. from 11.4 to 12.6 inches annually from 1993 to 1998. This
is well below the average length at 50 percent sexual
Black rocksh are commonly associated with other near-
maturity. Since 1993, all other CPFV port areas from
shore sh species, particularly other rockshes. A statis-
Fort Bragg south to Morro Bay have yielded similar low
tical technique, cluster analysis, was used to partition
mean lengths.
CPFV catch data from 1987 to 1992 in the Monterey area
based on the frequency of occurrence of species in the Results from commercial shery sampling are consistent
sampled catch. Interestingly, no other schooling rocksh with the above. For example, 296 black rocksh sampled
was closely associated statistically with black rocksh, from the Morro Bay area commercial nearshore shery
but three benthic species (gopher, China, and brown rock- from 1993 to 1997 averaged 12.2 inches. Coincident with
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 163
these observed declines in mean length were increased Sullivan, M.S. 1995. Grouping of shing locations using sim-
Black Rockfish
harvest rates (catch per angler hour) observed in the ilarities in species composition for the Monterey Bay area
CPFV shery in central California, particularly from 1994 Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel shery, 1987-1992.
to 1997. Thus, the observed decline in mean length is Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech. Rep. No.
partially related to stronger recruitment, and, in spite 59. 37 p.
of increased shing effort on black rocksh in recent VenTresca, D.A., J.L. Houk, M.J. Paddack, M.L. Gingras,
decades, localized populations of adults still must be pres- N.L. Crane, and S.D. Short. 1996. Early life-history studies
ent in California to provide this recruitment. of nearshore rockshes and lingcod off central California,
1987-92. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div.
Admin. Rep. 96-4. 77 pages.
Paul Reilly
California Department of Fish and Game Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish
Bull., U.S. 85:229-250.
References
Hallacher, L.E. and D.A. Roberts. 1985. Differential utiliza-
tion of space and food by the inshore rockshes (Scorpae-
nidae: Sebastes) of Carmel Bay, California. Environ. Biol.
Fishes. 12(2):91-110.
Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, and W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
The marine recreational shery in northern and central
California: a historical comparison (1958-86), status of
stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
current. Calif. Dept. sh and Game, Fish Bull. 176. 192 p.
Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
related sport shes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.
177. 109 p.
Miller, D.J. and J.J. Geibel. 1973. Summary of blue rock-
sh and lingcod life histories; a reef ecology study; and
giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, experiments in Monterey
Bay, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 168.
137 p.
Miller, D.J., J.J. Geibel, and J.L. Houk. 1974. Results of
the 1972 skindiving assessment survey. Pismo Beach to
Oregon. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
Rep. 23. 61 p.
Miller, D.J, and D. Gotshall. 1965. Ocean sportsh catch
and effort from Oregon to Point Arguello, California, July
1, 1957-June 30, 1961. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 130. 135 p.
Miller, D.J. and R.N. Lea. 1972. Guide to the coastal
marine shes of California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Fish Bull. 157. 235 p. [reprinted in 1976 with Addendum,
249 p.]
Reilly, P.N., D.Wilson-Vandenberg, D.L. Watters, J.E. Hard-
wick, and D. Short. 1993. On board sampling of the
rocksh and lingcod Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel
Industry in northern and central California, May 1987 to
December 1991. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour.
Div. Admin. Rep. 93-4. 242 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
164
Blue Rockfish
History of the Fishery averaged 335,000 sh. This species truly has been the
Blue Rockfish
bread and butter of the nearshore recreational angler in
T he blue rocksh (Sebastes mystinus), also known as northern and central California.
bluesh, blue perch, blue bass, priestsh, and reef In a survey of divers conducted in 1972 in northern and
bass, is most commonly caught from the northern Channel central California, blue rocksh ranked second in impor-
Islands (in the Southern California Bight) to the Oregon tance to lingcod with 10.5 percent of all sh landed and
border. Although only a small portion of blue rocksh was the most common rocksh taken, comprising 29.6
landings is from the commercial shery, those landings percent of all rockshes. Preliminary data from a 1999
have increased in the past decade. During the 1987-1989 survey of Monterey Bay area divers revealed that blue
period, landings in the “blue rocksh” market category rocksh was the fourth most abundant species harvested,
(which may include other morphologically similar rock- after California halibut, kelp rocksh, and lingcod.
shes) averaged 25,670 pounds; in 1998 landings were
For more than 25 years, the recreational harvest of rock-
approximately 92,000 pounds. Based on market sampling
sh was limited to 15 sh per day, with 15 blue rocksh
in the Morro Bay area, total landings of the species blue
allowed within that limit. Effective January 1, 2000, the
rocksh are signicantly greater than those of the market
bag limit was reduced to 10 rocksh overall, with 10 blue
category “blue rocksh.” For example, in 1998 in this
rocksh allowed within that limit. The National Marine
port area, estimated total landings for the species were
Fisheries Service considers the blue rocksh a “nearshore
19,300 pounds, yet total reported landings for the market
species.” Effective January 1, 2000, very restrictive limits
category were only 2,100 pounds. The former estimate
on the commercial harvest of nearshore rockshes have
is based on the percentage of blue rocksh in various
been imposed by the National Marine Fisheries Service
sampled market categories and the total landed weight
upon recommendation of the Pacic Fishery Management
of all market categories. Blue rocksh are often landed
Council. In addition, the DFG now requires a special
as “unspecied rocksh” or “group small rocksh,” both
permit for the commercial harvest of nearshore shes,
frequently used market categories.
and it is likely that a restricted access program will be
Blue rocksh have become a minor component of the developed for the nearshore commercial nsh shery
live sh shery, which developed during the 1990s in in California.
California. For example, in the Morro Bay area during the
1996-1998 period, less than one percent of the live sh
Status of Biological Knowledge
landings were blue rocksh, and about four times as many
blue rocksh were landed dead than alive. In 1998, the
B lue rocksh range from the Bering Sea to Punta Baja,
ex-vessel value of all sh landed statewide in the “blue
Baja California, and from surface waters to a maximum
rocksh” market category was $57,700.
depth of 300 feet. They are less common south of the
The blue rocksh is one of the most important recre-
northern Channel Islands and north of Eureka, California.
ational species in California. It is usually the most fre-
They are a medium-sized species among all rockshes; the
quently caught rocksh north of Point Conception for
largest known specimen was 21 inches, although individu-
anglers shing from skiffs and Commercial Passenger Fish-
als exceeding 15 inches are uncommon in central and
ing Vessels (CPFVs). It is also an important species for
southern California. Average size in California recreational
skin and scuba divers using spears, and is occasionally
sheries today is 11 to 13 inches. In central and southern
caught by shore anglers shing in rocky subtidal areas.
California, larger blue rocksh are now common only in
In a 1981-1986 survey of sport sh taken between the
areas distant from shing ports or in larger kelp beds
southern boundary of San Luis Obispo County and Oregon,
which are practical to sh only from the edges.
an estimated 800,000 blue rocksh were harvested annu-
ally - more than any other species. This represents a
doubling of the estimated annual harvest from a similar
survey conducted in 1957-1961.
In every complete year sampled by the department, from
1988 through 1998, blue rocksh has been among the
three most frequently observed species caught on CPFVs
in every major port area from Morro Bay to Fort Bragg.
Based on the Department of Fish and Game’s (DFG)
onboard observations and log book summaries, estimated
annual take of blue rocksh by CPFV anglers ranged from
Blue Rockfish, Sebastes mystinus
199,000 to 546,000 sh for the period 1988 to 1995 and
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 165
Rockshes in general are considered to be slow-growing
Blue Rockfish
2.00
shes. However, blue rocksh are among the faster grow- 1.75
millions of fish landed
ing rockshes. First year growth may vary from 3.0 to 4.5 1.50
Blue Rockfish
inches (central California average about 4.25 inches), and 1.25
1.00
after two years blues may reach six inches. An occasional
0.75
two- or three-year old blue rocksh may be caught by 0.50
anglers, but most do not recruit to the sport and com- 0.25
mercial sheries until four to seven years of age when 0.00
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
they range from eight to 10 inches. Females grow at a
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Blue Rockfish
slightly faster rate than males. Maximum age is about
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
24 years.
During their rst few months on nearshore reefs, larval
Age at rst spawning is protracted for both sexes. Only
and YOY blue rocksh are preyed upon by most large
about 10 percent spawn for the rst time at three years
piscivorous shes. As adults, their predators include ling-
of age. At ve years, or about 10 to 10.5 inches, half of
cod, harbor seals, sea lions, and, occasionally, larger rock-
all males are sexually mature. At six years, or about 11
shes, especially bocaccio.
inches, half of all females have spawned.
Adult blue rocksh are common in kelp beds, where food
In males, the gonads increase in size from May to July, but
is plentiful and the kelp provides protection from preda-
in females the eggs begin maturing from July to October.
tors, but they also occur on deeper rocky reefs between
Males transfer sperm to the females in October, but the
100 and 300 feet deep. In kelp beds they form loose to
embryos do not begin to develop until December when
compact aggregations. Under dense kelp canopies, they
the eggs are fertilized by the stored sperm. Embryos
will sometimes form columns at least 30 wide and 80 feet
develop within the female and hatch immediately upon
deep and may be extremely compact. In deeper waters,
being released into the water; larval release usually peaks
they form aggregations that may extend from the surface
in mid-January. Larvae live in the surface waters for four
to the bottom, but they are usually at or below mid-depth.
to ve months, where they may be carried many miles
by ocean currents. Young-of-the-year (YOY) blue rocksh Blue rocksh are commonly associated with other near-
begin to appear in the kelp canopy and shallow rocky shore sh species, particularly other rockshes. A statisti-
areas by late April or early May when they are about 1.2 cal technique, cluster analysis, was used to partition CPFV
to 1.4 inches in length. However, they are not considered catch data from 1987 to 1992 in the Monterey area based
fully recruited each year until July due to the variability in on the frequency of occurrence of species in the sampled
the planktonic period. As YOY, they are mottled reddish- catch. In a broad area along the entire Monterey Peninsula
blue in color upon settlement and may appear in massive extending out to 240 feet deep, blue rocksh were the
swarms in certain years in inshore areas, especially in predominant species and were in close association with
kelp beds. olive, yellowtail, starry, and rosy rockshes. This statisti-
cal relationship has been supported with observations
After more than two decades of estimating relative abun-
using scuba and submersibles.
dance of blue rocksh in central California, DFG biologists
have shown a positive statistical correlation with blue The DFG has conducted marking studies on all size ranges
rocksh recruitment and annual upwelling index. Continu- of blue rocksh from 1.8 to 18 inches. A population study
ing research is directed towards the mechanisms by which using freeze branding as a marking technique resulted
YOY rocksh recruit to nearshore areas, and the relation- in more than 80,000 recently-settled blue rocksh being
ship between spawning areas and recruitment areas, as marked in a ve-week period. These sh showed very
inuenced by current patterns and oceanographic events. little movement from an isolated reef 100 x 150 feet and,
in fact, showed very little movement from one part of the
Feeding habits vary considerably depending upon life his-
reef to another.
tory stage, depth, and locality. Larval and YOY blue rock-
sh consume primarily planktonic crustacea. Adult shes Tagging studies of adult blue rocksh indicate they do
in deeper water feed almost entirely on macroplankton not migrate laterally along the coast. Between 1978 and
consisting of tunicates (salps), scyphozoids (gonadal mate- 1985, over 1500 blue rocksh were tagged and released in
rial of jellysh), and crustaceans. In shallow areas and central California waters by DFG biologists. Eighteen tags
kelp beds, blue rocksh feed on the same types of macro- were subsequently returned, with the sh being at liberty
plankton as those in deeper water, but they also feed on from 11 to 502 days; all were recaptured in the same
algae, small shes, hydroids, and crustaceans, including locations where they were tagged. The longest recorded
amphipods and crab larvae. movement of a blue rocksh from any tagging study was
15 miles. While these studies show adult blue rocksh
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
166
References
populations are more or less discrete at each shing port,
Blue Rockfish
it is not known how much larval drift occurs between
See black rocksh reference list.
shing areas.
Status of the Population
A lthough no shery-independent population estimates
have ever been made of blue rocksh stocks, it
appears that they have withstood considerable shing
pressure over the last four decades and continue to be
healthy, at least north of Point Conception. There is
evidence of a decline in blue rocksh stocks off southern
California since the 1970s. There is a well-documented
difference in the population structure between northern
and central California stocks. Northern stocks are gener-
ally characterized by a wider size range of adults, a
higher proportion of adults greater than 15 inches and
a correspondingly greater mean length, less variability
in annual recruitment, and most likely a higher growth
rate. These attributes are likely a result of a combination
of greater shing pressure and a greater inuence of
anomalous oceanic conditions such as El Niño events in
central California. Greater variability in annual recruit-
ment results in occasional strong year classes which cause
strong length-frequency modes in the sampled catch;
this occurred four times in recreational shery samples
obtained from 1959 to 1983 in central California. It is
believed that the last exceptionally strong year class of
blue rocksh in central California occurred in 1988, which
is cause for concern. However, a relatively strong year
class also was observed in 1999. In 1993, when the
majority of the 1988 year class had become available to
recreational anglers, mean lengths in the sampled catch
declined substantially in central California. For example,
mean length of blue rocksh sampled from Monterey area
CPFVs declined from 11.9 inches in 1992 to 11.0 inches
in 1993. In heavily shed and well-sampled populations of
rockshes, changes in annual mean length from one year
to the next are commonly less than 0.5 inches.
The total number of blue rocksh caught in recreational
sheries increased substantially from the late 1950s to
the mid-1980s, concurrent with increased effort. However
in the past 15 years recreational shing effort has been
variable but has not shown a consistent increase; the
recreational catch of blue rocksh has shown the same
pattern. However, increased commercial shing in the
nearshore area during the same period has put additional
stress on blue rocksh populations. Fishery managers have
increased monitoring efforts for this keystone species of
nearshore ecosystems.
Paul Reilly
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 167
Olive Rockfish
History of the Fishery From April to September, young-of-the-year olive rocksh,
around 1.2 to 1.6 inches long, settle out of the plankton
Olive rocksh (Sebastes serranoides) form a minor part to kelp beds, oil platforms, surfgrass and other structures
of the commercial shery in central and southern Califor- at depths as shallow as 10 feet. During the day, young
nia, where they are primarily taken by hook-and-line. A sh aggregate in the water column, occasionally with blue
relatively small number nd their way into the live sh and black rocksh. They spend the night near or on the
shery. Historically, olive rocksh have been common in bottom, sheltering under algae or among rocks. Young
the recreational shery as far north as Fort Bragg and olives also are found under drifting kelp mats. Olives
were particularly important from central California to the about 2.5 inches long become more active at night, but
northern Channel Islands. As late as the 1980s, olives it is not clear whether adult olives are nocturnal. They
were a very important recreational species throughout do feed commonly on octopuses, which are more available
much of southern California. However, a combination of at night. Sub-adult and adult olives live over high relief
overshing and poor juvenile survival brought about by reefs, as well as around the midwaters of oil platforms.
changes in oceanographic conditions led to a steep decline In shallow waters, they are found throughout the water
(83 percent) in southern California party vessel catches column and occasionally rest on the bottom. They form
between 1980 and 1996. In addition, while they were small to moderate-sized schools and a few often are mixed
still commonly taken in the central California recreational with blue rocksh schools. From tagging studies, most
catch, olive rocksh also declined there in the late 1990s. olive rocksh move relatively little; a maximum movement
of 20 miles has been reported.
Olive rocksh live at least 25 years. Females grow larger,
Status of Biological Knowledge and, beginning at maturation, tend to be longer at a given
age. Males reach maximum length earlier. Throughout
Olive rocksh are streamlined sh with almost no head
California, males mature at a somewhat smaller size and
spines. Their body color is dark brown or dark green-
a slightly greater age than females, however the differ-
brown on the back and light browns or green- brown
ence is not large. Off central California, a few sh were
on sides. There are a series of light blotches on the
mature at 10.6 to 11.2 inches (three years), 50 percent
back. The ns range from olive to bright yellow, and
were mature at 12.9 to 13.7 inches (ve years), and
olives are often mistaken for yellowtail rocksh. Olive
all were mature by 15.2 inches (eight years). Females
rocksh are somewhat drabber in appearance, and yel-
release larvae once a year from December through March,
lowtail rocksh have red-brown ecking on the scales.
peaking in January. Females produce between 30,000 to
They reach a maximum length of two feet.
490,000 eggs per season. Small juveniles are planktivo-
Olive rocksh occur from southern Oregon to Islas San
rous, feeding on copepods, gammarid amphipods, cladoc-
Benitos (central Baja California) from barely subtidal
erans, euphausiids, other crustaceans and sh larvae. As
waters to 570 feet (the latter based on a trawl
they grow, their diet shifts to shes, such as juvenile
specimen collected by the Southern California Coastal
rockshes, squids, octopuses, isopods, polychaete worms
Water Research Project). They are common from about
and krill.
Cape Mendocino to Santa Barbara and around the North-
ern Channel Islands from surface waters to about 396 feet.
Status of the Population
Olives appear to be uncommon off much of both southern
California and Baja California.
T here has been no stock assessment of this species.
However, there is clear evidence that olive rocksh
have declined in abundance south of Pt. Conception.
Milton Love
University of California, Santa Barbara
Olive Rockfish, Sebastes serranoides
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
168
Olive Rockfish
350
thousands of fish landed
300
Olive Rockfish
250
200
150
100
50
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Olive Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
References
Lea, R. N., R. D. McAllister and D. A. Ventresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California. Calif. Dep. Fish Game,
Fish Bull. 177.
Love, M. S. 1980. Isolation of olive rocksh, Sebastes
serranoides, populations off southern California. Fish. Bull.
U.S. 77:975-983.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines
in nearshore rocksh recruitment and populations in the
southern California Bight as measured by impingement
rates in coastal electrical generating stations. Fish. Bull.
96:492-501.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and W. V. Buskirk. 1998. A
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. Fish. Bull. 39:180-195.
Love, M. S. and W. V. Westphal. 1981. Growth, reproduc-
tion, and food habits of olive rocksh, Sebastes serranoi-
des, off central California. Fish. Bull. U.S. 79:533-545.
Pearson, D. E. 2000. Data availability, landings, and
length trends of California’s rocksh. NMFS Adm. Rep.
SC-00-01.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 169
Brown Rockfish
History of the Fishery rocksh has been the most common rocksh species sold
live in San Francisco markets and comprised nearly 50
B rown rocksh (Sebastes auriculatus), commonly percent of the live rocksh catch in 1999.
referred to as bolina by shermen and markets, have The number of vessels landing brown rocksh peaked
long been an important component of the marine recre- in the early 1990s, when over 250 hook-and-line vessels
ational shery and a relatively minor but important com- made an average of over 1,300 landings per year state-
ponent of the nearshore commercial shery in California, wide, usually ranging from 60 to just over 100 pounds
especially north of Point Conception. In the commercial per landing. Total landings of brown rocksh peaked in
shery freshly caught whole brown rocksh are sold either 1991, decreased through the mid-1990s, and increased
dead or alive in the fresh sh markets. Brown rocksh again during the late 1990s coincident with an increasingly
have not been reported separately from other rockshes active nearshore premium and live sh shery. Though
in catch statistics, but comprise the majority of the landings have uctuated over the last two decades, the
market grouping called bolina, which also includes other value of the catch has continued to increase, particularly
similar-looking rocksh species, such as copper or quill- during the last decade, as rocksh quotas have been
back rocksh, that are sold at the same price. In samples reduced and demand has continued to remain high. Mar-
obtained from 1999 landings, brown rocksh comprised 70 kets in areas such as San Francisco (especially those in
percent by weight of the bolina category. Brown rocksh Chinatown) sell their brown rocksh whole and preferably
are also mixed into other market categories, such as the live. Dead-landed sh obtain an ex-vessel price of $1 to
red rocksh group (19 percent by weight in 1999 landings). $2 per pound, whereas live brown rocksh have demanded
Commercial catches were made in the past with hook-and- an ex-vessel price from $2 to $4 per pound. With the
line gear and, to a lesser extent, gillnets until gillnets recent management-related reductions in supply, prices
were excluded from state waters in 1991. Today, brown have increased to over $6 to $8 per pound at times in
rocksh are primarily taken with hook-and-line gear, 1999 and 2000.
which includes mainly rod-and-reel and horizontal longline Sport anglers regularly catch brown rocksh with rod-and-
gear, along with some vertical longline (stick) and troll reel either from the shore, commercial passenger shing
longline gear. In most port areas of the state, the majority vessels (CPFVs), or private/rental boats (PRBs), especially
of bolina group catch is made by rod-and-reel, although, in nearshore reef habitats (depths of less than 175 feet).
in the San Francisco area, the longline eet accounts for Brown rocksh are most common in sport catches near
over 70 percent of bolina taken. The species is targeted San Francisco. In a sport sh survey conducted from 1980
directly in both nearshore and offshore ocean environ- through 1986, brown rocksh were among the top ve
ments. In the San Francisco area, the brown rocksh was species of rocksh caught and composed up to 6.6 percent
estimated to be the third most common rocksh species of the estimated sport catch. Inside San Francisco Bay,
landed by weight in the hook-and-line commercial shery they are the most common sport-caught rocksh species.
through the 1990s. The 1999 and 2000 catch estimates Although catches south of Point Conception are lower,
suggest that they are now equal to line-caught landings brown rocksh have comprised up to one percent of rock-
of chilipepper and the two are the most common species sh take and have remained among the top 15 species of
in nearshore catches. Since the early 1990s, the brown rocksh caught during the last 20 years. These represent
a seven-fold increase by number in statewide take relative
to a 1958 to 1961 survey of recreational shing. Substantial
increases in take have occurred in all modes of shing,
especially by shore shing, pier shing, and PRBs.
Status of Biological Knowledge
B rown rocksh are found along the Pacic Coast of
North America from the northern Gulf of Alaska to
central Baja California. They live in shallow subtidal
waters and bays, and have been found at depths of just
over 400 feet, although they most commonly reside above
175 feet. Brown rocksh are typically found associated
with sand-rock interfaces and rocky bottoms of articial
and natural reefs. In shallow waters, they may be found
Brown Rockfish, Sebastes auriculatus
in small aggregations associated with rocky areas and kelp
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
170
Brown Rockfish
250 Commercial Landings
Group Bolina (Brown Rockfish)
1916-1999,
millions of pounds landed
Brown Rockfish
200
Group Bolina (Brown) rockfish
landings were aggregated as rockfish
150
prior to 1979. DFG market sampling
indicates that 75 percent of the
100 Group Bolina rockfish market
category is made up of brown
50 rockfish, the remaining 25 percent
consists primarily of widow rockfish.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
plankton layer for approximately a month before meta-
400
morphosing into pelagic juveniles as part of the plankton
350
thousands of fish landed
and micronekton, and subsequently settling out into
300
Brown Rockfish
250
shallow nearshore waters. Although brown rocksh repro-
200
duce on the open coast, young-of-the-year sh commonly
150
migrate into bays and estuaries for use as nursery habitat,
100
which is an uncommon practice for rocksh species. They
50
may remain in the bay around rubble, piers and other
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
structures in areas of higher salinity for one to two years
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Brown Rockfish
before returning to the open coast.
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
Brown rocksh feed on increasingly larger prey as they
grow. They shift from small crustaceans, amphipods, and
beds, whereas they stay near the rocky bottom when
copepods as juveniles, to an adult diet of crabs and sh.
in deeper waters. The sub-adults migrate into both high
Little is known about predation on brown rocksh, but it
and low relief reefs and are strongly residential to their
is thought to be similar to that of other nearshore rocksh
home sites.
species: Most predation on the brown rocksh presumably
Distinguishing characteristics of brown rocksh include
occurs during the larval and juvenile stages, with less
orange-brown or dark brown mottling, especially on the
predation occurring on the adults.
back, and a prominent dark brown blotch on the gill cover.
Little sexual dimorphism is evident between male and
female brown rocksh in relation to growth or maturity
Status of the Population
rates. Recent studies found maturity as early as three
W
years, and 100 percent maturity at six years, or roughly hile there have been studies of local abundance
12.2 inches total length (TL). Half of the population was in certain coastal areas and within bays, the popula-
mature at 3.9 and 4.2 years of age, measuring 9.8 tion size and structure of this species has not been com-
and 10.4 inches TL in males and females, respectively. prehensively assessed. Evidence of stress on brown rock-
Brown rocksh grow to a maximum size of 22 inches, sh stocks in California exists, however, and some relative
and live less than 25 years. This is a relatively short changes in the population have been identied. Com-
life span compared with most offshore rocksh species, mercial and recreational catches have steadily increased
though many nearshore rocksh species have a similar or during the last 40 years, while the average length and
shorter lifespan. weight of brown rocksh in landings have declined. When
recreational statistics collected during the last 20 years
As with all members of the genus Sebastes, brown rocksh
were compared to results from a 1958 through 1961 rec-
are ovoviviparous. A 12-inch TL female may produce
reational survey, brown rocksh showed a 49 percent
approximately 42,500 eggs, while an 18-inch TL female
decrease in average weight per sh over 30 years. Mean
may produce as many as 266,000 eggs. Peaks in larval
length of brown rocksh obtained from CPFVs and PRBs in
release occur in the pelagic environment in both Decem-
northern California declined by 18 percent and 21 percent
ber-January and May-June. Larvae live in the upper zoo-
respectively over 40 years. In southern California, mean
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 171
References
length in the CPFV catches declined by 31 percent during
Brown Rockfish
the same period. In relation to the length at which 50
Adams, P.B. 1992. Brown Rocksh. In: California’s Living
percent of males and females are mature, recreational
Marine Resources and Their Utilization, W.S. Leet, C.M.
landings data indicate that from 1958 to 1961, most brown
Dewees, and C.W. Haugen, eds. California Sea Grant
rocksh taken had reached sexual maturity. By the 1980s,
Extension Publication UCSGEP-92-12: 127.
however, few sh taken from shore or from the bays,
and about half taken from PRBs were sexually mature. Baxter, R. 1999. Miscellaneous Species: Brown Rocksh.
Lengths of brown rocksh sampled from commercial land- In: Report on the 1980-1995 Fish, Shrimp and Crab Sam-
ings during the last decade also reect that half of the pling in the San Francisco Estuary, California, J. Orsi, ed.
sh were at or below the size at which 50 percent of the Interagency Ecological Study Program for the Sacramento-
population is sexually mature, and few larger adult sh San Joaquin Estuary, Technical Report 63: 443-452.
are being landed compared to historic values. The decline
Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, W.H. VanBuskirk. 1995. The
in size of sh in these sheries does not seem to be
marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
associated with incoming year classes, but instead with a
fornia: A historical comparison (1958-86), status of stocks
depletion of larger adults due to shing pressure. Although
(1980 - 86), and effects of changes in the California cur-
nearly half of the sh landed statewide are adults that
rent. California Department of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin
can replenish the population, there are now few large
176: 192 pp.
adults above the length of the median-sized sh recorded
Love, M.S., J.E. Caselle, and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines
in the 1958 through 1961 survey. The brown rocksh has
in nearshore rocksh recruitment and populations in the
been identied as a species vulnerable to severe localized
southern California Bight as measured by impingement
depletions in other geographic areas; in Washington state,
rates in coastal electrical power generating stations. Fish.
the Puget Sound stock of brown rocksh was recom-
Bull. 96: 492-501.
mended for listing as a threatened species in 1999.
Love, M.S. and K. Johnson. 1999. Aspects of the life
histories of grass rocksh, Sebastes rastrelliger and brown
,
Susan E. Ashcraft and Mark Heisdorf
rocksh, S. auriculatus, from southern California. Fish.
California Department of Fish and Game
Bull. 97 (1):100-109.
Matthews, KR. 1990. A comparative study of habitat use
by young-of-the-year, sub-adult, and adult rockshes on
four habitat types in central Puget Sound. Fish. Bull. 88
(2): 223-239.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
172
Copper Rockfish
History of the Fishery rocky reef as well as sandy areas and are referred to as
Copper Rockfish
benthic juveniles. Copper rocksh in the early juvenile
T he copper rocksh (Sebastes caurinus) is a highly stage are morphologically similar to two closely related
variable species in terms of coloration, and due to species, gopher rocksh and black-and-yellow rocksh,
this characteristic it has been known by several names, and the three species at this life stage are extremely
depending to some degree upon locality. These include difcult to distinguish. Upon settling, color patterns and
copper rocksh, whitebelly rocksh, gopher, white gopher, morphological characteristics develop and the three spe-
and bolina (this name is most commonly applied to the cies become separable.
brown rocksh). Copper rocksh is most widely used and Copper rocksh are an important component of the near-
is the recommended vernacular name. Historically, copper shore rocky reef system and are frequently encountered
rocksh was considered a common nearshore species. by scuba divers in this environment. Submersible obser-
Over the past 20 years, copper rocksh have become a vations of the biotic community off the Big Sur coast
less frequent component of the nearshore environment. revealed copper rocksh between depths of 70 and 325
Commercially, copper rocksh are landed in a number of feet. The majority of sightings were of individual (sol-
market categories including copper rocksh as well as red, itary) sh occurring over rocky reef or boulder elds
bolina, and gopher rocksh groups. It is sold as llets by and most frequently in areas of high relief. Occasionally,
the market names rocksh or red rocksh and often whole an individual was observed over sand. Coppers are
as red rockcod; it is considered an excellent food sh. considered epibenthic, normally occurring slightly above
Copper rocksh is one of the species taken in the live-sh the substrate.
shery. They have been an important component of the Tagging studies indicate that copper rocksh, for the most
recreational catch in both skiff and commercial passenger part, show little movement once they have settled to the
shing vessel sheries, especially off central and northern bottom. Movement of up to one mile has been noted but
California. Due to its relatively large size, known to reach the majority of tagged and recaptured copper rocksh
22.9 inches in length, copper rocksh has been considered are from the locality where they were originally taken.
one of the premium species in the recreational angler’s This life history characteristic makes species with high
catch and a prime target for the sport diver. site delity susceptible to local depletion. In areas close
to shing ports and higher rates of utilization, fewer and
smaller copper rocksh are caught.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Copper rocksh reach sexual maturity at about 11.6 inches
T he copper rocksh was one of the rst species of total length (TL) for females and 14.6 inches TL for males.
rockshes to be described from the Pacic Coast, This is at about ve years of age for females and seven
having been scientically named in 1845 by John Richard- years for males. Size and age for copper rocksh from off
son from Sitka, Alaska. For many years, the copper and central California for the rst ve years are as follows: age
whitebelly rocksh were considered as separate species zero, 3.6 inches TL; age one, 3.7 to 5.9 inches TL; age two,
but morphological and biochemical analyses in the 1980s 4.2 to 9.4 inches TL; age three, 7.0 to 11.5 inches TL, and
have shown these two nominal forms to be conspecic, age four, 8.9 to 13.2 inches TL. There appears to be no
a highly variable-colored but genetically unique species. signicant difference in the growth rates between sexes.
The copper rocksh is broadly distributed geographically,
known from the Gulf of Alaska to off central Baja Califor-
nia, Mexico. It also has a broad bathymetric distribution,
known to occur from the shallow subtidal to 600 feet.
As with all rockshes, coppers are viviparous and highly
fecund. A 13.4-inch female is capable of producing
215,000 ova and an 18.5-inch sh of producing 640,000
ova. The largest individuals may well produce over one
million larvae. The larvae are released during winter
months (Jan.-March). Young-of-the-year copper rocksh
are pelagic and recruit into the nearshore environment
at about 0.8 to 1.0 inch during April and May off central
California. The newly recruited copper rocksh initially
associate with canopy-forming kelps such as Macrocystis,
Cystoseira, and Nereocystis. After several months, and at
Copper Rockfish, (Sebastes caurinus) and a sea anemone
about 1.6 inches, the juveniles settle to the bottom on Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 173
Off central California, copper rocksh have been aged to
Copper Rockfish
500
28 years for a 22.1-inch individual. Copper rocksh from
thousands of fish landed
400
Puget Sound have been aged to 34 years.
Copper Rockfish
300
Copper rocksh feed on a wide variety of prey items.
Crustaceans form a major part of their diet; these include 200
Cancer crabs, kelp crabs, and shrimps. Squid of the 100
genus Loligo and octopuses are also important food items.
0
Fishes, which include young-of-the-year rockshes, cusk- 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
eels, eelpouts, and sculpins are important forage for Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Copper Rockfish
larger individuals. Juvenile copper rocksh feed primarily Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
on planktonic crustaceans.
Hybridization of copper rocksh with brown rocksh has
Phillips, Julius B. 1939. Rocksh of the Monterey wholesale
been suspected in Puget Sound, but this has not been
sh markets. Calif. Fish and Game 25(3):214-225.
noted from anywhere else within their range.
Phillips, Julius B. 1958. Rocksh review. In The marine
sh catch of California for the years 1955 and 1956 with
Status of the Population rocksh review. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
105:7-25.
T here has been no stock assessment of this species
in California. However, there is compelling evidence
that copper rocksh populations have severely declined
in many areas and large individuals are noticeably less
common than in past decades. Due to their solitary
nature, high habitat specicity, and the size they can
enter the shery (as juveniles), the copper rocksh is a
prime candidate for local depletion.
Robert N. Lea
California Department of Fish and Game
References
Karpov, K. A., D. P. Albin, and W. H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
The marine recreational shery in northern and central
California: a historical comparison (1958-86), status of
stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
Current. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 176, 192 p.
Lea, R. N., R. D. McAllister, and D. A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
related sportshes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
177, 109 p.
Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle, and W. Van Buskirk. 1998. A
severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Reports 39:180-195.
Miller, D. J. and D. Gotshall. 1965. Ocean sportsh catch
and effort from Oregon to Point Arguello, California July
1, 1957-June 30, 1961. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 130, 135 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
174
Canary Rockfish
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Canary Rockfish
P C
rior to 1944, the primary gear used for the capture of anary rocksh, referred to as orange rocksh in
rocksh was the hook-and-line (primarily vertical long- older reports, occur from Baja California to southeast
line). Soon after World War II, the “balloon” trawl became Alaska. Their center of distribution is the Washington-
the dominant gear used to capture rocksh. Canary rock- British Columbia area, and in California they have com-
sh (Sebastes pinniger) became the largest component in mercial importance only as far south as Bodega Bay. Elec-
the trawl shery landings in northern California. From trophoretic differences indicate that canary rocksh may
the 1940s to the late 1960s, rocksh landings began to have two separate subpopulations: one north, the other
increase steadily, due in part to Asian market demands. south of central Oregon. A recent assessment of these
Estimated canary rocksh landings for this time period two portions of the canary rocksh resource suggests the
indicate annual catches of 550 to 2,200 tons, the majority southern area may be receiving population enhancements
being landed in northern California with trawl gear. The from the northern spawned sh. Canary rocksh have
exact amounts harvested during this time period are not been caught at depths below 1,000 feet, but are taken in
known since rocksh landings were not recorded sep- abundance only to 500 feet.
arately until 1981. During the 1970s, total landings of
Canary rocksh grow rapidly until they reach maturity at
canary rocksh in California decreased slightly to between
about 17 inches, then more slowly to a maximum age of
440 and 990 tons. Trawl gear continued to dominate
70 years and a maximum length of 24.5 inches for females
the total catch (60-70 percent), with recreational catches
and 21 inches for males. For example, at one year, females
(15-30 percent) and commercial hook-and-line (5-15 per-
average 5.4 inches and males 4.3 inches; at four years
cent) accounting for the rest.
both females and males average about 11.7 inches; by age
In 1982, the trawl catch of canary rocksh in California 12, females average 20.2 inches and males 19.1 inches. By
accounted for 77 percent of the total canary rocksh age 50 they have added little length (females, 24.4 inches;
catch (1,200 tons), with most of the sh being landed in males, 20.9 inches). Most populations have few individuals
Eureka and Fort Bragg. Recreational and commercial hook- older than 20 years.
and-line catches accounted for 21 percent and 2 percent
Females begin to mature sexually at 10.6 inches, reaching
of the total in 1982. During the 1980s, a new gear, the
50 percent maturity at 17.3 inches, and 100 percent matu-
setnet or gillnet entered the shery. Gillnet catches began
rity at 21.2 inches. Males begin to mature at 11 inches,
to replace hook-and-line catches for a few years, but
reaching 50 percent maturity at 15.7 inches, and 100
accounted for less landings compared to the recreational
percent maturity at 17.7 inches. A 10.6-inch female carries
and trawl catches. The trawl remains the dominant gear
about 69,000 eggs; a 17.3-inch female about 489,000 eggs;
type for harvesting canary rocksh to this day, but has
and a 21.2-inch female about 1,113,000 eggs.
experienced declines to levels nearly matching the hook-
Canary rocksh are viviparous, meaning that the females
and-line catches. Since 1982, the total harvest of canary
bear free-living young and contribute some energy to their
rocksh in California has declined dramatically to 250
young while they are inside the mother. Males fertilize
tons in 1998. The trawl, commercial hook-and-line, recre-
the females around December, and the females hold their
ational, and setnet catches account for 50 percent, 42
young until December to March. Pelagic juveniles occur
percent, 8 percent, and less than 1 percent of the total
in the upper 100 feet of the surface waters from April
canary rocksh landings in 1998. Canary rocksh are cur-
to June. It is assumed that the juveniles descend to
rently being managed through bi-monthly trip limits.
Canary rocksh is an important component of the com-
mercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) recreational catch
from central and northern California. This species was
consistently one of the top ten species landed by CPFV
anglers shing in the San Francisco area north to the
Eureka area. Average length of canary rocksh caught by
CPFV anglers is small and usually involves immature sh
(less than 50 percent maturity).
Canary Rockfish, Sebastes pinniger
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 175
References
benthic habitats after mid-June. Juvenile canary rocksh,
Canary Rockfish
like most rockshes, tend to settle in the shallower
depths of their range and move to deeper waters as they
Crone, P.R., K.R. Piner, R.D. Methot, R.J. Conser, and
grow older.
T.L. Builder. 1999. Status of the canary rocksh resource
Adult canary rocksh feed primarily on euphausiids. Next
off Oregon and Washington in 1999. In Pacic Fishery
in importance as prey are sh, mainly myctophids and
Management Council. 1999. Appendix: status of the Pacic
adult shortbelly rocksh which are most abundant in the
coast groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended
fall and winter diet. Gelatinous zooplanktors and associ-
acceptable biological catches for 2000: stock assessment
ated hyperiid amphipods are common prey but are a minor
and shery evaluation. Portland, Oregon.
part of the diet. Pelagic juvenile canary rocksh feed on
Williams, E.H., S. Ralston, A.D. MacCall, D. Woodbury,
copepods and euphausiid eggs and larvae.
and D.E. Pearson. 1999. Stock assessment of the canary
Predation on canary rocksh is most severe during the
rocksh resource in the waters off southern Oregon and
pelagic larval and juvenile stages. Juveniles (one to three
California in 1999. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
inches) are commonly found in the stomach contents
1999. Appendix: status of the Pacic coast groundsh sh-
of chinook salmon. Undoubtedly, other predators of juve-
ery through 1999 and recommended acceptable biological
nile sh (other shes, mammals and birds, including the
catches for 2000: stock assessment and shery evaluation.
common murre) prey on juvenile canary rocksh. After the
Portland, Oregon.
juveniles descend to the benthos and become adults they
are much less vulnerable to predators.
Status of the Population
T he canary rocksh population has declined since the
early 1970s, particularly in the waters north of Califor-
nia. The population size of age three and older canary
rocksh for California was estimated to be approximately
4,700 tons in 1973 and had decreased nearly 60 percent
to 1,900 tons in 1998. The mean length of canary rocksh
has declined 13 percent since 1980 in the trawl shery,
indicating the removal of larger, older sh from the popu-
lation. Off the coast of Washington and Oregon age two
and older sh were estimated at 73,700 tons in 1967; in
1999 the estimate was 12,100 tons. The spawning popula-
tion of canary rocksh has seen even more dramatic
declines, with estimates of 1999 spawning population sizes
of 6-23 percent of historically unshed levels. In 1999, the
canary rocksh resource off the entire U.S. West Coast
was declared overshed. Recent predictions of population
trends indicate the population may take many decades
to recover to shable levels. Attempts to decrease shing
pressure on canary rocksh are resulting in severe restric-
tions for many other West Coast sheries.
Erik H. Williams and Peter B. Adams
National Marine Fisheries Service
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
176
Quillback Rockfish
History of the Fishery quillback to be residential (no movement) or to show
Quillback Rockfish
movement of less than six miles. They have also demon-
Q uillback rocksh (Sebastes maliger) are a minor com- strated homing ability and day-night movement patterns.
ponent of the commercial passenger shing vessel In California, quillback rocksh have been aged to 15
(CPFV) shery and in general are only observed from the years, but are known to live longer, as they have been
ports of Monterey northward. Only in the Eureka area does aged to 76 years in Canada. Quillback can grow to 24
this species rank among the 10 most frequently observed inches, and growth rates differ along its range. In Cali-
benthic sport shes caught by CPFV anglers. In the Fort fornia, size for a 12-year-old quillback is approximately
Bragg area, quillback rocksh ranked between 13 and 17 7.1 inches. Size at rst maturity for males is 8.7 inches
among benthic sport shes caught by CPFV anglers, and (four years), and for females is 10.2 inches (six years).
their importance in the shery diminishes with decreasing In California, size at 50 percent maturity for males and
latitude. A survey of all recreational sport shing modes females was found to be the same as for rst maturity.
from 1981 to 1986 indicated an average annual harvest of
As with all Sebastes, quillback have internal fertilization
approximately 9,000 sh.
and produce live young. In California, mating takes place
Commercial landings of the “quillback rocksh” market in the late winter and early spring, with birth occurring
category are signicant only from the San Francisco area from April through July. After roughly one to two months
northward. However, historical landings are difcult to in the plankton (0.7 to 2.8 inches), they begin to settle
determine because of the low frequency of quillback near shore.
rocksh and confused identication with other similar
As planktonic larvae and after they settle, quillback rock-
species. Statewide landings in this market category in
sh feed on other planktonic animals and eggs. As adults
1999 comprised less than 0.3 percent of all rockshes.
they feed on a variety of prey such as crustaceans, espe-
Since 1992, this market category has not been used
cially shrimps; small sh, including rockshes and at-
every year and when used, may have consisted of several
shes; clams; marine worms; and sh eggs.
different species.
Quillback rocksh larvae are subject to predation by jelly-
sh and arrow worms. As juveniles, they are preyed upon
Status of Biological Knowledge by shes, including larger rockshes, lingcod, cabezon and
salmon. Various marine birds and pinnipeds eat juvenile
T he quillback rocksh was rst described by Jordan and quillback as well. Adults are also subject to predation by
Gilbert in 1880. Also referred to as orange-spotted, larger shes including some sharks, as well as sea lions,
yellow-back, or stickleback rocksh, it is part of central seals, and possibly, river otters.
and northern California’s nearshore benthic assemblage.
Juveniles inhabit very nearshore bottom areas and are
Quillback rocksh are relatively small, and are of “stout” found over both low and high rocky substrate. They are
morphology; a characteristic common among nearshore sometimes found among sponges and algae that provide
Sebastes found in close association with the bottom. They shelter. Adults are most often found in deeper water
are usually orange-brown to black in color with a yellow and are solitary reef-dwellers living in close association
or orange pale area between the eye and pectoral n. with the bottom. They are often seen perched on rocks
This pale area is also present as a saddle on the rst or taking shelter in crevices and holes. Adults have also
few dorsal spines and as speckling on the mid-dorsal been noted to retreat to eelgrass beds at night. Quillback
surface. A characteristic that helps distinguish this species
from similar species is its long dorsal spines and deeply
notched forward dorsal n membranes. Copper rocksh
and other nearshore shallow dwelling rocksh also have
deeply notched rst dorsals but not so much as quillback.
Quillback rocksh are known from the Gulf of Alaska
to Anacapa Passage in southern California, and are con-
sidered common between southeast Alaska and northern
California. They are found from near the surface to a
depth of 900 feet and can be common at depths of several
hundred feet.
Like other Sebastes of shallow, benthic habit, individual
quillback rocksh are not known to range far. Tagging Quillback Rockfish, Sebastes maliger
Credit: L. Sinclair
studies in central California and Washington have shown
Miller and Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 177
References
are also associated with the rock-sand interface, but are
Quillback Rockfish
rarely seen in the open away from suitable cover.
Love M.S. and R.N. Lea. 1997. Range Extension of the quill-
back rocksh, Sebastes maliger to the southern California
,
Status of the Population Bight. California Fish and Game 83(2):78-83.
Matthews, K.R. 1990. An experimental study of the habitat
W hile no stock assessment has been done for quillback
preference and movement patterns of copper, quillback,
rocksh in California, length-frequency data exist on
and brown rockshes (Sebastes spp.). Environmental Biol-
their occurrence in the recreational shery in northern
ogy of Fishes 30:161-178.
and central California, as well as in the commercial sh-
Moser, H.G. 1996. Scorpaenidae: scorpionshes and rock-
ery from the same region. Between the late 1980s and
shes. In: H.G. Moser (Editor), The early stages of shes
mid-1990s, quillback rocksh experienced increased take
in the California Current region, California Cooperative
by the commercial shery as the market demand for
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, Atlas No. 33, p 733-795.
premium, live sh increased, yet no signicant trend was
Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas.
noted in the average size of sh. Fishing pressure has
relaxed somewhat in recent years because of restrictions Roberts, D.A. 1979. Food Habits as an ecological partition-
placed on the shery. Concern over sustainability of the ing mechanism in the nearshore rockshes (Sebastes) of
commercial and recreational nearshore shery has made Carmel Bay, California. M.A. Thesis, San Francisco State
this species of particular interest to managers. University. 77 p.
Wylie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity an seasonality of reproduction. Fish-
David A. Osorio and Richard Klingbeil
ery Bulletin 85(2):229-250.
California Department of Fish and Game
Yamanaka, K.L. and A.R. Kronlund. 1997. Inshore rocksh
stock assessment for the west coast of Canada in 1996 and
recommended yields for 1997. Canadian Technical Report
30
of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 2175, 80 p.
thousands of fish landed
25
Quillback Rockfish
Yoklavich, M.M., V.J. Loeb, M. Nishimoto, and B. Daly.
20
1996. Nearshore assemblages of larval rockshes and
15
their physical environment off central California during
10
an expected El Nino event, 1991-1993. Fishery Bulletin
5
94(4):766-784.
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Quillback Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
178
Calico Rockfish
History of the Fishery phins have also been known to feed on juvenile and adult
Calico Rockfish
calico rocksh.
C alico rocksh (Sebastes dalli) are taken in the southern Calico rocksh up to 10 inches long and 1.25 pounds
and central California sport sheries for nearshore in weight have been measured. They have been aged
rockshes. During the 1980s, the estimated annual calico to between 11 and 12 years. Male calico rocksh rst
rocksh sport catch averaged 8,900 sh with a high of become sexually mature at age seven and females reach
21,000 sh taken in 1985. An onboard study of the south- sexual maturity at age nine. Spawning occurs in southern
ern California commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) California between January and May, with peak spawning
or partyboat shery from 1985 through 1987, ranked calico activity occurring in February. Fertilized eggs are present
rocksh among the top 20 species taken during two of in November and December. The range of fecundity
the three years surveyed. The same study also showed observed for calico rocksh was 1,700 to 18,000 eggs
that CPFV anglers discarded large numbers of calico rock- per female. The pelagic larval stage lasts from one to
sh at sea each year in a practice commonly known as two months, and the post-larvae then settle out of the
“high grading.” In high grading, only the largest sh were plankton between 0.08 and 0.1 inches in length.
retained by anglers as part of their bag limits, and the
smaller sh were selectively discarded. For calico rocksh,
Status of the Population
the estimated number of discards on CPFVs exceeded
the number of calico rocksh that were kept by anglers
T here are currently no estimates of abundance for
each year. This illegal practice has been widespread at
calico rocksh in California. There were more calico
times in the past and has been difcult to curtail. A
rocksh landed annually by sport anglers in the 1980s
more recent estimate of annual California sport catches of
than in the 1990s, which may have been a reection of
calico rocksh averaged 5,700 sh per year between 1993
the abundance of that species during two strong El Niño
and 1999, with a high of 8,000 calico rocksh caught in
events that occurred in the 1980s. Whether the reduced
1995 and in 1998.
calico rocksh catch during the 1990s was a result of
Calico rocksh comprise a very minor portion of the
changing oceanic conditions or was due to actual deple-
state’s commercial catch. Their small size and scattered
tion of calico rocksh stocks by sport and commercial
distribution probably preclude them from being targeted.
sheries is not known. Because of the relatively small
Calico rocksh, however, may be one of several small rock-
size of adult calico rocksh, they are not usually targeted
sh species, including squarespot, honeycomb, halfbanded
by either sport or commercial shermen but are caught
and starry rockshes, that are caught and subsequently
incidentally when other nsh species are targeted. Calico
discarded at sea as an unmarketable bycatch in nearshore
rocksh appear as bycatch in prawn trawls and other
hook-and-line, trap, or trawl sheries. The quantity of
nearshore sheries in southern California and are caught
calico rocksh bycatch in these sheries is currently
by sport anglers on CPFVs and private boats when they are
undetermined.
shing for other, larger benthic species.
Status of Biological Knowledge
C alico rocksh range from Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja
California to San Francisco within a depth range of 60
to 840 feet. They are small, colorful rocksh that inhabit
nearshore areas of southern and central California. Calico
rocksh are distinguished by having a greenish yellow
background color overlaid with dark-brown oblique bars
on the side, and a black spot on the edge of the gill
cover. Juvenile calico rocksh are found in areas of soft
sand-silt sediment, and on articial reefs. Adults inhabit
rocky shelf areas where there is a mud-rock or sand-mud
interface with ne sediments. They are usually associated
with structures that provide vertical relief and sheltered
habitat, including articial reefs. The main diet of calico
rocksh is pelagic crustaceans, including calanoid cope-
pods. They are preyed upon by larger rocksh species,
Calico Rockfish, Sebastes dalli
lingcod, cabezon, and salmon. Sea birds, sharks, and dol-
Credit: L. Sinclair, Miller and Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 179
References
Calico Rockfish
30
thousands of fish landed
25
Ally, J. R., D.S. Ono, R. B. Read, M. Wallace. 1991. Status
Calico Rockfish
20
of major southern California marine sport sh species with
15
management recommendations, bases on analysis of catch
and size composition data collected on board commercial
10
passenger shing vessels from 1985 through 1987. Calif.
5
Dept. Fish and Game. Marine Resources. Admin. Rept.
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
#90-2. 376 p.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Calico Rockfish
Haldorson, L. and M. Love. 1991. Maturity and fecundity
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1980 &
in the rockshes, Sebastes spp., a review. Marine Fisheries
1990-1992
Review 53(2):25-31.
Love, M.S., P. Morris, M. McCrae, and R. Collins. 1990.
Management Considerations Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the Southern California Bight. NOAA Tech-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
nical Report No. 87, 38 p.
further information.
Love, M.S., L. Thorsteinson, C.W. Mecklenburg, and T.A.
Mecklenburg. 1996. A checklist of marine and estuarine
David Ono
shes of the Northeast Pacic, from Alaska to Baja Cali-
California Department of Fish and Game
fornia. National Biological Service. Located at Web site
www.ucsb.edu/lovelab/home.html
Moser, H.G. and J.L. Butler. 1981. Description of reared
larvae and early juveniles of the calico rocksh, Sebastes
dallii. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investiga-
tions Reports. 22:88-95.
Moser, H.G. 1996. Scorpaenidae: scorpionshes and rock-
shes. In: H.G. Moser (Editor), The early stages of shes
in the California Current region, California Cooperative
Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, Atlas No. 33, p 733-795.
Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas.
RecFIN MRFSS Sample Data, 1980-1989 and 1993-1999.
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission. Located at
Web site: www.PSMFC.org
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
180
Monkeyface
Prickleback algal cover, including high and low tide pools, jetties
Monkeyface Prickleback
and breakwaters, and shallow subtidal areas, particularly
rocky reefs and kelp beds. Juveniles are particularly
History of the Fishery adapted for living in the high intertidal zone. The species
T
is capable of living out of water under algae for extended
he monkeyface prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus)
periods and has air-breathing capacity. It is considered
is a nearshore sh that is a minor component of
to be a residential species, moving short distances from
the recreational and commercial catch. It is frequently
crevices or under rocks to foraging sites. It appears to
referred to as monkeyface eel and blenny eel due to its
occupy a small home range of several meters and is
eel-like appearance. However, it is more closely related
primarily active during periods of a ooding tide.
to bass-like shes (Perciformes) than to true eels. It is a
member of the prickleback family, Stichaeidae, of which The coloration of the species is a uniform light brown to
17 species occur in California. Its elongate body shape dark green, often with several rust-colored blotches on
is an adaptation for living in cracks, crevices, and under the sides of the body. Two dark stripes radiate behind the
boulders, primarily in the intertidal zone. Monkeyface eye. Adults have a lumpy ridge on top of the head. The
prickleback have been found in coastal Indian middens coloration of both sexes is similar.
of California along with cabezon and rockshes and were
25
undoubtedly exploited as a food resource in historic and
thousands of fish landed
Monkeyface Prickleback
prehistoric times. 20
A specialized recreational shery by shore anglers shing 15
in rocky intertidal and shallow subtidal habitat exists for 10
this species. The most common shing method is “poke
5
poling,” which normally consists of shing with a long
bamboo pole, a short piece of wire, and a baited hook. 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
The bait is placed in front of or in holes or crevices in the
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Monkeyface Prickleback
rock. Skin and scuba divers also spear them.
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
The monkeyface prickleback did not rank among the top
fteen species observed in either beach/bank or jetty/ Monkeyface prickleback grow slowly, particularly after the
breakwater shing categories in a 1980 through 1986 rst few years of life. A 12-inch sh is approximately three
Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey (MRFSS) years old, while a 24-inch sh will be 15 to 17 years old.
in California. The most recent (1999) MRFSS total catch Monkeyface prickleback have been aged to 18 years using
estimate for northern California from all recreational sh- the otolith and opercular bone, but the largest specimens
ing categories was 2,000 sh; however, the standard error have not been aged. The maximum reported size is 30
of the estimate was much higher than the estimate. inches in total length; 18 to 24 inch individuals are not
uncommon.
Commercial landing records in California date from 1928.
Catch since then can best be described as of minor signi- Information available on age at sexual maturity suggests
cance. Since 1991, annual landings have ranged from 12 to that both sexes begin to mature in their third or fourth
935 pounds, primarily from the port areas of San Francisco year at a total length range of 11.0 to 14.2 inches, while
and Santa Barbara. However, catch statistics may include 50 percent maturity occurs at approximately 15.4 inches
California moray, rock prickleback, wolf-eel, and other at ve years of age. Fertilization is internal and spawning
eel-like shes or true eels. activity occurs from January to May, with the peak spawn-
ing period from February to April. Females are oviparous,
depositing their eggs on subtidal, rocky surfaces. Fecun-
Status of Biological Knowledge dity is known to range from 17,500 eggs for a 16-inch,
seven-year old sh to 46,000 eggs for a 24-inch, 11-year-
T he monkeyface prickleback ranges along the Pacic
old sh, with smaller sh producing fewer eggs. Nest
coast from San Quentin Bay, Baja California, Mexico
guarding behavior has been observed but it is unclear
to central Oregon. It is most common off central Califor-
nia from San Luis Obispo County to Sonoma County, and
is uncommon south of Point Conception. They normally
occur in the intertidal zone with a depth range extending
from the high intertidal to a reported depth of 80 feet.
Typical habitat for monkeyface prickleback includes rocky
intertidal areas with ample crevices, boulders, and Monkeyface Prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus
Credit: PSMFC
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 181
Monkeyface Prickleback
1.2
thousands of pounds landed
Monkeyface Prickleback
1.0
0.8
Commercial Landings
0.6
1916-1999,
Monkeyface Prickleback
0.4
No commercial landing are
reported for monkeyface
0.2
prickback prior to 1990. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and 0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
Management Considerations
if the female, male, or both sexes guard the egg mass.
Larval length at hatching is unknown; larvae begin to
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
settle out of the plankton at 0.7 to 0.9 inches.
further information.
The diet of monkeyface prickleback shifts from carnivo-
rous to herbivorous with an increase in size. As early
juveniles, up to 3.1 inches, prey items are predominantly Robert N. Lea and Paul N. Reilly
zooplankton and include copepods, amphipods, isopods, California Department of Fish and Game
mysids, and polychaetes. At approximately three inches,
they then become almost exclusively herbivorous. Over
References
sixty species of algae have been recorded as food items.
Despite this wide array, they appear to feed selectively
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1971. Marine Food and
on eight to 10 species of red and green algae, mostly in
Game Fishes of California. University of California Press.
the genera Ulva, Porphyra, Mazzaella, Microcladia, and
179 p.
Mastocarpus. Adults appear to prefer annual red and green
algae to perennial red algae. This preference is deter- Horn, M.H., K.L.M. Martin, and M.A. Chotkowski [eds.]
mined to some degree by ocean season and availability. 1999. Intertidal Fishes: Life in Two Worlds. Academic
Press. 399 p.
Predators of monkeyface prickleback include piscivorous
birds, such as great egrets and red-breasted mergansers, Horn, M.H., S.N. Murray, and T.W. Edwards. 1982. Dietary
and shes such as cabezon and grass rocksh. Predation selectivity in the eld and food preferences in the labora-
is primarily on the earlier life stages of this species; tory for two herbivorous shes (Cebidichthys violaceus
large juveniles and adult sh most likely evade or outgrow and Xiphister mucosus) from a temperate intertidal zone.
these predators. Marine Biology 67:237-246.
Other intertidal boulder and crevice-dwelling eel-like Love, M. 1996. Probably More than You Want to Know
shes, such as the rock and black pricklebacks and pen- about the Fishes of the Pacic Coast. Really Big Press,
point and rockweed gunnels, are possible competitors Santa Barbara, California, 381 p.
with monkeyface prickleback for space and food resources.
Marshall, W.H. and T. Wyllie Echeverria. 1992. Age, length,
Status of the Population weight, reproductive cycle and fecundity of the monkey-
face prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus). California Fish
N o information is available on the status of stocks
and Game 78(2):57-64.
of monkeyface prickleback. The primary source of
Miller, K.A. and W.H. Marshall. 1987. Food habits of large
shing mortality is from recreational poke polers and
monkeyface prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus. California
commercial anglers shing from shore or the shallow sub-
Fish and Game 73(1):37-44.
tidal, with a lesser number taken spearshing by free
Ralston, S.L. and M.H. Horn. 1986. High tide movements
and scuba divers. Historically, both recreational and com-
of the temperate-zone herbivorous sh Cebidichthys viola-
mercial landings are considered to be low.
ceus (Girard) as determined by ultrasonic telemetry. Jour-
nal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 98:35-50.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
182
Kelp Greenling
History of the Fishery long while those caught at 20 to 40 feet tend to be eight
Kelp Greenling
to 13 inches long. Kelp greenling grow faster than most
K elp greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus) are shed nearshore shes during their rst three years. After the
primarily for sport. The commercial shery has histori- third year, growth slows, especially in males (as it does
cally been based largely on catch incidental to the lingcod in lingcod), so that by the fth or sixth year males are
or nearshore rocksh sheries, although their importance smaller than females. The maximum reported age and size
in the commercial catch has increased since 1997 with is 16 years and 21 inches. At age three, males average 10.6
the emergence of a nearshore “live” sh shery. Because inches and females 9.1 inches. By age ve, the males aver-
of their abundance in nearshore rocky areas, they are fre- age 12.6 inches while females are 14.7 inches. Ten-year-
quently caught by people shing from shore or small boats olds average 15.5 and 16.4 inches, respectively. These
and are a common target for spear shermen underwater. data are from Puget Sound, Washington.
Sport shing surveys made from 1958 to 1961 showed that The reproductive behavior of greenling is similar to that of
kelp greenling were the most frequent catch of shore the lingcod. Females are mature by their fourth year and
shermen north of San Francisco, where in some areas spawn adhesive egg masses on the sea bed and encrusting
they made up more than 30 percent of the total catch. biota within the territories of courting males. In Puget
In California, during those years, an average of 54,000 Sound, females deposit egg masses that range from golf-
kelp greenling were caught by hook-and-line shermen ball to tennis-ball size, with an average of about 4,000
and another 2,000 by spear shermen. In later surveys eggs per cluster. Females are batch spawners, capable of
conducted from 1980 to 1999, the estimated sport catch producing multiple clutches of eggs per spawning season.
averaged 106,650 sh per year, with 103,000 of those Males fertilize the eggs and guard the nests until larvae
taken between Monterey County and the Oregon border. about one third of an inch long emerge four to ve
It should be noted that the two sport shing surveys used weeks later. Often, males guard more than one egg
different sampling designs, so results may not be compa- mass at a time, each possibly produced by a different
rable. By comparison, the commercial catch reported from female. Studies done in British Columbia and California
1981 to 1999 averaged about 8,500 sh per year. This showed some nests did contain egg masses from multiple
average is somewhat exaggerated by exceptionally large females. Hatching occurs from December through Febru-
numbers of sh landed commercially in recent years by ary in northern California and gets progressively earlier
the nearshore live sh shery mentioned above. From to the north, November through January in Puget Sound
1981 to 1996 average commercial catch was only around and August through September in Alaska. Larvae and early
5,500 sh per year, while from 1997 to 1999 that average juveniles feed on small copepods and spend about one
increased to 27,400 sh per year. Until recently most of year in the pelagic environment before entering the near-
these sh were sold in the fresh-sh market, although shore benthic community.
now many are sold live to restaurants. Though llets
After they settle in the nearshore environment, kelp
from kelp greenling are not as large as those from their
greenling have exible food habits. During most of the
more popular relative, the lingcod, texture and taste are
year, they consume a variety of prey that are consistently
comparable.
available in the habitat, including crabs, amphipods, poly-
chaetes and ascidians. There are brief periods when
Status of Biological Knowledge organisms such as juvenile shes or herring spawn become
exceptionally abundant, and kelp greenling shift their food
K elp greenling range from San Diego to the Aleutian habits to take advantage of these opportunities.
Islands, but are common only north of Morro Bay.
Here they are one of the most conspicuous shes in
rocky nearshore habitats occurring often in and around
kelp beds. The male and female look so different that they
were rst described as separate species. The body color is
variable in both sexes, ranging from light gray to brown.
Males, however, have large irregular blue patches anteri-
orly, while females are uniformly covered with smaller
dark spots.
These solitary sh are common at depths between 10
and 60 feet, and range down to 150 feet. Sport catches
indicate that larger sh live in deeper water. For example,
sh caught at 80 to 100 feet range from 12 to 18 inches Kelp Greenling, Hexagrammos decagrammus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 183
References
The primary predators of adult greenling are lingcod and
Kelp Greenling
harbor seals. As juveniles they are probably prey to many
Barker, M. W. 1979. Population and shery dynamics of
nearshore predators.
recreationally exploited marine bottomsh of northern
Puget Sound. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington,
Status of the Population Seattle, 152p.
Crow, Karen D., D.A. Powers, and G. Bernardi. 1997. Evi-
T here are no estimates of abundance for kelp greenling
dence for multiple maternal contributors in nests of kelp
in California. The yearly sport catch remained rela-
greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus, Hexagrammidae).
tively constant during the rst ten years (1980-1989) it
Copeia 1: 9-15.
was surveyed, but has declined steadily from 1993 to 1999.
Demartini, E. E. 1986. Reproductive colorations, paternal
Since decline in catch is one symptom of overshing, this
behavior, and egg masses of kelp greenling, Hexagrammos
may be an indication that current levels of shing are
decagrammus, and whitespotted greenling, H. stelleri.
having adverse effects on the population, although no
Northwest Science 60(1):32-35.
population data are available at present to conrm this.
Spear shermen could oversh local populations, however, Gorbunova, N. N. 1970. Spawning and development of
because they can select individual targets, and greenling greenlings (family Hexagrammidae). In: Rass, T. S. (ed.),
are particularly vulnerable to spears when guarding their Greenlings: taxonomy, biology, interoceanic transplanta-
nests. Also, although commercial catch has been tradi- tion. (Trans. from Russian) Isr. Progr. Sci. Transl. No. 5553,
tionally very low compared to recreational catch, the p. 121-185.
increased shing pressure in recent years by the nearshore
Rothrock, G. C. 1982. Age-length, weight, fecundity, and
live sh shery could have a much broader impact on the
meristics of the kelp greenling (Hexagrammos decagram-
kelp greenling population in California.
mus) off California. Masters Thesis, University of California
of Davis, 95 p.
Dan Howard
National Marine Fisheries Service
Revised by:
Kelly R. Silberberg
National Marine Fisheries Service
150
thousands of fish landed
120
Kelp Greenling
90
60
30
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Greenling
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
184
Other Nearshore
Rockfishes cies are difcult to determine due to the inexact nature of
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
recording landings. Market categories are often comprised
History of the Fishery of multiple species; for example, sampled market catego-
ries from the Morro Bay area from 1993 to 1998 revealed a
H istorically, many of the nearshore rockshes have wide range of placement of the six species in both
been taken primarily by recreational anglers shing group and single species categories. Gopher and grass
from boats, the shore, or by diving. Kelp rocksh (Sebastes rocksh appeared most frequently in nine other market
atrovirens), gopher rocksh (Sebastes carnatus), black- categories than their own. The most common classica-
and-yellow rocksh (Sebastes chrysomelas), China rocksh tion error seemed to occur between gopher and black-
(Sebastes nebulosus), grass rocksh (Sebastes rastrelliger), and-yellow rockshes with 34.4 percent of the black-and-
and treesh (Sebastes serriceps) have been minor compo- yellow market category being made up of gopher rocksh.
nents of recreational and commercial sheries. Gopher The gopher group contained up to 61 percent gopher
rocksh is the only species of these six that comprised rocksh. While species misidentication does occur, sh
a signicant proportion of recreational landings and was are often grouped by price rather than by species com-
common enough in commercial landings to have a market plicating specic landing estimates. Based on DFG CMAS-
category prior to 1994. Gopher rocksh have comprised TER summaries of reported landings, landings of gopher
up to 13 percent annually of commercial passenger shing and grass rockshes and the gopher group peaked at
vessel (CPFV) observed landings from the Morro Bay area. 31,255 pounds ($35,740 value) in 1994, 109,003 pounds
A review of the marine recreational shery statistics ($506,670) in 1995, and 221,018 pounds ($521,163) in
survey (MRFSS) catch data from 1980 to 1999 indicated 1996, respectively.
recreational catches of grass rocksh, China rocksh,
The live sh market demand is mainly for sh in the one
gopher rocksh and kelp rocksh have declined since the
to two pound size range, and up to four pounds for grass
late 1980s and landings of treesh were higher from 1993
rocksh. For gopher, black-and-yellow, grass, and China
to 1999 than 1980 to 1989. While the MRFSS provides catch
rockshes, this size range is above the size of sexual
information for shore and vessel-based angling, divers are
maturity, although in the development of the shery all
not represented. The “private/rental boat” method con-
sh were kept regardless of size. Due to concerns over the
tributed the highest proportion of the gopher rocksh
harvest of immature sh, legislation passed in late 1998,
recreational catch for all of California. China rocksh have
the Marine Life Management Act, implemented minimum
accounted for up to three percent of CPFV observed
commercial size limits on grass, gopher, kelp, black-and-
catches from San Francisco north. Both China rocksh and
yellow, and China rockshes. The new size limits are
gopher rocksh are most frequently observed in CPFV
12 inches for grass and China rockshes, and 10 inches
and private boat catches. Grass rocksh, kelp rocksh,
for gopher, kelp, and black-and-yellow rockshes. The
black-and-yellow rocksh and treesh are more frequently
shallow, nearshore nature of this shery renders it very
caught by anglers shing from private boats than by
weather dependent. Poor weather, combined with lower
anglers shing from CPFVs or from shore.
overall allowable catches, implementation of minimum
Development of the live/premium shery in the late 1980s size limits, and a lack of a market north of Bodega Bay
resulted in increasing commercial catches of many species resulted in reduced catches from 1997 to 1999.
occupying the nearshore environment in and around kelp
Several of these species are also important in non-con-
beds, including these six rockshes. Live sh are taken
sumptive uses. Colorful, accessible, or both, treesh and
primarily by line gear and pot and trap gear, but other
gear types are used. The shery serves mainly Asian Amer-
ican markets that demand top quality (live) sh. Fisher-
men receive premium prices for their catches ranging
from $2 to $10 per pound, compared to $1.50 per pound or
less previously. Grass rocksh command the highest prices
up to $4.84 average price per pound in 1998. With the
exception of treesh, these nearshore rocksh species are
caught primarily north of Point Conception.
Historically, commercial landings have been recorded by
both specic (gopher rocksh) or nonspecic (gopher
group) market categories and until 1994 there were no
specic market categories for any of these nearshore spe-
cies except gopher rocksh. Annual total landings by spe- Gopher Rockfish, Sebastes carnatus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 185
kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and China rockshes are and range south to the region of Point Eugenia, Baja
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
frequently observed and photographed by divers. In addi- California. Each has a restricted habitat, with kelp rocksh
tion, individuals are taken for the aquarium trade. occurring almost exclusively in kelp forests, black-and-
yellow rocksh occurring in high-relief rocky bottom at
depths shallower than about 60 feet, and gopher rocksh
Status of Biological Knowledge occurring on rocky reefs from 40 feet to perhaps 150
feet. The geographical range of the grass rocksh extends
K elp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and grass rockshes are
throughout California and into southern Oregon, but its
relatively well studied, while treesh and China rock-
habitat is restricted to rocky areas shallower than about
sh are, to differing degrees, less well-known. Most of
20 feet.
these species occupy restricted ranges of geography or
The China rocksh is abundant into Washington, British
habitat. The treesh is most common in depths of less
Columbia, and southeastern Alaska, declining in abun-
than 100 feet or so on rocky reefs, and is restricted largely
dance south into California. It is quite rare south of Point
to the region south of Point Conception. Kelp, black-and-
Conception, and seems to inhabit progressively deeper
yellow, and gopher rockshes are not abundant north
water in the southern part of its range. The ranges for
of Sonoma County (or farther south, for kelp rocksh),
some of these species have changed in the last 15 to
100 500
thousands of fish landed
thousands of fish landed
80 400
China Rockfish
Kelp Rockfish
60 300
40 200
20 100
0 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Rockfish Recreational Catch 1947-1999, China Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
120 120
Black & Yellow Rockfish
thousands of fish landed
thousands of fish landed
100 100
Grass Rockfish
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Black & Yellow Rockfish Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Grass Rockfish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
70
500
60
thousands of fish landed
thousands of fish landed
400
Gopher Rockfish
50
Treefish
300 40
30
200
20
100
10
0 1947
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Gopher Rockfish Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Treefish
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992 Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; data not available for 1990-1992
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
186
20 years. Black-and-yellow rocksh and kelp rocksh abun- gests that typically sedentary individuals may occasionally
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
dance have declined since the early 1970s in the northern wander indeterminate distances, on the order of tens of
Channel Islands, and probably throughout the Southern meters, from their home ranges.
California Bight. Little has been documented on northward Available data suggest that diets of juvenile sh of all
range expansion for these species, and nothing has been six species include primarily crustacean zooplanktors such
documented regarding changes in the ranges of gopher, as barnacle cyprids. Overall adult diets are more varied.
China, and grass rockshes. The treesh seems to be more Crustaceans and small sh are common diet items for
abundant now in the Monterey area than in the 1980s. adult sh of all six species. Kelp rocksh also eat cepha-
These changes in distribution seem to be related to ocean lopods, gastropods, polychaetes, and tunicates. Cephalo-
warming that began in 1977. pods and gastropods are consumed by gopher rocksh
Five of the six species are relatively small for rocksh. The as well, along with ophiuroids (brittle stars) and poly-
grass rocksh, at about 20-22 inches, reaches the largest chaetes. Black-and-yellow rocksh and China rocksh also
size of the six species. The largest individuals of the other consume ophiuroids. A variety of mollusks are consumed
ve species rarely exceed 15-17 inches; among the ve, by China rocksh including cephalopods, gastropods, chi-
the China rocksh reaches slightly larger sizes than the tons, and nudibranchs. Small sh consumed by these rock-
others, followed in rough order by treesh, kelp rocksh, shes include juvenile rocksh (mainly blue rocksh), scul-
gopher, and black-and-yellow rockshes. Treesh have not pins, juvenile surfperch, kelpshes, and plainn midship-
been aged, but at least one study of age and growth man. Information on diet of treesh is limited.
has been conducted on kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher,
grass, and China rockshes. The greatest ages recorded
Status of the Populations
in each of these ve species are between 20 and 26
years. However, because the largest individuals observed
W hile there have been several studies of local abun-
in each species have typically not been aged and
dance in some of these species (particularly black-
because aging to date has been based largely on
and-yellow, gopher, and kelp rockshes), there is no com-
readings of whole otoliths, greater maximum ages may be
prehensive assessment of their populations. Each species
possible. Different studies have
is probably subject to local depression in abundance and
produced different estimates of age at rst maturity,
average size where diving, skiff shing, party boat activ-
perhaps because of differences in goals and methodology.
ity, or commercial shing is concentrated. The low fecun-
In the ve species that have been aged, many studies
dity, restricted habitats, and limited movements of these
suggest that rst maturity occurs in the range of
species make them vulnerable to local shing pressure.
three to four years, although one study indicates
Statewide, the limited geographic ranges and restricted
later maturity.
habitats of these species suggest that they have small
Treesh and kelp, black-and-yellow, gopher, and China populations in comparison to more widespread species
rockshes appear to reproduce once per breeding season. that have traditionally been the targets of commercial
Grass rocksh may reproduce only once per season, but shing. These species have limited depth distributions
some contradictory data exist. There are no data on so that all of the spawning population is vulnerable to
spawning seasonality in treesh, but the other ve species shing and few natural refugia probably exist. Because
appear to spawn in winter through spring. Grass rocksh good recruitment years are infrequent there is the
seem to reproduce the earliest, giving birth primarily in danger of removing too many spawners even with limited
December through February (except for an observation in shing pressure.
August), China rocksh reproduce slightly later, black-and-
yellow and gopher rockshes slightly later still (spawning
Management Considerations
through early spring), and kelp rocksh the latest, spawn-
ing through May and June.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
The adult movement of most of these species may be even
further information.
more restricted than other rockshes. Individual black-
and-yellow, gopher, and kelp rockshes have been shown
to inhabit restricted home ranges, and it is likely grass Ralph J. Larson
rocksh, China rocksh, and treesh share this behavior. San Francisco State University
Aggressive behavior has been observed in all except grass
Deborah A. Wilson-Vandenberg
rocksh (for which observations are limited), and gopher
California Department of Fish and Game
rocksh and black-and-yellow rocksh are denitely ter-
ritorial. However, some evidence from articial reefs sug-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 187
References
Other Nearshore Rockfishes
Haaker, P. L. 1978. Observations of agonistic behavior in
the treesh, Sebastes serriceps (Scorpaenidae). California
Fish and Game 64:227-228.
Hallacher, L. E., and D. A. Roberts. 1985. Differential
utilization of space and food by the inshore rockshes
(Scorpaenidae: Sebastes) of Carmel Bay, California. Envi-
ronmental Biology of Fishes 12:91-110.
Larson, R. J. 1980. Territorial behavior of black and yellow
rocksh and gopher rocksh (Scorpaenidae, Sebastes).
Marine Biology 58: 111-122. 1980.
Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
Sebastes from central California with notes on ecologically
related sport shes. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.
177. 109 p.
Love, M. S., and K. Johnson. 1998. Aspects of the life
histories of grass rocksh, Sebastes rastrelliger and brown
,
rocksh, S. auriculatus, from southern California. Fish.
Bull. 87:100-109.
Pattison, C. 1999. Nearshore Finshes, In Review of some
California sheries for 1998, CalCOFI Reports 40:16-18.
Wilson-Vandenberg, D. A., P. N. Reilly and L. Halko. 1995.
Onboard sampling of the rocksh and lingcod Commercial
Passenger Fishing Vessel Industry in northern and central
California, January through December 1993. Calif. Dept.
Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin. Rep. 95-2. 122 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
188
Vermilion Rockfish
History of the Fishery skinned, and deep-fried. They are also delicious when
Vermilion Rockfish
baked with vegetables in the oven or microwave. As with
V ermilion rocksh (Sebastes miniatus), though highly most other members of the family, the esh is white, ne
desirable because of their brilliant color and the aky in texture, and mild in avor.
texture of their esh when cooked, are only of moderate
importance in California’s commercial and sport sheries.
Status of Biological Knowledge
It is difcult to accurately determine what percent of
the commercial catch is comprised of vermilion rocksh,
V ermilion rocksh are found from the San Benito
because individuals in reported landings are often mis- Islands, Baja California, to Prince William Sound,
identied or combined with other red and orange-colored Alaska, and occur over rocky bottoms from the shallow
rockshes in the market category of “rocksh, Group subtidal to 1,400 feet. Large sh are more common at
Red.” From 1991 to 1993, vermilion rocksh landings were depths greater than 100 feet due to the combined shing
less than 2,000 pounds annually, statewide. This may be in pressure in shallower waters from commercial and recre-
part because, prior to 1994, there was no printed market ational shermen. Vermilion rocksh generally remain on
category for vermilion rocksh on landing receipts; thus, the same reef system on which they settle during their
they were only designated by species when shermen rst year. Tagging studies have shown no movement of
added the category. Since 1994, “Rocksh, vermilion” has sh at liberty for one to three years. Vermilion rocksh
been a printed market category on landing receipts. From are extremely long-lived. A 20-inch individual weighing 5.4
1994 to 1999, pounds landed for both market categories pounds was aged, using surface aging, at 25 years. Lengths
progressively declined. During this period annual landings up to 30 inches have been reported. Vermilion rocksh
quotas became more restrictive. Commercial landing in have lengthy juvenile life stages. Fifty percent of the
the San Francisco area in 1994 and 1995 accounted for 59 population is mature at eight years and these sh average
percent of statewide landings. From 1996 through 1998, 14 inches. The slow growth and long juvenile period make
this percentage declined to 44, 28, and 17, respectively. vermilion rocksh very susceptible to overshing. Once
From 1996 through 1998, the Eureka area reported the large individuals are removed from a reef system they are
highest landings within the state (54 percent average for replaced only by larval settlement.
the three-year period).
Peak spawning months are September in central and
Vermilion rocksh comprised less than two percent of northern California and November in southern California.
all landed shes observed on commercial passenger sh- The number of developing eggs increases from 63,000 in
ing vessels (CPFV) from Fort Bragg to Monterey from a sh 12.5 inches long to about 1.6 million in a 21.5-inch
1992 through 1995. During this same period, they consti- sh. Females are fertilized internally by males. In October
tuted between six and eight percent of all landed shes of 1997, while conducting population scuba surveys of
observed on CPFVs from Port San Luis and Morro Bay and subtidal shes in Point Lobos Ecological Reserve, Monterey
averaged 14 inches in length. Along lightly shed areas County, California, several vermilion rocksh courtship
of the central coast, sh of comparable size comprised displays were observed and videotaped by divers from
eight percent of the total CPFV catch. Fish taken north of California Department of Fish and Game. The absence
Monterey by CPFV anglers were slightly larger on average. of previously published description of vermilion rocksh
In a survey of southern California CPFVs from 1985 through mating or courtship may be due to the scarcity of mature
1987, vermilion rocksh ranked third in species composi- individuals in habitat shallow enough to allow routine
tion and represented eight percent of the total observed observations. Newly released larvae are free swimming
rocksh catch. Between 1983 and 1988, they ranged from and lead a pelagic existence for three to four months,
two to ve percent of the observed commercial catch of
rocksh landed south of Point Conception.
The average size of observed vermilion rocksh taken
by recreational hook-and-line anglers shing from Point
Piños to Yankee Point in Monterey County, based on creel
surveys at the Monterey Harbor, declined from 1981 to
1999. The average size was 18.8 inches in 1981, 16.1 inches
in 1983, 15.5 inches in 1985, and 14.3 inches in 1987. In
1999, the average size rose to 15.5 inches.
Vermilion rocksh are marketed primarily in a fresh then settle to the bottom. Juveniles are not strong swim-
dressed form. Because the esh has a short freezer life,
Vermilion Rockfish, Sebastes miniatus
it is rarely frozen. These rocksh are best when lleted, Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 189
References
mers and tend to be very secretive, often taking refuge
Vermilion Rockfish
in dense algae.
Boehlert, G.W. and M.M. Yoklavich. 1984. Reproduction,
The pelagic young of vermilion rocksh feed primarily embryonic energetics, and maternal-fetal relationship in
upon crustaceans, while adults feed on octopus, squid, the viviparous genus Sebastes (Pisces, Scorpaenidae). Biol.
and small shes such as anchovies and blue lanternsh. Bull. 167:354-370.
At times, macroplanktonic organisms such as euphausiids,
Gingras, M.L., D.A. VenTresca, M.D. Donnellan, and J.L.
pelagic red crabs, and pyrosomes (pelagic colonial tuni-
Fisher. 1998. First observations of vermilion rocksh court-
cates) are found in their stomachs.
ship are from a harvest refuge. Calif. Fish and Game
84(4):176-179.
Status of the Population Lea, R.N., R.D. McAllister, and D.A. VenTresca. 1999.
Biological aspects of nearshore rockshes of the genus
I n 1995, mean total length of observed vermilion rocksh Sebastes with notes on ecologically related species. Calif.
taken during CPFV trips in central and northern Califor- Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull. 177:109 p.
nia were consistently above the size of sexual maturation.
Reilly, P., D. Wilson-Vandenberg, C. Wilson, and K. Mayer.
Larger individuals and higher catch per-angler-hour were
1998. Onboard sampling of the rocksh and lingcod com-
generally observed when shing occurred in deep water
mercial passenger shing vessel industry in northern and
and greater than 10 nautical miles from ports. Based
central California, January through December 1995. Calif.
on adjusted logbook data from San Simeon, Port San
Depart. of Fish and Game, Mar. Res. Admin. Rept.
Luis, and Morro Bay, an estimated 23,000 vermilion rock-
98-1:110 p.
sh were landed by CPFV anglers in 1995. This total is
Singer, M.M. 1985. Food habits of juvenile rockshes
2.7-fold higher than the combined estimate (8,530) from
(Sebastes) in a central California kelp forest. Fish. Bull.
the remaining central and northern California ports.
83:531-541.
VenTresca, D.A., J.L. Houk, M.J. Paddack, M.L. Gingras,
David A. VenTresca
N.L. Crane, and S.D. Short. 1996. Early life history studies
California Department of Fish and Game
of nearshore rockshes and lingcod off central California,
1987-92. Calif. Depart. of Fish and Game, Mar. Res. Admin.
Rept. 96-4:77 p.
Wyllie-Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of Califor-
nia rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction.
Fish. Bull. 85(2):229-250.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
190
Lingcod
History of the Fishery the California recreational shery almost doubled during
Lingcod
that period, from 510,000 pounds per year to 890,000
T he lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) has long been an pounds per year. The increase was due largely to an
important source of food for people living along the increase in the private boat shery. In 1961, 61 percent
West Coast of North America, although current catches of the recreational landings came from commercial pas-
are low due to overexploitation of the stock. Archaeologi- senger shing vessels. Now, 70 percent of the recreational
cal studies of native American habitations along the cen- landings come from the private boat shery. In both the
tral California coast indicate that between 6200 BC and commercial and recreational sheries, landings occur pre-
AD 1830, large inshore species such as rockshes, lingcod, dominately in central and northern California.
and kelp greenling comprised more than half of the shes Stock assessments conducted by the Pacic Fishery Man-
caught on the open coast. American Indians used spears, agement Council (PFMC) have indicated large population
nets, weirs, traps, and lures of wood with bone hooks to declines for lingcod along its entire range. For the
catch lingcod. Early Caucasian settlers caught lingcod as management areas that include California and Southern
well. Fishing methods in the 1800s were similar to the Oregon (the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception manage-
hook-and-line techniques currently used to catch lingcod ment areas), the current estimate of female spawning
in the small boat jig shery. biomass is 13 percent of the unshed level. Consequently,
Catches of lingcod have been reported as a separate shery regulations have become more stringent, as shery
category since 1916 in California. Commercial landings managers try to rebuild the stock.
from 1916 through 1929 ranged from 400,000 pounds to 1.2 With the implementation of the PMFC’s Groundsh Plan
million pounds. Landings in the rst half of the century in 1983, the combined Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC)
reached a peak in 1930 at 1.3 million pounds, and then for the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception management
declined to a low of 314,000 pounds in 1942. The Califor- areas was 4.8 million pounds, or more than 1.5 million
nia lingcod shery grew again from 1943 through 1950, pounds higher than the commercial landings. In 1995, the
as landings ranged from 719,000 pounds to a high of 2.1 combined quota for these areas was reduced by about
million pounds in 1948, due primarily to strong markets for 50 percent, and a 22-inch commercial size-limit was insti-
liver oil and seafood. For the next two decades, landings tuted. A monthly commercial boat-limit of 20,000 pounds
averaged 1.2 million pounds per year, and then began to per month was established along with a trawl trip-limit
increase in the 1970s, due to the burgeoning west coast of 100 pounds under the 22-inch size-limit. By 2000, the
trawl shery. combined ABC for the Eureka, Monterey, and Conception
During this period of rapid shery growth, lingcod landings International North Pacic Fisheries Commission (INPFC)
in California almost tripled. From 1972 through 1982, areas was reduced in half again to less than 1.2 million
commercial landings of lingcod averaged almost three mil- pounds. The monthly boat limit was reduced to 1,000
lion pounds per year. After a decline in the mid-1980s, pounds and the commercial size-limit was increased to
landings rebounded to a high level again in 1989. Since 24 inches.
then, however, commercial catches have rapidly declined, Prior to 1980, there was a recreational catch limit of 10
partly due to management restrictions enacted to rebuild lingcod per angler. This bag limit was reduced to ve sh
depressed stocks. In 1999, commercial landings were only in 1980, and a 22-inch size-limit was introduced in 1981. In
313,000 pounds, valued at $283,000. 1996, the bag-limit was reduced to three sh to conform
The character of lingcod sheries has changed greatly to Oregon and Washington regulations, and the size-limit
in the past 30 years. In the 1970s, about 85 percent of
the commercially landed lingcod were caught with trawls;
however, hook-and-line gear now account for half of the
commercial landings. In addition, the recently developed
nearshore shery that delivers live sh to markets and res-
taurants landed an average of more than 40,000 pounds
per year in the 1990s. There has also been a shift in
the lingcod shery away from commercial and towards
recreational catches. Recreational landings as a percent-
age of total lingcod landings increased from 20 percent in
the 1970s to about 50 percent in the late 1990s. This was
because recreational shing effort in California increased
by 65 percent between the time periods 1958 through
Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus
1961, and 1980 through 1986. Average annual landings in
Credit: L. Sinclair, Miller and Lea
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 191
Lingcod
5
millions of pounds landed
4
Lingcod 3
2
Commercial Landings
1
1916-1999, Lingcod
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
was increased to 24 inches. In 1999, the bag-limit was Individuals grow to a maximum length of 39 inches for
reduced to two sh. In 2000, the size-limit was increased males and 59 inches for females. Maximum age is thought
to 26 inches. Also, the lingcod shery was closed south to be 25 years. Although there is large variation in length
of Lopez Point, Monterey County during the months of at age, the average one-year-old sh is 13 inches long, and
January and February and from Lopez Point north to Cape a two-year-old is 17 inches long. After age two, females
Mendocino during March and April. begin to grow faster than males. The average length of a
four-year-old female is 24 inches, of an eight-year-old is
32 inches, and of a 12-year-old is 35 inches. The average
Status of Biological Knowledge length of a four-year-old male is 22 inches, of an eight-
year-old is 29 inches, and of a 12-year-old is 32 inches. In
T he lingcod is the largest member of the Hexagrammi-
California, the oldest lingcod on record is a 19-year-old,
dae family. The scientic name Ophiodon is a combi-
45-inch female, and the longest is a 51-inch female.
nation of two Greek words meaning snake and tooth, a
Lingcod length and age at sexual maturity vary with lati-
reference to the lingcod’s large teeth. The name elongatus
tude; lingcod in the northern part of their range are larger
is of Latin origin and refers to the elongated body. Lingcod
and mature later than sh in the southern part of the
are found only off the West Coast of North America. They
distribution. As with most shes, fecundity increases with
are distributed in nearshore waters from northern Baja
size of sh. In the northern end of the lingcod range,
California to the Shumagin Islands along the Alaskan Pen-
females can produce 50,000 eggs at a length of 24 inches,
insula. Their center of abundance is off British Columbia,
124,000 eggs at a length of 32 inches, and 170,000 eggs
and they become less common toward the southern end
at a length of 36 inches. This level of fecundity is low
of their range.
compared to many other marine species in the eastern
Lingcod lack a swimbladder and thus will rest on the
Pacic, but high for a species that guards eggs.
bottom or actively swim in the water column. They are
Lingcod exhibit an interesting spawning behavior, which
found over a wide range of substrates at depths from 10
includes a spawning migration into nearshore habitats for
to 1,300 feet, but most occur in rocky areas from 30 to
330 feet. Typically, larger lingcod occupy rocky habitats;
larger animals are found on deeper banks and reefs,
120
whereas smaller animals live in shallower waters. Adult
thousands of fish landed
lingcod are strongly residential, tending to remain near 100
the reefs or rocky areas where they live. Large-scale 80
Lingcod
conventional tagging studies have found that the vast 60
majority of mature lingcod are recaptured within six miles 40
of where they were tagged, however acoustic tagging 20
studies have indicated frequent short-term movements. 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Juveniles tend to disperse and travel over a wider range
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Lingcod
than adults.
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
192
the deposition of eggs in gelatinous masses, termed nests, young lingcod have a very large mouth for their body size,
Lingcod
on rocky substrates. Males establish territory as early as allowing them to feed on prey much larger than other sh
a month before females lay eggs, and remain on guard at of their age and size. For large juvenile and adult lingcod,
the nest until eggs are hatched. Preferred nest sites are sh is the dominant prey, accounting for about 80 percent
rocky areas in shallow water where there are strong cur- (by volume) of the stomach contents. In California waters,
rents. Males move on to spawning grounds rst, followed juvenile rockshes are the most important prey.
by large females, who spawn earlier than smaller females. Most predation on lingcod occurs during the egg stage,
After a female chooses a male and a spawning site, she and predation becomes less common with age. On rare
swims over the site and deposits a layer of several eggs. occasions, pelagic juvenile lingcod (1.5 to 2.6 inches) are
The male then swims over the site and fertilizes the eggs. found in the stomachs of chinook salmon. Other predators
This process is repeated until spawning is completed, of juvenile sh, such as seabirds and marine mammals
after which the female immediately leaves the spawning also prey on juvenile lingcod. Small benthic lingcod are
grounds. The eggs become rmly cemented to each other probably eaten by adult lingcod and marine mammals,
within the gelatinous mass in 24 to 48 hours. A relatively but have few other predators. Because of their large
strong current is necessary to oxygenate the egg mass and size, large juvenile and adult lingcod escape all but the
prevent death of the embryos. occasional predator.
After spawning, males guard the nests from predation
until the eggs hatch. On occasion, males have been found
Status of the Population
guarding two nests if they were close together, and some-
times if the male is removed, a new male will assume
L ingcod harvest has been higher than generally
the guardian role. The nest guarding behavior of lingcod
accepted population replacement rates for the last
make them susceptible to targeted shing during the
twenty years. Recent lingcod stock assessments have con-
spawning period. Males guarding nests are territorial and
cluded that the lingcod stock is seriously depleted, and
will aggressively strike at bait or lures that come close to
that California populations appear to be less than 25 per-
the nest. Targeted shing during the spawning season can
cent of their pre-1970s level. By federal law, this level of
thus directly increase lingcod mortality by increasing catch
stock depletion requires a management plan that rebuilds
rates. It can also indirectly increase mortality by dislodg-
lingcod populations. The rebuilding plan is intended to
ing animals from the nest, resulting in increased egg
restore the lingcod stock within 10 years. The substantial
mortality. Fish predators such as kelp greenling, striped
reduction in ABC after 1997 and resulting reduced shery
seaperch, and small sculpins will eat lingcod eggs if a
harvest was triggered by that rebuilding plan. Low levels
guardian male is removed from the nest. Invertebrates
of ABC and harvest will continue until lingcod populations
such as sea urchin, sunower star, and snails also feed on
show signs of rebounding. California lingcod appear to be
lingcod eggs, but are not chased away by males guarding
highly productive, however, and there is good potential for
the nest. The eggs generally hatch about seven weeks
rapid population increases given appropriate decreases in
after they are laid, but incubation can last from ve to
shing effort.
11 weeks. Hatching may continue for 24 to 48 hours, after
which the guardian male leaves.
Peter B. Adams
Egg hatching is generally synchronous, with most eggs
National Marine Fisheries Service
hatching within two to seven days of each other. Newly
hatched larvae are 0.25-0.4 inches in length, and grow Richard M. Starr
about 0.06 inches per day. The larvae are pelagic for University of California
about three months from early March to early June and
settle to the bottom when they are about three inches
long. Newly settled juveniles reside in shallow bays and
on nearshore sand and mud bottoms from the beach to
333 feet in depth. Juveniles occur over a wide range of
habitats including mud, sand, gravel, and eelgrass, but by
age two occupy similar habitats as adults.
During the pelagic juvenile stage there is a gradual tran-
sition from a diet of small copepods to one of larger
copepods, crab larvae, amphipods, euphausiids, and her-
ring larvae. As small benthic juveniles, lingcod feed on
herring, atshes, shiner perch, and other shes. Even
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 193
References
Lingcod
Adams, P., E. Williams, K. Silberberg, and T. Laidig. 1999.
Southern lingcod stock assessment in 1999. Appendix In:
Status of the Pacic coast groundsh shery through 1999
and recommended acceptable biological catches for 2000.
Pacic Fishery Management Council, Portland.
Cass, A.J., R.J. Beamish, and G.A. McFarlane. 1990. Ling-
cod (Ophiodon elongatus). Can. Sp. Pub., Fish. and Aquat.
Sci. 109. 30 p.
Fitch, J.E. 1958. Offshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
Fish Game. 80 p.
Jagielo, T.H. 1990. Movement of tagged lingcod Ophiodon
elongatus at Neah Bay, Washington. Fishery Bulletin 88(4):
815-820.
Karpov, K.A., D.P. Albin, W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995. The
marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
fornia. A historical comparison (1958-86), status of stocks
(1980-86), and effects of changes in the California current.
California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 176.
192 p.
LaRiviere, M.G., D.D. Jessup, and S.B. Mathews. 1981.
Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus, spawning and nesting in
San Juan Channel, Washington. Calif. Fish and Game
67:231-239.
Miller, D.J. and J.J. Geibel. 1973. Summary of blue rock-
sh and lingcod life histories; a reef ecology study; and
giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, experiments in Monterey
Bay, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 158.
137 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
194
California Halibut
History of the Fishery Marine Resources Protection Zone (MRPZ) was established
California Halibut
in 1990 extending three miles off the southern California
C alifornia halibut (Paralichthys californicus) is an impor- mainland coast from Point Conception to the Mexican
tant atsh species in both the commercial and recre- border and within one mile or 70 fathoms (whichever is
ational sheries of central and southern California. The less) around the Channel Islands. Gill and trammel nets
highest recorded commercial landing of halibut was 4.7 have been prohibited in the MRPZ since Jan. 1, 1994.
million pounds in 1919, which was followed by an overall Historically, commercial catches of halibut by hook-and-
decline to a low of 950,000 pounds in 1932. Since 1932, the line gear have been insignicant when compared to the
average annual catch has been 910,000 pounds, with ve total pounds landed annually by the trawl and set gillnet
notable peaks in landings: 1936 (1.58 million pounds), 1946 sheries. However, over the last decade, catches of Cali-
(2.46 million pounds), 1964 (1.28 million pounds), 1981 fornia halibut by hook-and-line have ranged from 11 to 23
(1.26 million pounds), and 1997 (1.25 million pounds). percent of the total pounds landed annually. A majority of
The decline in commercial halibut landings after 1919 has those landings were made in the San Francisco Bay area
been attributed to increased shing pressure during World by salmon shermen mooching or trolling slowly over the
War I and to overshing. Fishing restraints during World ocean bottom.
War II may have allowed halibut stocks to increase, result- Catches by commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFV)
ing in peak landings in the late 1940s, followed by low displayed trends similar to the commercial landings from
catches in the 1950s. Increased landings in the mid-1960s 1947 through 1974, with two peaks in 1948 (143,000 hali-
followed warm water (El Niño) years in the late 1950s. but) and 1964 (141,000 halibut). Following the 1948 peak,
The lowest landings occurred in the early 1970s, with the annual landings plummeted below 11,000 sh by 1957. The
lowest recorded catch in 1970 of 257,000 pounds. Landings expansion of the CPFV eet and no size limit restriction
increased during the late 1970s to a peak again in 1981 for the take of California halibut can be attributed to the
and 1997. Since 1980, landings of California halibut have 13-fold decrease in landings between 1948 and 1958. While
remained relatively constant, averaging more than one the commercial catch increased in the late 1970s and
million pounds annually. steadied in the 1980s, the recreational catch remained low
Historically, halibut have been commercially harvested by and variable with an average annual catch of 8,600 sh
three principal gears: otter trawl, set gill and trammel from 1971 to 1989. By 1995, CPFV landings surged to a
net, and hook-and-line. The California halibut trawl shery 26-year high of 19,600 sh, declining to 14,200 sh in 1999.
evolved late in the 19th century in the San Francisco Since 1994, CPFVs operating in the San Francisco Bay area
Bay area. Since then, the boats used to tow this gear have landed a majority of the halibut statewide.
across the ocean bottom have gone from sail to steam To assist with the restoration of the California halibut
to gasoline, and nally to diesel powered engines. Today, resource through the protection of sub-adult sh, a regu-
trawling is permitted in federal waters (three to 200 lation was adopted in 1971 that set a minimum size limit
nautical miles offshore) using trawl nets with a minimum of 22 inches for sport-caught California halibut. Com-
mesh size of 4.5 inches. Trawling is prohibited within mercial landings increased slowly after this legislation,
state waters, except in the designated “California halibut whereas recreational landings remained low and did not
trawl grounds,” which encompass the area between Point recover to former catch levels.
Arguello and Point Mugu in waters greater than one nauti-
Although California halibut range from the Quillayute
cal mile from shore. Bottom trawls used in this area
River, Washington to Almejas Bay, Baja California, the
must have a minimum mesh size of 7.5 inches, and
trawling is closed from March 15 to June 15 to protect
spawning adults.
A decade after the introduction of the trawl shery to San
Francisco Bay, set gill and trammel nets were shed state-
wide along the coast. Historically, set nets have been the
gear of choice for commercial halibut shermen because
of the restrictions on bottom trawl gear in state waters.
In southern California, gill and trammel nets with 8.5-inch
mesh and maximum length of 9,000 feet are the principal
type of gear used. Today, gill and trammel net shing
is prohibited in Santa Monica Bay, shallow coastal waters
north of Point Sal, and is subject to many other area,
California Halibut, Paralichthys californicus
depth, and seasonal closures throughout the state. A
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 195
commercial shery is concentrated from Bodega Bay in mortality of newly-settled juveniles and an increase in
California Halibut
the north to San Diego in southern California, and across the growth rate of larger juveniles that feed upon the
the international border with Mexico. The contribution to abundant small shes in the bays. Juveniles emigrate from
California landings of halibut captured in Mexican waters the bays to the coast at about one year of age and 6.9 to
has varied but has generally been insignicant since 1966. 8.7 inches in length.
Historically, the shery was centered off southern Califor- Tagging studies have indicated that California halibut do
nia and Baja California, but over the past twenty years, not tend to move extensively. Most sublegal halibut tagged
the greatest landings have oscillated between ports in and released from CPFVs in southern California were
southern and central California. A majority of the halibut recovered within ve miles from their tag sites; only
landings made in central California occurred in the San 12 percent were found 10 miles or more from where
Francisco Bay area. A limited amount of shing occurs they were tagged. Larger halibut appear to travel the
around the Channel Islands of southern California, with greatest distances. One large tagged halibut (33 inches)
a catch of substantially larger halibut (average length = was recovered 64 miles away 39 days after release.
27 inches) than those caught in the nearshore mainland
California halibut may live to 30 years and reach 60 inches
shery (average length = 24 inches).
in length. The maximum-recorded weight is 72 pounds.
Commercial shing laws prohibit the sale of California Male halibut mature at one to three years and eight to
halibut less than 22 inches in total length, unless the twelve inches, whereas females mature at four to ve
weight is at least four pounds whole, 3.5 pounds dressed years and 15 to 17 inches. Female halibut attain larger
with the head on, or 3 pounds dressed with the head sizes at age than males and represent a greater fraction
off. Four halibut less than the legal minimum size may be of the commercial landings (60 to 80 percent). Female
retained for personal use. halibut reach legal size (22 inches) at ve to six years of
Recreational regulations also require a minimum size limit age, about a year before males.
of 22 inches, in addition to a daily bag limit of ve Cali- California halibut are ambushing predators. Adults prey
fornia halibut when shing south of Point Sur, Monterey primarily upon Pacic sardine, northern anchovies, squid,
County, and only three halibut per day when shing north and other nektonic nearshore sh species. Small juvenile
of Point Sur. Halibut can be taken in recreational sheries halibut in bays primarily eat crustaceans, including cope-
using hook-and-line, spear, or hand. pods and amphipods, until they reach about 2.5 inches.
They are then large enough to eat gobies that are found
commonly in bays but not on the open coast. Juvenile
Status of Biological Knowledge halibut become increasingly piscivorous with size. On the
A
coast, adult halibut feed primarily on Pacic sardine,
dult California halibut inhabit soft bottom habitats in
anchovies, and white croaker.
coastal waters generally less than 300 feet deep, with
greatest abundance at depths of less than 100 feet. Adults
spawn throughout the year with peak spawning in winter
Status of the Population
and spring. Pelagic eggs and larvae occur over the shelf,
A
with greatest densities in water less than 250 feet deep bundance of larval California halibut in plankton sur-
and within four miles of shore. Halibut larvae appear veys is correlated with commercial landings of halibut,
to move inshore as they approach metamorphosis. Early suggesting that this species has a cycle of abundance
larval stages (about 0.1 to 0.3 inches) occur in midwater approximately 20 years in length. However, the size of
more than one mile offshore, whereas transforming larvae the halibut population may be limited by the amount of
occur within 0.6 mile of shore and occupy the neuston available nursery habitat, as juvenile halibut appear to
(surface zone) at night and the bottom during the day. be dependent on shallow water embayments as nursery
California halibut have a relatively short pelagic larval areas. The overall decline in California halibut landings
stage (less than 30 days), transforming and settling to corresponds to a decline in shallow water habitats in
the bottom at a small size (0.35 to 0.5 inches). Newly southern California associated with dredging and lling of
settled and larger juvenile halibut are frequently taken in bays and wetlands.
unvegetated shallow-water embayments and infrequently
Recreational and commercial shermen are in conict
on the open coast, suggesting that embayments are the
over the California halibut resource in southern California.
important nursery habitats. However, settlement either
A differential minimum size limit of 22 inches for the
in bays or along the open coast varies yearly and may
recreational shery and 26 inches for the commercial
reect variability in nearshore currents that inuence the
shery was investigated as a possible management tool.
onshore transport of larvae. The advantages of bays as
This strategy would allow recreational anglers to harvest
nursery areas are probably a decrease in the risk of
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
196
California Halibut
5
millions of pounds landed
4
California Halibut
3
2 Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
California Halibut
1
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
halibut between 22 and 26 inches in length before sh population estimate was 3.9 million halibut for southern
had grown large enough to recruit to the commercial California, and 700,000 halibut for central California.
shery. Yield-per-recruit (Y/R) analysis indicated that: 1)
differential size limits would provide an increased Y/R for
Management Considerations
the recreational shery, whereas the commercial shery
would experience a loss; 2) overall shing effort was
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
about twice the optimum level; and 3) Y/R would probably
further information.
increase with diminished shing effort.
The total California biomass of the halibut resource
Sharon H. Kramer
obtained from virtual population analysis (VPA) estimates
MBC Applied Environmental Sciences
150
John S. Sunada
thousands of fish landed
120
California Department of Fish and Game
California Halibut
90
Revised by:
Stephen P. Wertz
60
California Department of Fish and Game
30
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Halibut
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
in the late 1980s was 5.7 to 13.2 million pounds, with
annual recruitment of sh at age one estimated to be
between 0.45 and 1.0 million sh. The number of juvenile
halibut emigrating from southern California bays to the
open coast (age one) estimated from beam trawl surveys
ranged between 250,000 and 400,000 in the late 1980s.
In the early 1990s, a swept-area trawl survey was con-
ducted to better understand California halibut population
dynamics. This shery-independent survey produced a
biomass and population estimate for halibut in southern
and central California. The survey results indicated a hali-
but biomass of 6.9 million pounds for southern California
and 2.3 million pounds for central California, while the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 197
References Reed, R.R. and A.D. MacCall. 1988. Changing the size
California Halibut
limit: How it could affect California halibut sheries. Calif.
Allen, L.G. 1988. Recruitment, distribution, and feeding Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 29:158-166.
habits of young-of-the-year California halibut (Paralichthys Valle, C.F., J.W. O’Brian, K.B. Wiese. 1999. Differential
californicus) in the vicinity of Alamitos Bay-Long Beach habitat used by California halibut (Paralichthys californi-
Harbor, California, 1983-1985. Bull. Southern Calif. Acad. cus), barred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer), and other
Sci. 87:19-30. juvenile shes in Alamitos Bay, California. Fishery Bulletin,
C.W. Haugen (ed.). 1990. The California halibut, Paralich- U.S. 97(3).
thys californicus, resource and sheries. Calif. Dept. Fish Wertz, S.P., and M.L. Domeier. 1997. Relative importance
Game, Fish Bull. 174. of prey items to California halibut. California Fish and
Domeier, M.L., and C.S.Y. Chun 1995. A tagging study Game 83(1):21-29.
of the Calfornia halibut, Paralichthys californicus. Califor-
nia Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports
36:204-207.
Kramer, S.H. 1990. Habitat specicity and ontogenetic
movements of juvenile California halibut, Paralichthys cal-
ifornicus, and other atshes in shallow waters of south-
ern California. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Calif. San Diego, 266 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
198
Starry Flounder
History of the Fishery Tagging studies have not demonstrated extensive migra-
Starry Flounder
tions, although there is some movement along the shore.
P rior to the late 1980s, the starry ounder (Platichthys There are also thought to be seasonal inshore-offshore
stellatus) was a common species in both the com- movements of these sh, possibly related to spawning.
mercial and recreational sheries of northern and central Most spawning occurs in shallow waters near the mouths
California. Though seldom targeted, it was often taken by of rivers and estuaries during the winter. In central Cali-
commercial shers seeking more valuable species such fornia, December and January are the peak months of
as petrale sole or California halibut. Historically, most of spawning. The number of eggs produced by each female
the commercial catch was made by bottom trawl. During depends upon her size. A 27-inch sh may produce about
the 1980s, many starry ounders were also taken by gill 11 million eggs. Fertilization is external.
and trammel nets in central California. During the late
Eggs of the starry ounder are pelagic, oating near the
1980s, commercial landings declined sharply and remained
ocean’s surface. Under laboratory conditions, eggs held
at relatively low levels through the 1990s. From 1992
at 51° F hatched in 4.5 days, while those held at 54.5° F
through 1999, landings averaged only 62,225 pounds, rang-
hatched in 2.8 days. Newly hatched larvae are less than
ing from a low of 25,353 pounds in 1995 to a high of
one-tenth inch long. Metamorphosis occurs 39 to 75 days
100,309 pounds in 1999. This is in contrast to annual land-
after hatching. Newly settled juveniles less than one-half
ings of more than a million pounds during the 1970s and
inch long are common in low-salinity estuarine waters,
half a million pounds in the 1980s.
although settling also occurs along the open coast.
The recreational catch of starry ounders is from piers,
Females grow faster and reach larger sizes than do males.
boats, and shore, usually in estuarine and adjacent coastal
In central California, most males are sexually mature at
waters. The estimated annual recreational catch for this
two years averaging 14.5 inches, most females at three
species in California from 1981 to 1989 averaged 40,000
years and 16 inches. The maximum size reported is
sh and ranged from less than 12,000 in 1985 to 63,000
36 inches.
sh in 1987. Estimated recreational catches, like com-
Larval starry ounders feed on planktonic organisms.
mercial landings, declined dramatically during the 1990s.
Newly metamorphosed sh feed largely on copepods and
Catch estimates from 1993 through 1999 averaged 6,000
amphipods. As they grow, their diet changes. Five-inch sh
sh per year, and ranged from a high in 1998 of 15,000 sh
have developed jaws and teeth that allow them to crush
to lows in 1994 and 1996 of 3,000 sh.
small clams and pull worms from their burrows. At 10 to 12
inches, they tend to graze on tips of siphons of clams too
Status of Biological Knowledge large to be ingested whole. Crabs and polychaete worms
are also taken. Sand dollars, brittle stars, and sh are
T he starry ounder is probably the most easily recogniz- included in the diets of larger starry ounders.
able of California’s atshes. The dorsal and anal
Wading and diving seabirds such as herons and cormo-
ns are prominently marked with alternating yellow or
rants, as well as marine mammals such as harbor seals,
orange and dark bars. The body surface is rough owing
feed on juvenile starry ounders in estuaries. However,
to modied star-shaped scales that give rise to the names
sea lions and harbor seals feeding on sh caught in gillnets
“starry” and “roughjacket,” as this sh is often called by
will pass up a dozen starry ounders to eat a more
shermen. It is very good at assuming the coloration of
the substrate upon which it nds itself. Starry ounders
in California are about equally divided between left-eyed
and right-eyed sh, while those of Japan are nearly all
left-eyed.
Starry ounders range from Korea and Japan, north to the
Bering and Chukchi Seas and the Arctic coasts of Alaska
and Canada, and southward down the coast of North
America to southern California, although they are uncom-
mon south of Point Conception. It is primarily a coastal
species, living on sand and mud bottoms, and avoiding
rocky areas. Though found to depths of 900 feet, they
are much more common in shallower waters. They are
frequently found in bays and estuaries, often one of com-
monest shes in these settings. They are tolerant of Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus
brackish and even fresh water. Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 199
Starry Flounder
1.2
millions of pounds landed
1.0
Starry Flounder
0.8
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
0.6
Starry Flounder
Starry flounder were aggre-
0.4
gated under the landing classi-
fication “unspecified flounders”
0.2
between 1970 and 1982. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and 0.0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
valuable California halibut, much to the consternation of which suggests that adult sh were no longer present in
the sherman. the areas where sheries normally operate, and were no
longer spawning in areas that had previously resulted in
On occasion, a sh is caught that displays physical charac-
higher levels of young-of-the-year within the San
teristics intermediate between a starry ounder and an
Francisco estuary. Recruitment is largely determined
English sole and may be a hybrid of those species.
by survival of larval and juvenile sh. Given the
importance of bays and estuaries to the young of
Status of the Population this species, the continued environmental health of
these areas may be the most important factor in
N o studies have been conducted to determine popula- maintaining healthy populations of starry ounder.
tion size of the starry ounder; however, the com-
mercial landing and the recreational catch trends suggest
Charles W. Haugen and Dave Thomas
the California population is now at extremely low levels.
California Department of Fish and Game
The circumstance could arise from either a relocation of
adult sh associated with the 1976-1977 oceanic regime
References
shift or a rapid decline in the abundance of spawning
adults due to shing pressure. The large population
decline suggested by shery trends is substantiated by Orcutt, H.G. 1950. The life history of the starry ounder,
a shery-independent trawl survey conducted by the Cali- Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
fornia Department of Fish and Game within the San Fran- Fish Bull. 78. 64 p.
cisco estuary from 1980 through 1995. Their results show Orsi, J. (editor) 1999. Starry Flounder. Pages 404-415 In:
age-zero and age-one-plus starry ounder abundance and Report on the 1980-1995, Shrimp, and Crab Sampling in
catch-per-unit-effort dropping dramatically during the late the San Francisco Estuary, California. The Interagency
1980s and remaining at low levels through the 1990s. Ecological Program for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estu-
There is very little or no yearly lag between the precipi- ary. Tech. Rept. 63.
tous drop in the shery harvest and the drop in abun-
dance of age-zero sh in the San Francisco estuary survey,
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
200
Sanddabs
History of the Fishery part of the unspecied atsh catch, which has decreased
Sanddads
from about 14,000 sh in 1990 to 4,000 sh in 1998.
A lthough not as important to California sheries as As an El Niño event is more likely to have an immediate
other atshes, sanddabs are nevertheless highly affect on the abundance of sanddab larvae than on har-
prized by the commercial industry and recreational vestable adults, the immediate drop in sanddab catches
anglers for their excellent edibility. Four species of during some El Niño years may be due in part to a shift in
sanddabs are found in California waters – Pacic sanddab shing effort to more desirable species.
(Citharichthys sordidus), longn sanddab (Citharichthys
xanthostigma), speckled sanddab (Citharichthys stig-
Status of Biological Knowledge
maeus), and gulf sanddab (Citharichthys fragilis). Com-
mercial sanddab landings and recreational catches consist
S anddabs belong to the family Paralichthyidae (some-
predominantly of the two largest species, Pacic sanddab
times included as part of Bothidae - left-eye oun-
and longn sanddab. Pacic sanddab is the most abundant
ders). Biogeographically, Pacic sanddab and speckled
and makes up the bulk of the landings in central and
sanddab are temperate species whereas longn sanddab
northern California waters, whereas Pacic sanddab and
and gulf sanddab are warm-temperate to tropical species.
longn sanddab are caught in southern California. Because
Pacic sanddab ranges from the Bering Sea to Cape San
of their smaller size, speckled and gulf sanddabs are not
Lucas, Baja California Sur, Mexico; speckled sanddab from
important to the sheries.
Point Montague Island, Alaska to Magdalena Bay, Baja Cali-
Recorded sanddab landings were highest (2.6 million
fornia Sur, Mexico; longn sanddab from Monterey Bay to
pounds) in 1917. In 1918, landings decreased to 1.8 million
Costa Rica; and gulf sanddab from off Ventura, California
pounds, and from 1919 to 1921 they remained less than 0.8
to Cape San Lucas, Baja California Sur, and the Gulf of
million pounds. In 1922, annual landings increased, reach-
California. Speckled sanddab and Pacic sanddab occur
ing approximately two million pounds in 1925. From 1930
throughout the state, with speckled sanddab occurring
to 1974, annual landings were below a million pounds.
from the surface to a depth of 1,200 feet, and Pacic
Since 1975, landings have uctuated between 1.4 million
sanddab at 30 to 1,800 feet. Maximum depths of both spe-
pounds and 0.6 million pounds annually. During the last
cies are suspect as the speckled sanddab seldom occurs
decade, landings have been above the historical annual
deeper than 300 feet and Pacic sanddab seldom deeper
average, except for 1983 and 1984, the period of a strong
than 600 feet. Longn sanddab occurs at depths from
El Niño event. Landings rebounded in 1985 and have
seven to 660 feet, but usually less than 450 feet, and gulf
increased since then. Approximately 1.44 million pounds
sanddab from 59 to 1,140 feet. Most species are found on
were landed in 1990, but landings crashed in 1992 (also an
muddy to sandy mud bottoms but speckled sanddab occurs
El Niño year) to 0.6 million pounds, and then rebounded
commonly on sandy bottoms.
to more than 2.0 million pounds in 1997 and 1999. In the
Pacic sanddab is the largest species, reaching 16 inches,
1990s, ex-vessel value ranged from $0.46 to $0.80 per
and up to two pounds. Most, however, are smaller than 10
pound (1990 and 1999, respectively). Value increased from
inches and weigh, at most, 0.5 pound. The next largest
$0.46 to $0.70 per pound from 1990 to 1993, dropped to
species is longn sanddab at 10 inches, followed by gulf
$0.51 per pound in 1995 and 1996, and then increase to a
sanddab at nine inches, and speckled sanddab at seven
high of $0.80 per pound in 1999.
inches. Pacic sanddab live to a maximum of 10 years
Since 1970, most of the commercial sanddab landings have
whereas speckled sanddab live to about 3.5 years. Pacic
been in northern and central California, with the largest
sanddabs mature at about three years, whereas the speck-
landings at Eureka and San Francisco Bay and less at
Monterey Bay. The commercial catch of sanddabs is mainly
by otter trawls and some by hook-and-line, especially in
the Monterey Bay area.
Many recreational anglers target them, mostly from small
boats and commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs).
Sanddabs are one of a few sh groups for which there is
no catch limit. Sanddab catches from CPFVs were small
during the 1990s, with reported catches reaching 2,200
sh in 1990 and dropping to about 100 sh in 1998 (a
strong El Niño year). About 70 percent of these were taken
in southern California between Long Beach and Newport
Pacific Sanddab, Citharichthys sordidus
Beach. Sanddabs comprise an unknown, but probably large
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 201
Sanddabs
3.0
thousands of pounds landed
2.5
2.0
Sanddabs
1.5
1.0
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Sanddabs
0.5
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
References
led sanddab matures at one year. Spawning begins in
July, peaks in August, and ends sometime in September
for Pacic sanddab and extends from spring to fall for Allen, M. J. 1976. Addition of Citharichthys fragilis Gilbert
speckled sanddab. Females may spawn twice during a to the California fauna. Calif. Fish Game 62(4):299-303.
season. In contrast, most northern atsh species spawn
Allen, M. J. 1982. Functional structure of soft-bottom sh
during late winter to early spring.
communities of the southern California shelf. Ph.D. dis-
Sanddab larvae are pelagic and may be found near the sertation. Univ. Calif., San Diego, La Jolla, CA. 577 p.
surface and out to many miles offshore. Sanddab larvae
Arora, H.L. 1951. An investigation of the California sand
transform and settle to the bottom at lengths of 0.6
dab, Citharichthys sordidus (Girard). Calif. Fish and Game.
to 1.6 inches. Juveniles and adults feed near or on the
37:3-42.
bottom on a variety of nektonic and benthic prey, includ-
Ford, R.F. 1965. Distribution, population dynamics, and
ing shrimp, crabs, marine worms, squid, octopus, eggs,
behavior of a bothid atsh, Citharichthys stigmaeus.
and small shes. Speckled sanddab feed largely on mysids
Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, San Diego. La
and amphipods, but small Pacic sanddabs feed on cope-
Jolla, CA.
pods and polychaetes. Adults feed more on euphausiids
Hensley, D. A. 1995. Paralichthyidae: Lenguados. Pages
and squid. Sanddabs, in turn, are preyed upon by larger
1349-1380 In: W. Fischer, F. Krupp, W. Schneider, C.
shes, diving birds, and marine mammals.
Sommer, K. E. Carpenter, and V. H. Niem (eds.), Guia
FAO para la identication de especies para los nes de
Status of the Population la pesca Pacico Centro-oriental, Vol. III, Vertebrados
Parte 2. United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organiza-
C ommercial landings indicate that sanddab populations tion, Rome, It.
are in good condition and currently are not being over-
Kramer, D. E., W. H. Barss, B. C. Paust, and B. E. Brachen.
harvested. The Pacic Fishery Management Council has
1995. Guide to Northeast Pacic atshes: families Bothi-
not recommended a change in the minimal acceptable
dae, Cynoglossidae, and Pleuronectidae. Alaska Sea Grant
biological catch of incidentally caught “Other Flatsh”
College Program, Marine Advisory Bull. No. 47. 104 p.
(which includes sanddabs) during the past decade, indicat-
Moser, H. G., and B. Y. Sumida. 1996. Paralichthyidae:
ing a stable and likely reasonably utilized resource.
lefteye ounders and sanddabs. Pages 1325-1355 In: H. G.
Moser (ed.), The early stages of shes in the California
M. James Allen Current Region. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Atlas
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project No. 33.
Robert Leos
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
202
Other Flatfishes
History of The Fishery in the annual landings of sole. Turbot landings averaged
Other Flatfishes
about 47,000 pounds per year from 1953 to 1999, with
S everal atsh species are taken incidentally in com- a peak of 176,000 pounds in 1954, and another good
mercial groundsh sheries. These include the rock year occurring in 1959 (129,000 pounds). Since 1964 there
sole (Pleuronectes bilineatus), butter sole (Pleuronectes has been an overall general decline in commercial turbot
isolepis), fantail sole (Xystreurys liolepis), sand sole (Pset- landings. Landings in 1999 were approximately 8,000
tichthys melanostictus), slender sole (Eopsetta exilis), pounds, the lowest since 1953. Pacic halibut contributed
bigmouth sole (Hippoglossina stomata), California tongue- heavily to the minor atsh shery prior to the mid-1950s.
sh (Symphurus atricauda), curln turbot (Pleuronichthys The last good year for Pacic halibut landings was 1952,
decurrens), hornyhead turbot (Pleuronichthys verticalis), when 242,600 pounds were landed. Landings then began
spotted turbot (Pleuronichthys ritteri), C-O turbot (Pleu- a rapid downward trend. From 1969 to 1988, no landings
ronichthys coenosus), diamond turbot (Hypsopsetta gut- were recorded, except for three years: 1971, 1972, and
tulata), arrowtooth ounder (Atheresthes stomias), and 1986 (25, 235, and 34,500 pounds, respectively). From
Pacic halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis). Some of these, 1989 to 1999, landings did increase somewhat, averaging
notably the Pacic halibut, diamond turbot, and rock sole, approximately 4,600 pounds per year.
are taken by recreational anglers as well, but most are Most of the incidental atsh are taken by otter trawls.
caught primarily by commercial boats. Arrowtooth oun- The exception is Pacic halibut, where set longline is the
der and Pacic halibut are considered as minor atshes dominant gear used. Trammel nets are used to catch
in California atsh sheries because they are landed some atsh in central and southern California waters,
in relatively small quantities. However, both species are and many small-boat commercial shermen use hook-and-
major components in the atsh sheries in northern line. Recreational anglers occasionally catch soles or tur-
waters from Oregon to Alaska. bots while shing for sanddabs, starry ounder, or Califor-
Landings of most of these atshes are difcult to extract nia halibut. Diamond turbots are sought by recreational
from landings data for the early years (beginning in 1916), anglers in quiet coastal waters, bays, and sloughs.
because many were combined with other categories of
atsh. For example, prior to 1931 turbots were included
Status of Biological Knowledge
with soles. Also, some species such as Pacic halibut are
included in California landings, even though most were
I n general, atsh spawn during late winter and early
landed elsewhere and shipped to California ports. Starting
spring. Arrowtooth ounder, however, spawn as late as
in the early 1950s, some of these atsh landings, primar-
August in the southeast Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska,
ily arrowtooth ounder (1950) and soles (1953), were listed
where the greatest concentrations of this species are
separately in the catch data.
found. The larvae are pelagic and undergo metamorphosis
Generally, incidental atsh catches have contributed to the adult form. After atsh settle on the bottom,
only a small amount to the annual statewide commercial they eat small crustaceans, polychaetes, and mollusks. As
landings. From 1953 to 1999, these annual atsh landings they grow, they eat larger food forms of the same groups.
averaged about 0.1 percent of the total statewide land- Some, such as sand sole, arrowtooth ounder, and Pacic
ings. During this period, ounders (mostly arrowtooth halibut, include sh in their diet.
ounder) comprised 49.2 percent of incidental atsh
landings, soles 41.2 percent, turbots 8.0 percent, and
Pacic halibut 1.6 percent. Starting in the 1960s, commer-
cial landings of minor atsh, as a group, have declined,
although not all species showed this trend.
Since 1950, arrowtooth ounder landings averaged
278,300 pounds per year with peak years occurring in 1956
(1,070,700 pounds), 1960 (1,007,700 pounds), and 1961
(1,100,900 pounds). These high landings were due, in part,
to the less desirable shes, such as arrowtooth ounder,
nding a market with the animal food industry, primarily
as mink food. Arrowtooth ounder no longer is used for
mink food, but is processed for human consumption. Inci-
dental sole landings since 1953 averaged about 244,000
pounds per year, with a peak in 1979 when 839,000 pounds
Diamond Turbot, Hypsopsetta guttulata
were landed. After 1979, there was a general decline
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 203
Other Flatfishes
1.2
millions of pounds landed
1.0
Arrowtooth Flounder
Commercial Landings
0.8
1916-1999,
Arrowtooth Flounder
0.6
Arrowhead
flounder were aggregated
0.4
under the landing classification
“unclassified sole” prior
0.2
to 1950. Data Source: DFG
Catch Bulletins and commercial
0.0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
200
millions of pounds landed
150
Turbot
100
Commercial Landings
50
1916-1999, Turbot
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
landing receipts. 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
As a group, minor atsh species range from the Gulf of by the Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC). The
California/Baja California to the Bering and Chukchi Seas densities of arrowtooth ounder are low south of Cape
off Alaska. Within this overall range some species are Blanco, Oregon. Pacic halibut landings in California have
quite restricted while others are found throughout most declined since the peak years during the 1930s; however,
of this range. They occur from shallow water to depths in the species is considered uncommon in California waters.
excess of 3,000 feet (Pacic halibut). Pacic halibut are monitored extensively by the Interna-
tional Pacic Halibut Commission (IPHC) and recent stock
assessment analysis indicates that while abundance in
Status of the Populations numbers is still quite high relative to the levels of 1975 or
1980, the prospect for a decline in the biomass in waters
M ajor uctuations of commercial landings of ounder,
north of California is a possibility.
soles, and turbot have occurred since 1950. Despite
these uctuations and declining commercial landings that
started in the 1960s, market sampling and commercial
landing records indicate that these populations remain
in good condition and currently are not being over-har-
vested. Arrowtooth ounder stock assessment work con-
ducted in 1993 by the Washington Department of Fisheries
indicated that the status of the population, at that time,
was in good condition because there was no decline
in shery catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) between 1987 and
1992 and no trend in triennial bottom trawl survey CPUE
from 1977 to 1992. Current catch levels remain well below
the level of acceptable biological catch (ABC) established
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
204
Management Considerations Kramer, D. E. et al. 1995. Guide to Northeast Pacic
Other Flatfishes
Flatshes. University of Alaska Sea Grant College Program,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Marine Advisory Bulletin No. 47.
further information. Nitsos, R.J. and P.H. Reed. 1965. The animal food shery
in California, 1961-1962. Calif. Fish and Game. 51:16-27.
Robert Leos Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1999. Status of the
California Department of Fish and Game Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 1999 and Recom-
mended Acceptable Biological Catches for 2000. Pacic
Fishery Management Council, Portland, Oregon.
References Ripley, W.E. 1949. Bottom sh. Pages 63-75 in The com-
mercial sh catch of California for the year 1947 with an
Best, E. A. 1961. The California animal food shery,
historical review 1916-1947. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
1958-1960. Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission, Bulletin.
Bull. 74.
5:5-15.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 205
White Seabass
History of the Fishery line shing takes place during the early spring, when large
seabass are available.
W hite seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) have been Although the legal size limit for white seabass is 28 inches
favored by California anglers and consumers for at (about seven pounds), the average commercially caught
least a century. Coastal Indian middens have yielded sh is nearly 40 inches (about 20 pounds). Because of con-
many seabass ear bones (otoliths) suggesting that this sumer demand, seabass has always commanded relatively
sh was highly regarded for food and possibly used for high prices. In 2000, commercial shermen were typically
ceremonial purposes. paid $2.25 per pound for whole sh. At the retail level the
Commercial landings of white seabass have uctuated sh are sold fresh, primarily as llets and steaks.
widely over the nearly 85 years of record keeping. Almost Recreational shing for white seabass began around the
three million pounds were reported in 1922, 599,000 in turn of the century. Because of their size and elusive
1937, 3.5 million in 1959, and 58,000 in 1997. Since 1959 nature, seabass are popular with anglers. Historical
the trend has been one of decline, although landings have records show that anglers on commercial passenger shing
been over 100,000 pounds for the years 1984 through 1991 vessels (CPFVs), shing in California waters, landed an
and 1998-1999. Although there was a commercial shery average of 33,400 sh annually from 1947 through 1959.
in the San Francisco area from the late 1800s to the mid- The catch steadily declined to an average of 10,400 sh
1920s, landings of sh caught north of Point Conception in the 1960s, 3,400 sh in the 1970s, and 1,200 sh in
rarely exceeded 20 percent of the total California catch. the 1980s, but increased to 3,000 sh in the 1990s. In
Today, catches of white seabass are concentrated along fact, the 1999 recreational catch of white seabass from
the coast from Point Conception to San Diego and around California waters was greater than 11,000 sh and appears
the Channel Islands. The frequency of sh caught north to be as high for 2000. Additional seabass are caught
of Point Conception has increased in the past few years, by anglers aboard private boats, but accurate catches by
although the pounds landed still represent less than 20 private boat anglers are difcult to estimate.
percent of the total California catch. Before 1982, Califor- Today, sport anglers catch white seabass that are gener-
nia commercial shermen landed thousands of pounds ally between seven and 25 pounds. This was not true
of white seabass taken in Mexico. Often these landings in the past. While the 28-inch size limit also applies to
comprised more than 80 percent of the annual catch. recreational anglers, most of the catch prior to the 1990s
Since then, the Mexican government has denied access (kept and released) was between 20 and 24 inches. In a
permits to U.S. shermen, and the shery is concentrated survey of private boaters at launch ramp facilities from
in California. 1978 through 1982, biologists found that only six to 16
During the early years of the shery, commercial catches percent of the white seabass kept were of legal size. In
were made using gillnets, hook-and-line, and round haul a similar survey aboard CPFVs from 1985 through 1987,
nets such as lamparas and purse seines. Purse seining was biologists reported that 16 to 25 percent of the seabass
curtailed in the late 1920s because decreasing catches caught were legal. However, this has changed dramatically
made it uneconomical. Since all round haul nets were with the apparent increase in the abundance of legal-size
prohibited in the early 1940s, gillnets have been the major white seabass. During the period from 1995 through 1999,
commercial shing gear. Set gillnet shing for white sea- data collected from private boat anglers revealed 77 per-
bass within state waters was completely disallowed begin- cent of the sh were legal size while data from CPFV
ning in 1994. Therefore, drift gillnetting is the primary anglers showed 80 percent of the sh were legal size.
shing method utilized today. Some commercial hook-and- White seabass are more often caught with live bait than
with dead bait or lures, but all are effective when the sh
are actively feeding. Seabass can sometimes be brought
to the surface by heavy chumming with live bait. Anglers
shing around Santa Catalina Island have reported con-
sistently good catches using blacksmith and silversides
as bait. However, when available, live squid and Pacic
sardines are popular baits. Spearshing for large seabass
by free divers (without SCUBA) is successful in kelp beds.
Regulations covering white seabass have been in effect
since 1931, and have included a minimum size limit, closed
seasons, bag limits, and shing gear restrictions. Such
regulations are in effect today, with slight variations. A
White Seabass, Atractoscion nobilis
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
206
White Seabass
4
millions of pounds landed
3
White Seabass
2
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
1 White Seabass
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 landing receipts.
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
shery management plan for white seabass is presently Spawning occurs from April to August, with a peak in the
being adopted and the need for additional regulations will late spring to early summer. Fecundity (egg productivity)
be considered. for this species has not been determined, but a maturity
study in the late 1920s reported that females begin matur-
ing when four years old (nearly 24 inches), and some
Status of Biological Knowledge males were sexually mature at three years (20 inches). All
white seabass have probably spawned at least once by age
W hite seabass is the largest member of the croaker
six (nearly 32 inches).
family (Sciaenidae) in California. Fish weighing
The eggs, which are the largest of any croaker on the
nearly 90 pounds with lengths of ve feet have been
west coast (approximately 0.05 inch in diameter), are
recorded, but individuals larger than 60 pounds are
planktonic. The larvae, which are darkly colored, have
seldom seen. White seabass range from Magdelena Bay,
been collected from Santa Rosa Island, California to Mag-
Baja California, Mexico to the San Francisco area. They are
delena Bay, Baja California. Most are found in the inshore
also found in the northern Gulf of California. During the
areas of Sebastian Viscaino and San Juanico Bays, Baja
strong El Niño of 1957-1959, seabass were reported as far
California, indicating that major spawning occurs off cen-
north as Juneau, Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.
tral Baja California.
The center of the white seabass population presently
Young-of-the-year white seabass, ranging in length from
appears to be off central Baja California. Recent genetic
0.25 inch to 2.25 inches, inhabit the open coast in waters
research of seabass populations shows that some mixing of
12 to 30 feet deep. They associate with bits and pieces
sh from California and Mexico does occur. However, there
of drifting algae in areas of sandy ocean bottom. Some
may be local subpopulations of sh that do not mix regu-
time between the ages of one and three years old, they
larly. While the question of population continuity remains
move into protected bays where they utilize eelgrass com-
unresolved, there is evidence that each summer the sh
munities for cover and forage. Older juveniles are caught
move northward with warming ocean temperatures (as
off piers and jetties and around beds of giant kelp. Adult
demonstrated by catches). Biologists believe the move-
seabass occupy a wide range of habitats including kelp
ment is probably spawning-related.
beds, reefs, offshore banks, and the open ocean. Adult
white seabass eat Pacic mackerel, Pacic sardines, squid,
70
pelagic red crabs, and Pacic herring.
60
thousands of fish landed
Laboratory spawning of white seabass was rst induced in
50
White Seabass
1982. Beginning in 1983, the California Department of Fish
40
and Game initiated the Ocean Resources Enhancement
30
and Hatchery Program (OREHP) to test the feasibility of
20
raising seabass for population enhancement. That goal was
10
achieved in the rst 10 years of the program and the goals
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
of the program have been expanded to test the feasibility
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, White Seabass
of enhancing marine sh populations through the stocking
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
of cultured sh. By 1999, more than 375,000 juvenile
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 207
References
white seabass had been released off southern California,
White Seabass
and it is estimated that 17,500 of those may have
Allen, L.G. and M.P. Franklin. 1988. Distribution and abun-
survived to legal size or larger. Additionally, valuable
dance of young-of-the-year white seabass, Atractoscion
life history information has been gathered during this
nobilis, in the vicinity of Long Beach Harbor, California in
program through ecological surveys, tagging, and genetic
1984-1987. Calif. Fish and Game 74:245-248.
studies. However, more work is necessary to determine
if articial propagation is successful in enhancing the Clark, F.N. 1930. Size at rst maturity of the white seabass
seabass population. (Cynoscion nobilis). Calif. Fish and Game 16:319-323.
Moser H.G., D.A. Ambrose, M.S. Busby, J.L. Butler, E.M.
Status of the Population Sandknop, B.Y. Sumida, and E.G. Stevens. 1983. Descrip-
tion of early stages of white seabass, Atractoscion nobilis,
T with notes on distribution. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish.
he range of the white seabass population has con-
Invest. Rep. 24:182-193.
tracted since the early part of this century, and few
are found regularly north of Point Conception. Few data Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
are available concerning the status of seabass in Mexico, (croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
and it is difcult to determine whether the decline in Bull. 54. 62 p.
California waters indicates an overall population decline.
Thomas, J.C. 1968. Management of the white seabass
Population estimates have not been made. Fishery biolo- (Cynoscion nobilis) in California waters. Calif. Dept. Fish
gists have been concerned about the decline in landings and Game, Fish Bull. 142. 34 p.
since the late 1920s. Today, this concern still exists within
Vojkovich, M. and R.J. Reed. 1983. White seabass, Atrac-
the scientic community, commercial shing industry, and
toscion nobilis, in California-Mexican waters: status of the
with the angling public. Human-induced changes, such
shery. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:79-83.
as pollution, overshing, and habitat destruction have
probably contributed to this long-term population decline.
However, natural environmental changes can also inu-
ence the population. The large numbers of small seabass
caught in recent years suggests that the warm water
period beginning with the 1982-1983 El Niño helped to
increase young sh survival. Young sh surveys conducted
in southern California, as part of OREHP, showed a dra-
matic increase in the number of sh taken in research
gillnet sets. During research work in 1997 over 600 juve-
nile sh were captured, in 1998 approximately 700 sh
were taken, and in 1999 slightly over 1,300 juveniles were
captured. Anecdotal evidence from commercial and sport
shers conrms this dramatic increase in juvenile white
seabass. It is unknown whether this increase in juveniles
will subsequently enhance the adult spawning population.
Marija Vojkovich and Steve Crooke
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
208
Giant Sea Bass
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Giant Sea Bass
B A
ecause giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) grow slowly lthough this species is most frequently referred to
and mature at a relatively old age, they are suscep- as black seabass in California, the American Fisheries
tible to overshing. As a consequence, they have suffered Society has designated the common name as giant sea
a serious decline in numbers. Commercial landings from bass. Black seabass is an unrelated Atlantic coast species.
U.S. waters peaked in 1932 near 200,000 pounds before Giant sea bass were originally assigned to the grouper
declining. Mexican waters were more productive (peaking family, Serranidae, but later placed in a new family,
at over 800,000 pounds in 1932) and did not permanently Percichthyidae. Although family placement has still not
sink below 200,000 pounds until 1964. A few hook-and-line been resolved, similarities between larvae of wreckshes
shermen targeted giant sea bass, but they were and giant sea bass seem to support placement in the
also caught incidentally by gillnets set for halibut and family Polyprionidae.
white seabass. Small juveniles are bright orange with large black spots.
Recreational landings, reported in numbers of sh rather As they grow they lose the orange coloration and take on a
than pounds, show a similar trend of peaking and perma- bronzy purple color. The spots slowly fade as the sh gets
nently declining. The peak in California landings occurred larger and darker, with large adults appearing solid black
in 1963 while Mexican landings peaked in 1973. That these to gray with a white underside. Giant sea bass are capable
recreational sheries peaked after the commercial shery of rapid and dramatic color changes. Large sh retain the
is due to the later development of the recreational shery ability to display large black spots, can take on a bicolor
rather than a reection of the giant sea bass population. A appearance (light below, dark above), white mottling, jet-
few boats developed a special recreational shery target- black or light gray. As implied by the name, the most
ing spawning aggregations during the summer months. dramatic feature of giant sea bass is their large size. The
Trips made in July to certain reefs between Point Abreojos International Game Fish Association world record for this
and Magdalena Bay, Baja California, consistently produced species is 563.5 pounds, caught at Anacapa Island in 1968.
70 to 100 giant sea bass. One trip produced 255 in three Giant sea bass reach lengths in excess of seven feet, and
days. Once these aggregations were exploited the shery are nearly as big around as they are long.
disappeared with the sh. Despite the conspicuous size and protected status of giant
In 1981, a law was passed that prohibited the take of sea bass, there are no published scientic studies to pro-
giant sea bass for any purpose, with the exception that vide details of the biology and habits of this creature. In
commercial shermen could retain and sell two sh per the eastern Pacic, giant sea bass range from Humboldt
trip if caught incidentally in a gillnet or trammel net. This Bay to the tip of Baja California, and occur in the northern
law also limited the amount of giant sea bass that could be half of the Gulf of California. Some authors have stated
taken in Mexican waters and landed in California. A vessel that this species is also found along the coast of northern
could land up to 1,000 pounds of Mexican giant sea bass Japan and the Sea of Japan, but this may be a case
per trip but could not land more than 3,000 pounds in a of mistaken identity. Within California it is rarely found
calendar year. The law was amended in 1988, reducing the north of Point Conception. Adult giant sea bass seem to
incidental take to one sh in California waters. Although prefer the edges of nearshore rocky reefs. These reefs
this law may have prevented commercial shermen from are relatively shallow (35 to 130 feet) and often support
selling giant sea bass in California, it did not prohibit thriving kelp beds. Although the kelp may disappear due
shing over habitats occupied by this species and probably to a strong El Niño or overgrazing by sea urchins, giant
did little to reduce the incidental mortality of giant sea sea bass remain at the reef. At certain times of the year,
bass, as giant sea bass that were entangled in the nets
were discarded at sea. The 1981 rule changes were more
effective in protecting giant sea bass in Mexico, since
large landings had been historically made by hook-and-line
shermen targeting grouper, cabrilla, and giant sea bass
off the Pacic coast of Baja California. The banning of
inshore gillnets displaced the California shery from the
majority of areas inhabited by giant sea bass; it is reason-
able to assume that this closure signicantly reduced the
incidental mortality of giant sea bass in California.
Giant Sea Bass, Stereolepis gigas
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 209
Giant Sea Bass
Giant Sea Bass (total commercial landings)
1.0
millions of pounds landed
0.8
0.6
Commercial Landings
0.4
1916-1999, Giant Sea Bass
Data reflects catch from both
0.2
California and Mexican waters
landed in California. Data
source: DFG Catch Bulletins and 0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
found over at sandy bottom and are sometimes caught
900
over deep ridges (230-265 feet) off the coast of Del Mar by
thousands of pounds landed
800
anglers targeting rocksh.
700
Giant Sea Bass
600
Given their depressed population and protected status,
500
it is unlikely an aging study of giant sea bass will be
400
300
completed in the near future. Although aging data are
200
sparse, it is safe to say these sh grow slowly and live a
100
long time. Estimated growth-rates are six years to reach
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
30 pounds, 10 years to reach 100 pounds, and 15 years to
California Waters
MexicanWaters
reach 150 pounds.
Commercial Landings by Location 1916-1999, Giant Sea Bass
Spawning has never been observed in nature, but gonad
Landings separated by location of catch. All landings were recorded at California ports.
examinations suggest that it occurs between July and
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts.
September. Male sh have been observed to be mature
at 40 pounds, and females at 50 to 60 pounds. Anecdotal
900 information suggests that giant sea bass aggregate at spe-
800
cic locations and times to spawn. Because of the large
number of fish landed
700
Giant Sea Bass
size of this species, females are capable of producing
600
500 enormous numbers of eggs. The ovaries of a 320-pound
400
specimen contained an estimated 60 million eggs. Fertile,
300
hydrated giant sea bass eggs are relatively large for a
200
marine species, measuring about 0.06 inch in diameter.
100
0 1947
The eggs oat to the surface and hatch in about 24 to 36
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
California Waters
hours. The larvae drift and feed in the plankton for about
MexicanWaters
a month before settling to the bottom and beginning their
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Giant Seabass
lives as juveniles. Giant sea bass have spawned in captivity
Data derived from commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch
several times, most recently at the Long Beach Aquarium
as reported by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1936; no data available
of the Pacic where a single pair spawned in two succes-
for 1941-1946; data separated by location of catch. Catch Data was not available
sive years, nearly weekly beginning in June and ending in
for 1999.
August or September.
adults can be found well away from the reef foraging for
Examinations of sh caught in Mexico indicate that the
squid over a sandy bottom.
principal prey items are sting rays, skates, lobster, crabs,
The orange juvenile phase has been reported among drift-
various atsh, small sharks, mantis shrimp and an occa-
ing kelp scattered over the bottom in 20 to 35 feet of
sional kelpbass or barred sandbass. Earlier analyses found
water, over the soft muddy bottom outside of the Long
blacksmith, ocean whitesh, red crab, sargo, sheephead,
Beach breakwater, and over at sandy bottom in Santa
octopus and squid. Giant sea bass are not built for speed,
Monica Bay. Larger juveniles up to 31 pounds have been
and the majority of their prey consists of organisms that
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
210
Status of the Population
live on the bottom. The vacuum produced when the huge
Giant Sea Bass
mouth is rapidly opened draws such organisms into their
T he California population of giant sea bass is well below
mouth. Giant sea bass themselves are eaten by a variety
historical highs. Anecdotal information suggests that
of shes and marine mammals when they are small. In
numbers may be beginning to rebound under current mea-
addition to humans, large sharks prey on adults.
sures. No hard data exist that provide actual or relative
Except for the short period of time they spend as plank-
numbers of giant sea bass.
tonic larvae, giant sea bass live in close association with
the bottom. This way of life may become a problem for
this species. The sediments along the coast of southern
Management Considerations
California carry high loads of toxins. In fact, an area off
the Palos Verdes peninsula is thought to contain higher See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
levels of DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) than any- further information.
where else in the world’s oceans. PCB is another pollutant
that is prevalent along the coast of southern California.
Michael L. Domeier
Many forms of invertebrates live in these sediments,
Peger Institute of Environmental Science
ingesting the pollutants along with the organic material
they feed on to survive. These organisms occupy very
low trophic levels, and the toxins are passed up the food
References
chain in increasing concentrations. Long-lived, top level
predators accumulate the highest levels of toxins. Giant
Domeier, Michael L. and Patrick L. Colin. 1997. Tropical
sea bass caught in southern California have been found to
reef sh spawning aggregations: dened and reviewed.
have high body burdens of DDE and PCB. Fish collected
Bull. Mar. Sci. 60 (3):698-726.
200 miles south of the Mexican border were found to be
Eschmeyer, W.N., E.S. Herald, and H. Hammann. 1983.
free of toxins. Thus, California populations of giant sea
A eld guide to Pacic Coast shes of North America.
bass may suffer from more than just overshing. These
Houghton Mifin Company. Boston, MA. 336 p.
two toxins have been found to affect reproduction in
other species of sh, as well as in amphibians, reptiles, Shane, M. A., W. Watson, and H. G. Moser. 1996. Polypri-
and birds. onidae: giant sea basses and wreckshes. Pages 873-875
In: H. G. Moser (ed.), The early stages of shes in the
It is presumed that giant sea bass migrate to specic sites
California Current Region. Coop. Fish. Invest. Atlas No. 33.
to spawn. This was almost certainly the case prior to
Allen Press Inc., Lawrence, KS. Calif.
the exploitation of the spawning aggregations, but it is
not known how far individuals traveled to participate in
the aggregation, or whether these migrations take place
today. The process of site selection for spawning aggrega-
tions is not well understood, but experimental manipula-
tion of small aggregating reef species suggests that once
a site is selected young sh learn its location from older
sh. In this way, the same traditional spawning aggrega-
tion sites are used by subsequent generations of sh.
Once the learning cycle has been broken it is not known
how a new (or the same) spawning aggregation may form.
The population may have to reach a particular density
before the process of forming annual spawning aggrega-
tions becomes a possibility. Giant sea bass have been
found in groups year round at a few locations in southern
California. Although anglers that come across these areas
and hook several giant sea bass in one day may be led to
believe that this species is thriving, giant sea bass remain
absent from the vast majority of our coast. It is likely that
the sh are gregarious, and after heavy exploitation, the
population has collapsed to a very few focal points where
they can be found in healthy numbers.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 211
Yellowtail
History of the Fishery catch. However, in the 1950s private boaters began taking
a signicant number of sh. During some years, private
S port and commercial sheries for yellowtail (Seriola boaters land more yellowtail than do CPFV anglers.
lalandi) have existed off California since the late 1800s. For instance, during 1997, private boat anglers shing
Commercial or subsistence shing is the older of the two, off California, landed 472,000 sh compared to 163,000
with modern hook-and-line sport shing getting its start recorded by CPFV anglers. The increase in the number
in 1898 at Santa Catalina Island. Prior to 1898, sportsmen of private boat anglers may impact the yellowtail
used handlines, a practice which faded with the advent resource more than continued effort by CPFV anglers or
of hickory rods, functional reels, and linen line. Both the commercial shermen.
sport and commercial sheries in California are conned Major shing areas for CPFV and private boat anglers
to the area south of Point Conception. The shery usually include the Channel Islands, Santa Monica Bay, Dana Point
occurs in nearshore areas, often adjacent to kelp beds. to Oceanside, La Jolla, San Clemente Island, Santa Cata-
During the summer, sh may be found offshore under lina Island, and the Coronado Islands. Long-range CPFVs
oating mats of kelp. sh primarily from Cedros Island south. They often con-
Commercial landings of yellowtail have uctuated greatly centrate on the offshore banks, especially in the Magda-
in the past, ranging from a high of 11.5 million pounds in lena Bay area. The commercial shery is conducted in the
1918 to a low of 9,769 pounds in 1995. Market conditions same areas as the sport shery.
appear to dictate landings more than does the health of
the resource. When market demand for fresh yellowtail
Status of Biological Knowledge
was high or the canneries needed sh because tuna were
unavailable, the price to the sherman was great enough
Y ellowtail are found from British Columbia, Canada to
to encourage trips for the sh.
Mazatlan, Mexico. They are present in the Gulf of Cali-
The commercial shery for yellowtail was restricted to fornia, occurring as far north as the Bay of Los Angeles.
small live bait boats working off southern California or the
Most yellowtail spawn during the summer months, June
Coronado Islands, Baja California, Mexico, until 1933. At
through September. During this period, adults move off-
that time, purse seiners began shing in Mexican waters,
shore and form spawning aggregations. Some two-year-old
as the supply of yellowtail off California had decreased
females may spawn, but all females over three years of
and it was illegal to seine them north of the international
age are capable of spawning. Young sh spawn only once
border. Gillnet boats also started landing yellowtail taken
during the season, while those seven years of age (20
incidentally to white seabass landed commercially in Cal-
pounds) and older are capable of multiple spawnings. A
ifornia. However, nearshore gillnet shing was banned
20-pound sh is capable of producing 940,000 eggs during
beginning in 1994. This greatly reduced the amount of sh
a single season.
landed by commercial shers since only hook-and-line gear
Yellowtail are opportunistic daytime feeders. Off southern
and gillnets shed outside three miles are legal methods
California, yellowtail stomachs contain sardines, ancho-
of take.
vies, jack mackerel, Pacic mackerel, and squid. Fish
Data from commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) logs
taken off Mexico frequently are full of pelagic red crabs.
provide a general indication of the magnitude of the
Age and growth studies conducted on yellowtail indicate
sport shery for yellowtail in southern California. During
the sh are relatively slow growing. They gain approxi-
years when the water was warm, CPFVs have landed
mately three to four pounds a year during most of their
over 450,000 sh. When the water was cold, yellowtail
lives, although very large individuals may gain only one to
catches were sometimes less than 10,000 sh. Prior to the
two pounds per year. Growth can vary considerably from
early 1950s, CPFVs were responsible for most of the sport
year to year and also between and within geographical
areas. The largest recorded individual weighed 80 pounds.
The average sizes at selected ages are: age one, 20 inches
and 3.8 pounds; age two, 25 inches and 7.4 pounds; age
three, 28 inches and 9.9 pounds; age four, 31 inches and
13.2 pounds; age ve, 33 inches and 15.9 pounds; age 10,
44 inches and 35 pounds.
Within southern California and at the Coronado Islands,
sport anglers generally land yellowtail that weigh four to
12 pounds. Long-range CPFV anglers shing off central
Yellowtail, Seriola lalandi
Baja California usually catch 12 to 18 pound sh. Com-
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
212
Yellowtail
14
millions of pounds landed
12
10
Yellowtail
8 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Yellowtail
6
Data Source: DFG Catch
4 Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Yellowtail
2 landings include fish caught in
waters south of the state but
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landed in California.
mercial gillnet shermen generally land 10 to 20 pound
Status of Population
yellowtail because of the selective nature of the nets.
W
Commercial hook-and-line shermen usually land four to hile no population estimate is available for the
12 pound sh, although none can be less than 28 inches northern stock of yellowtail, the resource appears
long, measured in fork length. to be healthy. The stock is probably not as large as it
was in the early 1950s, but it can support signicant
Results of a tagging study conducted by the California
sport and commercial sheries when oceanic conditions
Department of Fish and Game indicate there are two
are favorable.
stocks of yellowtail off Baja and southern California. One
group occurs south of Cedros Island, Baja California, while Data collected during the 1970s and early 1980s indicate
the second group occupies the area from Cedros Island that the northern population has undergone a shift in sh
northward. There is some interchange of sh between size. Two and three year olds now dominate the catch,
the two groups around Cedros Island. Because of limited whereas six to nine year olds made up the majority of the
mixing between the two stocks, the southern California catch in the past. The shift in size could be an indicator of
shery is wholly dependent on sh recruited from the either population stress or good recruitment.
northern population.
Because more of the northern stock is available to
The number of yellowtail available to southern California sport anglers during warm water conditions, CPFV catches
shermen in any given year is dependent on whether during El Niño events provide an indication of the health
warm water conditions exist off northern Baja California. of the resource. The El Niño event of 1997, which proved
Excellent yellowtail catches have occurred during years to be the strongest of many events beginning with 1983,
when water temperatures were at least three to ve pushed many young yellowtail north into southern Califor-
degrees F above normal in the spring. Conversely, periods nia. The 1996 year class dominated the sport shery
of cool water produce low catches. When sh are avail- during the summer of 1997 as one-year-old sh. The 1996
able, they usually are found nearshore in the spring and year class remained off southern California during the
fall but offshore during the summer months. winter of 1998 and again dominated the shery as two-
year-olds. During 1998, the commercial shery harvested
almost a quarter million pounds of yellowtail since most
of the 1996 year class sh reached legal size midway
through the summer. This commercial catch represented
500
a four-fold increase from 1997. With the cooling of ocean
thousands of fish landed
400
waters off southern California in 1999 and 2000, sport
Yellowtail
300
and commercial yellowtail catches dropped. However, the
1996 year class continued to dominate the sport shery
200
during both years. Based on data from the MRFSS, the
100
1996 year class was the strongest in recent history. Over
0
1.0 million yellowtail from the 1996 year class were landed
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
by CPFV and private boat anglers between 1997 and 2000.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Yellowtail
Data Source: DFG, Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel logbooks.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 213
References
The department initiated a minimum size limit on sport
Yellowtail
caught yellowtail during 1998 in an effort to reduce the
Baxter, J.L. 1960. A study of the yellowtail Seriola dorsalis
catch of one-year-old sh. The 10 sh limit was retained,
(Gill). Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 110. 96 p.
but a 28-inch FL size limit was adopted with sport anglers
allowed to retain ve sh less than 28 inches FL. Crooke, S.J. 1983. Yellowtail, Seriola lalandei Valenci-
ennes. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:84-87.
Management Considerations Radovich, J. 1961. Relationship of water temperature to
marine organisms of the northeast Pacic, particularly
during 1957 through 1959. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Bull. 112. 62 p.
further information.
Stephen J. Crooke
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
214
Pacific Bonito
History of the Fishery Pacic bonito is well known for its ghting ability and
Pacific Bonito
quality as a food sh. Bonito can be caught recreationally
T he Pacic bonito (Sarda chiliensis) is an economically with live anchovies and sardines or by casting or trolling
important commercial species from Magdalena Bay with metal lures and feather jigs. Off California, recre-
in southern Baja California, Mexico to Point Conception, ational anglers typically catch bonito year round south
California, and in most years is ranked as one of of Point Conception with the highest catches in summer.
the top 15 species sought by recreational shermen in North of Point Conception, recreational anglers usually
southern California. take bonito during the fall months.
As a result of the expansion of the commercial passenger Bonito are taken commercially by troll gear, gillnets, and
shing vessel (CPFV) industry after World War II, Pacic pole and line gear, but the landings of sh caught by these
bonito catches by CPFVs increased from 36,500 in 1947 methods usually average less then two percent of the total
to over one million sh in 1960. Most of these sh were catch. The primary commercial shing gear for bonito
caught between Malibu Beach and the Coronado Islands. is the purse seine. The purse seine eet consists of
CPFV logbook landings of bonito remained high during the two general groups: the local “wetsh” vessels with sh
1960s, with more than one million sh taken in 1964, load capacities of 30 to 100 tons, and the larger tuna sein-
1968, and 1969. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, CPFV ers capable of carrying 150 to 500 tons. Wetsh boats har-
landings dropped and then stabilized with decadal aver- vest mackerel and sardines, but seasonally target bonito,
ages for the 1970s and 1980s at 313,200 and 372,700 sh, squid, and bluen tuna. Nearly all of these wetsh seiners
respectively. In the 1990s, the number of sh taken by are based in San Pedro and sh in the Santa Barbara
CPFVs dropped again. Logbook landings ranged between and San Pedro Channels. The large tuna seiners, now
2,880 and 263,000 sh with a decadal average of 101,700. all but absent from California, operate primarily in the
The 1999 landings were the lowest annual catch on record tropical waters off Mexico and Central and South Amer-
and the decadal average the lowest since the 1940s. ica. Although the primary target for these seiners is yel-
lown tuna, these vessels take bonito during their return
During the 1980s, more then one-half of the bonito catch
trips to the United States to help compensate for small
was made from private boats as this method of angling
tuna catches.
became increasingly popular. A similar trend was observed
in the 1990s with private boats landing between 33 per- Off California, commercial shing for bonito occurs year
cent and 57 percent of the recreational catch. Private round south of Point Conception with the largest catches
boat landings in the 1990s ranged between 1,200 and in late summer and early fall. North of Point Conception,
128,400 sh with a decadal average of 49,600. This was commercial shing for bonito occurs primarily in the
signicantly lower than the 1980s decadal average of summer and fall.
560,000 sh. Over the last 80 years, commercial landings of bonito
Recreational catches can be impacted by the availability have ranged between 127,600 pounds (1956) and 31.9 mil-
of other desirable species. In the 1980s and 1990s, highly lion pounds (1975). During the rst half of the twentieth
desirable species such as yellown tuna, bluen tuna, century, landings of bonito gradually increased from about
and albacore occasionally were available in large numbers. 500,000 pounds in 1916 to around 10.9 million pounds in
The reductions in recreational landings of bonito can be 1941. Landings briey peaked again after World War II, but
attributed in part to a shift in targeted effort from bonito dropped during the 1950s and early 1960s. Landings then
to these more desirable species. showed a major upward trend from the mid-1960s through
the mid-1970s, increasing more than four-fold between
Changes in regulations can also impact recreational
1965 and 1975. Starting in the late 1970s, this trend
catches. In 1982, a 24-inch size limit was imposed on
reversed with landings dropping in the 1980s to a decadal
bonito. Part of the reduction in sport landings after 1982
was probably due to this size restriction, but the impact
of this regulation was probably limited because of a ve
sh tolerance for undersized bonito that was included
with the size restriction.
The bulk of the recreational catch consists of one-year
bonito approximately 18 inches long. During fall and
spring migrations, larger two-year sh become available to
anglers. About ve to 10 percent of the landings consist of
sh larger then 24 inches.
Pacific Bonito, Sarda chiliensis
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 215
Pacific Bonito
35
millions of pounds landed
30
25
Pacific Bonito 20
15
10
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Pacific Bonito
5
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
average of eight million pounds (compared to 9.7 million bonito is a pulse shery. When bonito become more abun-
pounds for the 1960s and 17.7 million pounds for the dant, either from a gradual increase in the population or
1970s). In the 1990s, landings for this sh ranged between from the recruitment of a strong year class, then some
157,000 and 9.58 million pounds with a decadal average of the commercial shing effort in Mexican waters shifts
of 1.9 million pounds. This average was higher than that to this species. The resource is harvested until the sh
observed in the 1950s (1.8 million pounds) but lower than are no longer abundant. Effort then is redirected to other
those from the previous three decades. species until such time as the bonito resource becomes
abundant again.
In the 1990s, bonito’s ranking among the other commer-
cial species also dropped. By total weight, bonito ranked The availability of other desirable species can have a
among the top 20 species landed by California sheries for profound impact on the landings of bonito. Lower avail-
most of the 1980s. In contrast, during the 1990s, this sh ability of other more desirable species due to environmen-
ranked among the top 20 species only in 1990 and 1998. tal changes or management changes can increase the
amount of bonito landed. For instance, bonito were tar-
The amount of bonito landed is impacted by its avail-
geted during seasonal yellown tuna closures in the 1970s
ability, the availability of other desirable species, market
because an incidental take of the more valuable yellown
demand, and price. Off of California, the availability of
tuna was allowed while shing for bonito. On the other
bonito can vary considerably between seasons and years.
hand, high availability of more desirable species can
Some of this variation can be attributed to the migratory
reduce the amount of bonito landed. This was likely the
movements of these sh and some to oceanic changes. For
case in the 1980s and 1990s when a number of more
instance, during El Niño events, more of the stock may
desirable species including yellown tuna, skipjack tuna,
move northward, becoming more available to California
albacore tuna, and bluen tuna were at times quite abun-
sheries, while during La Niña events, fewer sh may
dant. In 1986, for example, high availability of bluen
move into California waters.
tuna with a value of $1,550 per ton resulted in the
The availability of bonito also can be impacted by shing
wetsh seiners shifting their effort toward that species;
restrictions. During the years from 1943 to 1958 and 1975
as a result, bonito landings in 1986 dropped to a low of
to 1978, at least 50 percent, and often more than 90
533,000 pounds.
percent, of the landed bonito were taken off Baja Califor-
Market demand for bonito has been low over the last
nia, Mexico. During the last two decades, Mexico has
two decades. Commercial bonito landings are primarily
restricted access to foreign vessels shing in its nearshore
purchased by canneries that process bonito for human
waters and California landings originating from Mexico
consumption with the offal utilized for pet food or for
have declined to less than 10 percent of the total landings.
reduction to shmeal. Cannery orders for this sh in
In addition, the availability of bonito in California waters
recent years have been limited. Higher demand exists
can be impacted by the amount of sh taken by the com-
for yellown tuna, skipjack tuna, albacore, and bluen
mercial shery in Mexican waters. Mexican commercial
tuna for human consumption; for Pacic mackerel and
landings of bonito over the last several decades show
jack mackerel as pet food; and for northern anchovy as
sharp periodic increases in the take of this sh. This
shmeal. Bonito also are sold fresh or frozen or are pro-
pattern suggests that the Mexican commercial shery for
cessed by curing or smoking. The market for this product
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
216
is currently small, but is growing due to the changes in observed in an aquarium, females swim with a wobble
Pacific Bonito
California’s demographics. while males use color barring on their bodies to show
their interest and aggressive nature. This aggressive verti-
Prices for bonito have generally showed an upward trend
cal barring coloration in males has also been observed in
over time. Between the 1960s and early 1980s, the price
aquarium-held bonito at feeding time. During courtship,
of bonito increased from $50 to $90 per ton to $550 per
males will follow directly behind the displaying female,
ton. The price then declined to $200 to $300 per ton
jockeying for position. The successful male and female
in the mid-1980s but increased again in the 1990s to an
then pair and synchronize the release of gametes at the
average of $990 per ton. While the 1990s average price is
onset of a tight circle swim. Gametes are broadcast into
the highest reported for bonito, it is still lower than that
the seawater where fertilization takes place.
paid for desirable sh such as bluen tuna which usually
sells for four to ve times the price of bonito. Sexual maturity differs between males and females.
Pacic bonito females begin to mature at two years of age
and are fully mature at 24 inches. Males are more preco-
Status of Biological Knowledge cious. About 44 percent of the one-year males spawn,
and all are mature at two years of age or 20 inches in
P acic bonito is a rapidly growing piscivorous sh. In
length. Spawning begins in January and continues for a
one year this sh can reach roughly 20 inches in fork
ve-month period. Peak spawning occurs off central Baja
length, and weigh about four pounds. At two years of age,
California, but may take place in southern California late
bonito average roughly 25 inches in fork length and weigh
in the season or during El Niño episodes. Some localized
about eight pounds. Their growth slows in the latter half
spawning may also take place near warm-water discharges
of life with the sh reaching 32 to 35 inches and 17 to
from electrical generating stations. Individuals may spawn
22 pounds at six years. The California angling record is a
more than once during a season. A 6.6-pound female
22-pound sh caught off Malibu Beach in 1978, but larger
releases an estimated 0.5 million eggs in one season.
sh are occasionally reported.
Bonito consume prey equaling about six percent of their
Swimming is continuous to maintain orientation and respi-
body weight per day. Northern anchovies are common
ration, and is powered by richly oxygenated red muscle
prey, but market squid, highly vulnerable to predation
tissues near the tail. As the sh grow, the proportion of
while spawning, sometimes become a major part of the
red muscle tissue increases; hence, larger sh become
diet. Pacic sardines may also be a signicant food source.
relatively more powerful swimmers. At a continuous-main-
tenance swimming speed, aquarium-held sh averaging 22
Status of the Population
inches in length swim as much as 43 miles daily.
Bonito is a temperate epipelagic schooling sh with a
W arm water conditions in the 1980s and 1990s may
discontinuous distribution in the eastern Pacic Ocean. It
have provided good conditions for bonito survival,
ranges from Chile to the Gulf of Alaska, but is absent from
but large catches have been sporadic and the trends
the central coast of Mexico south to Panama. The north-
in both commercial and recreational landings continue
ern population typically is centered between southern
downwards. This downward trend may be due in part
California and central Baja California, but this distribution
to a shift in targeted effort from bonito to other more
can shift northward during warm-water years. This species
desirable species and to low market demand. It also may
migrates approximately 600 miles along the United States
be due to changes in the distribution and migration of this
- Mexico coastline, moving southward from southern Cali-
northern population in response to oceanographic changes
fornia in the winter and northward from Baja California
that have taken place over the last two decades. However,
in the summer. This migration probably is a response to
changing sea temperatures since these sh appear to be
impacted by local variations in sea temperature. Individu- 1.4
als tagged and released within warm-water discharges 1.2
millions of fish landed
1.0
from electrical generating stations have been recaptured
Pacific Bonito
0.8
near their release site up to three years later. These
0.6
tagging studies suggest that some bonito do not move
0.4
southward in the winter and instead overwinter in the
0.2
Southern California Bight.
0.0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
There is no external anatomical differences between the
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Pacific Bonito
sexes. However, behavioral and visual cues can be used to
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
distinguish males from females. During courtship of bonito
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 217
References
this downward trend may well be due to a decline in
Pacific Bonito
stock abundance. If this is the case, then current shing
Black, G. 1979. Maturity and spawning of the Pacic
practices may make it difcult for this stock to rebuild.
bonito, Sarda chiliensis lineolata, in the eastern North
Pacic. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
Management Considerations Rept. 41. 60 p.
Campbell, G. and R.A. Collins. 1975. The age and growth
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
of the Pacic bonito, Sarda chiliensis, in the eastern North
further information.
Pacic. Calif. Fish and Game 61:181-200.
Collette, B.B. & C.E. Nauen. 1983. FAO species catalogue
Jeffrey Smiley, Deborah Aseltine-Neilson,
vol. 2: Scombrids of the world. An annotated and illus-
Ken Miller and Marija Vojkovich
trated catalog of tunas, mackerel, bonitos and related
California Department of Fish and Game
species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis (125) Vol
2. 137 p.
Collins, R., D. Huppert, A. MacCall, J. Radovich, and
G. Stauffer. 1980. Pacic bonito management information
document. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Tech.
Rept. 44. 94 p.
Goldberg, S. R., and D. Mussiett. 1984. Reproductive cycle
of the Pacic bonito, Sarda chiliensis (Scombridae), from
northern Chile. Pacic Science 38:228-231.
Magnuson, J.J. and J.H. Prescott. 1966. Courtship, loco-
motion, feeding, and miscellaneous behaviour of Pacic
bonito (Sarda chiliensis). Anim. Behav. 14:54-67.
Squire, J.L., Jr. 1982. Catch temperatures for some impor-
tant marine species off California. NOAA Tech. Rept. NMFS
SSRF-759. 27 p.
Yoshida, H.O. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on bonitos
of the genus Sarda. NOAATech. Rept. NMFS Circ. 432. 50 p.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
218
California Barracuda
History of the Fishery shermen has been low. In 1999, commercial shermen
California Barracuda
received an average price of $0.70 per pound.
T he California barracuda (Sphyraena argentea), also The popularity of California barracuda as a game sh goes
known as the Pacic barracuda, has played a signi- back to at least the mid-1920s, as is evident from photo-
cant role in the growth and development of California’s graphs and newspaper accounts. However, the California
commercial and sport shing industries. Taken primarily Department of Fish and Game (DFG) did not begin collect-
off southern California and northern Baja California, ing records of commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV)
Mexico, barracuda gured prominently in the development sport sh landings until 1936. Records from 1936 through
of the purse seine shery. Additionally, they have long 1940 reveal that CPFV barracuda landings (in numbers
been a major component of the southern California sport of sh) exceeded those of other sport shes, and that
sh catch. they often equaled or exceeded commercial landings (in
Annual records of commercial barracuda landings date weight) for barracuda taken in California waters. Annual
back to 1889, but only nine years of intermittent records landings for these ve years averaged about 630,000 sh.
exist through 1915, and these are not specic as to catch Records were not kept from 1941 through 1946 due to
areas. Commercial landings of barracuda in 1889 were shing restraints during World War II. As interest in marine
0.5 million pounds, and by 1915 they were up to 3.6 mil- sport shing grew in the post-World War II era, the sport
lion pounds. Since 1916, landing records have differenti- take of barracuda greatly exceeded that of the com-
ated barracuda caught in California waters (essentially off mercial eet in California waters. Between 1946 and 1971,
southern California) from those caught in waters south of CPFV barracuda landings ranged from 87,600 to 1.2 million
the international border with Mexico (northern Baja Cali- sh, for an overall annual average of 447,000 sh. In
fornia). By 1916, The southern California purse seine eet 1971, the current 28-inch minimum size limit for all sport-
consisted of at least seven vessels by 1916. Inuenced by caught barracuda became effective, causing an 86 percent
the economic impetus of World War I, the commercial bar- decline in CPFV barracuda landings from the previous year.
racuda shery grew concurrently with the rapid develop- Since 1971, CPFV landings of barracuda have been increasing,
ment of the purse seine eet. ranging between 26,300 and 446,000 sh annually.
Attempts to manage the barracuda shery began in 1915 The Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey has
with a minimum size limit of 18 inches for hook-and-line shown that, on average, 54 percent of the total barracuda
caught barracuda. Since then, many commercial and sport catch is from CPFVs, 45 percent is from private and
regulations on gear, seasons, weight, size, and bag limits rental boats, and one percent is from shore. In the late
have been enacted, modied, or repealed. Today, most 1980s, a DFG study determined that roughly 60 percent of
commercially caught barracuda are taken by gillnets with CPFV-caught barracuda are released (almost all of which
3.5-inch mesh, although some are taken by hook-and-line. are less than 28 inches). The study also indicated Los
The minimum size limit is 28 inches. May and June are Angeles County accounted for 58 percent of the CPFV
usually the peak months of commercial shing activity barracuda landings.
for barracuda. Sport anglers, especially aboard CPFVs, usually use live
Between 1915 and 1970, commercial landings of barracuda anchovies or sardines to sh for barracuda. Anchovies and
harvested from California’s nearshore waters averaged 2.1 sardines are also used to chum and hold barracuda schools
million pounds annually, despite a gradual decline in land- close to the boat. Metal or plastic articial lures in a
ings since 1925. Landings have remained relatively low variety of shapes and colors are also popular. Sport-caught
since 1970, averaging about 113,500 pounds annually. Prior barracuda are taken mainly near the surface. Most shing
to 1926, California barracuda harvested south of the inter- activity occurs from May through September, when surface
national border exceeded those catches made in Califor- water temperatures range between 62° and 70°F.
nia. Barracuda harvest from Mexican waters remained an
integral part of the California shery until 1969, averaging
over one million pounds annually. But over the past 30
years, landings have been insignicant, averaging only 600
pounds annually. The major cause for the decline was the
imposition of increasingly restrictive commercial shing
regulations by Mexico which became increasingly restric-
tive to California shermen over the years.
In general, commercial barracuda prices are a function
of supply and demand. Historically, the price paid to
California Barracuda, Sphyraena argentea
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 219
Status of Biological Knowledge northern anchovy, Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, jack
California Barracuda
mackerel, and Pacic saury. In association with kelp beds
T he California barracuda is a nearshore, epipelagic, or shallow water habitats, they may feed on topsmelt and
schooling sh found from Cabo San Lucas, Baja Cali- California grunion. Opportunistic feeding on market squid
fornia to Kodiak Island, Alaska. Catch origins indicate made vulnerable during their spawning activity is likely.
the population is centered between San Quentin, Baja Previous references to the predators that feed on Califor-
California and Point Conception, California. During warm nia barracuda have listed sea lions, seals, porpoises, and
water oceanic events, such as El Niños, a portion of giant sea bass. Analyses of the gut contents and scat
the population may shift northward into central Califor- from marine mammals have failed to discover barracuda
nia. Frequently seen at the surface, barracuda have been remains. Observations of California sea lions and harbor
taken at depths of 120 feet. seals opportunistically feeding on barracuda injured or
Growth in length is most rapid during the rst year of entrapped by shing gear are common, but these animals
life. Barracuda reach a total length of 14 inches at one more typically feed on the same size prey as adult barra-
year. At two years, they have grown to 20 inches and cuda. Giant sea bass are more likely predators on juveniles
weigh about one pound. However, the maximum growth and adult barracuda.
by weight of nearly one pound per year is achieved by California barracuda have an inshore distribution during
four- and ve-year-old sh. The minimum size limit of their early life history. Fish a few inches long are observed
28 inches, approximately a three-pound sh, is near the in protected bays and marinas. Larger young-of-the-year
average size for a four-year-old. At this age, females are sh school below the canopy of semi-protected kelp-bed
about 0.75 inches larger than males, and the difference habitats. Older juveniles and adults form large schools
increases to about 2.5 inches in sh over six years old. The that disperse widely in the open-water environment.
oldest sh aged was an 11-year-old measuring 41 inches
Movements of California barracuda have been studied by
and weighing about nine pounds. Larger and presumably
tagging. Fish tagged during May 1959 at locations off
older sh include the state angling record of 15 pounds 15
northern Baja California and off southern California were
ounces and a 17-pound sh caught off Carpenteria in 1958
recovered at intermixed locations, indicating a single pop-
that measured 46.5 inches.
ulation. Movements of up to 100 miles north and south
California barracuda produce pelagic eggs and larvae. Fer- occurred during the summer, but a portion of the recover-
tilization takes place externally as the sexes simultane- ies were at the release sites. However, a general migra-
ously release their gametes. At two years, almost all males tion pattern that was distinctly northward during the
and 75 percent of females are sexually mature. All are summer and less distinctly southward during the fall was
mature at three years of age. Full sexual maturity occurs indicated. Movements are presumably a response to sea
in males at a length of 20 inches and in females at temperature, and warm overwintering temperatures off
22 inches. In a single spawning, a two-year-old female southern California reduce the southward return. High
may produce 50,000 eggs, increasing to about 400,000 by catch success during spring and summer off southern Cali-
age six. Individuals may spawn more than once during a fornia has been correlated with warm sea temperatures
spawning season. Off southern California, spawning takes the preceding winter.
place from April to September, peaking in June.
Feeding habits of California barracuda are not well docu-
Status of the Population
mented, but some potential prey species can be men-
tioned. During pelagic schooling movements, barracuda
T he status of the California barracuda population
may feed on other open water schooling shes such as
is unknown, because data concerning catch, shing
effort, and age composition are scarce. Barracuda catches
1.4
off California are variable for many reasons, one of which
1.2
millions of fish landed
California Barracuda
is that barracuda are migratory with a preference for
1.0
warmer waters. During an El Niño event, when warmer
0.8
than normal water masses move up the coast, barracuda
0.6
are caught far north of their normal range and in greater
0.4
than average numbers off southern California, suggesting
0.2
a higher population level. This was apparent during the
0.0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1957-1959 El Niño event, one of the most intense on
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, California Barracuda record. However, during the similarly intense 1982-1983
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported and 1997-1998 El Niño events, barracuda catches did not
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
220
California Barracuda
9
8
millions of pounds landed
California Barracuda
7
6
5
4
Commercial Landings
3
1916-1999,
2 California Barracuda
1 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
References
increase appreciably. Assuming shing effort and the per-
centage of the population migrating northward were simi-
Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
lar, the difference suggests that the barracuda population
Status of major southern California marine sport sh spe-
was depressed during the latter El Niño periods. Since the
cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
late 1980s, catches have increased but remain well below
ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
those reported prior to 1970. This is due to the fact
commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
sport anglers may no longer keep short barracuda as they
1987. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div., Admin.
were allowed to do prior to 1971. Only during one three-
Rep. 90-2. 376 p.
year period, 1958 though 1960, has the number of bar-
racuda off southern California been estimated by the DFG. Orton, G.L.1955. Early developmental stages of the Califor-
Estimates ranged from 1.6 to 2.9 million sh. nia barracuda, Sphyraena argentea Girard. Calif. Fish and
Game. 41:167-176.
Because of uncontrollable factors such as migration,
water temperature, and Mexico’s management policies, Pinkas, L. 1966. A management study of the California
the DFG’s management policies for this species probably barracuda Sphyraena argentea Girard. Calif. Dept. Fish
have a limited effect on its population level. Nevertheless, and Game, Fish Bull. 134. 58 p.
the regulations are intended to reduce the likelihood of
Schultze, D.L. 1983. California barracuda life history, sh-
overshing this valuable resource.
eries, and management. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest.
Rep. 24:88-96.
Management Considerations Walford, L.A. 1932. The California barracuda Sphyraena
argentea. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 37. 122 p.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
J.R. Raymond Ally and Ken Miller
California Department of Fish and Game
Updated by Stephen P. Wertz
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 221
Kelp Bass
History of the Fishery bag limits for sport caught kelp and sand bass combined.
The new size limit began at 10.5 inches and was increased
K elp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) are popularly referred several times until the 12-inch limit was reached in 1959.
to as calico bass and represent one of the most impor- The kelp bass catch has uctuated greatly since the 1960s.
tant nearshore, recreational species in the waters off The largest CPFV catches occurred during the mid-1980s,
of southern California. This important species has been estimated at over 1,000,000 sh annually. Since 1980,
the target of southern California anglers and commercial the CPFV kelp bass catch has ranged from 273,000 to
shermen since the early 1900s. In the early years of 2,795,000 sh in 1988 and 1986, respectively, and aver-
the shery, catch statistics grouped kelp bass and the aged about 1,000,000 kelp bass per year. CPFV landings of
two other Paralabrax species, barred sand bass and spot- kelp bass typically peak in the late spring and early fall.
ted sand bass, into a single “rock bass” category. Based The recent Federal Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics
on recent information, it is very likely that kelp bass Survey estimated that since 1990 the catch from shore,
comprised most of this catch category early on. The larg- pier, and private boat anglers averages about 900,000
est commercial landings of rock bass occurred during kelp bass per year which exceeds that of CPFV shermen
the 1920s and 1930s; annual landings averaged 500,000 (about 800,000 sh per year). The CPFV landings of kelp
pounds. A sharp decline in shing activity occurred during bass steadily declined each year from 1993 to 1999.
and after World War II and landings never exceeded
The most productive shing areas for kelp bass in recent
150,000 pounds from 1941 through 1953. The general
years have been off the Coronado Islands, Baja California,
decline of the rock bass resource prompted conservation
Mexico; Point Loma and La Jolla in San Diego County;
measures, which in 1953 made commercial shing for rock
Dana Point and Huntington Beach in Orange County; Santa
bass illegal in California waters. Legally sold sh imported
Catalina Island and Horseshoe Kelp in Los Angeles County;
from Mexico dwindled to insignicant levels since the late
and around the Channel Islands in Santa Barbara and
1950s. Sport anglers using light hook-and-line tackle catch
Ventura Counties.
kelp bass while shing from piers, beaches, private boats,
and commercial passenger shing vessels (CPFVs). Sport
catch records for rock bass taken by CPFVs have been
Status of Biological Knowledge
available since 1935, but only CPFV records since 1975
K
reliably differentiated kelp bass catches from the other elp bass have ranged historically as far north as the
rock bass. Early sport anglers considered the kelp bass a mouth of the Columbia River and south to Bahia Mag-
nuisance when attempting to catch more desirable game- dalena, Baja California, Mexico. However, they are rare
sh. Only the largest “bull bass” were sought. In 1939, north of Point Conception. They are abundant in southern
a limit on sport sh catches in California, 15 total sh California waters including the shores of all the Channel
in an aggregate of several species, was the rst man- Islands. They are typically found in shallow water (surface
agement attempt to prevent depletion of popular sport to 150 feet) being closely associated with high relief struc-
sh populations. ture, including kelp. Kelp bass range throughout the water
column, but seem to concentrate between eight and 70
Intense shing immediately after World War II may have
feet. In general, they live solitary lives but form assem-
caused a progressive decrease in the size of landed bass,
blies to spawn and to feed on small schooling sh. Early
and the popular kelp bass shery was deteriorating. The
tag and release studies showed little movement for the
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) instituted
majority of kelp bass and concluded that if they move at
comprehensive studies in 1950 that resulted in size and
all, it is to nearby rocky reefs or short distances to gather
into breeding assemblages. More recently, tagging studies
in the northern portion of the Southern California Bight
from Point Conception south the northern Channel Islands
indicated the kelp bass were quite mobile with some sh
traveling as far as 50 miles.
Kelp bass have the broad diet of a generalized carnivore
consisting of small shes (including anchovies, sardines,
surfperch, queensh), squids, octopuses, crabs, shrimps,
and amphipods. They forage primarily in the midwater,
but occasionally feed on the bottom. Young kelp bass
feed on small crabs, copepods, and plankton. They
Kelp Bass, Paralabrax clathratus feed lightly in the winter and most heavily during May
Credit: DFG through September.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
222
mid-1970s and early-1980s may be attributed to El Niño
Kelp Bass
700
events that provide anglers with alternative species to
600
thousands of fish landed
catch. Peak landings have followed each El Niño event.
500
Kelp Bass
DFG surveys of the CPFV industry in the 1970s and 1980s
400
indicated a stable spawning population is being main-
300
tained because of the large number of age classes that
200
are caught and kept by anglers. Approximately 85 percent
100
of the kelp bass kept by CPFV anglers measure between
0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
11.4 to 15.9 inches, representing up to seven age classes.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Kelp Bass
However, the alarming decline of recreational catch from
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
all sources that has occurred in the 1990s is a major cause
by CPFV logbooks. Prior to 1973, Kelp Bass and Barred Sand Bass CPFV catch data
for concern.
were aggregated.
Kelp bass mature between seven and 10.5 inches in length
Management Considerations
and about three to ve years and form breeding aggrega-
tions in deeper water off of kelp heads and rocky head- See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
lands, generally, in depths down to 150 feet. Several further information.
hundred ripe adults may aggregate in a small area during
spawning. During spawning, high-contrast, black and white
Larry G. Allen
individuals with yellow-orange snouts are usually males,
California State University, Northridge
and sh with golden hues and yellow chins and jaws are
usually females. Spawning occurs primarily around the Tim E. Hovey
full moon from April through November peaking in the California Department of Fish and Game
summer months. Kelp bass produce pelagic eggs (0.04
inches in diameter) which enter the plankton in coastal
References
waters. Larvae remain in the plankton for 28 to 30 days at
which time they settle out in shallow water in attached,
Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
as well as drift algae including kelps. Young-of-year kelp
Status of major southern California marine sportsh spe-
bass grow to a length of about two inches in the rst
cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
90 days of life.
ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
Kelp bass are known to grow to 28.5 inches and 14.5 commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
pounds. The oldest known kelp bass was 34 years old 1987. Calif Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin.
and 25 inches long. Juvenile kelp bass can be ve to six Rept. 90-2: May, 1991.
inches after one year and are about 12 inches (legal size)
Cordes, J.F., and L.G. Allen. 1997. Estimates of age,
at ve years. The average 10 year-old kelp bass is about 18
growth, and settlement from otoliths of young-of-the-year
inches in total length. As with most shes, growth is highly
kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus). Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci.
variable with the largest sh not necessarily being the
96:43-60.
oldest. The world record kelp bass (14.5 pounds) caught
Love, M.S., A. Brooks, and J.R.R. Ally. 1996. An analysis of
off Newport Beach in 1995 was 27 years old while a 9.5
commercial passenger shing vessel sheries for kelp bass
pound sh caught at San Clemente Island in 1993 was 34
and barred sand bass in the southern California Bight. Calif
years old.
Dept. Fish and Game 82(3): 105-121.
Love, M.S., A. Brooks, D. Busatto, J.S. Stephens, Jr. and
Status of the Population P.A. Gregory. 1996. Aspects of the life histories of the
kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) and barred sand bass (P.
I n the 1970s and 1980s, the kelp bass was among the top
nebulifer) from the southern California Bight. U.S. Fish.
three species taken by the average angler per hour of
Bull 94: 472-481.
shing (along with barred sand bass and Pacic mackerel).
Young, P.H. 1963. The kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus)
In 1986 and 1989, kelp bass were the most commonly
and its shery, 1947-1958. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
taken species in the CPFV eet. Throughout the 1980s,
Fish. Bull. 122.67 p.
kelp bass have consistently ranked among the top ve
shes caught by CPFV anglers. DFG surveys indicate the
estimated total catches of kelp bass have increased since
the mid-1970s. Low periods of kelp bass landings in the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 223
Barred Sand Bass
History of the Fishery private boat, CPFVs, etc.) ranged as high as 1,940,000 in
1988. The CPFV landings of barred sand bass remained
B arred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer) are commonly stable at around 600,000 sh from 1993 to 1996, but
caught by anglers in California. Since the late 1970s, declined dramatically thereafter. On average, landings of
this species has consistently ranked among the top 10 barred sand bass in the 1990s were about 40 percent
species in the southern California marine sport sh catch. lower than those in the 1980s.
The major barred sand bass shing sites include the Silver
Strand, Del Mar, San Onofre, Huntington Flats area off
Status of Biological Knowledge
Orange County, the inshore portion of northern Santa
Monica Bay off Pacic Palisades and Santa Monica in Los
B arred sand bass range from Santa Cruz south to Bahia
Angeles County, and the Ventura Flats area off northern
Magdalena, Baja California, Mexico. They are rare
Ventura County. Barred sand bass are targeted exclusively
north of Point Conception. Sand bass chiey inhabit the
by sport anglers; the commercial harvest of this species
shallow waters near the southern California mainland, but
has been illegal since 1953. Throughout the 1930s and
have been captured at depths as great as 600 feet, but
early 1940s, sand bass, as well as kelp bass, were not con-
the greatest concentrations are found in depths less than
sidered to be quality angling fare but gained tremendously
90 feet. Young sand bass are abundant in very shallow
in popularity as game shes by the mid-1950s. At that
water (ve to 30 feet). The name “sand bass” is somewhat
time, concern about the resource by sport shermen and
unfortunate since they are usually closely associated with
shery managers resulted in the initiation of life history
sand/rock interfaces of deep reefs and articial structures
studies and the formulation of conservation measures. By
and are rarely found out over sandy expanses.
1959, a 10-sh bag limit and a 12-inch minimum size limit
Barred sand bass feed mainly on small shes (including
had been imposed on all three kelp and sand bass species,
anchovies, sardines, midshipman), and invertebrates such
measures designed to counteract the declining numbers,
as crabs, clams, and squid. The largest barred sand bass
and shrinking size composition of the bass catches. The
on record measured 26 inches in length, and the maxi-
commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) bass shery
mum-recorded weight was 11.1 pounds. Like their sympat-
responded positively to this management regime, and
ric congener the kelp bass, barred sand bass are also
landings of kelp and sand bass increased substantially
relatively slow growing. A juvenile barred sand bass is
through the 1960s and early 1970s. From 1975 through
approximately six inches long after one year, and reaches
1989, the CPFV barred sand bass catch expanded threefold
sexual maturity between seven and 10.5 inches in length
to a peak of 400,000 sh in 1988. Although lacking some
and about three to ve years. The oldest known barred
of the sporting qualities of kelp bass, barred sand bass
sand bass was found to be 24 years old.
are much more susceptible to hook-and-line gear and are
somewhat easier to catch. When CPFV skippers target Barred sand bass form large breeding aggregations over
barred sand bass aggregations, they can usually produce sandy bottoms at depths of 60-120 feet in the summer
substantial catches for their passengers, even for novice months. Spawning occurs in these aggregations from
anglers possessing minimal shing skills. In 1985, 1987 and April through November, usually peaking in July. During
1988, barred sand bass was the leading bass species in the spawning, high-contrast, gray and white individuals with
CPFV catch exceeding kelp bass landings for the rst time large golden-yellow crescents under their eyes are usually
since 1961 when kelp bass and sand bass landings were males. Sand bass produce a large number of small pelagic
rst reported separately. Estimates of annual barred sand eggs that enter the plankton in coastal waters. Young-of-
bass landings from all sport shing activities (shore, pier, the-year sand bass begin appearing in shallow, nearshore
waters in the early fall.
DFG tagging studies have revealed that barred sand bass
are capable of movements of from ve to 40 miles. In the
early 1970s, evidence was presented that tumors, defor-
mities, and other anomalies found in barred sand bass may
have been linked to industrial and domestic wastes dis-
charged into the nearshore environment. Reports of such
abnormalities have decreased in the past two decades.
Barred Sand Bass, Paralabrax nebulifer
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
224
Status of the Population
Barred Sand Bass
700
thousands of fish landed
600
T he barred sand bass catch rose steadily in importance
Barred Sand Bass
500
from 1975 to late 1989, to the point where sand bass 400
are rivaled only by kelp bass in the nearshore recreational 300
catch off southern California. From 1975 to 1978, barred 200
sand bass ranked in the top ten in CPFV catch. By 1986 100
to 1989, barred sand bass consistently ranked in the top 0
1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
three species and was the top ranked species in CPFV
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Barred Sand Bass
catch in 1988. CPFVs and private boats take the majority
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
of sand bass while shing the summer spawning aggrega-
by CPFV logbooks. Prior to 1973, Barred Sand Bass abd Kelp Bass CPFV catch data
tions. Several factors seem to account for the upward
were aggregated.
trend. Most signicantly, CPFVs, which account for the
greatest portion of the barred sand bass catch, have
References
begun to target them more frequently, especially during
the summer spawning period. The sh are concentrated at Ally, J.R.R., D.S. Ono, R.B. Read, and M. Wallace. 1991.
that time, usually in well-dened areas along the coast. Status of major southern California marine sportsh spe-
Also, new barred sand bass spawning sites have been dis- cies with management recommendations, based on analy-
covered over the last 20 years and are now being exploited ses of catch and size composition data collected on board
by CPFVs and private boats. As shing effort targeting commercial passenger shing vessels from 1985 through
barred sand bass has increased, there has been concern 1987. Calif Dept. Fish and Game, Mar. Resour. Div. Admin.
that the stock may become over-exploited. Although, Rept. 90-2: May, 1991.
more information must be collected before the impacts of
Love, M.S., A. Brooks, and J.R.R. Ally. 1996. An analysis of
this intense shing on barred sand bass populations can be
commercial passenger shing vessel sheries for kelp bass
determined, landings have recently begun to decline and
and barred sand bass in the southern California Bight. Calif
there is cause for concern.
Dept. Fish and Game 82(3): 105-121.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Larry G. Allen
California State University, Northridge
Tim E. Hovey
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 225
Spotted Sand Bass
History of the Fishery kayaks, the accessibility to spotted sand bass habitat has
opened up dramatically. This accessibility has generated
T he spotted sand bass (Paralabrax maculatofasciatus) interest in the spotted sand bass as a challenging recre-
has quickly gained popularity with nearshore anglers ational shery.
for its aggressive behavior and ghting ability. Recre- Although the annual catch of spotted sand bass for the
ational angling for the spotted sand bass has seen a record keeping period has been considerably lower than
dramatic increase in the last 10 years, resulting in angling the catches of the kelp bass and the barred sand bass, the
tournaments that target spotted sand bass exclusively. increase in shing pressure and landing numbers is cause
Not considered quality-angling fare in the 1930s and the for concern due to their restricted habitat in southern
early 1940s, the spotted sand bass began to gain in popu- California waters. Early DFG shore surveys revealed that
larity with shore and bay anglers in the mid-1950s. During due to its restricted bay habitat and geographically local-
that period, almost all landings were made from shore or ized populations (San Diego Bay, Mission Bay, Newport
by small skiff anglers shing within the bays of southern Bay, Anaheim Bay), the spotted sand bass shery may have
California. Concern regarding the growing pressure on this been viewed as a less important sport shery by the public.
little-known resource by sport anglers resulted in the However, recent increases in landing numbers, indicate that
formulation of conservation measures for the spotted sand this view may be changing.
bass. These measures include the restriction on com-
mercial exploitation of the genus Paralabrax in 1953, and
Status of Biological Knowledge
in 1959, the adoption of a 10-sh bag-limit and a 12-inch
size-limit on kelp bass and barred sand bass, as well as
T he spotted sand bass has an historic range from Mazat-
the spotted sand bass. Unfortunately, early landing data of
lan, Mexico to Monterey, California. However, this spe-
spotted sand bass were either lumped in with the other
cies is rarely seen north of Santa Monica Bay. Included
Paralabrax landings or not adequately reported. For these
within that range are substantial populations in the Gulf
reasons, accurate landings numbers for this species are
of California. Southern California populations are typically
difcult to obtain and no substantial data were recorded
restricted to sandy or mud bottom habitat within shallow
until the mid-1970s.
bays, harbors and coastal lagoons that contain eelgrass,
Surveys conducted by the Department of Fish and Game surfgrass and rock relief. These areas act as warm-water
on skiff shing estimated that the annual catch of spotted refuges for this generally subtropical species.
sand bass in southern California waters ranged from 12,790
Spotted sand bass grow rapidly during their rst two
to 23,933 sh between 1976 and 1981. Additional estimates
years. Some specimens may reach as much as 8.8 inches
of sport catch, based on data from boat and shore shing,
at the end of their rst year and there is no signicant
indicated that between 53,000 and 170,000 spotted sand
difference in growth rates between males and females.
bass were taken per year from 1980 to 1989. No landing
Spotted sand bass spawn in the warm summer months,
data were recorded from 1990 to 1993; however, from
from late May to early September and the presence of
1994 to 1999 between 37,000 to 347,000 spotted sand bass
multiple sized oocytes in gravid females indicates that this
were landed either by shore or small skiff shermen, a
is a multiple spawning species.
substantial increase from the landings numbers recorded
in the 1980s. This rise in landings can be attributed to During the spawning season, spotted sand bass form
an increased interest in recreational shing in shallow breeding aggregations at or near the entrances of bays in
nearshore waters and consequential increase of angling southern California. Observations on spawning in the wild
pressure on the resource. Additionally, with the introduc- have shown that females initiate the spawn by leaving the
tion of oat-tube technology and the popularity of ocean bottom and entering the water column to release eggs. At
the time of release, multiple males may dart in to fertilize
the eggs. The observed episode was extremely brief and
once completed all participants return to the bottom.
The eggs and larvae are pelagic and enter the plankton in
the coastal waters, settling out of the water column at 25
to 31 days. Juvenile spotted sand bass (greater than two
inches) have several dark stripes running longitudinally
along their sides, making them similar in appearance to
juvenile barred sand bass. Juveniles of this species occupy
eelgrass beds and can share these nursery environments
Spotted Sand Bass, Paralabrax maculatofasciatus
with their sympatric juvenile relatives, the barred sand
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
226
bass and the kelp bass. Adults usually occupy a depth of
Spotted Sand Bass
600
two to 30 feet, however specimens have been taken from
thousands of fish landed
500
waters as deep as 200 feet in the Gulf of California.
Spotted Sand Bass
400
The spotted sand bass appears to have a complex mating 300
system. Individual populations within southern California
200
display varied patterns of reproduction. In San Diego Bay,
100
protogynous hermaphroditism, where individuals start
0
their lives as females and after a period of time change to 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Spotted Sand Bass
males occurs. In Anaheim and Newport Bays, gonochorism,
Data Source: RecFin data base for all gear types; catch data not available for 1989-1992
a pattern where the individuals do not change sex is
found, resulting in an essentially equal distribution of
sporadic recruitment by spotted sand bass, and the future
males and females throughout the age and size class in
of this shery may depend on such a policy.
the population. During the spawning season, male and
What effect ever-increasing development in the attractive
female spotted sand bass exhibit a denite sexual color
bay communities will have on the spotted sand bass popu-
dimorphism. Males will display a whitish chin color and an
lations is unknown. Waterfront development may perma-
overall high-contrast, body coloration, while females will
nently alter nursery habitat, water quality and may nega-
display a yellow chin and a darker body. Male spotted sand
tively impact recruitment, resulting in a negative impact
bass mature at 7.8 inches and about 1.4 years and females
on certain populations.
mature at about 6.7 inches and about one year of age.
The impact of potential sex change, if any, on these values Environmental conditions such as sea surface water tem-
is unknown. peratures may inuence recruitment as well. Spotted sand
bass have been shown to have a substantial increase
In California waters, adult spotted sand bass have a diet
in recruitment success during elevated sea surface tem-
that consists primarily of crabs and clams, with shes
peratures occurring nearshore in southern California just
forming a relatively small component of their overall food
after El Niño episodes. In other years, recruitment has
compliment. The crab component consists of brachyuran
been poor. This sporadic recruitment pattern may have
crabs, and the dominant bivalve in the diet is the jack-
an adverse effect on a population that is subjected to an
knife clam.
increase in angling pressure.
While spotted sand bass can reach 14 years-of-age, most
have a maximum life span of about 10 years. The current
world record spotted sand bass is an individual caught in
Management Recommendations
1995, which measured 23 inches and weighed 6.7 pounds.
This record sh was 10 years old. See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Signicant morphological and genetic differentiation has
occurred among spotted sand bass populations throughout Tim E. Hovey
their geographic range. The Gulf of California populations California Department of Fish and Game
appear to be distinct from those on the Pacic coast.
Larry G. Allen
Those populations in southern California also appear to be
California State University, Northridge
genetically distinct from those in the mid-Baja, Pacic coast.
This subpopulation structure indicates that spotted sand bass
exhibit limited dispersal from their restricted habitats.
References
Allen G. L, T.H. Hovey, M.S. Love and J.T.W. Smith 1995.
Status of the Population The life history of the spotted sand bass (Paralabrax
maculatofasciatus) within the southern California bight.
T he spotted sand bass shery has received a dramatic
CalCOFI 1995: 193-203.
increase in angling pressure in the last 10 years, and
Hovey T.E., and L.G. Allen 2000. Reproductive patterns of
it is unclear how the increased pressure will effect the
six populations of the spotted sand bass, Paralabrax macu-
limited, and genetically distinct, southern California popu-
latofasciatus, from Southern and Baja California. Copeia
lations. Studies indicate that most of the spotted sand
2000(2): 459-468.
bass caught by recreational anglers are released. The
restrictive, limited environment inhabited by spotted sand Miller J.D., R.N. Lea 1972. Guide to the coastal marine
bass tends to amplify the adverse effects of environmen- shes of California. Calif. Dep. Fish and Game Bull. 157,
tal changes and of recreational shing pressure. Factor in 249 pp.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 227
California Corbina
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
T T
he California corbina (Menticirrhus undulatus) is a he California corbina is a slender croaker with a gray
nearshore croaker that is reserved for the recreational to bluish back and a white attened belly. It has a
shery. It has been illegal to take corbina with nets since short, stiff chin barbel and may have wavy oblique lines
1909, and illegal to buy or sell them since 1915. This on its sides. The corbina ranges from Point Conception,
wary species is a challenge to anglers. Sometimes corbina California to the Gulf of California. It is found along sandy
can be seen in small schools, swimming slowly along the beaches and shallow bays to depths of 45 feet, but is most
bottom seeking food. While feeding in this manner, it common in about six feet of water. It is usually found in
seldom takes bait. The corbina is considered one of the small groups of several individuals, with larger sh being
most difcult sh to catch in southern California, although more solitary.
on occasion it takes an angler’s bait without hesitation. Its Corbina can grow to 30 inches and weigh 8.5 pounds; a
temperamental behavior, ne ghting qualities, and tasty veried specimen measuring 28 inches and weighing seven
esh make it a popular sport sh. pounds, four ounces was caught in 1955. Females grow
Corbina can be taken throughout the year, but shing is faster than males, especially after two years, and reach
best in summer and early fall. Most corbina are caught a larger size. A three-year-old female is about 15 inches
along sandy surf-swept beaches, but they are also taken whereas a three-year-old male is about 13 inches. Appar-
from piers and jetties; anglers on private and rental ently, corbina residing in bays grow much faster than
boats, and commercial passenger shing vessels seldom those on the open coast. A 23-inch female corbina caught
take them. A 1965-1966 survey estimated that 30,000 on the open coast was eleven years old, whereas similarly
corbina were taken by southern California shore anglers sized females from the bay were aged at six years. More
along the open coast, making it the third most abundant than 50 percent of females are mature at 12 inches (two
species accounting for 13 percent of the surf-angler’s years) and all are mature at 15 inches (three years). Males
creel. Anglers use conventional, spinning, and y-shing mature at about 10 inches (two years). The spawning
gear. The best baits are soft-shelled sand crabs, mussels, season is from May through September and is heaviest
bloodworms, and clams. from June through August. Spawning apparently takes
place offshore, since running-ripe sh are not often found
The annual number of corbina caught by anglers has
in the surf zone; eggs are pelagic. Small (1.5 to 3 inches)
been quite variable. Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics
corbina have been captured inside the surf zone to 30
Survey annual catch-estimates for 1980 through 1998
feet of water.
ranged between 17,000 and 75,000 sh; the average was
44,600. Annual catch estimates were much lower in the The corbina feeds predominantly on benthic organisms.
1990s than during the 1980s; however, catches-per-unit- Individuals may be seen feeding in the surf, at times in
effort were similar. water so shallow their backs are exposed. They scoop up
mouthfuls of sand and separate out food by pumping sand
through their gill openings. The diet of juveniles consists
of clam siphons and small crustaceans. As they grow, they
consume larger parts of clams and sand crabs.
Limited tagging studies indicate that the corbina does
not move around much; it has no discernible migratory
pattern. The greatest distance traveled was 51 miles.
California Corbina, Menticirrhus undulatus
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
228
Status of the Population References
California Corbina
P opulation size, recruitment, and mortality of California Baxter, J.L. 1966. Inshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
corbina are unknown. Beach seine hauls along the of Fish and Game. 80 p.
open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded slightly lower Carlisle J.G., Jr., J.W. Schott, and N.J. Abramson. 1960.
but similar numbers of corbina to those obtained during a The barred surfperch (Amphistichus argenteus Agassiz) in
similar study from 1953 through 1956. In addition, similar southern California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
angler catch-per-unit efforts during the 1980s and 1990s 109. 79 p.
indicate that the population is sustaining itself under pres-
Joseph, D.C. 1962. Growth characteristics of two south-
ent recreational harvest levels.
ern California surfshes, the California corbina and spotn
croaker, family Sciaenidae. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Management Considerations Fish Bull. 119. 54 p.
O’Brien, J.W. and C.F. Valle. 2000. Food habits of Califor-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for nia corbina in southern California. Calif. Fish and Game,
further information. 86(2):136-148.
Pinkas, L., M.S. Oliphant, and C.W. Haugen. 1968. South-
Charles F. Valle and Malcolm S. Oliphant (retired) ern California marine sport shing survey: private boats,
California Department of Fish and Game 1964; shoreline, 1965-1966. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Fish Bull. 143. 42 p.
Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
(croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 54. 62 p.
Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciaeni-
dae) of California. Calif. Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 229
Spotfin Croaker
History of the Fishery sions and holes near shore. These “croaker holes” are
well known to surf anglers. Spotn croaker aggregate
T he spotn croaker (Roncador stearnsii) is a nearshore in small groups or schools of usually fewer than 50
croaker reserved for the recreational shery. It has sh; however, schools containing several hundred sh are
been illegal to take them with nets since 1909, and illegal occasionally encountered.
to buy or sell them since 1915. Anglers can experience Spotn croaker can grow to 27 inches and weigh 14
good shing when there are croaker “runs” and when pounds. A sh weighing 10.5 pounds was eight or nine
“croaker holes” are found. Most of the spotn croaker years old, and a 26.5-inch long individual was at least 15
catch consists of smaller sh (one to three pounds). years of age. During the breeding season, females develop
Its ghting spirit and delicate taste make it a prized blackish streaks on their bellies, while larger males have
sport sh. golden pectoral and pelvic ns, and are commonly called
Spotn croaker can be taken throughout the year, but golden croaker. Apparently, most males are mature at
shing is best in late summer. Most spotn croaker are nine inches (two years), and most females are mature at
caught from shore on piers and jetties along beaches and 12.5 inches (three years); all are mature at 14.5 inches
in bays; they are occasionally taken by private and rental (four years). Spawning occurs from June to September. It
boats but are rarely taken by commercial passenger shing probably occurs offshore, since few ripe sh have been
vessels. Anglers use conventional and spinning gear. The captured in the surf zone. Small (two- to four-inch) spotn
best baits are marine worms, clams, and mussels. croaker have been captured inside the surf zone to 30
feet of water.
Annual landings of spotn croaker have uctuated greatly.
Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey (MRFSS) The spotn croaker is a bottom feeder. The diet of
annual catch estimates for 1980 through 1998 ranged juveniles consists of small crustaceans and clam siphons.
between 1,000 and 46,000 sh; the average was 14,900. Larger individuals use their strong pharyngeal teeth
Catch-per-unit effort has remained relatively low and to crush shells and consume whole clams, mussels,
stable since 1980, but started to increase in the and polychaetes.
late 1990s. A limited tagging program showed that the spotn croaker
moves around considerably, especially from bay to bay,
without a discernible pattern. Fish tagged in Los Angeles
Status of Biological Knowledge Harbor were later recaptured as far south as Oceanside.
T he spotn croaker is a medium-bodied croaker with a
bluish gray back, brassy sides, and a silver to white
Status of the Population
belly. It has a large, distinctive black spot at the base
of its pectoral n. The spotn croaker ranges from Point
S outhern California is on the northern fringe of the spot-
Conception, California to Mazatlan, Mexico. In California, n croaker population. Their population size, recruit-
it is most common south of Los Angeles Harbor. It lives ment, and mortality are unknown. Modications of bay
along beaches and in bays over sandy to muddy bottoms and nearshore environments, including development, land
at depths from four to 50 feet. Most spotn croaker lls, and dredging, have had an adverse effect on the
are found in 30 feet of water or less, preferring depres- habitats of this species. Beach seine hauls along the
open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded many fewer
spotn croaker than during a similar study from 1953
through 1956. However, catch-per-unit effort estimates
from MRFSS data and gillnet sets inside bays and along the
open coast indicate that spotn croaker populations were
increasing in the late 1990s.
Spotfin Croaker, Roncador stearnsii
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
230
Management Considerations References
Spotfin Croaker
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Baxter, J.L. 1966. Inshore shes of California. Calif. Dept.
further information. of Fish and Game, 80 p.
Joseph, D.C. 1962. Growth characteristics of two southern
California surfshes, the California corbina and spotn
Charles F. Valle and Malcolm S. Oliphant (retired)
croaker, family Sciaenidae. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
California Department of Fish and Game
Fish Bull. 119. 54 p.
Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
(croakers) of California. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 54. 62 p.
Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciaeni-
dae) of California. Calif. Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 231
Yellowfin Croaker
History of the Fishery Although very little is known about their basic life history,
it appears that spawning occurs during summer months.
T he yellown croaker (Umbrina roncador) is a nearshore Young-of-the-year have been found near the entrance of
croaker that has been reserved for the recreational embayments during late fall and offshore in 30 feet of
shery since 1915. It is primarily caught by anglers shing water during winter. They have been reported to reach 18
from sandy beaches, piers, jetties, harbors and bays from inches in length and weigh over ve pounds, however sh
Santa Barbara south to the U.S.- Mexico border. This over two pounds are uncommon. The current California
croaker is among the most common sh caught from many state record is three pounds and 14 ounces. Preliminary
of southern California’s piers and sandy beaches during ageing estimates indicate that a 10-inch sh is about
summer months. It is important to many anglers because 4 years old and a 15-inch sh is about 10 years old.
they can be readily caught from shore with minimal invest- Yellown croaker are opportunistic predators that feed
ment in shing gear and time. Yellown croaker are typi- during day and night. Their diet consists of a broad variety
cally caught with light spinning gear using a variety of of prey, however California grunion eggs, mysids, and
popular baits, including live and dead anchovies, mussels, pelecypods are the most important components. Small sh
blood worms, and ghost shrimp. About 80 percent of the feed primarily on mysids, whereas large sh concentrate
catch occurs from May-October. Anglers shing from piers on bivalves. Yellown croaker eggs, larvae, and small
and breakwaters account for 35 percent of the total catch, juveniles are preyed upon by many shes; larger individu-
whereas anglers shing from private skiffs and beaches als are preyed upon by seals, sea lions, halibut and other
account for 35 percent and 25 percent, respectively. The large shes.
commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV) eet accounts
for approximately ve percent of the total catch. CPFV
Status of the Population
catches uctuated from a high of over 8,000 sh in 1947
to less than 100 sh in 1958. Catches are relatively low
N o population estimates exist for yellown croaker, and
because the CPFV eet rarely targets shallow (< 25 feet)
stock structure has not been examined. The popula-
sandy areas where yellown croaker are most abundant.
tion appears healthy despite potentially damaging impacts
associated with recreational shing, contaminants from
Status of Biological Knowledge urban run-off, and shoreline habitat modications such as
development, dredging, lling, and erosion control proj-
Y ellown croaker have a series of yellow-brown stripes ects. In fact, the population may be increasing; catch-
on their back, mostly yellow ns, and a pronounced per-unit-effort data from the Marine Recreational Fishery
chin barbel. Yellown croaker range from Point Concep- Statistics Survey have increased during each of the past
tion to the Gulf of California, but are most abundant south ve years. In addition, a shery independent study found
of the Palos Verdes Peninsula. They occur in small schools a much greater abundance of yellown croaker in the
over soft bottom habitats from shore to 125 feet, but mid-1990s than a similar study conducted during the mid-
are most commonly found in waters less than 30 feet. 1950s. Increased sea surface temperatures caused by sev-
Yellown croaker are also common in harbors and bays eral El Niño events during the 1990s have probably ben-
and occasionally frequent kelp beds. eted yellown croaker, since they are a warm temperate
species whose center of abundance is in warmer waters
off Baja California. However, without regular monitoring
of catch and effort data it is difcult to accurately assess
the status of the shery.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
John W. O’Brien and Malcom S. Oliphant (retired)
California Department of Fish and Game
Yellowfin Croaker, Umbrina roncador
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
232
References
Yellowfin Croaker
10
thousands of fish landed
8
Skogsberg, T. 1939. The shes of the family Sciaenidae
Yellowfin Croaker
(croakers) of California. California Department of Fish and
6
Game, Fish Bulletin 54.
4
Starks, E.C. 1919. The shes of the croaker family (Sciae-
2
nidae) of California. California Fish and Game. 5:13-20.
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Yellowfin Croaker
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 233
White Croaker
History of the Fishery late 1940s and early 1950s, averaging about 70,000 sh per
year. Since 1954, however, they have averaged well below
A
30,000 sh per year, with one exceptional peak in 1988 of
lthough not a highly prized species, the white croaker
about 120,000 sh. Landings from 1990 through 1998 have
(Genyonemus lineatus) has been an important con-
averaged about 12,000 sh per year, with approximately
stituent of commercial and sport sheries in California.
96 percent of the landings from southern California.
Before 1980, most of the catch was in southern California.
However, since 1980, the majority of the catch has been in
central California. The changes in shing methodology and
Status of Biological Knowledge
area of greatest landings since 1980 are due primarily
W
to the entrance of Southeast Asian refugees (mainly Viet- hite croaker is one of eight species of drums, from
namese) into this shery. Many of these refugees who the family Sciaenidae, recorded off of California.
settled in California’s coastal areas were gillnet shermen Genyonemus is a combination of two Greek words, genys,
in their homelands and sought to earn their living here meaning lower jaw, and nemus, meaning barbell. The
by that method of shing. The underutilized white croaker species name lineatus is a Latin word meaning striped.
resource (especially in central California) and moderate White croaker are often sold in sh markets under the
start-up costs required for gillnetting (small to medium- name kingsh, and they are often called tomcod, tommy,
size boats and moderate gear costs) offered many of roncador, or ronkie by sportshermen.
them an opportunity to enter the commercial shing busi-
White croakers have subfusiform compressed bodies, infe-
ness. In contrast, most of the sport catch is in southern
rior mouths with a subterminal lower jaw, falcate pectoral
California. Anglers shing from piers, breakwaters, and
ns, thoracic pelvic ns, and a truncate caudal n. They
private boats account for about 90 percent of the catch.
are typically silvery to brassy colored, with a small, but
Prior to 1980, white croaker landings averaged 658,000 prominent black spot at the base of each pectoral n
pounds annually and exceeded one million pounds in sev- and a cluster of minute barbells on the membranes under-
eral years. Peak landings in 1952 (88 percent in southern neath the lower jaw.
California) were probably in response to the total collapse
The white croaker is an abundant, nearshore species in
of the sardine shery that year. From 1980 through 1991,
California, usually found over soft, sandy-mud substrata.
total landings have averaged 1.1 million pounds and were
They range from Vancouver Island, British Columbia to
above one million pounds in all but four years. Since 1991,
Magdalena Bay, Baja California, but are not abundant
landings have averaged 461,000 pounds and have steadily
north of Point Reyes, California. They usually swim in
declined to an all time low of 142,500 pounds in 1998.
schools, and are found from the surf zone to depths
Before 1980, the commercial catch of white croakers was as great as 780 feet and in shallow bays, sloughs, and
primarily by round haul net (mainly lampara), although lagoons. Most of the time, they occupy nearshore areas
some were taken by trawl, gillnet, and hook-and-line. at depths of 10 to 100 feet, but sometimes are fairly
After 1980, most white croakers have been taken by gillnet abundant to a depth of 300 feet.
and hook-and-line. Most of the commercial catch is sold
The maximum recorded length for white croaker is 16.3
in the fresh sh market, although a small amount is used
inches; however, sh larger than about 12 inches rarely
for live bait. “Kingsh” is the most common name seen
occur. Fish up to four pounds have been reported, but
in markets. Also, small quantities of another croaker, the
those weighing over two pounds are extremely rare. White
queensh, are included in the commercial landing records,
croakers live to about 15 years and over 50 percent of both
mostly for southern California.
sexes are sexually mature by one year (about 5 1/2 inches
Landings of white croaker by recreational anglers aboard for males, six inches for females). By three or four years
commercial passenger shing vessels, were highest in the and 7.5 inches, all white croakers are mature.
In southern California, white croakers spawn mainly from
November through April, with peak months being January
through March. In central California, they spawn all year
and may have winter and summer spawning peaks (ovary
weights were found to be highest in January and Septem-
ber and lowest in May). Females may spawn about once
every ve days and about 18 to 24 times each season,
depending upon their size and age. Batches of eggs range
from an estimated 800 eggs in a six-inch female to 37,200
White Croaker, Genyonemus lineatus in a 10-inch female. The fertilized eggs are pelagic and
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
234
White Croaker
4
millions of pounds landed
3
White Croaker
2
Commercial Landings
1
1916-1999, White Croaker
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Status of the Population
occur in depth ranges from about 25 to 120 feet. The
larvae initially are pelagic and most abundant in ocean
T he size of the white croaker population is not known.
depth ranges from about 50 to 75 feet. As the larvae grow,
Although previous catch data indicated that the over-
they descend toward the bottom and migrate towards
all population was healthy and sustaining itself under sh-
shore. Juveniles occur near the bottom where ocean
ing pressure, recent declines in commercial catches imply
depth is about 10 to 20 feet. As they mature, they migrate
that future monitoring may be needed.
to somewhat deeper water.
White croaker are omnivores, their diet including a variety
of worms, shrimps, crabs, squid, octopuses, clams, small
Management Considerations
shes, and other items, living or dead. They feed primar-
ily at night and on the bottom, although some midwater See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
feeding occurs during the day. They are preyed upon by further information.
seals, sea lions, halibut, giant sea bass, bluen tuna, and
other shes.
Shelly L. Moore
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
140
Paul W. Wild
thousands of fish landed
120
White Croaker
California Department of Fish and Game
100
80
References
60
40
Love, M.S., G.E. McGowen, W. Westphal, R.J. Lavenberg,
20
and L. Martin. 1984. Aspects of the life history and shery
0
1980
1947 1950 1960 1970 1990 1999
of the white croaker, Genyonemus lineatus (Sciaenidae),
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, White Croaker off California. Fish. Bull., U.S. 82:179-198.
CPFV = commercial passenger fishing vessel (party boat); Recreational catch as reported
Moore, S.L. 1998. Age and growth of white croaker (Gen-
by CPFV logbooks, logbooks not reported prior to 1947.
yonemus lineatus (Ayres)) off Palos Verdes and Dana Point,
California. M.S. Thesis. California State University, Long
White croakers that live near marine waste discharges may
Beach. 87 p.
concentrate toxic materials such as pesticides (DDT, DDE,
etc.), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), metals (zinc,
selenium, mercury, etc.), and petroleum products in their
bodies at levels that are considered hazardous for human
consumption. Some white croakers in these areas are dis-
eased and malformed and some show reproductive impair-
ment. Current health guidelines advise against human
consumption of white croakers from southern California
waters in Santa Monica Bay, off the Palos Verdes Penin-
sula, and the Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbor area.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 235
Surfperches
General ment line, and a standard two-hook surf leader with size
six hooks, is ideal for shore based surfperch shing.
T he surfperches, family Embiotocidae, are a small abun- Annual commercial landings of surfperches have also been
dant assemblage of 23 species found predominantly in highly variable. While the market for fresh “perch” llets
temperate eastern North Pacic waters, two which are is relatively small, the total catch for the shery was
found in the Sea of Japan. Nineteen of the 20 species 49,000 pounds in 1999. The California Department of Fish
found in California occur in inshore coastal waters. Tule- and Game did not distinguish between species in their
perch (Hysterocarpus traski) occupies freshwater and estu- statistics until 1987, simply listing the category as surf-
arine habitats. Collectively, the 19 marine species are perch. Currently, there is a large commercial shery for
found in a variety of habitats, including beaches, rocky various surfperches in the southern part of the state
substrate, intertidal and subtidal kelp beds. A few species and a moderate shery focusing on redtail surfperch in
inhabit several of the habitat types. Included in this group northern California.
are the pile perch (Rhacochilus vacca), rubberlip surfperch
Surfperches can be identied by their elliptical, com-
(Rhacochilus toxotes), shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggre-
pressed body form and forked tail. Most are marked with
gata), walleye surfperch (Hyperprosopon argenteum),
bars or stripes. They have a continuous dorsal n with
and the white surfperch (Phanerodon furcatus). The major-
nine to 11 spines and 19-28 soft rays. The anal n has
ity of surfperches occupy only one type of habitat. Spe-
three spines with 15-35 soft rays.
cies most commonly found along beaches include the
The diet of surfperches consists of isopods (e.g., rock
barred surfperch (Amphistichus argenteus), calico surf-
lice) of all sizes, and gastropod mollusks (e.g., snails); vari-
perch (Amphistichus koelzi), redtail surfperch (Amphisti-
ous amphipods (e.g., skeleton shrimp), polychaete worms,
chus rhodoterus), silver surfperch (Hyperprosopon ellipti-
brittle stars, and small crabs, also are included. Surf-
cum), and the spotn surfperch (Hyperprosopon anale).
perches are usually bottom grazers, but apparently will
Black perch (Embiotoca jacksoni), dwarf perch (Microme-
feed midwater when competitors are absent.
trus minimus), kelp perch (Brachyistius frenatus), rainbow
perch (Hypsurus caryi), reef perch (Micrometrus aurora), Surfperch reproduction is viviparous, their young being
sharpnose seaperch (Phanerodon atripes), and striped highly developed and free swimming at birth. Newborn
seaperch (Embiotoca lateralis) tend to be associated with males of a few species are reproductively mature.
rocky substrate and kelp beds. The pink seaperch (Zalem-
Much information is lacking on this group. Although the
bius rosaceus) inhabits deep water and is seldom taken in
taxonomy has been recently rened, life history and habi-
the sport catch.
tat requirements are areas in need of more research.
The surfperch shery in California includes both sport
and commercial components. The sport shery is enjoyed
Barred Surfperch
by anglers of all ages who sh for surfperch from piers,
jetties, sandy beaches, and boats. The recreational catch
of surfperch for 1999 totaled 489,000 sh, with the major-
History of the Fishery
ity being caught in central and northern California. The
The commercial shery for barred surfperch is minor com-
average sport catch for 1993 through 1999 was 864,000
pared to the sport shery. Its popularity as a sport sh
sh with a high of 1,119,000 sh in 1998.
stems from abundant numbers and accessibility. The aver-
Surfperch are easy to catch, which makes them highly
age catch for the 1993-1999 period was 176,000 sh in
sought. They can be caught using light gear and a variety
southern California, and 202,000 sh in the remainder
of baits such as clams, tubeworms, or sand crabs. A spin-
of the state. In the southern California sport shery for
ning or casting outt using 10 to 15 pound test monola-
barred surfperch, 99 percent were caught from beaches
and jetties. Similarly, 99 percent of central and northern
California’s catch also came from shore. The best months
for shing are December, January, and February with the
majority of large individuals being gravid females. Sand
crabs are the best bait for barred surfperch, especially
female sand crabs carrying orange colored eggs. Small jigs
and spinners also work well. Although barred surfperch
are excellent sport sh for the light tackle angler, they are
sometimes considered a pest to anglers pursuing other sh
such as California halibut or corbina.
Barred Surfperch, Amphistichus argenteus
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
236
Status of Biological Knowledge Status of Biological Knowledge
Surfperches
Barred surfperch have eight to 10 rust-colored, irregular The calico surfperch can be identied by its silvery sur-
bars on their sides with spots in between. The background face, which is covered by olive-green mottling and broken
color is usually silver or white, and the back can take bars down each side. The calico reaches a length of 12
on a blue or grayish coloration. Similar species are the inches and rarely weighs more than one pound.
calico surfperch and the redtail surfperch, but the barred The range of the calico surfperch is from north central
surfperch can be distinguished from the redtail and calico Washington to northern Baja California. The primary habi-
because it lacks red coloration in its ns. tat of the calico is sandy beaches, although they can
Barred surfperch are found in small schools along sandy occasionally be found over rocky substrate. The vertical
beaches and near jetties, piers, and other sources of food distribution of the calico includes depths from the surface
and cover. They range from Bodega Bay in northern Cali- down to 30 feet.
fornia to north central Baja California. While the majority
are found in the surf zone, some have been caught in
water as deep as 240 feet. The largest individual ever
taken was a female that weighed 4.5 pounds and was 17
inches in length. Most sh are in the one- to two-pound
range and are highly prized by anglers.
Barred surfperch mate during the fall and winter months,
and young are released during spring and summer. Males
and females both darken considerably during courtship,
and males make “gure-eights” around females before
mating. A female can produce from four to 113 young,
depending on her size. Females undergo a ve-month
gestation period, and juveniles are born at about 1.75 Calico Surfperch, Amphistichus koelzi
Credit: DFG
inches in length. Juveniles are miniature replicas of the
parents and are independent at birth. The young usually Status of the Population
live relatively close to where they were born.
At this time, little information is available on the popula-
tion status of the calico surfperch.
Status of the Population
During the last seven years, the sport shery in southern
Pile Perch
California has yielded up to 306,000 barred surfperch
(1998), while central and northern California together pro-
duced upwards of 252,000 sh annually. No estimates have
History of the Fishery
been made of the size or current status of the barred
Pile perch sustain a limited commercial shery in Del Mar,
surfperch population.
California, and Papalote Bay, Baja California, but do not
contribute substantially to annual commercial landings in
Calico Surfperch the state.
They are of interest as a sport sh throughout the state,
History of the Fishery with an average of 16,000 perch caught between 1993
and 1999. Many are caught from piers, jetties, beaches,
The calico surfperch is of moderate sport value along
or skiffs. Pile perch may be caught year-round on any
the California coast. Due to its striking similarity and fre-
number of popular baits, including clams, sand shrimps,
quent misidentication with the redtail surfperch, calico
and worms.
surfperch, until recently, have been considered of minor
importance in the sport catch. The mean sport catch
Status of Biological Knowledge
from 1993-1999 was 16,000 sh. There is no targeted com-
Pile perch can be identied by the silvery sides with a
mercial catch but small numbers are taken in the directed
dark vertical bar about midbody, and a unique dorsal
redtail surfperch shery. The calico shery has historically
n with the rst few soft dorsal rays longer than any
included shing from piers, sandy beaches, and skiffs.
of the others, giving the n a peaked appearance. They
are equipped with strong, well-developed teeth, enabling
them to feed on hard shelled mollusks, crabs, and other
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 237
spawning season. The sport catch since 1993 has ranged from
Surfperches
a low of 10,000 sh in 1998, to a high of 56,000 in 1994.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Redtail surfperch are distinguished by the nine or ten ver-
tical, orange-to-brassy bars alternating at the lateral line
and the light red pelvic, anal, and caudal ns. The body
is moderately deep and laterally compressed, with a light
green back and silver sides and belly. During the 1990s,
Pile Perch, Rhacochilus vacca
adult female redtail averaged 10.5 inches and weighed 1.1
Credit: DFG
pounds, while the males averaged 9.8 inches and weighed
crustaceans. Their specialized dentation differs enough 0.8 pounds. The largest recorded California redtail was a
from rubberlip surfperch to convince some ichthyologists female that was 16.5 inches long and weighed 3.7 pounds.
to place them in their own genus (Damalichthys). The largest recorded individual was 16.5 inches long and
weighed 3.7 pounds. Females produce eight to 45 young
Pile perch are found between southeastern Alaska and
about one year after fertilization, sometime between May
northern Baja California, including Guadalupe Island. They
and August.
usually live along rocky shores, from the surface down to
150 feet, and grow to around 17.5 inches in length. Redtail surfperch are found from Vancouver Island,
Canada, to Monterey Bay, California, but the shery is
Fecundity increases with age and size of the females.
centered north of the San Francisco Bay area.
Average fecundity at rst reproduction is 11.7 young, and
sometimes exceeds 60 in older females. Adult longevity of
Status of the Population
pile surfperch is seven to 10 years.
There are no estimates of the size of the redtail surfperch
Status of the Population stocks in California coastal waters. The commercial catch
averaged 50,000 pounds during the 1970s, 48,000 pounds
Because accurate landings data for pile perch are lacking,
during the 1980s and 38,000 pounds during the 1990s,
little can be concluded about the current population
which suggests a decreasing population. Another indicator
status in California.
of problems with the population is the decrease in weight
from an average per sh weight of 1.8 pounds during
Redtail Surfperch the late 1950s and early 1960s, to 0.9 pounds during
the 1990s.
History of the Fishery
Redtail surfperch sustain a sport shery from central Cali-
fornia to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They support
a commercial shery only in northern California, espe-
cially in the inshore waters of the Eureka/Crescent City
area where over 99 percent of the catch is taken. These
sh are taken primarily from sandy beaches or the mouths
of rivers and streams entering the sea, but also can be
caught from jetties and piers inside harbors and bays.
Humboldt and Del Norte counties in northern California
are the primary locations of the winter redtail commercial
shery. Fishing is mostly from open beaches using hook-
and-line gear. The best catches are in March and April
when the sh are concentrated for spawning. Commercial Redtail Surfperch, Amphistichus rhodoterus
Credit: DFG
shing is closed from May 1 to July 15. The annual com-
mercial harvest averaged 37,000 pounds over the last 10
years, with a high catch in 1990 in excess of 62,000 pounds
and a low catch of around 27,000 pounds in 1998.
Sport shing for redtails occurs in the same areas where
they are commercially taken. They are taken year-round
by hook-and-line, but are usually targeted during the
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
238
Rubberlip Surfperch comprise a substantial portion of the state’s sport shery.
Surfperches
The mean take of striped seaperch for the last seven years
was 65,000 sh, almost wholly from central and northern
History of the Fishery
California. These perch are easily taken from piers, jet-
The rubberlip surfperch is one of the many important ties, beaches, and skiffs, and are favorites of anglers due
surfperch sport sh along the California coast. It is caught to their beautiful coloration.
along jetties and piers, and also taken by skiff anglers
nearshore or in kelp beds. The sport catch over the last
seven years ranged from 13,000 sh in 1993 to 44,000 sh
in 1997 with an average of 19,000. The commercial shery
is very small with landings of less than 1,000 pounds
annually from southern California.
Status of Biological Knowledge
The large, thick lips of the rubberlip distinguish it from
other surfperches. Its coloration varies from olive-to
brassy-brown on the sides, with one or two dusky bars Striped Seaperch, Embiotoca lateralis
Credit: DFG
on adult sh. The pectoral ns are yellow to orange, and
the pelvic ns are usually black. The maximum length of
Status of Biological Knowledge
rubberlip seaperch is 18.5 inches, making the rubberlip
Striped seaperch can be easily identied by the red, blue,
the largest of the surfperches.
and yellow lines that run laterally along the length of the
Rubberlip surfperch are found from Russian Gulch State
body. Maximum length is 15 inches. These sh are sexually
Beach (Mendocino County), California, to central Baja Cali-
mature in their third year of life and produce about 18
fornia, including Guadalupe Island. These sh range from
young per female. At age seven, the average number
inshore waters to depths of 150 feet.
of young produced per female is 32. The maximum life
Although no data have been collected on age at sexual expectancy for this sh is approximately 10 years.
maturity, gravid rubberlip surfperch have been caught
Striped seaperch are found from southeastern Alaska to
from April to June. Time of birth is estimated to
northern Baja California.
be midsummer.
Status of Population
Population estimates of striped seaperch have not been
made, but recent landing gures indicate that this species
should be able to sustain a healthy sport catch.
Walleye Surfperch
History of the Fishery
Rubberlip Surfperch, Rhacochilus toxotes
Credit: DFG
Sport anglers enjoy shing for walleyes. In 1993, anglers
caught 164,000 individuals, well over 90 percent being
Status of the Population
caught from shore, jetties, and piers. Walleyes can be
No recent estimates have been made of the rubberlip taken on sand crabs and other invertebrates, as well as on
perch population its size is unknown at this time. small spinners and jigs. They are excellent to eat.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Striped Seaperch Walleye surfperch are silver to bluish above, with very
faint pink bars that fade quickly after death. Most notable
History of the Fishery are the large eyes and black tipped pelvic ns. Similar
Striped seaperch is one of the eight to 10 species that species are the spotn surfperch and the silver surfperch.
make up the small commercial “perch” shery. However, However, the spotn has black spots on its dorsal and anal
it is a minor component when compared to such species ns, while the silver lacks any black coloration.
as the barred surfperch. Conversely, striped seaperch do
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 239
Surfperches
400
thousands of pounds landed
300
Surfperch
200
Commercial Landings
100
1916-1999, Surfperches
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
Walleye surfperch are found in large schools along sandy Surfperch habitats have been, and will continue to be,
beaches, jetties, kelp beds, and other habitats with rich areas of conict. As humans develop the shoreline,
invertebrate life. They range from Vancouver Island, Brit- areas inhabited by surfperches may become polluted or
ish Columbia, to central Baja California, including Guadal- destroyed. Although surfperches may adapt to structures
upe Island. They reach a length of 12 inches and are found such as jetties and piers, it should not be assumed that
to depth of 60 feet. they can continue to adapt to all the changes that are
forced upon them.
Walleye surfperch mate from November to December and,
after a ve-month gestation period, give birth in mid- Action is needed if surfperch populations are to
April. Males engage in an aggressive “swooping” courtship be restored.
before mating. Females, depending on size, will have ve
to 12 young that are about 1.5 inches at birth. The young
Ronald A. Fritzsche
are miniature replicas of the parent and mature the fall or
Humboldt State University
winter following their birth.
Patrick Collier
Status of the Population California Department of Fish and Game
The recent sport take has averaged 112,000 sh per year.
However, the total stock size is unknown at this time.
References
Fritzsche, R.A. and T.J. Hassler. 1989. Species proles: life
Surfperch: Discussion histories and environmental requirements of coastal shes
S
and invertebrates (Pacic Southwest) - pile perch, striped
urfperches are important both commercially and as
seaperch, and rubberlip seaperch. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
sport sh. Most of the California coastal species are
Biol. Rep. 82(11.103) U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR
taken in the sport catch and the majority of the catch
EL-82-4. 15pp.
is taken when spawning aggregations are present. Female
surfperches are intentionally targeted by sport anglers Holbrook, Sally J., Russel J. Schmitt, and John S. Ste-
because they are larger than males. Sport anglers also phens, Jr. 1997. Changes in an assemblage of temperate
grade their catch, which probably results in an even reef shes associated with a climate shift. Ecological
greater take of mature females with a resulting decline Applications. 7 (4), pp 1299-1310.
in the shery. The redtail and barred surfperches are
Karpov, K.A., D. P. Albin and W. H. Van Buskirk. 1995.
the most notable in the commercial catch and may be
The marine recreational shery in northern and central
important to local economies. Total commercial surfperch
California. Calif. Fish and Game Bull.176:192 pp.
landings have uctuated over the years, but over the
Tarp, F.H. 1952. A revision of the family Embiotocidae (the
long-term have declined by 25 percent since the 1950s.
surfperches). Calif. Fish and Game Fish Bull. 88:1-99.
Recent research has indicated that some of the decline is
associated with the increases in water temperature.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
240
Opaleye and Halfmoon
History of the Fishery nearshore environment. Larval distributions mirror the
Opaleye and Halfmoon
adults latitudinally, with the larval stages distributed pri-
T he commercial catch of opaleye (Girella nigricans) and marily in the neuston. CalCOFI data indicate that halfmoon
halfmoon (Medialuna californiensis) has been small. larvae are occasionally taken well off shore, while most
Neither of these species is part of a designated shery but opaleye larvae are taken within 70 miles of the coast.
both appear regularly as incidental catch in commercial Young opaleye leave the pelagic environment and enter
and recreational sheries. the intertidal when they are about an inch long. They are
found in relatively high tide pools preferring warm water
During the 40 years prior to 1990, the average catch of
(>75º F), and feed largely on small invertebrates. As they
halfmoon has been 16,714 pounds, with a high of 50,007 in
grow to a size of three to six inches, the young leave
1956. Recently, catches have been well below this mean,
the pools and form small schools in the shallow subtidal,
with a peak in 1989 of 5,204 pounds. The mean catch
eventually changing their diet to include primarily algae.
of opaleye in the 43 recorded years prior to 1990 was
Adults browse in the kelp bed on kelp and other algae,
4,748 pounds with a high of 23,688 pounds in 1973. The
often moving in medium sized schools. Young halfmoon
mean catch for the last 10 years is 2,709, with very small
stay in the shallow subtidal and kelp bed habitat occupy-
catches recorded since 1995. Interestingly, a small number
ing the same position as the adults. Juvenile opaleye
of halfmoon and opaleye are entering the live sh market.
have been reported to clean parasites from other sh on
The 1999 landings of opaleye were largely live sh (616
occasion.
pounds) and the price for the catch is now up to $1.37
per pound. Neither species was recorded in large numbers
in the California Department of Fish and Game’s gill and
Status of the Population
trammel net study, although the opaleye was at one time
a bycatch of nearshore purse seiners.
T he abundance of opaleye and halfmoon, and their
CPFV landings of opaleye are low, averaging 679 sh per status as incidental catch rather than as targeted spe-
year since 1990. By contrast, CPFV catches of halfmoon cies, makes it unlikely that either the sport or commercial
have averaged over 50,000 sh per year. 1998 was an sheries will have an effect on the populations. Data
extremely poor year for catches of these species, yielding gathered in southern California since 1974 at Palos Verdes
only eight percent and 16 percent of the average catch and King Harbor show no population trends and suggest
of opaleye and halfmoon respectively. In the last reported both species are stable with regular recruitment.
survey of pier and jetty shing (1965-1966), both species
were abundant and it is likely they remain an important
John Stephens
part of that shery today.
Occidental College (retired)
Status of Biological Knowledge
A s herbivores, the members of the sea chub family,
Kyphosidae, play an important role in kelp forest com-
munities. They regulate kelp growth, and on occasion may
overgraze, causing damage to newly transplanted or iso-
lated kelp plants or small kelp beds. The opaleye reaches
a length of 26 inches and a weight of 16 pounds, while
the halfmoon reaches 19 inches and 5 pounds. Kyphosids
have small mouths with a single prominent row of blade-
like, incisor teeth that are used for cutting vegetation.
The opaleye is olive green with two light spots under the
mid-dorsal. The halfmoon is blue to blue-gray, sometimes
with a lateral white stripe, and the spinous dorsal n is
much lower than the soft dorsal. Both species range from
central California to Baja California. While the opaleye is
more common north of Point Conception, the halfmoon
extends its range to the south into the Gulf of California.
Both reach a depth of a little over 100 feet.
Larvae of both species are pelagic and are followed by Opaleye, Girella nigricans
Credit: DFG
a pelagic juvenile schooling stage, which appears in the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 241
Opaleye and Halfmoon
25
thousands of pounds landed
20
15
Opaleye
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Opaleye
10
Landings data unavailable prior
to 1930 and for 1941,
5
1945-1946, 1972, 176-1977,
and 1982-1983. Data Source:
DFG Catch Bulletins and 0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
commercial landing receipts.
References
Norris, K.S. 1963. The functions of temperature in the
ecology of the percoid sh Girella nigricans (Ayres) Ecol.
Monographs 33:23-62.
Orton, R.D., L.S. Wright, and H. Hess. 1987. Spot
polymorphism in Girella nigricans (Perciformes:
Kyphosidae)-geographic and inter-size class variation.
Copeia(1)1987:198-203.
Stevens, E.G., W. Watson, and H.G.Moser. 1990. Develop-
ment and distribution of larvae and pelagic juveniles of
three kyphosid shes (Girella nigricans, Medialuna cali-
forniensis and Hermasilla azurae) off California and Baja
California. Fish. Bull. U.S. 87:745-768.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
242
Silversides
T here are three species of silversides (family Atherinop- the water. A rapid feeding activity takes place, making it
Silversides
sidae) in California ocean waters, grunion, topsmelt easier to catch sh with hooks or hoop nets.
(Atherinops afnis), and jacksmelt (Atherinopsis californi-
ensis). Information on grunion is presented in a separate
Status of Biological Knowledge
section. Even though “smelt” is included in the common
names of these species, silversides differ in part from true
T opsmelt range from the Straits of Juan de Fuca, British
smelts (family Osmeridae) in having two dorsal ns (one
Columbia, to the Gulf of California. They attain a
with spines), while the true smelts have one dorsal n and
total length of 14.5 inches, but individuals in sport catches
an adipose n near the tail.
are usually six to eight inches in length. There are
seven subspecies of topsmelt, three of which are in Cali-
History of the Fishery fornia. These numerous subspecies demonstrate varied
behavior and reect the different environments occupied
S ilversides are marketed fresh for human consumption by this species: kelp beds, harbor areas, and sandy beach
or bait. The commercial shery for silversides has been areas. They usually form loose schools but will congregate
conducted with gillnets, lampara nets, and round haul when feeding.
nets. Historically, set lines have been used in San Fran- Topsmelt grow about 2.5 to four inches the rst year, gain
cisco Bay for jacksmelt, and during the 1920s beach nets, another two inches the next year, and grow proportionally
pulled ashore by horses, were used at Newport Beach. less each year until they reach maximum size of about 14
Commercial catches of jacksmelt have varied sharply over inches. The largest topsmelt that has been aged was seven
the past 80 years. The high year for this shery was 1945, or eight years old. Some topsmelt spawn by their second
when more than two million pounds were taken. During year but most reach maturity during their third year. The
the 1990s, the catch varied between 40,765 pounds in spawning period is from April through October with a peak
1997 and 2,530 pounds in 1998 and 1999, with most of in May and June. This species attaches its eggs in a mass
the catch being landed in the Los Angeles area. This is an on eelgrass and low growing algae in harbors and bays,
occasional or incidental shery, and uctuations observed and possibly on kelp. The egg mass from each female is
in catch records reect demand, not true abundance. intertwined to the substrate by ne string-like laments
Principal commercial shing areas are usually in harbors attached to each egg. Eggs may be deposited more
and bays such as San Pedro, Monterey, San Francisco, than once in a spawning season. Topsmelt larvae are
Tomales, and Humboldt. Commercial catches of topsmelt particularly abundant in tidal basins and the shallow edges
are not as large as those of jacksmelt because of the of coastal bays. Juvenile topsmelt generally move into the
smaller size and more scattered distribution of topsmelt. open water of estuaries, bays, and coastal kelp beds.
There are no commercial or sport bag and possession
The food of topsmelt consists primarily of plankton spe-
limits on these species.
cies including crustaceans. Intertidal inhabitants eat algae
Jacksmelt and topsmelt make up a signicant portion of and y larvae, as well as crustaceans. Bay forms have
the pier and shore sport catch throughout California, and been observed working along muddy bottoms for food
private boat anglers shing nearshore catch them occa- items. Topsmelt have the ability to withstand a wide range
sionally. From 1958 to 1961, these two species comprised
about 10 percent of the total hook-and-line sport catch by
numbers (272,000 jacksmelt and 43,000 topsmelt) in cen-
tral and northern California. These are among the most
abundant shes available to pier and shore anglers and
represent a very important recreational shery, especially
for children. When taken with light shing gear, they are
easy to catch and excellent ghters.
Jacksmelt are caught by a variety of sport shing meth-
ods. A string of half-a-dozen bright red articial ies or
small hooks baited with shrimp or squid is the most suc-
cessful terminal tackle used by pier anglers. Single baited
hooks are also used from piers and by shore and skiff
anglers. The larger jacksmelt is quite a game sh and
will take a small spinner or lure cast out and retrieved
with a series of quick jerks. Young jacksmelt and topsmelt Jacksmelt, Atherinopsis californiensis
are quickly attracted with breadcrumb chum thrown into Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 243
Silversides
100
thousands of pounds landed
80
Silversides 60
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
40
Silversides
Data Source: DFG Catch
20
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. No commercial
landing are reported for
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
silversides prior to 1976.
of salinity concentrations. They are found in mesohaline The larvae and young are distributed near the surface in
waters and have been known to live in salt ponds with harbors, along sandy beaches, and in the kelp canopy,
salinities as great as 72 parts per thousand – twice that often mixed with the young of topsmelt. Their food habits
of open ocean water. are not well known, but it can be assumed that sh as
fast as jacksmelt, that readily take a moving lure, are
Topsmelt are a very important species in bay and near-
predatory animals. Small sh as well as crustaceans make
shore ecosystems in southern California. Collections of
up part of their diet.
shes by beach seine in bays are almost always numeri-
cally predominated by young topsmelt. Young-of-the-year The species is not desired by some sport anglers because
topsmelt were found to contribute 85 percent of the of the presence of relatively large sized worms in the
total annual sh production in the shallow water areas esh. These are an intermediate stage of a spiny-head
of Upper Newport Bay. Topsmelt have been shown to worm that is thought to be a parasite in sharks and
be the most ubiquitous and numerically abundant sh pelicans. It probably is harmless to man, and denitely is
species in submarine meadows of surfgrasses on the harmless when the esh is cooked.
open coast. They are one of the ve primary species
brought to the breeding colonies of the least tern, an
Status of the Populations
endangered seabird.
S
Jacksmelt form dense and larger schools than topsmelt tock sizes of these two species have not been deter-
and range over much of the inshore area of California. The mined. At present, there are no indications that top-
geographic range is from Yaquina Bay, Oregon to Santa smelt or jacksmelt are being overshed in California. How-
Maria Bay, Baja California. They are usually found in bays ever, as these species occur in inshore waters, they are
and within a few miles of shore in a salinity range from at risk of being affected by pollutants and loss of habitat
seawater to mesohaline. This species attains a length of through development.
22 inches, with 17-inch sh commonly taken. Jacksmelt
are relatively fast growing, reaching 4.5 to ve inches in
the rst year and up to eight inches during the second
year. Jacksmelt mature at two to three years or about
eight inches. The oldest jacksmelt aged, a 16-inch male,
was 11 years old. The spawning season is during winter,
from October to April. Large masses of eggs, about the
size of small BBs, are attached to eelgrass and algae by
means of long laments. Pinkish egg masses have been
observed along with herring eggs during winter months in
Elkhorn Slough and attached to eelgrass in Tomales Bay.
Jacksmelt eggs have been observed to hatch in salinity
as low as ve parts per thousand. Jacksmelt can spawn
several times during a spawning season.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
244
Management Considerations References
Silversides
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Clark, F.N. 1929. The life history of the California jack-
further information. smelt, Atherinopsis californiensis. Calif. Div. Fish and
Game, Fish Bull. 16. 22 p.
Demartini, E.E. 1982. The spring-summer ichthyofauna of
Paul A. Gregory
surfgrass, Phyllospadix, meadows near San Diego, Califor-
California Department of Fish and Game
nia. Bull. South. Calif. Acad. Sci. 80(2):81-90.
Hubbs, C.L. 1918. The sh of the genus Atherinops, their
variation, distribution, relationships and history. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 38(13):409-440.
Quast, J.C. 1968. Observations on the food of kelp-bed
shes. Pages 109-142 in Utilization of kelp-bed resources
in southern California, Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 139.
Wang, Johnson C. S. 1986. Fishes of the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary and Adjacent Waters, California: A Guide
to the Early Life Histories. Tech. Rpt. 9 (FS/B10-4ATR
86-9) Internet address: http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/kopec/
tr9/.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 245
Grunion
History of the Fishery and no holes may be dug in the beach to entrap them.
Anglers sixteen years of age and older must posses a valid
T he commercial use of grunion (Leuresthes tenuis) is sport shing license. Grunion may be taken June 1 through
very limited, this species forming a minor portion March 31. There is no bag limit for grunion.
of the commercial “smelt” catch. Grunion are taken inci-
dentally in bait nets and other round haul nets, and
Status of Biological Knowledge
limited quantities are used as live bait. In recent years, no
commercial landings have been reported. However, since
T he grunion is now classied in the family of New World
grunion usually are taken with other small sh and are not
silversides, Atherinopsidae, along with the jacksmelt
separated out, catch records would not show any landings.
and topsmelt in California. They are small, slender sh
The grunion’s principal value is as the object of a with bluish green backs, silvery sides and bellies. Silver-
unique recreational shery. These sh are famous for their sides differ from true smelts, family Osmeridae, in that
spawning habits, which are so remarkable as to arouse an they lack the trout-like adipose n. They normally occur
“I don’t believe it” response from a person hearing about from Point Conception, California, to Point Abreojos, Baja
them for the rst time. They are the only species of sh California. They are rarely found from San Francisco on
in California to actually leave the water to spawn in wet the north to San Juanico Bay, Baja California, on the
sand on beaches. They are subjects of widespread popular south. They inhabit the nearshore waters from the surf
interest, bringing thousands of people to beaches during to a depth of 60 feet. A description of their essential
night high tides in spring and summer months to catch the habitat would be the surf zone off sandy beaches. Marking
sh or just to observe them. Grunion hunting has become experiments indicate that they are nonmigratory.
one of the famous sports of southern California. As the
Young grunion grow very rapidly and are about ve inches
sh leave the water to deposit their eggs, they may be
long by the time they are one year old and ready to
picked up while they are briey stranded. Racing for sh
spawn. Grunion adults normally range in size from ve to
spotted far down the beach and clutching for the small
six inches with a maximum size recorded at 7.5 inches.
bits of slippery, wriggling energy provide an exhilarating
Average body lengths for males and females respectively
time for young and old alike. The attraction provided by
are 4.5 and 5.0 inches at the end of one year, 5.5 and 5.8
grunion can only be realized when one sees the numbers
inches at the end of two years, and 5.9 to 6.3 inches at the
of people lining the more popular beaches in the Los
end of three years. The normal life span is two or three
Angeles area on the night of a predicted run. Often there
years, but individuals four years old have been found. The
seem to be more people than sh, but at other times,
growth rate slows after the rst spawning and stops com-
everyone catches sh.
pletely during the spawning season. Consequently, adult
In the 1920s, the recreational shery was showing denite sh grow only during the fall and winter. This growth rate
signs of depletion, and a regulation was passed in 1927 variation causes annuli to form on the scales, which have
establishing a closed season of three months, April been used for aging purposes.
through June. The shery improved, and in 1947, the
Grunion spawn at night on the beach, from two to six
closure was shortened to April through May. Grunion may
nights after the full and new moon, beginning a little
be taken by sport shermen using their hands only. No
after high tide and continuing for several hours. As a wave
appliances of any kind may be used to catch grunion,
breaks on the beach, the grunion swim as far up the slope
as possible. The female arches her body, keeping her head
up, and excavates the semi-uid sand with her tail. As her
tail sinks, the female twists her body and digs tail rst
until she is buried up to her pectoral ns. After the female
is in the nest, up to eight males attempt to mate with her
by curving around the female and releasing their milt as
she deposits her eggs about four inches below the surface.
After spawning, the males immediately retreat toward the
ocean. The milt ows down the female’s body until it
reaches the eggs and fertilizes them. The female twists
free and returns to the sea with the next wave. The whole
event can happen in 30 seconds, but some sh remain on
the beach for several minutes.
Grunion, Leuresthes tenuis
Credit: Mike Brock
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
246
Management Considerations
Spawning may continue from March through August,
Grunion
with possibly an occasional extension into February and
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
September. However, peak spawning is from late March
further information.
through early June. Once mature, an individual may spawn
during successive spawning periods at about 15-day inter-
vals. Most females spawn about six times during the
Paul A. Gregory
season. Counts of maturing ova to be laid at one spawning
California Department of Fish and Game
ranged from about 1,600 to about 3,600, with the larger
females producing more eggs.
References
The eggs incubate a few inches deep in the sand above
the level of subsequent waves. They are not immersed in
Clark, F.N. 1925. The life history of Leuresthes tenuis,
seawater, but are kept moist by the residual water in the
an atherine sh with tide controlled spawning habits.
sand. While incubating, they are subject to predation by
Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 10. 51 p.
shore birds and sand-dwelling invertebrates. Under normal
conditions, they do not have an opportunity to hatch until Darken, R. S., K. L. M. Martin, and M. C. Fisher. 1998.
the next tide series high enough to reach them, in 10 or Metabolism during delayed hatching in terrestrial eggs of
more days. Grunion eggs can extend incubation and delay a marine sh, the grunion Leuresthes tenuis. Physiological
hatching if tides do not reach them, for an additional four Zoology 71: 400-406.
weeks after this initial hatching time. Most of the eggs
Dyer, B. S. and B. Chernoff. 1996. Phylogenetic
will hatch in 10 days if provided with the seawater and
relationships among atheriniform shes (Teleostei:
agitation of the rising surf. The mechanical action of the
Atherinomorpha).Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Soci-
waves is the environmental trigger for hatching, and the
ety 117: 1-69.
rapidity of hatch, in less than one minute, indicates that
Griem, J. N. and K. L. M. Martin. 2000. Wave action: The
it is probably not an enzymatic function of softening
environmental trigger for hatching in the California grun-
the chorion, as in some other shes. One can witness
ion, Leuresthes tenuis (Teleostei: Atherinopsidae). Marine
the spectacle of grunion eggs hatching. If you gather a
Biology 137:177-181.
cluster of eggs after a grunion run, keep them in a loosely
covered container of damp sand in a cool spot. After 10 Spratt, Jerome D. 1971. The Amazing Grunion. Marine
to 15 days, place some in a jar of seawater shaken briey, Resources Leaet No. 3. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
and they will hatch before your eyes in a few minutes.
Thompson, W.F. 1919. The spawning of the grunion
Grunion food habits are not known. They have no teeth, (Leuresthes tenuis). Calif. Fish and Game Comm., Fish
and feed on very small organisms, such as plankton. In a Bull. 3. 27 p.
laboratory setting, grunion eat live brine shrimp. Humans,
Walker, B. 1952. A guide to the grunion. California Fish and
larger sh, and other animals prey upon grunion. An
Game 38: 409-420.
isopod, two species of ies, sandworms, and a
beetle have been found preying on the eggs. Some
shorebirds such as egrets and herons prey on grunion
when the sh are on shore during spawning. The
reduction of spawning habitat, due to beach erosion,
harbor construction, and pollution is probably the
most critical problem facing the grunion resource.
Status of the Population
D espite local concentrations, the grunion is not an
abundant species. While the population size is not
known, all research points to a rather restricted resource
that is adequately maintained at current harvest rates
under existing regulations.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 247
Pacific Angel Shark
History of the Fishery shery for these sharks ended and the smaller mesh hali-
but set gillnets again became the standard. Vessels used
D iscarded as a nuisance species by halibut gillnet sh- in the shery are generally in the 25 to 40 foot range,
ermen for several decades, the Pacic angel shark suited for inshore coastal operations. Trawl vessels often
(Squatina californica) became one of the most sought caught a few angel sharks incidentally, but landings were
after commercial shark species in the Santa Barbara insignicant compared to the set gillnet harvest. Trawl
Channel during the 1980s. Changes in consumer accep- landings represented one percent of the total catch in
tance of sharks as high quality food sh and a concen- 1990, rising to 17 percent in 1994.
trated marketing effort by an innovative processor work- There has been little recreational interest in angel shark
ing with local shermen, stimulated development of the as nearshore anglers using hook-and-line catch relatively
angel shark shery in the Santa Barbara Channel area few compared to other more active sharks. One study
in 1976. Two key elements led to the rapid growth of logged only 12 angel sharks compared to over a thousand
this shery: maintenance of quality and freshness of other sharks landed between 1997 and 2000. Nearly all of
the shark by cleaning and dressing (removal of head the angel sharks were caught at night.
and ns) at sea; and development of a method to llet
In 1977, landings of dressed angel shark totaled 328
this irregularly shaped shark to satisfy retail distributors
pounds. By 1981, landings rose to 258 thousand pounds,
and consumers. Market development was linked to the
and by 1984, to 610 thousand pounds. Landings of angel
popular but seasonal thresher shark, which is caught by
shark exceeded one million pounds annually in 1985 and
the drift gillnet eet in the summer and fall. As supplies
1986, replacing the thresher shark as the number one
of thresher shark diminished in the winter, angel shark
species of shark taken for food in California.
was promoted as a viable substitute. Local demand grew
Fishing effort throughout the early development and
rapidly as Santa Barbara and Ventura seafood retailers
expansion phase was concentrated off Santa Barbara
and restaurant owners found ready acceptance among
and Ventura counties and around the northern Channel
consumers. Nearly every part of this shark, with the
Islands, especially Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands.
exception of skin, cartilage, and offal is utilized. The
Landings began to decline in 1987, dropping to 940
head and ns are sold as crab bait, large llets are cut
thousand pounds with an ex-vessel value of $542,000
from the trunk, and portion-controlled pieces from the
and further declining to 248 thousand pounds ($166,000)
tail are used in sh and chips dishes. Small irregular-
in 1990. A minimum size limit adopted by the DFG
shaped pieces are used to make shark jerky. A yield of 50
in 1986 contributed to a decrease in landings in the
percent of the dressed shark is generally expected.
following years.
The development of markets for angel shark was a signi-
A second major decline in landings occurred in 1991 when
cant benet to halibut shermen, providing them with
a voter initiative was passed banning the use of gill and
a supplemental source of income. As demand increased
trammel nets within three miles of the southern California
for angel shark in the early 1980s, innovative shermen
mainland coast and within one mile around the Channel
developed nets to harvest them specically. Because of
Islands. Many gill-netters switched to other sheries and
their selectivity for market-sized angel shark, these nets
a few dropped out entirely or retired. In 1990, a total
caught only a few large California halibut. Nonetheless,
of 144 vessels (including a few trawlers) landed angel
8.5-inch mesh monolament gillnets designed for halibut
shark and by 1994, the number was reduced 50 percent
continued to be used to take both species. After area
to 72. These boats landed 23 thousand pounds, a decline
closures were instituted in 1994, the directed gillnet
of 91 percent from the catch in 1990. Of the 72 vessels
reporting landings, nine boats landed the major share
(61 percent). The closures, in effect, established a large
“no-take” reserve for angel shark in southern California,
since gillnetting, considered to be the most viable shing
method for this species, was eliminated in the primary
nearshore angel shark habitat.
Another factor affecting the shery and contributing to
the decline in landings was the sale of the primary angel
shark processing plant in 1991 and its subsequent closure
in 1992. This led California seafood wholesalers and retail-
ers to search for alternative sources of angel shark, as the
Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica
Credit: DFG
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
248
Pacific Angel Shark
1.4
thousands of pounds landed
1.2
Pacific Angel Shark
1.0
Commercial Landings
0.8 1916-1999,
Pacific Angel Shark
0.6 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0.4
landings receipts. No
0.2 commercial landing are
reported for Pacific angel shark
0.0 prior to 1977.
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
demand in California remained high, especially for use as Cooperative sheries research began in 1979 to obtain
sh and chips in seafood restaurants. information on angel shark distributions, migrations,
growth rates, and eventually, reproductive rates. Members
Prior to the 1994 shing area closures, a gillnet shery for
of the commercial shing industry helped initiate the
angel sharks began in the upper reaches of the Gulf of
investigations, which, with the participation and coop-
California and a processing plant was established in Puerto
eration of university research and extension personnel,
Peñasco, Mexico. By 1993, imports of angel shark llets
helped sheries managers develop a management plan in
were being used to meet the market demand in California.
1986. Development of regulatory guidelines for this shery
One buyer estimated imported llets increased from 65
is an example of a “co-management” approach involving
thousand pounds in 1994, to approximately 90 thousand
a partnership of managers and resource users. The drop
pounds in 1999. Since 1997, a share of these sharks has
in landings after 1986 was partially attributed to a new
been caught off Ensenada and Cedros Island near Guerrero
size limit, though sheries biologists and shermen agree
Negro. The frozen and glazed imported llets represent a
that management regulations were initiated too late to
weight of approximately one-quarter of the whole shark,
maintain a sustainable yield angel shark shery with the
so the actual landing gure was closer to 360 thousand
harvest levels experienced in the mid-1980s.
pounds in 1999 from Mexican waters.
California landings dwindled to 19 thousand pounds in
Status of Biological Knowledge
1995 and 18 thousand pounds in 1996, but began to
increase again between 1997 (33 thousand pounds) and
T
1999 (53 thousand pounds). Adding the Mexican imports he Pacic angel shark is reported to occur only in
(from two processing operations) to the California land- the eastern Pacic Ocean from southeastern Alaska to
ings provides a better estimate of the California market the Gulf of California and from Ecuador to Chile. A gap
demand and consumption of angel shark, which in 1999 in distribution separating subpopulations of S. californica
totaled over 413 thousand pounds. Mexican imports now occurs between the equator and 20° North latitude. The
provide at least 87 percent of the total market share of southern population was earlier reported as a separate
the state. species, S. armata.
The ex-vessel price for angel shark in 1977 was 15 cents Angel sharks are relatively small, bottom-dwelling elas-
per pound. The price rose to 35 cents per pound in 1982 mobranchs, attaining maximum length of ve feet and
($1.60 to $1.70 per pound at retail markets) as demand a weight of 60 pounds. In the Santa Barbara Channel,
increased for the rm, white-eshed shark. With contin- commercially caught specimens generally range in size
ued market demand and lower landings, ex-vessel prices between three and four feet, although minimum size
in 1991 rose to 75 cents per pound dressed (head off) limits now allow the take of females 42 inches and above
and in 1999 averaged 91 cents per pound. The standard and males 40 inches or more. Angel sharks range in depth
ex-vessel price in 2000 is reported to be over $1 per from three to over 600 feet. Fishermen working the north-
pound. Retail prices have increased to between $4 and $6 ern Channel Islands reported that most of their catches
per pound. were between 30 and 240 feet. After the inshore area
closures were set in 1994, shing shifted to deeper waters
between 100 and 300 feet.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 249
Status of the Population
Pacic angel shark are usually found lying partially buried
Pacific Angel Shark
on at, sandy bottoms and in sand channels between
T he rapid increase in angel shark landings between
rocky reefs during the day, but they may become active at
1983 and 1986 led to concern that stocks were being
night. Tagged specimens near Santa Catalina Island were
over-exploited. Over 79,000 individual angel sharks were
found to move from a few feet to four nautical miles per
reported taken during the 1985-1986 season. Considering
night. However, individual sharks have been observed to
the low fecundity and apparent lack of signicant migra-
remain in the same place with no apparent movement for
tions of angel sharks, the need to develop a management
up to 10 days.
plan became critical. A minimum retention size limit was
Sonic tagging studies conducted at Santa Catalina Island
proposed by DFG in 1987 and became law in 1989. Because
indicated that 11 sharks with transmitter tags remained
these sharks are nearly always retrieved alive, limiting
near the Island for up to 90 days, although movement
retention size is a viable regulation. However, landings
around the island was extensive. Of 30 conventionally
had decreased before the inception of the regulation,
tagged sh all but one angel shark remained in the same
indicating a declining population along the Santa Barbara-
general vicinity in which they were tagged. The lone
Ventura County coastline and around the northern Chan-
exception was a shark tagged on the coast and captured
nel Islands. The minimum size restriction is believed to
three and a half years later at Santa Cruz Island. Without
have been effective in decreasing the numbers of imma-
further evidence from tag and recovery data, resource
ture sharks harvested and also to have decreased harvest
managers assume that isolated stocks may exist near
pressure on exploited stocks. The area closures had a
islands, separated from the mainland and other islands by
much more severe effect on the shing community and led
deep water channels (including San Clemente, San Nicolas,
to the unintended consequence of shifting the shery to
Santa Barbara, and Santa Catalina Islands). A 1997 report
Mexico where, at present, no management of the species
on the genetic variability of angel sharks, from two of
exists. Large numbers of gillnet “pangas” on both sides
the northern Channel Islands (Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz
of the Baja Peninsula now sh angel sharks for Mexican
Islands) and a more southern island (San Clemente Island)
markets and for export to California.
showed that there were signicant allele frequency differ-
No population studies have been conducted on angel shark
ences between sharks from the northern and southern
since the nearshore shery ended in 1994. A comparative
areas. This electrophoretic study provides a strong indica-
research survey of nearshore sh assemblages around
tion that genetically isolated populations of angel sharks
Santa Catalina Island and along the mainland (Santa Bar-
exist in California.
bara to Newport Beach) between 1996 and 1998 indicated
Several techniques have been utilized in an effort to age
that Squatina was a commonly caught species at many of
angel sharks, but to date aging this species has been
the 10 sampling stations. The researchers reported that
unsuccessful. Researchers have observed that angel sharks
the survey showed a greater abundance and proportion-
are born with six to seven bands in their vertebral centra,
ately larger biomass for nearshore sharks than any other
but growth curves based on size and band counts were
southern California study. Further, they note that gillnets
found to be atypical. Both centrum edge histology and
are much more efcient for sampling mobile and elusive
size-frequency analyses have proven inconclusive. Sharks
shes than trawls and diver surveys. In terms of biomass,
grown in the laboratory, along with eld-tagged, tetracy-
angel sharks ranked third at Santa Catalina Island
cline-injected returns, indicated no periodic basis for band
and ninth at the mainland sites. There have been no
deposition in the vertebrae, but indicated that calcied
recent studies of Squatina populations at the northern
band deposition is more related to rapid somatic growth.
Channel Islands.
Sexual maturity in both males and females occurs between
35 and 39 inches total length. Embryos present per female
Management Considerations
range between one and 11, with a mean of six pups
produced annually from March to June. A 10-month gesta-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
tion period was estimated for this species.
further information.
Major prey items of angel shark include queensh and
blacksmith in the summer and market squid in the winter.
Fishermen in the Santa Barbara Channel report that mack- John B. Richards
erel and Pacic sardines are found in angel shark stomachs University of California, Santa Barbara
during the fall and early winter, along with squid, which
predominates during the winter and spring.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
250
References
Pacific Angel Shark
Cailliet, G.M., H.F. Mollet, G. Pittenger, D. Bedford,
and L.J. Natanson. 1992. Growth and demography of
the Pacic angel shark (Squatina californica) based on
tag returns off California. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res.
43:1313-1330.
Natanson, L.J., G.M. Cailliet, and B.A. Weldon. 1984. Age,
growth, and reproduction of the Pacic angel shark (Squa-
tina californica) from Santa Barbara, California. AM. Zool.
24(3):130A.
Natanson, L.J., and G.M. Cailliet 1986. Reproduction
and development of the Pacic angel shark (Squatina
californica) off Santa Barbara, California. Copia 1986.
(4):987-994.
Pondella, Daniel J. II., and L.G. Allen. 2000.The nearshore
sh assemblage of Santa Catalina Island. Pages 394-400.
In: Proceedings of the Fifth California Islands Symposium,
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History: March 29-April
1, 1999. , OCS Study MMS 99-0038. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Minerals Management Service, Camarillo, CA.
Richards, J.B. 1987. Developing a localized shery: the
Pacic angel shark, Pages 147-160. In: Sharks: an inquiry
into biology, behavior, sheries and use. S. Cook (ed.) EM
8330. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis,
OR.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 251
Leopard Shark
History of the Fishery and from shore (41 percent), with a small percent landed
by partyboats (four percent). The commercial catch,
T he leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata) is taken as largely incidental in recent years, is taken mainly by set
both a food and game sh in California, and its distinc- net (53 percent), hook-and-line (30 percent), and trawl
tive markings and hardiness also make it desirable for (13 percent).
public aquarium displays. Although some commercial land- A 36-inch minimum size and a possession limit of three sh
ings may be lumped under a general “shark, unspecied” have been in effect for the sport shery since 1991. This
category, those reported as “leopard shark” have ranged size limit was also extended to the commercial shery in
from 9,270 pounds in 1958, to a high of 101,309 pounds 1994, both for market and aquarium display. Additionally,
in 1983. These landings, while not extensive, increased in the state has general restrictions on usage of certain
the south and decreased in the north during the 1980s. types of commercial gear in the nearshore zone.
Landings in southern California began increasing in 1981,
and in 1985 surpassed landings in northern California for
Status of Biological Knowledge
the rst time since the collection of statistics began
in the 1940s. Since 1991, landings have averaged about
T he leopard shark, also known as “tiger shark” and
31,000 pounds per year, with about 57 percent of the
“cat shark,” ranges from Mazatlan, Mexico, into the
landings occurring south of Point Piedras Blancas. Leg-
northern Gulf of California, and northward to Oregon. It is
islative curtailment of inshore gillnetting in the San
most common in shallow water from the intertidal down
Francisco/Monterey Bay area undoubtedly contributed
to 15 feet, less so down to 300 feet or deeper in ocean
to much of the decline in northern California landings
waters. Favoring muddy bays and sloughs, especially in
after 1986.
northern California, it is known to move out and in with
Judging from estimates made since 1980 by the National
the tides to feed over shallow tidal mudats. It also
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Marine Recreational Fish-
occurs along the open coast and around offshore islands
eries Statistics Survey, the recreational leopard shark
off southern California, where it frequents kelp beds,
catch appears to be greater than the commercial catch,
sandy bottoms near rocky reefs, and the surf zone along
although these estimates are subject to large sampling
sandy beaches.
variability. According to the survey, sport catches in Cali-
The population structure throughout its range is not
fornia between 1980 and 1988 averaged over 52,000 sh
clearly understood, but is thought to consist of regional
per year with a low of 33,000 sh taken in 1980 and a
stocks among which there is relatively little exchange.
high of 59,000 sh taken in 1988. Since 1993, an estimated
Tagging studies in central California have shown there is
average of 45,000 leopard sharks have been taken by
at least some mixing between stocks in San Francisco
anglers, with a low of 34,000 taken in 1993 and again in
Bay and those in central and southern California, but
1994, and a high of 58,000 taken in 1997.
such exchange appears limited. The Gulf of California,
A variety of shing methods and gear types are used in the
Mexico, stock is presumed to be separate from the
sheries for leopard sharks. Most of the recreational catch
California stocks.
is taken angling with baited hooks with some spearshing
The maximum recorded and veried total length is about
by divers. Analysis of tag-recaptures in the central Califor-
six feet long. The oldest validated age that has been
nia area in the 1980s suggests that most angler-caught
determined by reading tetracycline-labeled rings on the
leopard sharks are taken from private boats (55 percent),
vertebrae, is 26 years for a 49-inch female, an average
of 1.8 inches per year. Size at birth is about eight to 10
inches in total length. Longevity is presumed to be around
30 years.
The live-bearing female leopard shark produces from
seven to 36 offspring in an annual reproductive cycle.
Males mature at seven years, and females at 10 years,
when sh reach lengths between 40 and 42 inches total
length. The gestation period is estimated at 10 to 12
months. Birth apparently takes place from March through
July. The only known eye-witness account of leopard
sharks giving birth in the wild is that of a sherman who
observed “pupping” activity at Santa Catalina Island in
Leopard Shark, Triakis semifasciata southern California in the 1940s. Dozens of large females,
Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
252
Leopard Shark
120
thousands of pounds landed
100
Leopard Shark
80
60 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Leopard Shark
40 Commercial landings for
leopard shark were not
20
reported prior to 1977. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
Status of the Population
with backs and dorsal ns breaking the surface of the
water over a shallow mudat in Catalina Harbor, were
T he leopard shark is one of the many species con-
observed releasing their pups in the three to four-foot
sidered, but not now actively regulated, under the
deep water; some of the pups were seen milling around in
Pacic Fishery Management Council’s Groundsh Manage-
water only about a foot deep.
ment Plan. Regulatory actions enacted by the State of
This shark is an opportunistic benthic feeder. Inverte-
California have contributed signicantly toward protecting
brates taken include crabs, ghost shrimp, clam siphons
this species. Even though the commercial catch may be
and sometimes whole clam bodies, polychaete worms,
underestimated because of reporting problems, this spe-
fat innkeeper worms, and octopuses. Fishes in the diet
cies does not appear to be at risk, judging by the com-
include herring, anchovy, topsmelt, croakers, surfperches,
bined landings in relation to previously calculated esti-
gobies, rockshes, midshipman, atshes, and small elas-
mates of shing mortality and exploitation rates and cur-
mobranchs such as smoothhounds, guitarshes, and bat
rent conservation measures which appear to have reduced
rays. Leopard sharks seasonally consume the eggs of her-
these rates. The imposition of a sport and commercial
ring, topsmelt, jacksmelt, and midshipman.
shing size limit and general curtailment of gillnetting
The leopard shark is preyed upon by the white shark and
within this species’ nearshore range appear to have halted
sevengill shark, and presumably other large sharks as well,
the increase if not reduced total shing mortality over
which are known to enter bays. The phenomenon of young
the past decade. Commercial sport shing boat catches of
sharks being preyed on by larger sharks is not uncommon.
leopard shark in California have dropped from an average
These nomadic sharks often occur in schools, sometimes of 6.8 sh per trip between 1980 and 1991 to an average
with smoothhounds, which also belong to the houndshark of 4.0 sh after the size limit was imposed from 1992
family. Numbers of animals may suddenly appear in an to 1995, as more sh were released. Also encouraging is
area, then move on. Although generally timid and wary of evidence that mortality from hooking injuries is quite low.
divers, there is one record of an attack on a skin diver in
The size of the California leopard shark population has
1955 in California.
not been estimated, and the only information on relative
Movements of this species have been studied in central changes in stock abundance is what can be inferred from
California. Tagging in San Francisco Bay has revealed that catch statistics. Because of its rather limited geographical
this stock is mostly resident, although at least 10 percent range with little exchange among regional stocks within
of the population moves out of the bay into the ocean this range, resident stocks near large population centers
during fall and winter. One female at liberty for 20 years may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localized shing
was recaptured in south San Francisco Bay less than ve pressure. A recent re-assessment of the leopard shark’s
miles from where she was originally tagged. Of the longer intrinsic productivity and vulnerability to harvest revealed
distance migrants, one three-foot male tagged in San it to be even more susceptible to over-exploitation than
Francisco Bay was recaptured in Santa Monica Bay a previously reported. Its annual rate of increase under
decade later. maximum sustainable yield exploitation has been calcu-
lated at only about two to three percent per year. And
while the size limit protects juveniles, it does not protect
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 253
References
mature adults in their prime reproductive years in feeding
Leopard Shark
and near shore pupping areas. Nonetheless, it appears
Ackerman, J.T., M.C. Kondratieff, S.A. Matern, and J.J.
that current conservation measures, as long as they are
Cech, Jr. 2000. Tidal inuence on spacial dynmics of leop-
in place, appear to provide adequate protection for the
ard sharks, Triakis semifasciata, in Tomales Bay, California.
sustainability of the California stock of this species at the
Environmental Biology of Fishes 58: 33-43.
present time. Possible future shing mortality increases
within regulatory constraints could be a concern if mature Au, D. W. and S.E. Smith. 1997. A demographic method
females become an increasingly important component of with population density compensation for estimating pro-
the catch, or if inshore sheries develop that are efcient ductivity and yield per recruit of the leopard shark, Triakis
at targeting this species. semifaciata. Canadian J. Fish. Aqua. Sci. 54, 415-20.
Cailliet, G.M. 1992. Demography of the central California
population of the leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata).
Susan E. Smith
Austr. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 43: 183-193.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Kusher, D.I., S.E. Smith, and G.M. Cailliet. 1992. Validated
age and growth of the leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata,
with comments on reproduction. Environmental Biology of
Fishes 35, 187-203.
Russo, R.A. 1975. Observations on the food habits of
leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) and brown smooth-
hounds (Muselus henlei). Calif. Fish Game 61:95-103.
Smith, S.E. and N. Abramson. 1990. Leopard shark Triakis
semifasciata distribution, mortality rate, yield, and stock
replenishment estimates based on a tagging study in San
Francisco Bay. Fish. Bull., U.S. 88(2):371-381.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
254
Soupfin Shark
History of the Fishery nental shelf waters from close inshore, including shallow
Soupfin Shark
bays, often near the bottom, but also offshore waters up
T he soupn shark (Galeorhinus galeus) was the mainstay to 1,500 feet deep. In the eastern North Pacic they range
of the shark shery boom for vitamin oils between from British Columbia to central Baja California.
1936 and 1944 when over 24 million pounds were landed. Coast wide there is a preponderance of adult males in
Prior to that time, soupns were mainly marketed within the northern part of the state and females to the south;
the local Asian communities up and down the Pacic in central California the sex ratio is about one to one.
coast. The meat sold anywhere from $0.10 to $0.20 per Adult males south of Point Conception tend to occur in
pound, but the ns, which are used for soup stock brought deeper water (more than 65 feet) while females occur
as much as $2.50 per pound prior to 1936. The shery for closer inshore (less than 45 feet). Soupns often occur in
this species began in earnest when it was discovered that small schools that segregate by size and sex.
their livers were rich in vitamin oil. The value of each
Soupns are highly migratory, moving to the north during
shark species was based on its high potency vitamin oil
the summer and south during the winter or into deeper
and the soupn was found to have the highest vitamin
waters. They are swift moving and can travel up to 35
oil levels among California’s shark species. Prior to the
miles per day and have been reported to travel at a
development of this shery, cod liver oil was produced in
sustained rate of 10 miles per day for up to 100 days.
Europe and exported to the United States. With the onset
One soupn tagged off Ventura was captured 26 months
of World War II and the curtailment of cod liver oil produc-
later off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Another shark
tion in Europe, these events set the stage for the expan-
tagged in San Francisco Bay was recaptured 12 months
sion of this shery. Shipping cod liver oil from Europe
later in the same location.
became so hazardous that its production and exportation
Soupn sharks are ovoviviparous, with litters of between
eventually declined to nothing. The West Coast soupn
six and 52 young, the average being 35. The litter size
shark population represented a tremendous source of raw
increases in proportion to the female’s size. Mating takes
material. The market for shark liver oils to replace the
place during the spring with a gestation period of about 12
non-available cod liver oil improved rapidly and in a rela-
months. Southern California, south of Point Conception, is
tively short time the huge potential of the Pacic coast
an important nursery ground. Adult females and newborn
soupn supply had been tapped. The shery nally col-
soupns occur in considerable numbers in this area. Pups
lapsed in the mid-1940s from over-exploitation and the
are born during the spring at a size of between 12 and
development of synthetic vitamins. This shery decimated
16 inches. Males mature between 53 and 60 inches, and
the soupn population, particularly nursery areas in San
grow to a maximum size of 70 inches. Females mature
Francisco and Tomales bays, which to this day have never
at about 24 inches, and grow to a maximum size of 77
fully recovered. In the mid-1970s, there was a renewed
inches. Males mature in eight to nine years and females
interest in shark sheries, although this time for their
in about 11 years. The maximum estimated age for these
meat as food for human consumption.
sharks is about 40 years.
While the commercial shery for soupns has been widely
Soupns readily forage on both demersal and pelagic
recounted, less attention has been paid to its recreational
bony sh species, although larger individuals prefer
exploitation. Soupns were one of the more common spe-
cartilaginous shes. Invertebrate prey includes cepha-
cies caught in San Francisco Bay during the late 1940s
lopods, crabs, shrimp, and lobster. Young sharks tend
through the early 1960s by recreational anglers. This sh-
to feed more heavily on invertebrates than do adults.
ery declined somewhat until the Jaws phenomenon of the
Natural predators on soupns, particularly juveniles,
mid-1970s brought about a renewed awareness of sharks.
include the white shark, sevengill shark, and possibly
Sport shing boats in San Francisco Bay and southern
marine mammals.
California began targeting these, among other shark spe-
cies. Unlike the commercial shery, landings data for
recreational caught soupns are sketchy at best and are
under-reported, if reported at all. Soupns are prized by
recreational anglers for their meat.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he soupn shark is one of ve species of houndsharks
(Family Triakidae) found in California waters. Along Soupfin Shark, Galeorhinus galeus
Credit: DFG
the California coast, soupn sharks generally inhabit conti-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 255
Soupfin Shark
300
thousands of pounds landed
250
Soupfin Shark
200
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Soupfin Shark
Data Source: DFG Catch
100
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Commercial
50
landings prior to 1977 were
not available. All shark landings 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
were aggregated until 1977.
Status of the Population References
C alifornia’s soupn shark population has not been stud- Cailliet, G.M., D.B. Holts, and D. Bedford. 1992. A review
ied in over 50 years and its status is unknown. Since of the commercial sheries for sharks on the west coast
1977, the shery has averaged between 150,000 and of the United States. In: Shark Conservation: Proceedings
250,000 pounds dressed weight landed annually. of an International Workshop on the Conservation of Elas-
mobranchs. Eds. J. Pepperell, J. West, and Peter Woon.
Pp. 13-29.
David Ebert
Ebert, D.A. 1986. Observations on the elasmobranch
US Abalone
assemblage of San Francisco Bay. Calif. Fish Game, 72
(4): 244-249.
Ripley, W.E. 1946. The biology of the soupn, Galeorhinus
zyopterus. Calif. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. no. 64, 96 pp.
Roedel, P.M. and W.E. Ripley 1950. California sharks and
rays. Calif. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. no. 75, 88 pp.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
256
Skates and Rays
History of the Fishery from around 228,566 pounds in 1989 to 1,912,695 pounds
Skates and Rays
in 1999. This trend is most notable in the trawl shery
S kates and rays are not specically sought by commer- after 1994.
cial shermen, but are taken incidentally, primarily by Some of the apparent increase may be due to increased
bottom trawlers in central and northern California waters. landings of previously discarded catch. In 1994, the com-
Of the species identied in the commercial catch the most mercial groundsh shery was divided into limited entry
common are the shovelnose guitarsh (Rhinobatos produc- and open access components, each with new regulations
tus), bat ray (Myliobatis californica), big skate (Raja and quotas. Groundsh quotas for both components were
binoculata), and thornback (Platyrhinoidis triseriata). This signicantly reduced in the period from 1994 through
does not represent the true catch composition, however, 1999, leaving more space in the boats’ holds for non-quota
as 98 percent of the landings are listed as “unidentied species. Trawl vessels have supplemented their groundsh
skate.” A few nearshore species, most commonly the bat landings with skate and ray bycatch. There is considerable
ray and shovelnose guitarsh, are the target of small uncertainty whether the total impact on the skate and ray
sport sheries. resource has increased or if more of the catch is being
Only the wings of skates caught in the commercial shery retained and landed.
are marketed. The bodies are either discarded at sea or
occasionally sold as bait for the rock crab shery. Skate
Status of Biological Knowledge
wings are sold fresh and frozen, predominantly in the
Asian fresh sh markets in southern California. Wings are
S kates and rays (batoids) can be distinguished from
also dried or salted and dehydrated for the Asian markets.
sharks by having pectoral ns which extend above and
At times, skates have been processed for shmeal, but
in front of the gills, attaching to the head and forming
most such enterprises experienced economic failure. Sea-
an expanded and attened disc with gill slits located
food restaurants and retail markets have been suspected
completely on the underside. They can be thought of as
of punching out rounds of skate wing to serve as cheap
sharks attened to accommodate a life spent on the sea
substitutes for scallops.
oor. Twenty species of rays and skates have provisionally
Historically, the economic value of the skate shery com- been recorded from California waters.
pared to other seafood sheries was relatively small. From
Rays and skates occur in all marine habitats, from pro-
1958 to 1969 the ex-vessel price for skate wings ranged
tected bays and estuaries to open seas, ranging from
from $.01 to $.02 per pound. Prices increased from $.12
the surface to 9,500 feet deep. While some species are
per pound in the 1970s to $.25 per pound in 1991.
common, others are known from only a few specimens. So
This increase has continued through the 1990s ranging
far as is known, batoids follow the typical elasmobranch
as high as $1 or more and averaging around $.40. In
reproductive strategy in which sexual maturity is attained
1999, the total ex-vessel value of skates and rays was
relatively late in life, brood size is relatively small, and
approximately $340,000.
fecundity is generally low. These characteristics make
Central California (Monterey and San Francisco) shared populations more susceptible to overshing.
the majority of the skate catch from 1948 through 1989,
All batoids have internal fertilization, but two different
accounting for 41 to 100 percent of the annual landings
modes of development exist. The skates are egg layers, or
and more than 70 percent of the total catch during the
oviparous. Following fertilization, the yolk is enclosed in a
period. The northern California areas (Eureka, Crescent
City, and Fort Bragg) have played an increasing role since
about 1975. Over the period from 1989 through 1999,
the northern California catch has increased dramatically,
accounting for nearly 75 percent of the total catch. Areas
south of Monterey remain relatively insignicant in terms
of total landings.
From 1916 to 1990, skate landings, which ranged from
36,247 pounds (1916) to 631,240 pounds (1981), comprised
two to 90 percent of the total elasmobranch catch (11.8
percent average). Like the shark shery, which had peaks
from 1937 to 1948, and more recently from 1976 to 1990,
the skate catch has uctuated widely during the last
half century. In the past 10 years, however, skate and
Longnose Skate, Raja rhina
ray landings have increased nearly ten-fold in California,
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 257
Skates and Rays
3.5
millions of pounds landed
3.0
2.5
Skates 2.0
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Skates
1.5
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial 1.0
landing receipts. Landings data
0.5
are not available prior to 1943,
1945-1947, 1950, 1952, and
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1955-1956.
tough, permeable egg case, which is deposited on the sea of enlarged, hooked thorns along the front edge (malar
oor. The embryo develops within the egg case, feeding thorns) and lateral edge (alar thorns) of the disc. The tail
on nourishment stored in the attached yolk mass. Hatched is slender, with two small dorsal ns located near the tip.
egg cases (commonly known as “mermaid’s purses”) are The caudal n is small or absent, and there are no
washed ashore and frequently found by beachcombers. All stinging spines. Skates have paired electric organs along
other batoids are live bearing, or viviparous. The embryo the sides of their tails, which generate weak, low-voltage
is protected by, and develops within, a portion of the electric currents believed to be used in intra-specic com-
female’s oviduct, which functions as a uterus. The gesta- munication, possibly for mate recognition or to demon-
tion period for skates and rays varies widely; depending strate aggression. These electric currents are not harmful
on the species it may range from two to 18 months. to humans.
Batoids feed on a variety of worms, mollusks, crustaceans, The California skate ranges from the Strait of Juan De
other invertebrates, and shes. Some lie buried on the Fuca to southern Baja California. It is common inshore in
bottom to wait for prey, while others actively forage. As shallow bays at depths of 60 feet or less, but also occurs in
a group they have a large variety of feeding strategies, deeper water to a depth of 2,200 feet. Females and males
ranging from straining plankton (manta), to electric shock both reach sexual maturity at a total length of about 30
(electric ray), to excavation and suction (bat ray). In inches. They feed on shrimp and other invertebrates.
turn, marine mammals, sharks, and other large shes The big skate ranges from the Bering Sea to southern Baja
prey upon batoids. An adult giant sea bass (Stereolepis California, but is relatively rare south of Point Conception.
gigas) was found to have three whole thornbacks in its It occurs at depths from 10 to about 2,600 feet, being
stomach. Batoid predator avoidance adaptations include most common at moderate depths. It is the only known
cryptic (camouage) coloration and burying themselves in Californian skate with more than one embryo per egg
sand or mud. In some species, rows of sharp spines on the case. The big skate grows to a length of up to eight
back and/or tail also serve as protection. Only a few of feet, but usually does not exceed six feet and about 200
the batoid species are dangerous to humans. Electric rays pounds. Females mature at 12 to 13 years and a length
are capable of producing a powerful shock, and stingrays of 51 to 55 inches; males mature at seven to eight years
can inict serious wounds on unwary anglers and bathers. and a length of 39 to 43 inches. It feeds on crustaceans
and shes.
The Skates and Softnose Skates -
The longnose skate also ranges from the Bering Sea to
Families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae
central Baja California, and is usually found on the bottom
The skates are the largest group of batoid shes. Nine spe-
at depths from 80 to 2,250 feet. It attains a maximum
cies in three genera are presently known to occur in Cali-
length of about 4.5 feet. Females mature at eight years
fornia waters. California’s three commercially important
and a length of 28 inches; males mature at ve years and
skates are the California skate (Raja inornata), big skate
a length of 24 inches.
(R. binoculata), and longnose skate (R. rhina).
Other skate species include the sandpaper skate (Bathy-
The skates have a greatly attened, usually rhomboidal
raja interrupta) and starry skate (Raja stellulata) occur-
shaped disc. Most species have enlarged thorns or sharp
ring in moderate depths and the deep-sea skate (B.
spines (denticles) on disc and tail. Adult males have rows
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
258
abyssicola), roughtail skate (B. tachura), and white skate The Pacic electric ray (Torpedo californica) ranges from
Skates and Rays
(B. spinosissima) occurring in deep water up to 9,500 northern British Columbia to central Baja California, at
feet (deep skate). One other species, the broad skate depths from 10 to 1,400 feet. Commonly found over sandy
(Amblyraja badia) is very rare with only two records bottoms, it also occurs in rocky areas and kelp beds.
from California. Females reach a length of over 4.5 feet, while males may
reach three feet. It feeds exclusively on sh, including
The Guitarshes and Thornbacks - anchovies, herring, kelp bass, mackerel, and halibut. One
Families Rhinobatidae and Platyrhinidae four-foot female ray was observed to consume a two-foot
silver salmon. Unlike most predatory sh, however, it does
The guitarshes derive their name from their similarity in
not initially seize its prey with its mouth, but rst immobi-
shape to the musical instrument; head tapered or round,
lizes it with electric discharges. It then manipulates the
attened, and somewhat broader than their sturdy, shark-
prey toward its mouth, using its remarkably dexterous
like tail. Thornbacks share this general body shape, but
disc, before swallowing it.
have rows of spines down the dorsal surface. Guitarshes
and thornbacks are usually found on the bottom and close Sometimes aggressive when approached or provoked by
inshore. All are viviparous, the embryos being nourished divers, it may swim toward them with pectoral ns curled
by nutrients stored in their yolksac. They have small, blunt downward in a challenging manner. While its electric
teeth used for crushing, and feed on invertebrates such as shock may be quite powerful, reaching up to 60 volts in
worms, crustaceans, and mollusks, as well as small shes, larger individuals, it does not extend a great distance
and are generally harmless to humans. Three species are from the ray’s body. The shock is apparently not fatal to
known from California waters. humans, but often snaps the backbone of prey sh.
The shovelnose guitarsh (Rhinobatos productus) has a
The Myliobatidiform Rays (Stingrays) - Families
sharply pointed snout and a tapered, somewhat shovel-
Urolophidae, Myliobatidae, Dasyatidae, Gymnuridae,
shaped disc. It ranges from San Francisco to the Gulf of
and Mobulidae
California, but is rare north of Monterey Bay. It is found
in shallow coastal waters, bays, sloughs and estuaries The stingrays are a large and rather diverse group, most
over sandy or muddy bottoms to a depth of about 50 of which have a greatly attened disc and whiplike
feet. Mating occurs during the summer months in southern tail with one or more serrated stinging spines that are
California and the females give birth to live young the readily replaced when they become old or worn. This
following spring or summer. Newborn guitarsh are six group includes both the smallest and largest batoids. Most
inches long, with up to 28 pups per litter. Females reach a are bottom-dwellers, occurring in shallow inshore waters,
length of 5.5 feet and a weight of about 40 pounds; males bays, estuaries and sloughs, but some are also found
are smaller. The banded guitarsh (Zapteryx exasperata) in deeper waters. At least one species of stingray and
has a more rounded snout and dark banding across the all mantas and mobulas are epipelagic, occurring in the
disc. It inhabits rocky reefs and gravel beds and occurs upper water column of the open ocean.
rarely in southern California. The stingrays bear live young and are unique among the
The thornback (Platyrhinoidis triseriata) is identied by elasmobranchs in their method of nourishing the devel-
three parallel rows of large, curved spines running down oping embryo. A nutritive uid called uterine milk is
the back and base of its tail to just past the rst dorsal secreted from hair like processes called trophonemata,
n. Adults reach a length of 2.5 to three feet. Thornbacks which line the oviduct wall. Adults feed on soft benthic
occur in shallow water to depths of 150 feet resting on invertebrates, mollusks, crustaceans, and benthic, midwa-
sandy bottoms partially or completely buried. Thornbacks ter, and schooling nektonic shes.
are common in the southern part of the state and Baja Rays are usually popular when displayed in public aquaria;
California, becoming more rare to the north. bat rays are especially suited for shallow petting tanks.
Although used by cultures throughout the world for food,
The Electric Rays - Family Torpedinidae
myliobatidiform rays are of little interest to California
Electric rays are found worldwide in all tropical and commercial shermen, who mostly consider them a nui-
warm-temperate seas. They have a greatly expanded sub- sance. Because most species have a stinging spine, care
circular disc that is eshy toward the margins, and spe- should be taken when handling them.
cialized to accommodate the two kidney-shaped electric
The round stingray (Urolophus halleri), our most common
organs. These organs are modied muscles capable of
stingray, has a nearly round disc and short, stout tail
producing a powerful electrical shock. Only one species is
with well-developed caudal n and stinging spine. It
known from California waters.
ranges from northern California to Panama, but is most
abundant south of Point Conception. A benthic species
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 259
with restricted habitat requirements, this ray is limited to reaches a maximum disc width of 32 inches. It is a fre-
Skates and Rays
a relatively shallow coastal zone at depths from three to quent incidental catch of drift longline gear.
100 feet, occurring primarily in water less than 50 feet The California buttery ray (Gymnura marmorata) inhab-
deep. It can be found off beaches and in protected bays, its shallow bays and sandy beaches. It has a very wide
sloughs, channels and inlets, where it inhabits loose sand disc, reaching widths up to ve feet. The buttery ray is
or mud bottoms. found from Point Conception to Peru, including the Gulf
The round stingray’s stinging spine is located far enough of California.
back on its tail to afford a powerful stinging reex. When Found worldwide in tropical seas the Pacic manta (Manta
large numbers of round stingrays congregate off beaches, birostris) is seen on rare occasions in southern California.
injuries to bathers can result. This danger can usually The manta can reach a maximum width of 25 feet.
be avoided, however, by shufing one’s feet or pushing Its close relative, the mobula (Mobula japonica), which
a stick along the bottom. Injuries from the spine may occurs in temperate waters of the Pacic, is also rarely
also result when rays are removed from nets or hooks. seen in southern California. Mobulas are smaller than
While the wounds do not appear to be fatal, they can mantas, reaching a maximum width of four to seven feet.
be severely painful, and can cause vomiting, diarrhea, Mantas and mobulas are unique among the batoids in
sweating, cramps, and difculty breathing. being lter feeders. They pass huge volumes of water
The bat ray (Myliobatis californica) is a common seasonal across complex lter plates at the gills, straining out small
inhabitant of shallow inshore waters from Oregon to the pelagic crustaceans and schooling shes.
Gulf of California. It occurs in muddy or sandy bays and
sloughs as well as rocky areas and in kelp beds from near
Status of the Populations
the surface to depths of 150 feet.
B
Gestation is estimated to take from nine to 12 months, ased on existing data, little can be said about the
with two to 12 young per litter. Size range at birth is 8.7 current or past population levels of California’s skates
to 13.8 inches disc width (wingtip to wingtip). Onset of and rays. While landings are increasing dramatically, this
sexual maturity in males occurs at an age of two to three may or may not reect an actual threat to the resource.
years and a disc width of 17.7 to 24.5 inches; maturity in Fish that were discarded in the past, dead and alive, are
females occurs at ve to seven years and disc width of now being retained and landed. The increase in landings,
35 to 40 inches. however, certainly warrants close monitoring. Although
Female bat rays reach a greater size than males, attaining some skate species may have higher growth rates than
a maximum disc width of 70.9 inches and weight of 210 other elasmobranchs, compared with bony shes they
pounds. The largest reported male is 40 inches wide have slow growth rates, late age at maturity, and
at a weight of 37 pounds. Bat rays grow slowly, reach low fecundity. Other regions have already witnessed
sexual maturity relatively late, have few young, and seem decreases in skate and ray populations. In Japan and the
to be fairly long-lived. A 60-inch disc width female was Irish Sea, landings have decreased and overshing has
estimated to be 24 years old. apparently occurred.
Bat rays feed on clams, abalones, oysters, marine snails, The impact of sport sheries on skates and rays is rela-
worms, shrimps, and crabs. Bat ray predation on oysters tively unknown. Data from 48 shark derbies in Elkhorn
is a major reason for the fencing seen around commercial Slough from 1950 to 1990 show, however, that shovelnose
oyster beds. Pieces of backbone (centra), tooth plates, guitarsh, which in the 1950s and 1960s were the second,
and sting fragments have been identied from coastal and in some years the most abundantly caught elasmo-
shell-mounds, suggesting that bat rays were a regular diet branch, virtually disappeared from the catch in later
item of early California natives. years. In the 1990s, there was a two-thirds decrease in
the catch-per-unit effort for bat rays compared to the
The diamond stingray (Dasyatis brevis) is found in shallow
1950s catch rates in these derbies. Pacic States Marine
waters to a depth of 55 feet. It ranges from southern
Fisheries Commission recreational sheries sampling, how-
California (with a possible record from British Columbia) to
ever, shows continued catches of bat rays, big skates,
Peru inhabiting sand and mud bottoms, often around kelp
shovelnose guitarsh, and thornback. The total numbers
beds. Maximum reported size is 38.5 inches disc width.
caught are hard to determine from the numbers of sam-
A truly open ocean species, the pelagic stingray (Ptero-
pled skates and rays, as sampled catch numbers vary
platytrygon violacea) is commonly found swimming in
widely from year to year.
open water well above the bottom. Found worldwide in
warm-temperate and tropical waters the pelagic stingray
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
260
Management Considerations References
Skates and Rays
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Compagno, L.J.V., 1999. Systematics and body form. ed.:
further information. William C. Hamlett, In: Sharks, skates, and rays: the biol-
ogy of elasmobranch shes. Johns Hopkins University
Press, pp. 1-42.
George D. Zorzi
Ferguson, A., and G. Cailliet. 1990. Sharks and rays of
California Academy of Sciences
the Pacic coast. Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation,
Linda K. Martin
Monterey, Calif. 1-64.
Monterey Bay Aquarium
Love, M. 2000. Probably more than you want to know
Revised by:
about the shes of the Pacic coast. Really Big Press,
John Ugoretz
Santa Barbara, Calif. 381 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game
Martin, L., and G.D. Zorzi. 1993. Status and review of
the California skate shery. In: Conservation Biology of
Elasmobranchs, NOAA Technical Report, NMFS 115:39-52.
McEachran, J.D., and K.A. Dunn. 1998. Phylogenetic
analysis of skates, a morphologically conservative clade
of elasmobranchs (Chondrichthyes: Rajidae). Copeia
2:271-290.
Roedel, P.M., and W.E. Ripley. 1950. California sharks and
rays. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Fish Bull. 75:1-88.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 261
Skates and Rays
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
262
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
California Pacific White Arrowtooth Starry California
Croaker 1 Flounder 2 Flounder 3
Cabezon Barracuda Bonito Halibut Lingcod
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 569 2,687,362 480,406 779,287 ---- 453,916 4,052,173 617,236
1917 434 3,060,323 889,376 835,259 ---- 1,151,876 4,379,312 930,519
1918 167 4,837,284 2,441,714 1,014,820 ---- 818,835 4,624,218 915,836
1919 ---- 5,824,957 3,509,098 609,175 ---- 435,731 4,698,123 1,063,136
1920 ---- 8,201,335 873,648 461,459 ---- 481,581 4,279,582 687,954
1921 ---- 7,625,162 324,737 391,085 ---- 293,656 3,653,861 425,543
1922 ---- 6,250,218 957,942 581,863 ---- 539,220 3,254,505 568,481
1923 ---- 7,200,575 1,115,247 411,564 ---- 508,961 2,229,381 467,347
1924 ---- 7,128,523 1,045,282 384,317 ---- 379,770 2,576,882 400,432
1925 3,352 8,036,449 879,166 536,654 ---- 594,420 2,452,551 683,130
1926 ---- 5,022,464 3,121,604 484,921 ---- 667,711 1,349,031 649,902
1927 752 6,199,739 1,718,008 529,267 ---- 590,064 1,303,559 556,308
1928 2,628 6,452,456 2,107,089 441,758 ---- 399,880 1,187,651 853,537
1929 1,196 5,228,610 2,918,544 476,497 ---- 580,752 1,102,573 1,167,120
1930 1,046 4,763,766 5,164,260 457,167 ---- 391,096 1,097,760 1,288,172
1931 1,115 4,177,538 3,079,673 414,034 ---- 169,806 969,773 1,229,088
1932 4,678 2,926,775 2,862,286 447,531 ---- 543,806 949,702 899,912
1933 4,265 3,072,962 2,252,199 564,274 ---- 457,998 989,649 1,088,955
1934 5,265 2,182,822 3,202,694 634,345 ---- 537,164 1,037,008 857,600
1935 10,537 2,617,824 7,896,484 768,676 ---- 656,113 1,575,863 1,017,455
1936 18,468 2,977,842 7,215,916 652,134 ---- 621,186 1,582,907 758,547
1937 8,189 2,938,490 7,808,070 645,759 ---- 974,770 1,207,235 968,258
1938 5,425 2,529,812 7,839,993 493,209 ---- 542,812 1,078,229 646,004
1939 4,023 4,092,054 9,918,875 542,901 ---- 739,311 991,621 576,972
1940 3,392 3,714,832 5,291,140 412,228 ---- 804,089 948,457 692,243
1941 13,346 4,201,928 10,907,602 325,155 ---- 601,577 706,650 529,772
1942 2,312 3,454,537 1,650,689 284,225 ---- 370,125 750,539 314,334
1943 7,532 3,775,338 2,282,299 396,633 ---- 505,399 1,111,998 719,318
1944 3,906 3,648,308 818,871 367,701 ---- 366,520 1,485,463 746,039
1945 4,417 3,873,257 2,714,181 459,515 ---- 337,543 1,748,821 758,395
1946 7,860 3,107,024 5,625,648 437,023 ---- 509,448 2,457,187 1,156,127
1947 4,526 2,665,745 13,697,183 458,686 ---- 527,072 1,787,901 1,940,747
1948 8,202 2,125,737 9,135,126 643,123 ---- 405,251 1,306,629 2,056,088
1949 16,073 2,457,684 1,829,541 764,429 ---- 356,374 1,256,435 1,656,184
1950 21,679 2,258,415 695,614 750,722 74,309 913,765 1,092,748 1,915,905
1951 23,875 2,106,928 776,803 682,269 59,801 1,128,892 868,201 1,672,114
1952 34,556 2,094,206 2,142,517 3,273,702 112,913 597,477 525,402 1,366,279
1953 13,365 1,438,846 3,102,647 1,201,134 88,367 502526 530,315 952,103
1954 6,262 1,562,739 2,319,060 913,802 550,457 500,550 661,331 947,383
1955 6,944 1,140,959 136,990 819,488 748,249 650,180 509,742 964,926
1956 12,415 752,527 127,614 889,870 1,070,597 375,400 455,659 931,311
1957 13,206 682,666 219,149 535,362 933,715 504,461 376,815 1,639,654
1958 19,612 915,259 5,546,806 770,534 643,880 471,202 267,446 1,599,515
1959 9,508 1,152,601 3,011,616 1,534,382 787,254 1,046,926 354,242 1,406,297
1960 3,067 1,229,668 1,250,544 1,078,119 1,007,679 259,038 376,263 1,307,129
1961 4,952 709,379 8,512,972 889,164 60,659 315,337 654,554 1,439,943
1962 2,474 746,476 2,134,902 687,633 53,326 338,192 863,086 1,112,204
1963 2,811 378,714 4,022,522 551,059 17,345 521,310 1,120,369 1,133,008
1964 5,281 334,140 2,612,269 838,584 9,735 420,986 1,276,105 836,377
1965 7,438 362,058 5,638,340 1,135,566 11,595 378,389 1,243,718 812,690
1966 12,599 319,116 19,148,494 790,997 3,503 380,628 1,011,412 800,303
1967 14,284 313,184 21,219,431 496,378 6,041 870,707 838,058 938,655
1968 20,106 140,500 14,921,929 941,304 13,400 856,157 671,654 1,094,054
1969 25,837 74,593 17,201,847 525,514 9,986 374,840 274,277 1,113,508
1970 10,698 24,588 9,192,304 564,871 6,120 ---- 257,444 1,531,399
1971 4,518 17,264 20,268,984 334,395 2,661 ---- 336,871 2,097,949
1972 5,853 13,915 22,312,627 373,410 163,947 ---- 309,245 3,246,186
1973 4,554 37,605 30,787,731 227,096 236,244 ---- 273,526 3,559,621
1974 14,901 36,498 18,817,766 514,317 210,510 ---- 306,479 3,824,107
1975 7,332 58,597 31,873,688 577,785 70,714 ---- 508,913 3,190,195
1976 19,166 162,091 8,896,859 497,961 185,228 ---- 628,400 3,120,220
1977 12,150 77,119 22,547,605 588,551 222,300 ---- 467,862 1,694,539
1978 28,781 48,437 7,882,396 422,288 206,603 ---- 441,440 2,015,460
1979 50,327 37,327 3,960,071 716,315 238,203 ---- 665,546 3,161,120
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 263
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
California Pacific White Arrowtooth Starry California
Croaker 1 Flounder 2 Flounder 3
Cabezon Barracuda Bonito Halibut Lingcod
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 60,146 66,553 14,242,114 1,064,141 122,820 ---- 726,852 2,810,797
1981 53,460 67,594 16,615,051 978,734 105,550 ---- 1,262,265 2,839,852
1982 62,214 73,394 6,062,617 1,331,801 106,414 2,551 1,214,375 3,036,923
1983 20,515 21,256 8,154,181 783,153 54,405 104,066 1,130,581 1,976,790
1984 14,741 28,660 6,179,690 1,491,487 71,409 468,753 1,107,332 2,095,429
1985 22,506 68,025 6,089,254 1,437,132 83,297 383,797 1,256,375 1,531,569
1986 16,000 56,143 532,778 1,245,317 41,452 276,110 1,184,090 1,153,820
1987 6,884 113,258 11,140,031 912,963 100,182 210,976 1,188,881 1,858,678
1988 12,746 138,067 8,682,920 1,135,763 79,997 217,402 1,114,559 1,958,700
1989 25,012 133,262 2,406,757 1,027,804 62,465 135,945 1,213,193 2,790,853
1990 25,996 169,931 9,577,955 774,869 119,468 80,397 924,448 2,345,841
1991 16,293 341,646 562,060 995,435 345,090 102,938 1,041,167 1,735,834
1992 36,535 81,210 2,337,818 715,950 218,173 78,185 885,346 1,351,434
1993 39,312 109,812 1,047,606 714,249 125,347 41,897 746,559 1,519,828
1994 82,924 300,832 921,160 474,552 161,936 33,244 534,723 1,251,353
1995 193,814 302,790 157,439 565,144 259,994 25,580 771,628 1,185,394
1996 245,230 369,134 980,576 529,272 110,415 49,286 914,236 1,066,023
1997 264,754 145,377 641,598 345,034 104,739 94,591 1,325,175 1,132,160
1998 372,760 131,131 2,495,167 142,441 82,096 100,303 1,185,177 331,705
1999 302,563 202,726 191,269 203,061 94,301 76,462 1,313,150 312,445
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Landings for White Croaker for 1916-1969 include Queen Fish,
2
Arrowtooth flounder were aggregated under unclassified sole prior to 1950. The drop in landings following 1959 reflects the elimination of recording catch utilized.
3
Starry Founder were aggregated under unspecified flounders from 1970 until 1982.
4
Yellowtail landings include fish caught south of the State but landed in California.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
264
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
Monkeyface California Giant California
Prickleback Opaleye Sanddab Scorpionfish Sea Bass Sheephead Silversides
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- 2,228,734 8,014 153,440 3,549 ----
1917 ---- ---- 2,631,862 17,425 158,380 5,906 ----
1918 ---- ---- 1,751,609 28,237 248,795 22,978 ----
1919 ---- ---- 709,738 25,432 185,270 17,972 ----
1920 ---- ---- 721,810 35,674 148,037 14,567 ----
1921 ---- ---- 784,011 58,380 127,431 23,925 ----
1922 ---- ---- 1,170,979 42,121 97,354 18,205 ----
1923 ---- ---- 1,363,911 60,466 226,995 31,628 ----
1924 ---- ---- 1,699,832 109,070 231,404 24,267 ----
1925 ---- ---- 1,952,847 223,104 189,072 48,811 ----
1926 ---- ---- 1,143,935 108,068 377,934 138,927 ----
1927 ---- ---- 892,718 113,457 467,595 159,397 ----
1928 ---- ---- 1,108,764 97,083 382,115 372,677 ----
1929 ---- ---- 1,051,868 107,797 404,386 288,422 ----
1930 ---- ---- 616,349 88,610 394,009 243,689 ----
1931 ---- 17,913 472,805 91,688 502,064 198,347 ----
1932 ---- 15,279 665,345 85,503 473,846 89,591 ----
1933 ---- 4,272 562,994 64,160 453,023 58,609 ----
1934 ---- 3,896 767,025 65,939 861,498 143,552 ----
1935 ---- 1,424 675,597 69,549 631,759 188,022 ----
1936 ---- 1,781 621,675 110,417 398,595 128,577 ----
1937 ---- 1,778 516,195 137,312 715,584 81,466 ----
1938 ---- 100 639,328 155,386 407,826 72,031 ----
1939 ---- 20 821,204 128,628 460,943 71,361 ----
1940 ---- 39 779,078 122,133 366,683 62,352 ----
1941 ---- ---- 442,487 95,287 409,537 49,119 ----
1942 ---- 66 353,540 44,332 378,780 50,258 ----
1943 ---- 17 505,338 42,550 700,855 151,048 ----
1944 ---- 7 551,269 57,270 434,880 168,653 ----
1945 ---- ---- 592,062 94,656 330,168 249,584 ----
1946 ---- ---- 679,072 145,129 432,561 267,125 ----
1947 ---- 1,519 701,413 127,048 244,304 193,489 ----
1948 ---- 564 804,695 155,076 188,011 100,227 ----
1949 ---- 954 722,183 148,367 114,401 63,524 ----
1950 ---- 6,278 690,621 139,523 150,796 66,209 ----
1951 ---- 1,006 543,821 101,437 277,484 61,410 ----
1952 ---- 525 659,874 83,610 313,494 36,231 ----
1953 ---- 392 690,443 119,628 411,979 35,426 ----
1954 ---- 9,164 753,471 134,310 350,276 29,184 ----
1955 ---- 6,117 781,564 108,056 365,487 13,152 ----
1956 ---- 3,433 789,280 100,232 331,318 6,575 ----
1957 ---- 5,198 692,083 73,268 242,353 11,033 ----
1958 ---- 2,351 406,438 64,872 216,027 11,366 ----
1959 ---- 4,866 466,684 37,342 249,909 10,233 ----
1960 ---- 1,208 348,373 29,203 241,690 4,740 ----
1961 ---- 2,337 562,964 26,718 340,363 12,602 ----
1962 ---- 1,674 679,911 57,951 446,209 20,327 ----
1963 ---- 4,378 555,783 75,521 303,579 28,011 ----
1964 ---- 2,001 589,526 94,225 222,715 17,934 ----
1965 ---- 3,149 479,041 82,736 351,750 12,153 ----
1966 ---- 19,432 720,101 108,499 340,967 15,984 ----
1967 ---- 17,298 687,168 82,656 230,604 19,628 ----
1968 ---- 11,173 714,622 125,175 158,421 12,750 ----
1969 ---- 15,929 696,482 115,471 154,761 13,285 ----
1970 ---- 22,452 678,505 154,961 129,541 3,805 ----
1971 ---- 5,281 785,401 131,144 117,258 8,854 ----
1972 ---- ---- 920,822 132,016 95,313 7,084 ----
1973 ---- 23,688 904,001 158,860 90,837 3,072 ----
1974 ---- ---- 975,276 157,833 80,439 3,721 ----
1975 ---- 2,654 1,015,557 173,452 59,291 6,031 ----
1976 ---- ---- 1,293,872 173,675 56,128 8,325 11,256
1977 ---- ---- 809,615 116,734 49,363 6,409 42,766
1978 ---- 3,591 743,206 71,209 66,227 11,144 8,686
1979 ---- 5,335 1,322,739 32,745 40,942 8,819 60,121
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 265
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
Monkeyface California Giant California
Prickleback Opaleye Sanddab Scorpionfish Sea Bass Sheephead Silversides
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 ---- 6,134 1,280,474 59,168 38,623 9,105 33,685
1981 ---- 5,362 942,163 56,284 37,903 12,910 16,683
1982 ---- ---- 1,057,614 62,264 6,999 11,776 88,770
1983 ---- ---- 565,839 31,719 3,740 12,634 87,864
1984 ---- 4,041 553,068 24,984 11,118 25,098 49,881
1985 ---- 4,253 971,417 34,501 11,809 28,500 8,563
1986 ---- 3,583 981,297 15,544 12,953 29,252 4,902
1987 ---- 4,599 1,175,880 28,823 12,037 33,711 1,115
1988 ---- 12,104 1,164,144 29,869 12,337 29,345 9,358
1989 ---- 8,690 1,408,187 17,639 8,760 33,039 5,751
1990 92 6,939 1,433,861 8,407 7,259 123,526 3,590
1991 934 1,278 1,232,085 1,452 11,741 191,774 4,786
1992 13 4,124 623,219 77,323 ---- 258,502 3,660
1993 125 3,777 773,906 58,877 ---- 314,151 5,279
1994 750 6,017 1,499,812 113,123 ---- 259,099 15,188
1995 765 963 1,493,536 90,740 ---- 253,827 6,591
1996 561 986 1,738,110 76,444 ---- 252,266 36,824
1997 179 358 2,046,029 95,880 ---- 366,440 41,029
1998 224 1,717 1,428,411 112,822 ---- 261,498 2,571
1999 170 939 2,069,189 86,675 ---- 129,585 2,562
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Landings for White Croaker for 1916-1969 include Queen Fish,
2
Arrowtooth flounder were aggregated under unclassified sole prior to 1950. The drop in landings following 1959 reflects the elimination of recording catch utilized.
3
Starry Founder were aggregated under unspecified flounders from 1970 until 1982.
4
Yellowtail landings include fish caught south of the State but landed in California.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
266
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
White Pacific Angel Leopard Soupfin
Yellowtail 4
Seabass Surfperch Shark Shark Shark Skates Turbot
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 798,115 221,186 ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,608 1153394
1917 899,997 252,503 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,327 2745995
1918 1,613,520 203,420 ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,664 11515372
1919 2,455,367 192,481 ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,115 5005265
1920 2,628,108 186,381 ---- ---- ---- ---- 855 2704937
1921 2,569,489 253,199 ---- ---- ---- ---- 219 2490796
1922 2,932,051 243,776 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,534 3414423
1923 2,373,847 359,682 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,011 4062608
1924 1,489,589 305,726 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,868 4714149
1925 1,885,109 272,351 ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,926 3179891
1926 2,216,402 208,910 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,365 5023114
1927 2,273,407 262,893 ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,950 4224853
1928 1,300,214 236,974 ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,234 2683514
1929 1,562,232 311,194 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,323 3075264
1930 1,626,422 267,972 ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,345 4770756
1931 1,399,413 223,092 ---- ---- ---- ---- 18,284 2525853
1932 804,796 207,222 ---- ---- ---- ---- 23,422 1796364
1933 1,163,079 214,511 ---- ---- ---- ---- 49,615 3898888
1934 851,197 192,596 ---- ---- ---- ---- 72,548 2347161
1935 1,066,419 241,525 ---- ---- ---- ---- 72,287 8148718
1936 808,093 207,280 ---- ---- ---- ---- 116,275 10092470
1937 599,419 210,309 ---- ---- ---- ---- 75,990 5371475
1938 626,647 155,815 ---- ---- ---- ---- 85,896 6812318
1939 994,396 139,394 ---- ---- ---- ---- 104,585 2866288
1940 915,716 57,977 ---- ---- ---- ---- 62,124 5956804
1941 908,296 25,832 ---- ---- ---- ---- 26,940 9830690
1942 553,855 58,018 ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,571 2726269
1943 500,183 113,018 ---- ---- ---- 81,109 38,047 4934879
1944 393,988 146,546 ---- ---- ---- 50419 72,825 2957171
1945 527,730 217,486 ---- ---- ---- ---- 159,870 3534052
1946 616,476 192,430 ---- ---- ---- ---- 49,847 4561583
1947 1,083,023 289,182 ---- ---- ---- ---- 101,784 9952854
1948 1,114,290 302,087 ---- ---- ---- 119101 114,701 10384694
1949 1,409,599 326,336 ---- ---- ---- 123464 95,605 7317740
1950 1,531,374 242,354 ---- ---- ---- ---- 128,080 3529901
1951 1,533,255 237,331 ---- ---- ---- 84634 110,164 4669736
1952 1,147,103 213,357 ---- ---- ---- ---- 81,895 9446979
1953 873,293 281,998 ---- ---- ---- 415669 69,158 5212383
1954 1,206,111 118,499 ---- ---- ---- 136221 175,918 1656778
1955 914,865 136,554 ---- ---- ---- ---- 100,498 164322
1956 1,081,223 187,681 ---- ---- ---- ---- 83,294 370887
1957 1,507,095 245,699 ---- ---- ---- 171678 96,055 508951
1958 2,849,763 189,679 ---- ---- ---- 176896 72,533 169630
1959 3,423,353 212,853 ---- ---- ---- 240801 129,225 231284
1960 1,236,198 164,273 ---- ---- ---- 146934 62,438 248633
1961 694,224 118,245 ---- ---- ---- 299317 71,367 380769
1962 574,408 165,115 ---- ---- ---- 182178 80,383 188421
1963 891,220 172,884 ---- ---- ---- 216825 96,819 69726
1964 1,391,081 133,115 ---- ---- ---- 222705 93,280 110099
1965 1,428,145 187,736 ---- ---- ---- 153475 78,531 127805
1966 1,337,850 160,381 ---- ---- ---- 154014 83,327 245207
1967 1,222,759 202,513 ---- ---- ---- 196751 72,853 150668
1968 861,880 168,040 ---- ---- ---- 186350 69,504 163177
1969 1,098,708 156,528 ---- ---- ---- 106068 25,033 234155
1970 1,101,445 241,409 ---- ---- ---- 102,982 28,067 184223
1971 823,884 184,938 ---- ---- ---- 61,233 24,882 390520
1972 777,388 272,913 ---- ---- ---- 118,386 18,123 258071
1973 808,905 138,000 ---- ---- ---- 133,433 36,400 235622
1974 752,496 148,086 ---- ---- ---- 86,158 20,681 204957
1975 1,182,410 113,757 ---- ---- ---- 135,291 27,697 210411
1976 1,058,673 142,037 ---- ---- ---- 161,137 29,590 475931
1977 1,199,644 110,233 366 22,267 162,166 161,426 19,985 1814650
1978 1,160,755 174,064 82,383 34,956 176,070 275,057 21,902 460782
1979 1,205,666 201,160 128,295 38,939 276,428 309,521 42,657 427612
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 267
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Finfish
White Pacific Angel Leopard Soupfin
Yellowtail 4
Seabass Surfperch Shark Shark Shark Skates Turbot
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 997,412 162,952 112,051 40,085 192,336 155,216 21,238 365176
1981 776,033 182,675 268,640 51,506 264,938 631,420 33,776 347297
1982 70,795 367,704 318,960 70,610 250,504 287,808 47,358 75109
1983 77,964 211,556 360,323 101,309 177,770 185,690 46,803 171956
1984 118,099 182,120 633,273 67,855 278,541 116,293 23,053 132165
1985 125,380 122,078 1,248,487 75,838 277,740 195,837 29,729 259759
1986 106,671 124,983 1,241,130 74,741 212,279 150,125 19,847 57746
1987 116,490 145,751 940,187 55,371 201,489 169,712 42,582 56866
1988 107,619 107,284 491,348 41,737 140,566 127,861 23,810 85131
1989 116,023 118,010 268,252 50,459 165,324 174,659 30,574 28329
1990 133,692 137,745 250,850 41,295 125,726 143,754 20,164 40267
1991 163,803 104,778 181,765 47,742 105,010 113,222 20,574 21560
1992 125,149 129,662 123,554 42,242 95,779 103,468 26,855 15281
1993 100,060 111,261 66,654 52,150 77,452 78,070 17,262 59066
1994 78,932 93,672 23,230 27,559 79,455 93,391 10,055 31992
1995 73,293 89,643 19,711 18,660 63,911 413,278 14,961 9789
1996 96,162 85,279 17,995 13,849 83,868 1,830,094 16,450 29680
1997 58,554 76,512 33,673 20,508 84,933 2,965,344 20,905 73428
1998 156,734 73,731 55,342 26,206 78,446 1,836,803 11,473 244858
1999 247,188 49,396 53,375 25,484 98,326 1,872,076 8,020 66175
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
268
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
California Barred Kelp Kelp and Spotted Giant Sea Pacific
Barracuda Sand Bass Bass Barred Sand Bass Sand Bass Bass Bonito Cabezon
No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 3 No. of Fish1, 3 No. of Fish1, 2, 5 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2
Year
1947 677,449 ---- ---- 682,789 ---- 160 36,496 9,886
1948 384,056 ---- ---- 630,223 ---- 439 14,519 14,590
1949 366,423 ---- ---- 796,959 ---- 212 5,372 14,125
1950 256,367 ---- ---- 619,397 ---- 179 2,359 15,971
1951 269,545 ---- ---- 781,609 ---- 261 14,475 18,029
1952 336,862 ---- ---- 536,075 ---- 92 7,649 10,847
1953 170,550 ---- ---- 711,395 ---- 135 6,321 9,650
1954 282,552 ---- ---- 876,667 ---- 102 70,078 13,132
1955 154,962 ---- ---- 497,343 ---- 162 22,409 12,366
1956 87,603 ---- ---- 470,362 ---- 74 61,404 18,195
1957 577,184 ---- ---- 609,071 ---- 151 258,555 14,479
1958 782,723 ---- ---- 653,671 ---- 203 422,568 9,909
1959 1,195,585 ---- ---- 428,426 ---- 184 776,386 5,329
1960 755,408 ---- ---- 478,656 ---- 228 1,199,919 2,516
1961 391,884 ---- ---- 613,604 ---- 310 849,426 2,639
1962 335,507 ---- ---- 789,149 ---- 390 798,725 4,538
1963 483,699 ---- ---- 1,219,344 ---- 598 775,719 9,726
1964 303,070 ---- ---- 1,103,394 ---- 353 1,298,804 6,491
1965 443,304 ---- ---- 1,230,313 ---- 580 806,322 7,575
1966 892,697 ---- ---- 1,278,939 ---- 548 644,415 10,293
1967 470,480 ---- ---- 1,003,914 ---- 622 349,952 5,419
1968 372,246 ---- ---- 1,317,963 ---- 496 1,102,936 4,349
1969 358,518 ---- ---- 1,246,175 ---- 653 1,130,241 4,583
1970 373,801 ---- ---- 922,260 ---- 487 651,898 6,372
1971 50,474 ---- ---- 948,121 ---- 598 152,795 4,611
1972 38,243 ---- ---- 842,681 ---- 244 418,984 11,452
1973 92,483 35,698 14,609 656,186 ---- 816 472,451 7,551
1974 55,284 178,534 245,683 618,026 ---- 419 141,619 6,964
1975 26,289 106,804 353,463 499,679 ---- 228 80,438 6,433
1976 107,557 156,056 485,280 655,810 ---- 561 197,382 6,445
1977 48,701 118,545 272,705 398,089 ---- 205 161,962 5,620
1978 73,174 110,377 360,277 476,982 ---- 140 315,643 8,887
1979 69,434 169,337 290,448 462,980 ---- 574 538,476 5,469
1980 27,909 229,107 355,950 585,432 149,000 653 560,508 6,208
1981 69,924 237,084 501,927 739,562 201,000 221 654,051 5,830
1982 73,135 273,828 312,891 587,349 138,000 45 218,478 5,247
1983 81,989 158,353 304,645 463,270 231,000 13 348,050 3,758
1984 87,414 136,612 222,771 359,913 297,000 97 377,678 1,759
1985 75,448 299,152 273,299 572,620 310,000 81 120,139 1,760
1986 88,118 265,014 435,516 700,602 537,000 74 340,480 4,386
1987 157,913 408,635 325,685 734,323 255,000 41 517,523 4,773
1988 148,058 451,125 319,629 770,780 423,000 41 250,495 5,418
1989 137,222 421,110 393,892 815,065 ---- 73 339,382 6,353
1990 196,030 423,885 439,701 863,586 ---- 109 263,007 6,713
1991 177,390 495,784 321,926 817,714 ---- 16 116,451 4,555
1992 248,055 363,304 463,673 827,130 ---- 20 115,866 5,199
1993 203,693 313,390 355,088 668,563 367,000 48 139,567 2,812
1994 268,219 286,444 276,087 562,531 273,000 50 106,280 1,866
1995 326,868 350,540 231,687 582,227 319,000 32 39,995 1,810
1996 271,859 604,132 282,673 886,805 298,000 3 72,665 3,003
1997 334,704 490,048 335,127 825,175 347,000 2 102,474 3,133
1998 455,803 377,890 233,591 611,481 219,000 12 57,655 2,579
1999 386,318 435,778 129,475 742,081 189,000 12 2,810 2,905
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 269
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
White Yellowfin Kelp Other California Monkeyface Blk & Yellow
Croaker Croaker Greenling Greenlings Halibut Lingcod Prickleback Rockfish
No. of Fish1, 2, 6 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4
Year
1947 58,034 8,166 ---- ---- 104,436 22,011 ---- ----
1948 89,825 3,667 ---- ---- 143,462 24,406 ---- ----
1949 121,053 3,032 ---- ---- 104,639 26,131 ---- ----
1950 76,765 999 ---- ---- 85,935 23,868 ---- ----
1951 62,945 663 ---- ---- 59,295 24,052 ---- ----
1952 77,948 708 ---- ---- 34,158 17,389 ---- ----
1953 57,606 1,367 ---- ---- 34,292 13,011 ---- ----
1954 66,964 2,411 ---- ---- 59,674 22,940 ---- ----
1955 27,349 595 ---- ---- 35,802 29,113 ---- ----
1956 16,289 1,099 ---- ---- 21,661 37,649 ---- ----
1957 8,648 275 ---- ---- 10,795 38,012 ---- ----
1958 20,000 95 ---- ---- 16,192 39,801 ---- ----
1959 6,895 132 ---- ---- 25,365 31,206 ---- ----
1960 8,633 275 ---- ---- 48,310 28,232 ---- ----
1961 21,782 325 ---- ---- 108,011 23,466 ---- ----
1962 27,256 778 ---- ---- 118,966 25,399 ---- ----
1963 37,225 562 ---- ---- 125,669 27,513 ---- ----
1964 23,269 993 ---- ---- 141,465 25,263 ---- ----
1965 21,448 1,386 ---- ---- 118,213 33,260 ---- ----
1966 17,285 1,619 ---- ---- 88,726 44,676 ---- ----
1967 20,590 645 ---- ---- 63,582 43,559 ---- ----
1968 10,906 211 ---- ---- 54,663 42,449 ---- ----
1969 15,273 1,351 ---- ---- 27,634 32,693 ---- ----
1970 18,519 770 ---- ---- 29,968 61,833 ---- ----
1971 21,112 2,230 ---- ---- 10,598 63,239 ---- ----
1972 38,811 597 ---- ---- 8,140 103,965 ---- ----
1973 29,158 627 ---- ---- 9,622 80,778 ---- ----
1974 27,521 176 ---- ---- 10,292 79,685 ---- ----
1975 27,456 1,390 ---- ---- 9,118 88,976 ---- ----
1976 21,165 278 ---- ---- 10,075 80,863 ---- ----
1977 20,122 139 ---- ---- 6,982 46,521 ---- ----
1978 17,630 285 ---- ---- 5,409 65,869 ---- ----
1979 11,834 199 ---- ---- 6,329 75,826 ---- ----
1980 27,461 123 5,535 582 6,517 89,349 ---- 2,873
1981 9,228 537 47,183 30,739 11,440 65,604 2,503 11,165
1982 10,162 549 90,545 19,275 11,804 49,791 16,910 18,827
1983 7,738 112 61,001 23,777 5,682 30,543 9,874 32,282
1984 4,649 587 62,615 18,653 3,209 23,797 3,269 64,747
1985 3,166 234 63,019 29,649 7,090 20,603 2,026 101,962
1986 11,981 295 74,065 28,783 7,848 25,585 1,516 37,024
1987 3,225 289 131,689 30,861 7,560 42,504 8,179 23,780
1988 121,478 875 85,196 26,413 11,926 66,597 21,244 30,550
1989 15,062 4,274 85,736 19,306 9,116 76,517 8,388 27,415
1990 4,861 661 ---- ---- 6,658 59,845 ---- ----
1991 16,768 1,098 ---- ---- 5,984 49,824 ---- ----
1992 4,824 371 ---- ---- 4,341 43,251 ---- ----
1993 11,449 1,354 61,044 10,585 5,335 38,323 11,375 68,742
1994 6,042 1,544 58,892 21,567 7,549 31,091 1,227 32,901
1995 17,084 2,084 49,636 23,615 19,345 30,542 3,953 25,612
1996 26,323 880 55,389 35,751 19,092 29,734 1,656 9,704
1997 9,960 616 29,901 21,822 15,846 36,218 1,079 8,201
1998 6,917 1,204 20,346 47,183 12,191 20,386 2,110 14,178
1999 10,744 506 16,504 4,080 14,339 26,847 551 15,078
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
270
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
Black Blue Brown Calico China Copper Gopher Grass
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish
No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4
Year
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1963 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1964 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1965 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1966 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1967 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1968 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1969 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1970 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1971 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1972 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1973 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1974 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1975 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1976 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1977 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1978 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1979 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1980 50,951 517,610 74,064 ---- 7,770 189,428 36,771 3,264
1981 350,763 1,514,280 84,474 11,798 14,512 437,077 29,999 44,284
1982 431,844 1,929,444 117,438 2,224 38,413 271,800 22,427 48,854
1983 198,192 1,327,726 137,383 9,384 23,290 102,643 190,248 92,726
1984 474,352 1,400,043 285,695 4,594 22,229 129,170 356,589 72,028
1985 533,936 1,111,013 259,985 22,492 38,656 189,013 449,470 102,049
1986 442,879 733,148 292,393 8,802 62,273 159,723 454,368 60,549
1987 258,788 1,029,206 171,218 3,523 72,216 83,868 378,773 42,010
1988 329,358 911,028 351,357 22,281 56,307 182,081 220,296 65,149
1989 306,667 564,761 145,565 9,084 49,499 109,824 172,187 12,338
1990 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1991 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1992 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1993 421,554 1,643,812 141,836 2,932 48,831 117,518 287,503 26,865
1994 313,817 413,219 47,965 4,958 45,130 73,600 208,224 11,522
1995 255,659 310,691 70,253 9,166 38,337 59,617 87,390 14,047
1996 182,263 383,204 80,335 6,137 29,078 92,907 101,182 11,848
1997 133,483 447,897 78,202 3,360 9,091 30,026 73,816 17,188
1998 77,780 413,373 60,707 3,333 7,985 49,632 83,305 13,697
1999 187,786 461,444 106,390 4,758 23,473 69,736 139,289 10,724
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Marine Living Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 271
Recreational Catch -
Nearshore Finfish, cont’d
Recreational Catch - Nearshore Finfish
Kelp Olive Quillback California White California
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Scorpionfish Seabass Sheephead Treefish Yellowtail
No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 2 No. of Fish1, 4 No. of Fish1, 2
Year
1947 ---- ---- ---- 26,062 20,724 13,004 ---- 6,948
1948 ---- ---- ---- 52,554 24,078 17,261 ---- 13,028
1949 ---- ---- ---- 37,030 65,545 15,440 ---- 17,710
1950 ---- ---- ---- 53,419 54,718 14,281 ---- 6,971
1951 ---- ---- ---- 35,721 44,367 20,416 ---- 23,721
1952 ---- ---- ---- 39,068 41,043 16,481 ---- 59,263
1953 ---- ---- ---- 28,952 28,182 17,349 ---- 27,702
1954 ---- ---- ---- 33,462 41,588 21,499 ---- 40,872
1955 ---- ---- ---- 28,613 30,103 14,102 ---- 36,468
1956 ---- ---- ---- 36,558 19,755 14,789 ---- 29,198
1957 ---- ---- ---- 13,473 19,030 15,105 ---- 242,686
1958 ---- ---- ---- 13,743 34,039 18,120 ---- 123,384
1959 ---- ---- ---- 11,477 10,593 17,146 ---- 457,350
1960 ---- ---- ---- 15,111 15,697 11,541 ---- 254,969
1961 ---- ---- ---- 26,672 14,082 15,210 ---- 42,367
1962 ---- ---- ---- 33,314 14,564 13,488 ---- 21,826
1963 ---- ---- ---- 53,896 19,800 18,443 ---- 45,705
1964 ---- ---- ---- 73,844 14,901 26,822 ---- 39,104
1965 ---- ---- ---- 71,888 9,775 41,651 ---- 18,367
1966 ---- ---- ---- 69,851 3,972 52,967 ---- 80,163
1967 ---- ---- ---- 63,280 3,385 42,676 ---- 31,392
1968 ---- ---- ---- 59,863 4,138 33,075 ---- 58,049
1969 ---- ---- ---- 63,011 4,056 49,626 ---- 79,202
1970 ---- ---- ---- 82,522 4,359 39,464 ---- 97,376
1971 ---- ---- ---- 84,913 5,265 38,300 ---- 44,608
1972 ---- ---- ---- 65,886 3,858 33,541 ---- 59,031
1973 ---- ---- ---- 83,475 7,083 46,234 ---- 221,287
1974 ---- ---- ---- 85,956 4,003 30,379 ---- 121,149
1975 ---- ---- ---- 81,438 3,158 30,496 ---- 19,742
1976 ---- ---- ---- 47,524 2,671 32,926 ---- 28,962
1977 ---- ---- ---- 73,214 2,096 28,512 ---- 34,141
1978 ---- ---- ---- 44,114 433 34,409 ---- 38,528
1979 ---- ---- ---- 64,226 1,352 31,995 ---- 71,483
1980 2,690 81,231 361 95,615 1,002 34,368 8,033 44,246
1981 63,346 249,843 3,109 73,362 887 46,479 16,911 88,911
1982 19,380 327,679 2,245 67,339 1,899 37,242 25,849 37,308
1983 55,608 313,474 18,117 50,834 1,003 68,972 31,712 178,688
1984 94,097 299,704 4,190 46,538 973 38,522 24,886 96,018
1985 87,811 217,905 5,106 66,762 1,045 35,934 34,310 45,509
1986 66,766 168,991 7,326 72,675 1,634 36,707 26,974 42,005
1987 27,662 200,751 1,798 59,125 616 21,072 14,954 58,537
1988 31,884 120,961 3,647 132,520 2,383 31,701 13,319 68,020
1989 33,603 94,760 4,531 163,552 1,365 23,612 20,835 61,746
1990 ---- ---- ---- 160,948 2,563 34,374 ---- 69,805
1991 ---- ---- ---- 181,755 1,743 43,150 ---- 14,195
1992 ---- ---- ---- 77,290 698 25,778 ---- 40,834
1993 45,015 206,164 27,216 69,570 1,403 26,910 32,982 35,681
1994 65,578 115,519 4,609 90,665 2,519 19,955 31,000 19,882
1995 50,034 58,382 3,102 94,398 4,266 23,737 51,834 29,445
1996 30,248 50,194 1,777 119,492 1,452 23,455 52,777 66,763
1997 31,058 62,620 3,940 141,354 1,730 25,788 19,745 398,345
1998 12,915 45,207 889 119,620 1,365 18,363 23,101 250,857
1999 19,554 59,489 6,295 225,726 11,517 23,089 40,339 78,466
---- Catch data not available
---- Catch data not available
1
No. of Fish - All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational catch as reported by CPFV logbooks for the years shown
3
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, corrected to reflect actual DFG CPFV logbook catch for 1991-1999
4
Data source RecFin Data base for all fishing modes, data not availbale for 1990-1992
5
Kelp and Barred Sand Bass CPFV logbook data combined prior to 1972. The combined Kelp and Barred Sand Bass data after 1972 includes catches reported for Kelp Bass, Barred
Sand Bass, and combined catches.
6
White Croaker catch data set includes queenfish.
California’s Marine Living Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
272
Nearshore Marine
Plant Resources: marine ora. Never a case of one-size-ts-all, effective
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview
management of these resources requires consideration of
Overview each species’ cycle of life in each habitat. Is the species
an annual (such as the sea palm, Postelsia) or perennial
(such as the giant kelp, Macrocystis)? How abundant is the
A bounty of marine algae ourishes along the coast
species? When and where does it grow best? What parts
of California, providing habitats and food for inverte-
of the seaweed and how much could be harvested and
brates, shes and marine mammals in nearshore communi-
still sustain a healthy wild population? Where does new
ties rivaling the richness and diversity of coral reefs.
growth occur: is it restricted to meristems at the tips
Our state’s marine ora includes over 700 species and
or is cell division diffuse along the length of the whole
varieties of seaweeds: lamentous and eshy red algae, as
structure? How fast can it recover from being trimmed?
well as animal-like corallines; brown algae, including the
Should specic reproductive structures (such as the sea
distinctive, leathery kelps; delicate green algae and a few
palm’s topknot of blades) be restricted from harvesters?
sea grasses. The undersea vegetation is sustained by our
The seasonal weather patterns and seasonal cycles of
nutrient-rich coastal waters. The diversity of undersea life
growth and reproduction affect plants in the sea, just as
is enhanced by the variety of living conditions, and the
they do on farmlands. But, as with crops on land, it is
range of wave exposures and substrates available from
rarely one sole factor that sets the stage.
protected, muddy inlets to granitic outcrops exposed to
Biological interactions (such as diseases or over-grazing by
crashing, open ocean waves.
sea urchins), pollution, catastrophic storms, and oceano-
California seaweeds have been collected from the wild
graphic conditions, such as El Niño and La Niña cause
since the mid-19th century when they were dried and
changes in the distribution and abundance of seaweeds.
shipped to San Francisco and China. In some cases, inter-
Warmer, nutrient-stressed El Niño conditions can deter
tidal rocks were charred with gasoline torches or
growth of giant kelp and the full development of its
burning wood to clear off herbivores and less desirable
canopy. With less canopy on the sea surface, more sunlight
seaweeds and allow better recruitment and growth of
penetrates to the understory kelps (such as the winged
edible red algae, such as nori (Porphyra). A variety of
kelp Pterygophora) which may grow and persist in spite
species has been collected on a small scale for com-
of lower nutrients. In contrast, the cold, nutrient-rich La
mercial sale or home use: wakame (Alaria), kombu
Niña conditions can lead to exceptional growth of giant
(Laminaria), sea palm (Postelsia), bladderwrack (Fucus),
kelp and an extensive, shady canopy that can inhibit some
bull kelp (Nereocystis), and the green sea lettuce
of the understory seaweeds.
(Ulva.) The giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, an important
There is some evidence that people, even nature lovers,
source of the gelling compound alginate for industrial
can have negative effects on seaweed and animal com-
uses, has been harvested mechanically by commercial
munities. Researchers found that intertidal rocks in less
harvesting ships. The giant kelp has also been hand-har-
accessible coastal sites near Santa Cruz had greater diver-
vested for aquacultural use as abalone food. As phar-
sity and abundance than sites with more human visitors.
maceutical research for new medicines targeted marine
And the state continues to attract additional human visi-
organisms for testing, several varieties of seaweeds were
tors and residents, with a population increase of 571,000
collected for screening as sources of antibiotic and anti-
in 1999 alone. Our three largest cities (Los Angeles, San
cancer compounds.
Diego and San Jose) collectively gained 98,000 additional
The value of nearshore seaweeds in recreational settings
residents that year. As California’s population continues
has more recently gained public attention as a conse-
to increase, the state will harbor an estimated 41 million
quence, in part, of increased participation in ocean sports
residents by 2010. If tourism and coastal recreational
and underwater photography, as well as the successful
activities (such as tidepooling, kayaking, and surng) also
cultivation and display of seaweeds in public aquariums.
increase, the incidence of intertidal trampling and casual
Popular books, magazine articles and television programs
collecting in popular beach locations will heighten. The
on marine topics reinforced the heightened awareness.
undersea vegetation that attracts so much recreational,
And, as coastal residents and visitors have come to appre-
educational and commercial interest warrants thoughtful
ciate seaweeds aesthetically and for their role of providing
management to ensure its continued richness and abun-
food and habitats for invertebrates and shes, conicts
dance along the coast of California.
have developed over the perceived environmental and
aesthetic impacts of harvesting and appropriate uses of
these resources. Judith L. Connor
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Plans for protection of our seaweeds and nearshore habi-
tats are complicated by the very diversity of California’s
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 273
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources: Overview
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
274
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 275
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
276
Giant Kelp
History of the Use and Harvest Today, giant kelp is harvested on kelp beds from Imperial
Giant Kelp
Beach, near the U.S.-Mexico border, to Monterey Bay, Cali-
V arious species of kelp, including giant kelp (Macrocys- fornia. Mexican harvesters in Ensenada provide another
tis pyrifera) have been used for hundreds of years in source of kelp from beds off Baja California. Giant kelp is
many parts of the world as food for humans and animals. one of California’s most valuable living marine resources
Kelp has also been used for many years in Asia and and in the mid-1980s supported an industry valued at more
Europe as a fertilizer and as a component of gunpowder. than $40 million a year. The annual harvest has varied
Algin, found in the cell walls of kelp, is valuable as an from a high of 395,000 tons in 1918 to a low of less
efcient thickening, stabilizing, suspending, and gelling than 1,000 tons in the late 1920s. Such uctuations are
agent. Algin is used in a wide range of food and industrial primarily due to climate and natural growth cycles, as well
applications including desserts, gels, milk shake mixes, as market supply and demand. During the 10-year period
dairy products, and canned foods. It is also used in salad 1970 to 1979, the harvest averaged nearly 157,000 tons,
dressings to emulsify and stabilize them, in bakery prod- while from 1980 to 1989 the average harvest was only
ucts to improve texture and retain moisture, in frozen 80,400 tons. The harvest was low in the 1980s because
foods to assure smooth texture and uniform thawing, and the kelp forests were devastated by the 1982-1984 El Niño
in beer to stabilize the foam. In industrial applications, and accompanying storms, and by the 200-year storm that
it is used for paper coating and sizing, textile printing, occurred in January 1988. In most areas, the beds of giant
and welding-rod coatings. In pharmaceutical and cosmetic kelp recovered quickly, with the return of cooler, nutrient
applications, it is used to make tablets, dental impres- rich waters. Harvests in California increased to more than
sions, antacid formulations, and facial creams and lotions. 130,000 tons in 1989 and to more than 150,000 tons in
Giant kelp is harvested in California to supply food to 1990. During the 1990s, increasing international competi-
several aquaculture companies for rearing abalones. It tion from Japan for the “low end,” or less puried end of
is also used for the herring-roe-on-kelp shery in San the sodium alginate market caused ISP Alginates to reduce
Francisco Bay. harvests by about 50 percent. ISP Alginates anticipates
California’s harvest in this decade will be approximately
Giant kelp was rst harvested along the California coast
80,000 tons annually.
during the early 1900s. Many harvesting companies oper-
ated from San Diego to Santa Barbara beginning in 1911. Methods of harvesting are used to suit the harvesters’ pur-
Those companies primarily extracted potash and acetone poses and needs. The ISP Alginates Company uses specially
from kelp for use in manufacturing explosives during designed vessels that have a cutting mechanism on the
World War I. stern and a system to convey the kelp into the harvester
bin. A propeller on the bow slowly pushes the harvester
In the early 1920s, having lost the war demand, kelp
stern-rst through the kelp bed, and the reciprocating
harvesting virtually stopped. In the late 1920s, giant kelp
blades mounted at the base of the conveyor are lowered
was again harvested off California. Philip R. Park, Inc.,
to a depth of three feet into the kelp as harvesting begins.
of San Pedro began harvesting kelp in 1928 to provide
The cut kelp is gathered on the conveyor and deposited in
ingredients for livestock and poultry food. The following
the bin. These vessels can each collect up to 600 tons of
year, Kelco Company of San Diego (now ISP Alginates, Inc.)
kelp in one day and to facilitate its harvesting operations,
began harvesting and processing giant kelp.
the company conduct regular aerial surveys. The survey
Since 1917, kelp harvesting has been managed by the
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) under regu-
lations of the Fish and Game Commission. Although the
surface canopy can be harvested several times each year
without damage to the kelp bed, regulations state that
kelp may be cut no deeper than four feet beneath the
surface. There are 74 designated kelp beds and each is
numbered; a kelp harvesting permit is required. Specic
beds can be leased for 20 years; however, no more than
25 square miles or 50 percent of the total kelp bed
area (whichever is greater) can be exclusively leased by
a company holding a harvesting permit. In addition to
leased beds, there are “open” beds that can be harvested
by any company holding a permit. Permit holders pay an
additional royalty of $1.71 to $1.91 per wet-ton of kelp
Giant Kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera
harvested, depending on the international market price.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 277
Giant Kelp
400
350
thousands of tons landed
300
Giant Kelp 250
Commercial Landings
200
1916-1999, Giant Kelp
Data Source: commercial 150
landing receipts.
100
Kelp landings consist primarily
of giant kelp; commercial kelp 50
harvest data is not available for
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1921 through 1930.
information is used to direct harvesting vessels to mature and low ocean temperatures (50˚ to 60˚ F), fronds can
areas of kelp canopy with sufcient density for harvesting. elongate up to 24 inches a day. Fronds can reach a length
of more than 150 feet, and large plants can have more
The Pacic Kelp Company uses a modied U.S. Navy
than 100 fronds. The fronds eventually mature, die, and
landing craft with a cutting device and conveyor system
break away (slough) naturally, giving way to young fronds.
mounted on the bow to harvest giant kelp off central
Although giant kelp plants can live up to eight years,
California. The Pacic Kelp Company vessel holds approxi-
individual fronds survive for only about six to nine months,
mately 25 tons of kelp. In contrast, for the herring-roe-on-
and individual blades about four months.
kelp shery, kelp is harvested by hand from small skiffs
or other small boats and then transported by truck to San Giant kelp reproduction involves two very different growth
Francisco Bay. forms, the large canopy-forming sporophyte and the
microscopic gametophyte. Specialized reproductive blades
(sporophylls), located just above the holdfast on an adult
Status of Biological Knowledge sporophyte, liberate trillions of microscopic zoospores
each year. The zoospores then settle on the bottom and
F orests of giant kelp occur in the temperate oceans of
develop into microscopic male and female gametophyte
the world. These forests are especially well developed
plants. Fertilization of the female gametophyte produces
along the West Coast of North America from Punta
an embryonic sporophyte. This tiny plant will develop
Abreojos, about midway down Baja California, Mexico,
into a canopy-forming adult within seven to 14 months
to San Mateo County. They create a unique habitat that
if it survives competition with other plants and avoids
provides food, shelter, substrate, and nursery areas for
being eaten by grazers or being destroyed by undesirable
nearly 800 animal and plant species. Many of these ani-
environmental factors.
mals and some plants are of importance to sport and
commercial sheries.
Typically, giant kelp ourishes in wave-exposed areas of
nutrient-rich, cool water that is 20 to 120 feet deep.
By means of a root-like structure called a holdfast, the
kelp attaches to rocky substrate. Along the protected
shoreline of Santa Barbara County, however, giant kelp
also grows on sand substrate. Here, it attaches to exposed
worm tubes or the remains of old holdfasts. Kelp fronds
originate from the holdfast, and eventually grow to the
surface. A frond is composed of a stem-like stipe and
numerous leaf-like blades. A gas-lled bladder (pneumato-
cyst) at the base of the each blade helps buoy the frond
in the water column.
Giant kelp absorbs nutrients from the water through all its
surfaces. Under optimal conditions of high nutrient levels
Giant kelp life cycle.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
278
Status of the Beds out, since both areas are likely to experience the same
Giant Kelp
oceanographic conditions in any year. So the change in
T he density and abundance of a kelp canopy varies relative abundance of kelp between these two areas is of
by location, year, and season. In central California, greater concern. It suggests that factors other than the
sloughing and deterioration occur in late summer and warming trend is responsible for the declines along the
early fall. Canopies virtually disappear during the late mainland coast.
fall and winter, when storms cause frond and plant loss. The health and long term survival of the kelp forests
Canopies usually begin forming again in the spring, becom- are inuenced by a variety of factors, including storms
ing dense in the summer. Off southern California, kelp and climactic events, grazing, competition, sedimenta-
canopies frequently grow throughout the year in the tion, pollution, and disease. These can be divided into
mild weather conditions. Dense canopies often develop natural and human induced causes. Because water of
during the winter, when there are virtually no canopies in the Southern California Bight is warmer than the rest of
central California. the state, uctuations in water temperature may have a
During the last 30 years, the size, distribution, and loca- more profound affect on kelp survival there compared to
tion of the kelp canopy throughout California has uctu- central and northern parts of the state. Human-induced
ated considerably. Fluctuations can be viewed as seasonal impacts, pollution, and coastal development also tend
events and as long-term changes. Decreases in canopy to be greater in southern California where there are
area were due to both natural and man-induced distur- more people.
bances. Increases were due to natural growth and in some The southern California kelp beds, in particular, provide
instances may have beneted from restoration efforts. examples of both. Waters south of Point Arguello, referred
An aerial survey conducted in 1967 showed a total of 70 to as the Southern California Bight, are considerably
square miles of kelp canopy along the entire California warmer than the rest of the state. Accordingly, uctua-
coast. Of that, 53.9 square miles was recorded for south- tions in water temperature tend to have a more profound
ern California. The southern California portion showed affect on kelp survival than in the central and northern
that 33 square miles occurred along the mainland coast parts of the state. Human induced causes also tend to be
and 20.9 square miles around the Channel Islands. A simi- greater in southern California due to the concentration of
lar survey conducted in 1989 reported 40.7 square miles the state’s population within this region, with its associ-
along the entire coast. Of this, 17.5 was recorded for ated pollution and coastal development.
southern California. The Channel Islands accounted for
Excessive wave action from storms and surge can break
9.8 square miles, while the mainland coast of southern
kelp fronds and dislodge entire plants. Dislodged plants
California totaled 7.7 square miles. During the most recent
increase kelp loss by entangling nearby kelp, pulling them
statewide kelp forest survey, conducted in 1999, a total
from their attachment. During the 1980s and 1990s, at
of 17.8 square miles of giant kelp was charted along the
least three major oceanographic events affected kelp
California coast, 11.4 square miles of that recorded off
beds: 1) the 1982-1984 El Niño and a devastating storm;
southern California, including the offshore islands. The
2) the 1992-1994 El Niño and subsequent storms; and
1999 survey shows only 3.7 square miles of the 17.8 total
3) the 1997-1998 El Niño, which was the warmest of the
along the mainland coast, while 7.7 square miles was
three. The warm water and storms associated with the El
recorded in the Channel Islands.
Niño destroyed plants, inhibited kelp growth, and resulted
The methodology used to conduct aerial surveys is sub- in minimal canopy development throughout southern Cal-
ject to a high degree of error. The photographic method ifornia. During the 18 year-period from 1981 to 1998,
utilizes infrared lm to highlight temperature differences sea surface temperatures exceeded the previous 60-year
between kelp canopy at the water’s surface and the back- mean in all but a single year (1988). In 1967, there were
ground water temperature. Kelp immediately below the approximately 18 square miles of kelp canopy near Santa
surface is invisible to this method. So the results can vary Barbara, compared to only six square miles remaining in
due to wind waves and local currents. These errors could 1989. The giant kelp forests on sand substrate near Santa
be greatly reduced by more frequent surveys. Barbara had still not returned in 2000.
This being said, it is still evident that a declining trend is Fishes such as opaleye and halfmoon regularly graze upon
occurring, particularly in southern California. This can be kelp. Large numbers of these shes can damage the kelp
at least partly explained by the warming trend of the past forests, especially when conditions are unfavorable for
twenty years and the frequency of severe El Niños. kelp growth. Crustaceans, such as amphipods, isopods and
However, when the distribution of kelp canopy in southern crabs, can also graze and damage kelp. The historical
California between the Channel Islands and the mainland removal of the southern sea otter from southern Califor-
coast is examined, the warming trend should be factored nia certainly changed the balance of the predator/prey
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 279
relationship in the kelp bed community. But nally, the The discharge of heated and turbid cooling water caused
Giant Kelp
intensive shing for the remaining sea urchin predators the loss of approximately 150 acres of kelp. This single
such as sheephead and spiny lobster, and for sea urchin event was the only time when the damage was so well
competitors such as abalone, tremendously altered the documented that mitigation could be required as compen-
sea urchin population dynamics in the forest. As a result, sation for the loss.
sea urchin populations increased exponentially in some In the 1950s and 1960s, once-productive kelp forests off
areas and overgrazed the kelp, creating areas referred to Point Loma and La Jolla in San Diego County and along
as “urchin barrens.” the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County began
Human-caused disturbances include sedimentation of the to deteriorate. This too was attributed to biological and
rocky bottom, which can retard kelp growth and even physical factors related primarily to human activities. Cur-
bury young plants, preventing development and reproduc- rently, there are several areas where the status of kelp
tion. Pollution can affect kelp forests in a variety of is of concern, including the entire Santa Barbara/Ventura
ways. Industrial and domestic wastewater discharges car- coastline, the Malibu coast, portions of the Palos Verdes
rying toxins, including pesticides and heavy metals, are Peninsula, the coast between Newport and Laguna Beach,
released into coastal waters where they can accumulate San Onofre, south Carlsbad and Point Loma. Other kelp
in the sediments. Such chemicals alter the physical losses have undoubtedly occurred as a direct result of
and chemical environment near the discharge and may human activities along the southern California coastline,
decrease growth and survival of the kelp forests. Thermal but the lack of strong baseline data prevents resource
outfalls from power plants also have localized effects agencies from proving damages and seeking compensa-
on kelp forests. Wastewater and thermal discharges can tion. The development of computerized Geographic Infor-
increase turbidity and redistribute sediments into nearby mation Systems may provide effective tools to document
kelp forests, affecting kelp growth and survival. A variety and analyze such damages in the future.
of pathogens are known to affect kelp but their broad
impacts on kelp forests have not been studied. While
Kelp Restoration
tumors, galls, and lesions have been observed on kelp,
only occasionally have they caused severe damage.
I n 1963, Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Kelco
Short and long-term declines, or in one case a complete began a cooperative project to develop techniques to
disappearance of southern California kelp beds, associated protect and restore kelp forests off San Diego. Work
with human activity have been documented. Prior to the involved sea urchin control, including the use of lime
1920s, an extensive kelp bed, known as Horseshoe Kelp and crushing of individual urchins and kelp transplanting.
existed off the coast of what is now Los Angeles Harbor. Later experimentation between 1991 and 1992 involved
It was reported to have measured a quarter- to a half-mile feeding urchins along a front to discourage feeding on
wide and two miles long. A department Information Bul- attached plants and to increase urchin reproduction, so
letin reported interviews with “old time shermen” who that commercial harvesting might be encouraged. This
recalled the kelp bed beginning to decline during the work appears to have succeeded in restoring kelp to these
1920s and 1930s coinciding with the widening of the main beds. However, this is a labor intensive effort, and there
channel and west basin of Los Angeles Harbor, which are indications that when the work ceases, the urchin
included the dredging removal of an entire island, (Dead- fronts redevelop, calling into question the long term ben-
man’s Island). Some recalled that the Whites Point Sewer ets of any one-time restoration effort, as well as the
Outfall, which began discharging in 1934, was associated economic feasibility of conducting such work as a long
with the disappearance of the last remnants of this bed. term solution and over a broader area.
The Horseshoe Kelp Bed grew in a water depth of 80
Between 1967 and 1980, kelp restoration was conducted
to 90 feet. While kelp at this depth is still common in
along the Palos Verdes Penensula (PVP) by the Institute
the Channel Islands, no kelp grows along the southern
of Marine Resources and the department. This work also
California mainland coast at this depth today.
combined sea urchin control and kelp transplanting. The
Several years’ declines to kelp beds near Salt Creek in objective was to establish several small stands of kelp,
Orange County and Barn Kelp near Las Pulgas Canyon off which would provide seed stock for new and expanding
Camp Pendleton Marine Base in San Diego County were beds. In 1974, the rst naturally expanding kelp stand
associated with extensive grading of land around drain- in 20 years was observed off PVP. By 1980, when restora-
ages adjacent to these beds. tion work was discontinued, nearly 600 acres of kelp had
The most thoroughly documented human induced decline become established. By 1989, aerial surveys revealed over
was associated with the start-up of the San Onofre 1,100 acres of kelp off PVP. Two subsequent El Niño events
Nuclear Generating Station in northern San Diego County. have severely decreased the size of these beds.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
280
Kelp restoration work has also been conducted in storm a persistent kelp bed, the reef will be expanded to a
Giant Kelp
damaged areas off Santa Barbara and along the Orange minimum of 150 acres in ve years.
County coast. Shortly after the 1982-1984 El Niño, Kelco It appears now that the creation of new reef substrate,
began developing techniques for restoring kelp beds in rather than other techniques, may provide a valuable
Santa Barbara County. In 1987, under contract with the mechanism for increasing the capacity for kelp bed expan-
department, Kelco implemented operations for anchoring sion throughout southern California in future years.
giant kelp in the sandy habitat near Santa Barbara. Sev-
eral kelp forest nuclei were established; however, sea
Management Considerations
urchin grazing and unfavorable water conditions impeded
progress. By the early 1990s, it became evident that this
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
restoration attempt had failed.
ther information.
Loss of Orange County kelp forests from Newport Harbor
to San Mateo Point was caused by heavy rainfall and
siltation in 1980, the 1982-1984 El Niño, and the effects of Dennis Bedford
urchin grazing. Under contract with the department, MBC California Department of Fish and Game
Applied Environmental Sciences company established kelp
forest nuclei between Newport Harbor and Laguna Beach.
References
This was done by transplanting adult and juvenile giant
kelp and controlling sea urchins. Those kelp forests south
California State Lands Commission. 1999. Final Program
of Laguna Beach recovered naturally after a few years.
Environmental Impact Report for the Construction and
Those beds north of Laguna Beach, where restoration
Management of an Articial Reef in the Pacic Ocean Near
efforts took place, have not recovered.
San Clemente, California.
In 1992, the department Articial Reef Program built a
McPeak, R.H. and D.A. Glantz. 1984. Harvesting Califor-
10-acre, low relief (three feet or less in height) reef out-
nia’s kelp forests. Oceanus. 27(1)19-26.
side the harbor entrance channel to Mission Bay, San Diego
County. The reef was constructed from broken slabs of North, W.J. 1992. Review of Macrocystis Biology. In I.
concrete provided by the demolition of a nearby roadway. Akatsuka (ed.). Biology of Economic Seaweeds.
By 1993, a kelp bed had naturally established itself on this
Schott, Jack. Dago Bank and its horseshoe kelp bed. Cali-
reef. This bed has persisted through the spring of 2000.
fornia Department of Fish and Game, Marine Resources
During the fall of 1999, the Southern California Edison Information Bulletin, no. 2. 1976.
Company built a 22-acre experimental reef off the city
of San Clemente, aimed at mitigating the damage to kelp
from the San Onofre Nuclear Power Station. It is still too
early to evaluate the success of this project, although
based on a great deal of research, and the success of
the Mission Beach reef, there is great optimism that it
will succeed. If it does succeed in providing substrate for
A kelp cutter operating near Santa Barbara
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 281
Bull Kelp
History of the Use and Harvest 1996, the Fish and Game Commission developed designa-
tion numbers (300 series) for all the kelp beds north
U ntil the late 1980s, there was little targeted harvest of San Francisco and established beds that could be exclu-
of bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) in California, sively leased by interested parties, a program similar to
except as a small component of the localized edible the one in use for giant kelp harvest. Prior to this, there
seaweed industry. In central California, Nereocystis and were no ofcial designations in this area, so any northern
Macrocystis often form mixed beds and it is likely bull kelp bed could be harvested for commercial purposes.
kelp would have been incidentally taken during harvest The Crescent City rm applied for and received exclusive
of those beds, but not recorded separately on harvest lease privileges for bed 312 in 1997. In accordance with
records. Department records indicate about 19 tons of department regulations, they were required to produce
kelp, probably a mixture of Macrocystis and Nereocystis, a kelp bed biomass estimate prior to harvest. They esti-
were harvested from what is presently bed 302 off the mated 205 acres of kelp beds in the approximately ve
Bodega Bay–Tomales Bay area between 1993 and 1999. All miles of coastal area between Pt. St. George and Whaler
of this kelp was used by local abalone culturists. Other Island within bed 312 (an area representing only a fraction
uses of bull kelp include pickling the stipe and marketing of the entire geographic area of bed 312). The November
it as a specialty food product, and using the dried parts 1996 survey yielded a point estimate of 5,475 tons of bull
for arts and crafts. In southern Oregon, bull kelp was kelp within those 205 acres, at 27 tons per acre. Based
harvested from Orford Reef in the mid-1990s as an ingredi- on that survey, their annual harvest would be limited to
ent in liquid fertilizer. The Oregon Division of State Lands 15 percent of that estimate, equivalent to 821 tons. While
has since discontinued permitting that harvest. their harvest up to that time was only 132 tons (in 1996),
Currently, there is only one mariculture rm harvesting or 16 percent of their allowance, their bid application
signicant quantities of bull kelp for abalone food. This projected steady harvest increases through 2001, peaking
business is located in Crescent City, Del Norte County, at a 500-ton projected harvest. Through 1999, their high-
and has been harvesting bull kelp from Point Saint George est harvest in any year has been 149 tons.
to Crescent City harbor since 1988. Because bull kelp
declines in the winter months, they often augment their
Status of Biological Knowledge
supply with giant kelp from central California. From
1990 to 1994, the company and the department worked
B ull kelp is primarily found adjacent to exposed shore-
together to determine the possible effects of small scale
lines along the Pacic coast of North America, ranging
harvesting on Nereocystis populations. The company kept
from Unalaska Island, Alaska to Point Conception, Cal-
detailed records of harvest amount, location, bed condi-
ifornia. Along the central California coast, Macrocystis
tion, and effort in hours. Though not required by regula-
and Nereocystis occur together, forming extensive kelp
tion, they hand-harvest to a depth of about 2.5 feet below
forests in this region. However, from the Monterey Bay
the surface, which allows the take of the upper portion of
area northward to Alaska, Nereocystis becomes the domi-
the stipe, the pnuematocyst and all the fronds, resulting
nant canopy kelp species in coastal waters. Within the
in the loss of the entire plant. During this experimental
nearshore environment, bull kelp, like giant kelp, is asso-
period annual harvest ranged from six to 149 tons, and
ciated with hard substrates at depths of approximately
impact to the local beds was considered to be minimal. In
10 to 70 feet, where it provides habitat and food for
hundreds of species, many of them commercially and
recreationally valuable.
Distribution of marine algae is not only restricted geo-
graphically but also limited by a number of other factors
within the nearshore environment, including water move-
ment, light, temperature, nutrients, pollution, compe-
tition, and predation. The complex trophic interaction
among sea otters, macro-herbivores and kelps has been
documented by a number of researchers. Generally, the
occurrence of sea otters in a kelp forest community
greatly limits the population of invertebrate kelp grazers,
thereby increasing kelp productivity. In northern Cali-
fornia, absent the sea otter, commercial and sport sher-
men have acted to signicantly reduce populations of
Bull Kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana
sea urchins and abalone, two major kelp grazers. While
Credit: CA Sea Grant Extension Program
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
282
kelp populations have increased, the competition among high light, nutrient and water clarity levels. Bull kelp
Bull Kelp
seaweeds for space and light rules out any generalizations stipe elongation can reach ve inches per day, while blade
regarding specic impacts on bull kelp due to the reduc- growth accelerates to about 3.5 inches per day just prior
tion of these grazer populations. to the plant reaching the surface. At maturity the growth
rate of the holdfast can average about 0.2 inches per day.
The morphology of bull kelp is quite different from that of
giant kelp. The most notable difference is the possession Water temperature plays an important role in the growth
by bull kelp of only one pneumatocyst, situated on the of Nereocystis. Mean sea surface temperatures over the
end of the hollow stipe for otation. Giant kelp has many distributional range of Nereocystis vary from 55° F to 59°
gas bladders running its entire length. While bull kelp F at the southern end to 39° F to 50° F off the Aleutian
is also attached to the substrate by a holdfast, the size Islands. The population of bull kelp in Diablo Cove has
of the holdfast is much smaller than that of giant kelp. been adversely affected by the warm water discharge
The holdfast resembles a small disk with many nger-like from the Diablo Canyon power plant which began in 1985.
haptera. Much like giant kelp, the stipe of a bull kelp Plants in contact with the discharge experienced deterio-
sporophyte is long, reaching lengths of up to 130 feet. The ration of blade tissue, which resulted in early death. This
bull kelp stipe does not have the same tensile strength as observation helps to explain the decline of Nereocystis
giant kelp but is more elastic under stress. Bull kelp is able that occurs during El Niño events.
to stretch more than 38 percent of its length before break- Nereocystis is an opportunistic colonizer that takes advan-
ing. The pneumatocyst gives rise to short dichotomous tage of substrate clearing caused by storms, sand scour-
branches from which up to 64 blades are borne. The ing, or other disturbances. While bull kelp can rapidly
bull kelp canopy provides most of the photosynthetic recruit to a newly cleared location, its longevity as the
and nutrient absorbing surface for energy production. dominant canopy-forming species depends on environmen-
Blade lengths of more than 13 feet have been reported for tal conditions being conducive for its survival and detri-
mature plants, but it is typical to nd a range of blade mental for its major competitors. The biggest factor in
sizes (two to 11 feet) on most plants. The reproductive growth of Nereocystis is the availability and quantity of
structures (sporangia) are located on the blades in aggre- light. Light levels below the surface canopy have been
gations called sori, with mature sori located in patches shown to decrease by almost 100 percent and below the
near the blade tips and immature regions near the base secondary canopy, well below the minimum level neces-
of the blades. sary for growth. Thus, in established kelp communities
Reproduction in bull kelp undergoes a cyclic alternation there can be insufcient light and hard substrate for
of generations similar to that of giant kelp and other recruitment and growth of bull kelp.
laminarians. The large plant commonly referred to as bull
kelp represents the sporophytic phase while the gameto-
Status of the Beds
phytic phase is microscopic. During its sporophytic phase,
spore production usually begins several weeks after the
T he kelp resources of the eastern Pacic coast were
blades reach the surface. Biagellate spores are formed
rst mapped in 1912. The survey extended from the
within the sporangia on the blades. As the spores reach
Gulf of Alaska to Cedros Island, Baja California. Along the
maturation during the summer and fall, the sori are
central coast of California between Point Montara, San
abscised from the blades and the spores released. Upon
Mateo county and Point Conception, subsequent coastwide
settlement, germination begins, and over the course of
surveys have not differentiated between Nereocystis and
several weeks, somatic growth gives rise to the gameto-
Macrocystis. Since the rst survey in 1912, little work has
phyte. After about 11 weeks, motile sperm are released
been done along the north coast of California, primarily
and fertilization of the eggs takes place. The resulting
due to the absence of the commercially valuable Macro-
zygotes grow as sporophytes. Once at the surface, stipe
cystis pyrifera in this region. Current knowledge of the
and blade elongation rates decrease while the plant
population levels of Nereocystis off the north coast is
increases in biomass.
based on 1989 and 1999 surveys of the California coast,
As an annual plant, bull kelp has evolved an optimal repro- and information provided by a kelp harvester about
ductive strategy that involves accelerated stipe growth the resource in the Crescent City area. Population abun-
to reach the ocean surface where it can initiate spore dance estimates resulting from these surveys are usually
production and release. Plants initiated in late March expressed in terms of square miles of surface area.
sometimes have developing sori prior to reaching the
Despite the year-to-year variability in bull kelp coverage,
surface in May and spore release via abscission of the
both the 1912 and the 1989 surveys yielded similar results
sorus begins as early as June. Maximum bull kelp growth
for the northcoast and about 6.5 square miles of canopy.
rates occur under optimal environmental conditions of
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 283
Management Considerations
The 1999 survey, however, indicates about a 42 percent
Bull Kelp
decline in kelp coverage in the Point Montara, San Mateo
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
county to Shelter Cove, Humboldt county area. This
ther information.
decline is contrary to anecdotal observations along the
Mendocino county coast in 1999, which indicated one of
the most extensive kelp canopies in the last decade. The
Peter Kalvass and Mary Larson
apparent decline may be due in part to the timing of the
California Department of Fish and Game
1999 survey, which was conducted after a major storm
had passed through the region, destroying portions of
the kelp beds. Another factor to be considered is the
References:
improved method used to interpret aerial photographs in
1999, which resulted in a more accurate representation Amsler, C.D. and M. Neushul. 1989. Diel periodicity
of kelp beds. This would seem to indicate that previous of spore release from the kelp Nereocystis luetkeana
surveys may have overestimated the true extent of the (Mertens) Postels et ruprecht. J. Exp. Mar. Bio. Ecol.
beds. And nally, kelp beds are subject to high variability 134:117–127.
in coverage and density from year to year.
Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game. 2001. Final Environmental
The 1912 survey estimated that about 32 percent of the Document – Giant and Bull Kelp Commercial and Sport
17.55 square mile kelp canopy in central California was Fishing Regulations - Section 30 and 165, Title 14, Califor-
bull kelp. However, since that survey there has not been nia Code of Regulations. March 2001.
an effort to estimate the proportion of bull kelp in the
Estes, J.A. and D.O. Duggins. 1995. Sea otters and kelp
area. In this region, bull kelp is generally restricted to
forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community
areas unsuitable for giant kelp and the outer edges of
ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65(1):75-100.
giant kelp beds and inshore of Macrocystis within the
Foreman, R.E. 1984. Studies on Nereocystis growth in Brit-
surge zone. However, following winter storms with heavy
ish Columbia, Canada. Hydrobiologia 116/117:325–332.
wave disturbance, bull kelp can become more abundant,
sometimes replacing giant kelp removed by the storms. Foster, M.S. and D.R. Schiel. 1985. The ecology of giant
kelp forests in California: a community prole. Biological
Changes in kelp abundance over time and location are
Report 85(7:2). USFWS. 152 pp.
evident. For example, during the period from 1975 to
1982, biomass at Diablo Cove in San Luis Obispo County Nicholson, N.L. 1970. Field studies of the giant kelp Nereo-
declined from 200 tons per acre to 4.8 tons per acre. At cystis. Journal of Phycology 6:177-182.
Van Damme Bay in Mendocino County, a density of six tons
Vadas, R.L. 1972. Ecological implications of culture studies
per acre was calculated in July 1990. Peak abundances in
on Nereocystis luetkeana. J. Phycol. 8:196–203.
the Crescent City area ranged from 24 to 28 tons per acre
during the period from 1994 to 1996.
Researchers reported that the Fort Bragg, Mendocino
County area kelp beds appeared to increase in size and
density between 1985 and 1988 based on aerial photo-
graphic surveys of the area. The Nereocystis beds were
thought to have reached maximum potential during this
period. The increase was coincident with the removal of
over 32,500 tons of red sea urchins from Mendocino and
Sonoma Counties by commercial divers. In 1992, the same
beds showed delayed and reduced kelp recruitment and
growth. The causes of the poor recruitment in 1992 may
have been associated with the El Niño event of that year.
These examples illustrate the kind of uctuations that
occur in the recruitment of bull kelp along the north coast
and the factors that may play a role in the variability of
this resource.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
284
Sea Palm
Status of Biological Knowledge
Sea Palm
T he sea palm, Postelsia palmaeformis, is a brown alga
rst described by Franz Joseph Ruprecht in 1852 from
specimens collected near Bodega Bay, California. It is
locally abundant in the upper to mid-tidal zones from
Vancouver Island, British Columbia to Morro Bay, California
but is restricted to rocks exposed to heavy surf. Although
it is illegal to harvest this attractive kelp, some people
collect it for souvenirs or to eat its tender blades.
Postelsia is an annual kelp, thriving in dense aggregations
where its dispersal and recruitment are local and
inuenced by seasonal disturbance. Several studies
have documented sea palm’s relationship to its unique
habitat — its tolerance of and dependence on heavy surf
and its common association with the California mussel.
Status of the Beds
A lthough individuals can regenerate blades, they
cannot survive if they are cut near the base of the
stipe. All of these characteristics (restricted habitat, short
life span, local dispersal, and limited powers of regenera-
tion) signify a species that cannot tolerate heavy harvest-
ing pressure. Although many stands of Postelsia are dif-
cult to access, others are in or adjacent to recreational
areas where they are at risk from human disturbance.
Education of the public is the best defense for the conser-
vation of this charismatic and ecologically interesting alga.
Kathy Ann Miller
University of Southern California
References
Blanchette, C. 1996. Seasonal patterns of disturbance
inuence recruitment of the sea palm, Postelsia palmae-
formis. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 197: 1-14.
Dayton, P. 1973. Dispersion, dispersal, and persistance of
the annual intertidal alga, Postelsia palmaeformis Rupre-
cht. Ecology 54: 433-438.
Holbrook, M., M. Denny, & M. Koehl. 1991. Intertidal
“trees”: consequences of aggregation on the mechanical
and photosynthetic properties of sea-palms. J. Exp. Mar.
Biol. Ecol. 146: 39-67.
Kalvass, P. 1994. The effect of different harvest methods
on sea palm sporophyll growth. Calif. Fish and Game
80: 57-67 Paine, R. 1988. Habitat suitability and local
Sea Palm,
population persistence of the sea palm, Postelsia pal- Postelsia
maeformis. Ecology 69:1787-1794. palmaeformis
Credit: CA Sea
Grant Extension
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 285
Agarophytes and
Carrageenophytes Agars of lesser quality are extracted from Gracilaria and
Hypnea species.
The lower quality, and less expensive, types of agar are
History of Use and Harvest used for their gelling and water barrier properties in food
products (frozen foods, bakery icings, meringues, dessert
A gar is a Malay word for the gel, (which is now known
gels, candies and fruit juices). As a gelling agent in foods,
to be a carrageenan) that is part of the cell wall of
agar is used at greater than one per cent concentration.
seaweeds in red algal genus Eucheuma. Its discovery is
For viscosity control and stabilization, lower levels (0.2-0.8
preserved in a folk legend that originated about 1660. A
percent) are used. Agar is not assimilated by the human
Japanese emperor and his Royal Party were lost in the
digestive system and, in fact, serves as a laxative. Indus-
mountains during a snowstorm and arriving at a small
trial applications are paper sizing/coating, adhesives, tex-
inn they were ceremoniously treated by the innkeeper,
tile printing/dyeing, castings, impressions, etc. The mid-
who offered them a seaweed-jelly dish with their dinner.
quality agars are used as the gel substrate in biological
Perhaps the innkeeper prepared too much jelly or the
culture media. Most agar media are made at a 1.0-1.5 per-
taste was not attractive; in any case, some jelly was
cent concentration in water, melt above 185°F and gel at
thrown away. It froze during the night and, after thawing
105°F. They are also important in medical/pharmaceutical
and draining, was reduced to a thin, papery substance.
elds as bulking agents, laxatives, suppositories,
The innkeeper took the residue and, to his surprise, found
capsules, tablets and anticoagulants. The most highly
that by boiling it up with more water, the jelly could
puried and upper market types (the neutral fractions
be reconstituted.
called agarose) are used in molecular biology for sep-
In 1881, the German microbiologist Dr. Robert Koch, rst aration sciences (electrophoresis, immunodiffusion and
established the use of agar in preparing solid culture gel chromatography).
media for bacteriological research. By 1903, there were
Carrageenans are extracted from members of the red
500 factories manufacturing agar in Japan. The California
algal families Hypneaceae, Phyllophoraceae, Solieriaceae,
agar industry was developed initially by Dr. Matsuoka
and Gigartinaceae. Chondrus crispus used to be the sole
in 1921 with U.S. patents for extraction and processing.
source of carrageenan, but species of Gymnogongrus,
Horace Selby (the founder of American Agar and Chemical)
Eucheuma, Ahnfeltia and Iridaea are now used. The
and C.K. Tseng rened methods prior to and during World
market for carrageenan has grown by at least ve percent
War II, when agar was not available from Japan.
per year for the last 25 years. About 25,000 tons of
Carrageenan, another gel, was originally derived from the carrageenan, valued at $200 million, are produced world-
red alga, Chondrus crispus (Irish Moss), and has a 600 wide. Eucheuma and Kappaphycus are important carra-
year folk history in Ireland that includes milk puddings geenan weeds in Hawaii, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malay-
thickened by boiling sweetened milk with dried Chondrus. sia, China and Thailand. In 1996, the Philippines exported
The word carrageenan is derived from the colloquial Irish $94 million worth of carrageenan from farm raised and
name for this seaweed, carrageen, or carraigín; “little natural stands of Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma spino-
rock” (from the Irish place name, probably Carrigeen Head sum. Another principal source is natural populations of
in County Donegal). Since the 1940s, the best-known use Chondrus crispus in the Maritime Provinces of Canada,
of carrageenan has been in products such as chocolate where about 50,000 wet tons are harvested each year.
milk and ice cream, but they are also important in other
Carrageenans are far more widely used than agar as
industrial applications.
emulsiers/stabilizers in numerous foods, especially milk-
About 10,000 tons of agar, valued at $200 million, are based products. It is estimated that the average human
produced worldwide from species in the red algal families consumption of carrageenans in the United States is 250
Gelidiaceae and Gracilariaceae. There is currently a short- milligrams (0.01 ounce) a day. Kappa, iota and lambda
age of exploitable populations of agar-producing sea- carrageenans differ in gelling and milk reactivity and are
weeds; consequently, agar is an expensive product. The the three most widely used types in commercial products.
best quality agar is extracted from species in the genera Kappa carrageenan (extracted chiey from Chondrus cris-
Pterocladia and Gelidium, which are harvested by hand pus and Eucheuma cottonii) forms a rm, brittle gel and
from natural stands in Spain, Portugal, Morocco, the iota (extracted chiey from Eucheuma spinosum) yields
Azores, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Chile, a exible and dry gel. Lambda carrageenan (extracted
Korea and Japan. For Pterocladia species, agar quality chiey from Chondrus crispus and Gigartina species) does
is low in the colder months and high in the summer. not gel. Blending of these in different ratios produces
different products. Kappa and iota carrageenans are espe-
cially important for use in milk products such as chocolate
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
286
milk, ice cream, evaporated milk, infant formulas, pud- export of rened agar. Gelidium robustum is very slow
Agarophytes and Carrageenophytes
dings, whipped cream toppings and eggnog, because of growing in nature and even slower in mariculture, thus
their thickening and suspension properties. For these making it unlikely as a major resource. Several other spe-
uses, concentrations range from about 0.01 to 0.2 percent. cies, including G. coulteri, show much faster growth in
For water-based food products (jellies, jams, salad dress- nature and in tank culture, providing an acceptable quality
ings, syrups, dessert gels, meat products and pet foods), agar. Unfortunately, the cost of these culture systems in
carrageenan concentrations are somewhat higher (0.2-0.5 California is too high for competition with either wild
percent). Industrial products incorporating carrageenans stock harvest or cultivation in other countries. Gracilaria
are air freshener gels, cleaners, etc. Pharmaceutical and and Gracilariopsis species in California and elsewhere
medical applications are similar to those of agar. offer considerable potential, because of their fast growth
and yield of agar. Several species are extensively culti-
vated in Chile, China and Thailand, for example, contribut-
Status of Biological Knowledge ing 50 percent of worldwide agar production; several
countries (e.g., South Africa and New Zealand) are study-
Agar and carrageenan are phycocolloids derived from
ing the possibility of mariculture. The best candidate for
galactan polysaccharides, the major polysaccharide con-
large-scale culture in California is Gracilariopsis lemane-
stituents of the cell walls of most marine red algae. The
formis. Although extensively cultivated in open bays of
types and quantity vary from species to species; this is an
other countries, it is unlikely that such cultivation could
important character in biosystematics. The amount pres-
occur in California, because of government restrictions.
ent also varies with ecological factors such as light, nutri-
T he carrageenan weeds common in California are mem-
ents, wave exposure, and temperature. Polysaccharides
bers of the genera Mazzaella, Mastocarpus, Rhodoglos-
have an important role in the biology of these algae,
sum and Sarcodiotheca. Several California species can be
including protection from wave action, physical support of
grown successfully in mariculture, but the low value of
cells, ion exchange, water binding for protection from des-
carrageenan makes both wild harvest and culture eco-
iccation. The galactans have a common backbone which
nomically unrealistic. Compared to agars, carrageenans
consists of galactose units linked alternately by ∂(1-3)
generally are more plentiful and less costly, because the
and ß(1-4). The alpha (∂) unit is linked to either D- or
carrageenan weeds are widely available from harvest of
L-galactose whereas the beta (ß) unit is always linked to
wild stocks and extensive cultivated stocks in Canada
D-galactose. In agar the ∂-linkages are all with L-galactose
and the tropics. Genetic manipulation and cell culture
and in carrageenan they are all with D-galactose. (For pic-
of Chondrus crispus are being explored to produce novel
tures of these structures, see www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/
carrageenans to stimulate the possibility of mariculture on
biologie/b_online/e26/26d.htm) The chemistry of these
the East Coast of the United States.
polymers is complex.
John West
Status of the Beds University of California, Berkeley
T here are many genera of red algae in California that Revised by:
yield agars and carrageenans. The most common and Kathy Ann Miller
abundant agar weeds in California are species in the University of Southern California
genera Gelidium and Pterocladia (family Gelidiaceae) and
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis (family Gracilariaceae). Of
References
the six species of Gelidium in California, only G. robustum
is available in sufcient wild stocks to warrant limited
Abbott, I.A. & G.J. Hollenberg. 1976. Marine Algae of
harvest for agar production. Before and during World War
California. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
II and until American Agar and Chemical Company in San
Craigie, J.S. 1990. Cell Walls. In K.M. Cole & R.G. Sheath
Diego closed in about 1986, G. robustum was collected
(eds.) Biology of the Red Algae, pp. 221-257. Cambridge
by divers along the southern California coast. Resource
University Press. New York.
management of wild stock of G. robustum was investi-
gated carefully to establish control of season, amount and Lewis, J.G., N.F. Stanley & G.G. Guist. 1988. Commercial
method of harvesting, but it proved difcult to enforce production and application of algal hydrocolloids. In C.A.
regulations. Today, there is no harvest of wild stocks for Lembi & J.R. Waaland (eds.) Algae and human affairs. pp.
commercial agar production in California, but wild stocks 205-236. Cambridge University Press. New York.
are still harvested in Baja California, Mexico, by local
sherman for processing in Ensenada and a subsequent
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 287
Commercial Landings -
Nearshore Plants
Commercial Landings - Nearshore Plants
Kelp1
Kelp1 Year Tons
Year Tons
1980 147,636
1916 134,537 1981 73,064
1917 394,974 1982 86,503
1918 395,098 1983 5,271
1919 16,673 1984 46,479
1920 25,464 1985 87,300
1921 ---- 1986 56,832
1922 ---- 1987 93,264
1923 ---- 1988 90,615
1924 ---- 1989 132,761
1925 ---- 1990 151,439
1926 ---- 1991 127,505
1927 ---- 1992 91,247
1928 ---- 1993 92,940
1929 ---- 1994 81,006
1930 ---- 1995 77,753
1931 260 1996 78,461
1932 10,315 1997 73,165
1933 21,622 1998 25,313
1934 15,880 1999 42,211
1935 30,602
1936 49,317 - - - - Landings data not available
1937 43,954
1
1938 47,697 Kelp landings consist primarily of giant kelp.
1939 56,736
1940 59,004
1941 55,717
1942 61,898
1943 47,958
1944 53,030
1945 59,181
1946 91,069
1947 74,237
1948 78,641
1949 83,346
1950 100,602
1951 114,760
1952 110,158
1953 126,649
1954 106,215
1955 124,063
1956 117,815
1957 94,207
1958 114,062
1959 89,599
1960 120,300
1961 129,256
1962 140,233
1963 121,032
1964 127,254
1965 135,129
1966 119,464
1967 131,495
1968 134,853
1969 131,239
1970 127,039
1971 155,559
1972 162,511
1973 153,080
1974 170,181
1975 171,597
1976 158,371
1977 130,597
1978 169,029
1979 171,020
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
288
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 289
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
290
California’s Offshore
Ecosystem marine species like sardines and rocksh for several gen-
California’s Offshore Ecosystem
erations and result in substantial changes in abundance
F
over time.
ar from the coast, California’s offshore ecosystem con-
sists of the open ocean environments over the deeper The offshore ecosystem is home to groundsh species
parts of the continental shelf, the continental slope, (shelf and slope rocksh, atsh, sablesh, and Pacic
and ocean basins. This ecosystem is most often character- whiting); coastal pelagic species (sardines, anchovy,
ized by a deep luminous blue color, due to scattered mackerel, and squid); salmon during the ocean phase of
light encountering fewer particles and dissolved sub- their life-cycle; highly migratory species (tuna, billshes,
stances than are found in rich coastal waters, where sus- and pelagic sharks); marine mammals (such as whales
pended sediment, marine organisms, and other material and dolphins), pelagic seabirds (including albatross and
can absorb light and cause greenish or brownish colors. shearwaters); phytoplankton; and zooplankton (including
euphausids, copepods, salps, and occasionally red crabs).
California’s offshore waters are dominated by the Califor-
These species respond to the environmental variability in
nia Current, a relatively shallow, broad (approximately
the California Current in different ways. The abundance
300 km), and slow moving current. This current generally
and landings of coastal pelagic sh stocks such as sardines
moves from north to south along the West Coast of North
vary considerably due to environmental uctuations, par-
America, transporting cooler water toward the equator.
ticularly temperature. Such highly fecund and fast growing
Along our state, the California Current hugs the coast
species undertake extensive migrations as far north as
north of Point Conception during most of the year, except
British Columbia, when their population is large, to feed
in winter when southeast winds force it farther offshore,
in upwelling areas and they tend to concentrate spawning
producing the Davidson Current that ows north near the
in areas like the Southern California Bight, perhaps to help
coast. In some years, this counter current is stronger than
retain larvae in coastal habitats where they are less likely
normal and is forced as far north as British Columbia,
to be swept offshore by the strong offshore transport con-
Canada. South of Point Conception, in the Southern Cali-
ditions of major upwelling centers. Highly migratory spe-
fornia Bight, the coast bends sharply to the east. There
cies like albacore make long trans-Pacic migrations and
the California Current breaks away from the coast and
actively seek productive areas and avoid unfavorable con-
ows offshore along the continental edge until it
ditions. Long-lived, slow growing and moderately fecund
swings back toward the mainland south of San Diego.
species such as rocksh persist by maintaining many
In the Southern California Bight, the usual surface
reproductive age classes through periods of unfavorable
ow, called the California Countercurrent, moves north
environmental conditions.
along the coast resulting in a counterclockwise gyre
that mixes offshore and nearshore surface waters off The most signicant challenge to effective management of
southern California. sheries for these species is the lack of understanding of
the interactions among environmental variability, recruit-
Off California, prevailing winds, most often from the north
ment uctuations, and shing pressure. The current man-
or northwest, blow surface waters away from the coast
agement strategy for sardines, a species that has recov-
and nutrient laden subsurface waters are drawn up to
ered over the last 20 years from extraordinarily low levels
replace them in a process called upwelling. California
in the 1950s through the 1970s, now takes temperature
is in one of the major coastal upwelling regions of the
into account because of its effect on sardine productivity.
world, with the most intense upwelling occurring during
In the last two years, seven species of groundsh have
the summer near Cape Medocino in northern California.
been designated as overshed and will require many years
Productivity of marine plants is high along coasts with
and special management efforts to recover. In retrospect,
these features, and some of the largest sh populations
this occurred primarily as a result of our poor understand-
are associated with productive coastal upwelling systems.
ing of the relatively low productivity of these species,
Although the offshore environment is generally less vari-
particularly low recruitment for many of these species
able than nearshore and estuarine ecosystems, the Cali-
over the last three decades, and resulting harvest levels
fornia Current is a dynamic system with considerable
that were inadvertently set too high.
inter-annual variation. Relatively short-term, dramatic
Populations of many sh species in the offshore ecosystem
events like El Niño (warmer water) and La Niña (cooler
extend along the entire or a major portion of the west
water) cause larger temperature changes, variation in
coast, and so their sheries cross state and sometimes
productivity, and occurrences of organisms beyond their
national boundaries. To ensure coordination and more
usual ranges. Long-term temperature regimes, periods
effective coast-wide management, coastal pelagic spe-
of slightly warmer or cooler conditions that persist for
cies, groundsh, highly migratory species, and ocean
decades, can affect reproduction and recruitment of
salmon are regulated by the Pacic Fishery Management
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 291
Council, a regional body of states (California, Oregon,
California’s Offshore Ecosystem
Washington, and Idaho), tribal representatives, and fed-
eral agencies that has authority for West Coast sheries in
offshore waters. For those species we share with Mexico
(coastal pelagic species and some highly migratory spe-
cies), no formal bilateral management agreement exists.
Patricia Wolf
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
292
Coastal Pelagic
Species: Overview late 1940s. Biomass estimates for market squid are dif-
Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview
cult, if not impossible, to obtain using normal assess-
ment methods, and future management of the squid
C oastal pelagic resources are small to medium sized, resource will likely depend upon real-time estimates of
schooling species, that migrate in coastal waters often spawning escapement.
near the ocean surface. California’s major coastal pelagic
CPS management has varied widely and prior to the 1970s,
species include Pacic sardine (Sardinops sagax), Pacic
management was minimal. When sardine and Pacic mack-
mackerel (Scomber japonicus), jack mackerel (Trachurus
erel biomasses were declining (in the mid-1960s), the
symmetricus), northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), and
commercial shing industry proposed an anchovy reduc-
market squid (Loligo opalescens). Coastal pelagic species
tion shery. By the late 1960s, this reduction shery was
(CPS) collectively comprise one of the largest marine
authorized by the California Fish and Game Commission,
sheries in California with respect to biomass, landed
complete with quota, season, area, and size restrictions.
volume, and revenue. Historically, commercial utilization
Legislation followed in the early 1970s that established
of each species in this group has, for varying periods
moratoria on the commercial take of Pacic mackerel
of time, been primarily canning for human consumption.
and sardines. The resurgence of Pacic mackerel, and the
Much of the CPS catch is now frozen for bait or export,
transition to federal management (Pacic Fishery Manage-
but some is still canned for human consumption.
ment Council) for anchovy in 1978, were accompanied by
One characteristic common to coastal pelagic species strict management regimes that included requirements for
is the highly dynamic nature of their populations with annual quotas and assessments of anchovy biomass.
respect to movement, biomass, and availability to the
Pacic sardine showed early signs of an abundance resur-
shery. “Boom or bust” population cycles of coastal
gence in the early 1980s, and by the mid-1980s the State
pelagic stocks have been attributed to a number of
of California managed this species as required by Fish
key factors, including relatively short life-cycles, variable
and Game Code with biomass assessments and annual
recruitment, and annual and longer-cycle variation in
quotas. In 1998, the sardine population was declared fully
optimal habitats for spawning, larval survival, recruit-
recovered, with sh once again extending from British
ment, and feeding. Large natural uctuations in coastal
Columbia to the Gulf of California, Mexico. With the
pelagic species abundance have been accentuated in the
coast-wide sardine expansion, the State of California rec-
past by human inuence, as exemplied by the Pacic sar-
ognized that it no longer had sufcient resources to effec-
dine during the 1940s and 1950s. Although there are many
tively manage the sardine resource alone and petitioned
similarities in the life histories of these sh species, there
the Pacic Fishery Management Council to consider fed-
also are differences. They are all open-ocean, relatively
eral management of CPS. In 1998, the Council approved
near-shore, schooling sh for most of their life-cycles,
Amendment 8 to the Northern Anchovy Fishery Manage-
but jack mackerel occur as far as 600 miles offshore,
ment Plan, to place Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, jack
and sardine spawn as far as 300 miles offshore. Each sh
mackerel, and market squid in the management unit with
species matures at a relatively young age of one to three
northern anchovy. Amendment 8 was approved by the
years; and while jack mackerel live to be 35 years old,
Secretary of Commerce and modied the anchovy plan to
relatively few individuals of the other species attain half
conform to the recently revised Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
this age. Market squid live up to only 10 months and
Conservation and Management Act and changed the name
are an average of only six months old when captured
to the Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan.
during spawning activities. The eggs and larvae of all the
Implemented in January 2000, Amendment 8 requires
species are common in coastal areas, but beyond 200
a limited entry permit to commercially harvest coastal
miles offshore only jack mackerel eggs and larvae are
pelagic nsh species south of Point Arena, California,
commonly encountered in scientic collections. Anchovy,
with open shing access north of this latitude. Species
Pacic mackerel, and sardine are known to migrate sea-
managed under authority of the plan are divided into
sonally along the coast. Jack mackerel migrate away from
two categories, actively managed (initially Pacic sardine
nearshore banks and islands at a relatively young age (four
and Pacic mackerel) and monitored (initially northern
to six years) and, while they range from at least off Baja
anchovy, jack mackerel, and squid). Actively managed
California, Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska, little is known
species require annual determination of harvest limits
about their migratory habits as older adults. Estimates of
based on current biomass estimates. Harvest strategies
biomass date back to the 1930s for sardines and Pacic
for actively managed species account for all west-coast
mackerel, and to the late-1940s for anchovy. While there
CPS catches including Mexico, natural variability in the
are no time series estimates of jack mackerel biomass,
stocks, and the importance of CPS as forage for other
age and length composition data are available since the
sh, marine mammals, and birds. Monitored species are
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 293
not subject to mandated harvest limits based on current
Coastal Pelagic Species: Overview
biomass estimates, although other management measures
such as area closures may be employed. The State of Cali-
fornia is developing its own management plan for market
squid, and has already implemented interim measures
which prohibit shing on weekends, restrict the design
and intensity of lights used as attracting devices, and
place a three-year moratorium on new vessels entering
the shery.
The outlook for CPS and their sheries will depend
upon the forces of nature, economics, and the combined
wisdom of resource users and managers. Environmental
factors have inherent cycles that can affect each resource
in short and long time scales. Fishery scientists are just
beginning to understand the mechanisms that determine
success or failure of coastal pelagic populations. Hope-
fully, resource managers will continue to use the growing
knowledge base of how these species respond to the
environment, implementing harvest policies accounting
for this uncertainty. Future utilization of the west coast
CPS will depend not only on resource health and avail-
ability, but also upon basic economics and events in world
export markets. The anchovy shery’s largest historical
commercial utilizations were the reduction sheries in
California and Baja California. These sheries have ceased
to exist, primarily for economic reasons, and yet anchovy
abundance remains high enough to allow continued use
as live bait for the recreational shing industry and as
a fresh-frozen product for human consumption. Pacic
mackerel catches sustained the southern California purse
seine eet throughout the 1980s, with record average
landings; however, recent biomass assessments indicate
that the large population increase documented in the
late 1970s has not been followed by further highly success-
ful recruitment pulses. The decline in availability to the
shery of Pacic and jack mackerel through the 1980s lead
to rapid expansion of the market squid and sardine sher-
ies in southern California during the 1990s. Fish processors
freeze signicant portions of the squid and sardine catch
for export to Europe, Asia, and Australia where it is
utilized for human consumption, bait, or aquaculture feed.
Kevin T. Hill and Richard Klingbeil
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
294
California
Market Squid frozen product begins to accumulate in cold storage facili-
California Market Squid
ties. Consequently, there is often less incentive for sher-
men to sh later in the season, and as a result, declines
History of the Fishery in landings for springtime months may not just reect a
D
reduction in the availability of squid, but also a lack of
istinguished by its volatility, success of the California
effort to sh for it. Additionally, many vessels participat-
market squid (Loligo opalescens) shery uctuates as
ing in summer salmon sheries will return to other ports
a consequence of El Niño conditions and rapid changes in
during spring months.
the export market. With signicant expansion of shing
activity in southern California waters during the 1980s and California markets also play a role in determining the
1990s, the market squid shery has emerged as one of composition of the market squid eet. Although there
the most important in the state. During the 1990s, squid are many California vessels which have historically partici-
ranked as the largest California commercial shery by pated in the shery that are still active, there is an
volume in six years of the decade and ranked three increasing proportion of shery participants from Alaska,
times as the state’s most valuable shery resource in Washington and Oregon, reecting a willingness of the
value of the catch. Among U.S. exports of edible shery markets to employ these vessels. During peak seasons,
products in 1999, market squid ranked sixth by volume approximately 75 round haul vessels have produced about
and sixteenth in value, higher than any other California 95 percent of the California squid catch
commercial shery.
Since 1961, the California squid shery has experienced
The vast majority of squid is frozen for human consump- a major change. Prior to 1961, the shery had been cen-
tion. Much of this is exported to China, Japan and Europe. tered mainly in the Monterey Bay area, while a much
Other uses include fresh and canned squid for human smaller shery existed off southern California. Central and
consumption, and fresh or frozen squid for bait. The role southern California have distinctly different sheries for
of international buyers in the temporal success of the Cali- market squid. Starting in 1961, the southern California
fornia market squid shery is substantial. After decades of squid shery began to expand with a dramatic rise in
generally low catches, volume increased during the 1990s landings in Santa Barbara area ports. Since 1985, the
because of new (primarily Asian and European) markets southern California shery has dominated statewide land-
and higher prices paid for California squid. However, land- ings while shing areas have expanded, particularly in the
ings and ex-vessel revenue declined during the 1997-1998 Channel Islands. In recent years 90 percent of landings
El Niño when squid became harder to catch and as over- have occurred south of Point Conception, in sandy near-
seas markets collapsed due to poor economic conditions shore areas, when spawning activity is predominantly
in Asia. Currently, there has been some recovery of the during winter months. Conversely, squid taken in the cen-
Asian market, although demand is affected greatly by tral California shery, still centered in Monterey Bay, tend
performance of other worldwide sheries, particularly the to aggregate and spawn during summer months.
Falklands Loligo shery. In 1999 and 2000, California squid
Vessels shing squid target schools that are aggregated in
processors generally limited the daily catch from indi-
shallow water areas (from 50 to 150 feet deep) to spawn.
vidual vessels to 30 tons per load, as supply of California
Unlike other squid sheries worldwide, the California eet
squid could have exceeded international demand.
utilizes two vessels in shing operations; a light vessel is
Although the volume of squid produced by California used to locate and concentrate a school of squid using
markets is dependent on the international market, the strong lights to attract squid to the surface. There they
price paid to shermen can inuence both effort exerted are caught using round haul nets deployed by a second
toward shing operations and overall volume of catch. vessel. A small fraction of squid sold commercially is
Additionally, price paid to shermen for their catch caught by light vessels using brail gear. Additionally, a
depends not only on market demand but availability of the small volume of squid is taken by the live bait industry
resource. When volume of catch is low, the price paid per
ton is high, exceeding $500 per ton during some months
of the 1997-1998 El Niño when squid were scarce. When
volume is high, as in the year 2000, the price is driven
down and has been recorded at $100 per ton paid to some
vessels bringing in full loads. Price paid for squid taken by
brail and for squid purchased in low volumes by smaller
local dealers tends to be signicantly higher. Often times,
the price of sh will start high at the beginning of the
using brail, lampara, or drum seine gear. Squid, Loligo opalescens
California Market
southern California season in November and decline as
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 295
California Market Squid
250
millions of pounds landed
200
Market Squid 150
100
Commercial Landings
50
1916-1999, Market Squid
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
While attracting lights have been used in the southern tion on vessels shing commercially for squid, limiting
California shery for many years, in the central California both light boats and round haul vessels shing squid to a
shery a regulation was enacted which prohibited their maximum of 30,000 watts. Additionally, the Commission
use between 1959 and 1988. Fishermen sponsored the ban required these vessels to shield their lights to prevent
for protection from dealers who used lights in conjunction emission of light onto shore.
with dip nets on their piers and on oating unloading Starting in 1989, shermen were allowed to use all types
platforms. In this manner, they had effectively eliminated of round haul gear (purse seine, drum seine, etc.) in
the need for many shing boats. Some shermen also the southern bight of Monterey Bay, which previously had
believed that attracting lights disrupted squid spawning been restricted to lampara nets for squid. By the end of
activity, but no studies to date have addressed that issue. 1990, nearly the entire eet had switched over to purse
In 1988, shermen were allowed to use attracting lights in seine or drum seine gear and the use of lampara nets had
the Monterey Bay area, except in the southern portion of virtually ceased in Monterey Bay.
the bay. The following year, attracting lights were permit-
The market squid shery was an unregulated, open access
ted throughout the area.
shery prior to April 1, 1998. In order to assure sustain-
In 1999, the National Park Service brought to the atten- ability of the resource, new legislation placed a three-
tion of the Department of Fish and Game an apparent year moratorium on the number of vessels in the shery.
increase in nest abandonment and chick predation among This legislation required the purchase of a $2,500 per
shorebirds at the Channel Islands. The park service ques- year permit for three years to land more than two short
tioned whether the abundance of vessels lighting for squid tons per trip or to attract squid by light for commercial
near these islands during the nesting season in 1999 could harvest. In addition, participants must have purchased a
be responsible. As an interim measure, the California Fish permit the previous year. For the 2000-2001 squid shing
and Game Commission placed a statewide wattage restric- season (April 1 to March 31), 197 market squid vessel
permits and 50 light boat permits were sold, down from
originally 248 vessel permits and 54 light boat permits
sold during the rst season of the moratorium. The sale
of market squid permits provided funds for scientic
research and biological assessments of the resource for
development of recommendations for a market squid con-
servation and management plan.
The same legislation provides for two committees, the
Squid Fishery Advisory Committee and the Squid Research
and Scientic Committee, established in 1998. These advi-
sory groups serve to provide recommendations to the
Director on squid research and monitoring, as well as
to provide management recommendations for the shery.
In addition to the lighting restrictions, management mea-
Squid under lights
sures recommended by either of the committees and
Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
296
approved by the Fish and Game Commission during 1999 surveys for relative abundance estimates; 3) culturing
California Market Squid
included mandatory logbooks for squid vessels and light eggs and paralarvae to determine lowest viable tempera-
boats and statewide weekend closures for the shery to ture to resolve spawning range constraints; and 4) analysis
allow for uninterrupted spawning activity. of satellite data to track growth of the market squid
shery since 1992. Preliminary port sample data indicate
that the average squid taken in the commercial shery has
Status of Biological Knowledge a length of 5.2 inches and is approximately 185 days old.
T he California market squid (Loligo opalescens) ranges
Status of the Population
from southeastern Alaska to Bahia Asunción, Baja
California, Mexico. This pelagic mollusk attains a length
L
of 12 inches, including its eight arms and two feeding ittle is known about the present size, structure or
tentacles. Several other squid species occur off the Cal- status of the population, but historical evidence from
ifornia coast, but these are normally associated with research cruises, as well as recent catch data, indicate the
deeper offshore waters. biomass is large. The California eet shes only spawning
populations and in limited geographic areas, mostly in
Spawning market squid tend to congregate in semi-pro-
central and southern California. Other shable concentra-
tected bays, usually over a sand bottom with rocky out-
tions of squid have been found occasionally along the
croppings. Mass spawning starts around April in central
coast from central California to British Columbia and
California waters and ends about November. In southern
southeastern Alaska, and short-term sheries sometimes
California waters, mass spawning starts around October
have developed in these areas.
and ends about April or May. During some years, however,
squid spawning, and landings, may occur throughout most Historically, the squid resource was considered by some
of the year. to be underutilized; recently demand has sometimes
exceeded the catch. Until more objective estimates
During spawning activity, the male transfers a bundle of
of abundance are available, the true status of the popula-
spermatophores with a specialized left ventral arm into
tion will remain unknown. Past work, and work else-
the female’s mantle cavity near the oviduct. The eggs
where, has included acoustic surveys and various collec-
are laid within elongated, cigar-shaped capsules, each of
tion techniques. Acoustical assessment of squid has been
which may contain as many as 300 eggs embedded in
attempted off the central Oregon coast. However, with
a gelatinous matrix. Each female produces from 20 to
the scientic research program initiated in 1998, efforts
30 egg capsules, attaching one end of each capsule to
to model the population began which may eventually give
the sea oor or other suitable site. Females are visually
rise to thorough and detailed stock assessments similar
stimulated to lay their eggs by the presence of other egg
to those undertaken for other coastal pelagic species.
masses, resulting in egg capsule clusters covering vast
It is hoped the preliminary modeling work, shery-inde-
areas, appearing to carpet the sandy substrate. Small
pendent surveys and information from scientic research
red polychaete worms have been observed boring in the
will allow for development of an effective management
capsules’ gelatinous substance, but apparently do not feed
strategy for the resource by the year 2002.
on the developing embryos. Bat stars and sea urchins,
however, prey upon the eggs.
Depending on the ambient water temperature, squid eggs
hatch in two to ve weeks, with newly hatched paralarvae
already resembling miniature adults. Squid feed predomi-
nantly on euphausiids and copepods, as well as other
small crustaceans, gastropods, polychaete worms, small
shes and smaller squid. Squid are an important prey item
for many shes, birds and marine mammals, and studies
indicate the market squid plays an important role in the
food web of many organisms along California’s coast.
Since 1998, research objectives being conducted by the
department for market squid include: 1) collecting shery
and biological data through port sampling efforts; 2)
conducting shery independent surveys (i) utilizing a
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to characterize spawning
habitats and measure egg density and (ii) midwater trawl Hauling a lampara net in Monterey Bay
Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 297
The market squid shery is often subject to extreme uc-
California Market Squid
tuations in availability due to El Niño events or other envi-
ronmental conditions, and demand is largely dependent
on international market forces. However, as typically seen
in short-lived, highly fecund animals, the squid population
seems to have the ability to recover fully in a relatively
short period of time. Consequently, squid can probably be
more intensively harvested than longer-lived marine sh.
Marci Yaremko
California Department of Fish and Game
References
CalCOFI Rep. Vol. 39, 1998. Symposium of the CalCOFI
Conference, 1997. Market Squid: What we know and what
we need to know for effective management. 240 pp.
Cailliet, G.M. and D.L. Vaughan. 1983. A review of
the methods and problems of quantitative assessment
of Loligo opalescens. Biological Oceanography 2:2-3-4
(379-400).
Fields, W.G. 1965. The structure, development, food rela-
tions, and life history of the squid Loligo opalescens Berry.
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 131. 108 p.
Kato, S. and J.E. Hardwick. 1975. The California squid
shery.Pages 107-127 in Expert consultation on shing for
Packing squid in the Monterey Bay area
squid. FAO Fish. Rep. 170, Suppl. 1.
Credit: Jim Hardwick, DFG
Recksiek, C.W. and H.W. Frey. (eds.) 1978. Biological,
oceanographic, and acoustic aspects of the market squid,
Loligo opalescens Berry. Calif. Dept. Fish. and Game, Fish
Bull. 169. 185 p.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
298
Pacific Sardine
History of the Fishery Most sardines from this source were canned for pet food,
Pacific Sardine
with a lesser amount canned for human consumption. A
A sustained shery for Pacic sardines (Sardinops sagax) small directed shery for sardines limited to 1,000 tons
rst developed in response to the demand for food per year was permitted annually 1986 through 1990. The
during World War I. Demand grew, and shing effort and quota (excluding bait sheries) was increased to 8,150
landings increased from 1916 to 1936, when the catch tons in 1991.
peaked at over 700,000 tons. Pacic sardine supported At the present time, sardines landed in the directed sher-
the largest shery in the Western Hemisphere during the ies in southern and central California are primarily pro-
1930s and 1940s, with landings occurring in British Colum- cessed for human consumption (fresh or canned), pet
bia, Washington, Oregon, and California. The shery col- food, or export. The majority of frozen exports are used
lapsed beginning in the late 1940s and declined, with as animal feed in Australian bluen tuna aquaculture facil-
short-term reversals, to less than 1,000 tons-per-year in ities. Small quantities are harvested for dead bait and
the late 1960s. There was a southward shift in the catch live bait. With the exception of 1,217 tons reported in the
as the shery decreased, with landings ceasing in the PacFIN database for 1996, no reduction of sardines, other
northwest in the 1947-1948 season and in San Francisco in than waste produced from other processing operations, is
1951-1952. Through the 1945-1946 season, most California taking place in California. Total annual landings of sardines
landings were at Monterey and San Francisco, but San have increased, from less than 100 tons in the 1970s, to
Pedro accounted for most subsequent landings. an average of 13,400 tons per year through the 1980s,
Sardines were used primarily for reduction to shmeal and 30,400 tons per year through the 1990s. Total sardine
and oil, and canned for human consumption, with small landings in California in 1999 were 62,600 tons.
quantities taken for live bait. Although most sh landed Landings of sardines in Mexico increased from an annual
north of California were reduced, California processors average of 1,600 tons during the 1980s, to an average
began as canners, and expanded to reduction as a lucra- of nearly 42,000 tons per year through the 1990s. The
tive supplement. Reduction was often more protable, total and average annual harvests by Mexico exceeded
and for many years reduction tonnage exceeded tonnage those for California over the period 1980 through 1999.
canned. An extremely lucrative dead bait market for sar- Mexican landings of Pacic sardines, mackerels and her-
dines developed in central California in the 1960s, and rings, are primarily used for reduction into shmeal, with
was primarily responsible for continued shing on the approximately 20 percent used for human consumption.
depleted resource.
A federal shery management plan (FMP) for coastal
Prior to 1967, management of the sardine resource in pelagic species in U.S. waters off the West Coast, includ-
California was mostly limited to: 1) control of tonnage of ing sardines, was implemented by the Pacic Fishery Man-
whole sh used for reduction; 2) case pack requirements agement Council (PFMC) in January 2000, which trans-
(specied number of cases of canned sh per ton of whole ferred management authority from the California Depart-
sh); and 3) restriction of the shing season. The rst two ment of Fish and Game (DFG) to the National Marine
controls were intended to lower the quantity of sardines Fisheries Service (NMFS) through the PFMC. To calculate
used for reduction, since this was regarded as a less desir- the 2000 harvest guideline, a formula selected by the
able use and demand for reduction products was high. PFMC in the federal management plan was used. Based on
The third control was designed to limit canning to periods the 1999 estimate of total biomass, the 2000 sardine sh-
when sardines were in prime condition and to improve the ery opened January 1, with a harvest guideline of 205,902
market for canned products. The total catch, however,
was not regulated. From 1967 to 1973, California landings
of sardines were limited to an incidental take of 15 per-
cent sardines by weight mixed with other sh. Liberal
provisions for use of incidental catch, and later a 250-ton
dead bait quota still supplied the demand for bait. In 1974,
a moratorium on shing sardines was established, which
restricted landings to the 15 percent incidental limit and
eliminated the use of sardines for dead bait. This legisla-
tion also established the state’s intent to rehabilitate the
resource. Through 1981, sardine landings were less than
50 tons per year.
In the early 1980s, sardines were taken incidentally in
Pacific Sardine, Sardinops sagax
the southern California Pacic and jack mackerel shery.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 299
Pacific Sardine
1.6
1.4
billions of pounds landed
1.2
Pacific Sardine 1.0
0.8
Commercial Landings
0.6
1916-1999, Pacific Sardine
Data Source: DFG Catch
0.4
Bulletins and commercial land-
0.2
ing receipts. Data includes sar-
dines caught for reduction fish- 0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
ery between 1916 and 1969.
tons for the California shery, a 65 percent increase over Historically, the northern subpopulation of sardines made
the 1999 DFG quota. extensive migrations, moving north as far as British
Columbia in the summer months and returning south to
The price of sardines landed incidentally with mackerel
southern California and northern Baja California in the
decreased from about $190 per ton in the mid-1980s to
fall. Northward movement was greater with increased age.
about $150 per ton in 1991. The price for sardines landed
The migration was complex, and the timing and extent
in the directed shery and canned for human consumption
of movement were affected to some degree by oceano-
ranged from $80 to $100 per ton in the late 1990s. Only
graphic conditions. At present, the population is currently
limited markets exist for canned products currently being
expanding, found primarily off central and southern Cali-
produced. It remains to be seen whether new markets
fornia and Baja California, but extends as far north as
will develop to utilize the fully recovered population of
Vancouver, British Columbia. Contraction and expansion
Pacic sardines.
of range and spawning area has been associated with
changes in sardine population size around the world.
Status of Biological Knowledge Estimates of sardine abundance from AD 280 to 1970
have been derived from the deposition of sh scales in
S ardines are small pelagic sh and members of the her-
sediment cores from the Santa Barbara basin. Signicant
ring family, Clupeidae. The genus Sardinops occupies
sardine populations existed throughout the time period
the coastal areas of warm temperate zones of nearly all
and varied widely in size, typically over periods of roughly
ocean basins. The genus is considered monotypic, and
60 years. Population declines and recoveries averaged
Sardinops sagax is the correct scientic name for sardine
about 36 and 30 years, respectively. Scale data indicate
populations in the Alguhas, Benquela, California, Kuroshio,
that sardine populations were much more variable than
and Peru currents, and for populations off New Zealand
anchovy populations. Studies of deposits of otoliths have
and Australia. In the northeast Pacic Ocean, as in most
shown that, while the anchovy has been present for a
other areas, the Pacic sardine occurs with anchovy, hake,
million years or more, no trace of sardines has been found
and mackerel. It is generally accepted that the Pacic
that is more than seven thousand years old. The tendency
sardine population consists of three subpopulations or
for tremendous variations in sardine biomass may be a
stocks: a Gulf of California subpopulation, a southern sub-
characteristic of a species that has only recently occupied
population off Baja California, and the principal northern
its habitat.
subpopulation ranging from northern Baja California to
Pacic sardines reach about 16 inches and live as long as
Alaska. These stocks were distinguished on the basis of
13 years but are usually less than 12 inches and eight years
serological techniques. A fourth, far northern subpopula-
old. Most sardines in the historical and recent commercial
tion was also postulated. Recent electrophoretic studies
catch were ve years and younger. There is a good deal
and examination of morphological variation showed no
of regional variation in growth rate, with average size
genetic variation among sardines from central and south-
attained at a given age increasing from south to north.
ern California, the Pacic coast of Baja California and the
Sardine size and age at maturity may decline with a
Gulf of California.
decrease in sardine biomass, although latitudinal and tem-
perature effects may also play a part. At low biomass
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
300
levels, sardines appear to be fully mature at age two, eggs, larvae, and juvenile stages of copepods, as well as
Pacific Sardine
while at high biomass levels, only some of the two-year- other zooplankton and phytoplankton.
olds are mature. Through all life stages, sardines are eaten by a variety
Sardines age three and older were nearly fully vulnerable of predators. Eggs and larvae are consumed by an
to the historical shery until 1953, but two and three year assortment of invertebrate and vertebrate planktivores.
old sh became less available as the population declined Although it has not been demonstrated in the eld,
and fewer southern sh moved northward. Recent catch anchovy predation on sardine eggs and larvae has been
data indicate sardines begin to become available to the postulated as a possible mechanism for increased larval
shery at age zero, and are fully vulnerable by age three. sardine mortality during the 1950s and 1960s. Juvenile
Sardines probably become vulnerable to the live bait sh- and adult sardines are consumed by other sh, including
ery, which is located close to shore, at a younger age. yellowtail, barracuda, bonito, tunas, marlin, mackerel,
hake, and sharks; sea birds, such as pelicans, gulls, and
Spawning occurs in loosely aggregated schools in the
cormorants; and marine mammals, including sea lions,
upper 165 feet of the water column, probably year-round,
seals, porpoises, and whales. It is likely that sardines
with peaks from April to August from Point Conception
will become more important as prey for numerous spe-
to Magdalena Bay, and from January to April in the Gulf
cies, including species such as the state and federally
of California. The main spawning area for the northern
listed California brown pelican, as the sardine resource
subpopulation is between San Francisco and San Diego,
continues to increase.
out to about 150 miles offshore, with evidence of spawn-
ing as far as 350 miles offshore. Sporadic occurrences The Pacic sardine and other closely related species
of spawning have been observed off Oregon and British undergo similar interannual changes in abundance in sev-
Columbia in recent years. eral other temperate coastal regions of the world. Scien-
tists in several countries have conducted joint studies of
Most spawning occurs between 55° and 63° F, with an
recruitment and biomass of these coastal pelagic stocks
apparent optimum between 59° and 61° F, and a minimum
under the Sardine-Anchovy Recruitment Program. Knowl-
threshold temperature of 55° F. The spatial and temporal
edge of the population dynamics and variability of these
distribution of spawning is inuenced by temperature; the
clupeoid shes may eventually contribute to the detection
center of sardine spawning shifts northward and continues
of the oceanographic effects of global climate change.
over a longer period of time during warm water condi-
tions. Pacic sardines are serial spawners and spawn sev-
eral times each season, although the number of spawnings
Status of the Population
is not known. Eggs and larvae are found near the surface.
S
The eggs are spheroid, have a distinct, large perivitelline pawning biomass of the Pacic sardine averaged
space, and require about three days to hatch at 59° F. 3,881,000 tons from 1932 to 1934, and uctuated from
Recruitment of Pacic sardines is highly variable. Analyses 3,136,000 to 1,324,000 tons from 1935 to 1944. The popu-
of the stock-recruitment relationship have been incon- lation then declined steeply over the next two decades,
clusive and controversial, with some studies showing a with some short reversals following periods of particularly
density-dependent relationship and others nding no rela- successful recruitment, to less than 100,000 tons in the
tionship whatsoever. From 1932 to 1965, mean recruitment early 1960s. During the 1970s, spawning biomass levels
only slightly exceeded potential replacement of spawners were thought to be as low as 5,000 tons. Since the early
at all levels of abundance, indicating little resilience to 1980s, the sardine population has increased, and the total
shing. Recruitment occurs in strings, with several years age-one-plus biomass was estimated to be greater than 1.7
of successful recruitment followed by similar periods of million tons in 1998 and 1999.
poor recruitment. The timing and duration of these strings Maximum sustained yield of Pacic sardine in the histori-
has a large effect on population growth. cal northern subpopulation was estimated to be 250,000
A signicant relationship exists among sardine reproduc- tons or about 22 percent per year, far less than the catch
tive success, spawning biomass and average sea surface of sardines during the height of the shery. Although
temperature (SST). Recruitment, as well as predicted combined landings in the U.S. and Mexico are still well
equilibrium biomass and maximum sustainable yield (MSY) below this level, landings have increased substantially in
are lower when temperatures are cooler. recent years. In the absence of a bilateral management
agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, combined U.S.
Sardines are lter feeders and prey on crustaceans, mostly
and Mexican catches of Pacic sardine have the potential
copepods, and other plankton, including sh larvae and
for accelerating the next population decline.
phytoplankton. Larval sardines feed extensively on the
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 301
References
Disagreement over whether the decrease in the sardine
Pacific Sardine
population was due to overshing or to natural changes
Ahlstrom, E.H. and J. Radovich. 1970. Management of the
in the environment has persisted for many years. It is
Pacic sardine. In: A century of sheries in North America,
now apparent that both factors are important. Following
N.G. Benson, ed. Special Publication No. 7, American Fish-
the cessation of shing and with the development of favor-
eries Society, Wash. D.C., pp. 183-193.
able environmental conditions, the sardine resource is
now recovered. Barnes, J.T., L.D. Jacobson, A.D. MacCall, and P. Wolf.
1992. Recent population trends and abundance estimates
for the Pacic sardine (Sardinops sagax). Calif. Coop. Oce-
Patricia Wolf
anic Fish. Invest. Rep. 33:60-72.
California Department of Fish and Game
Baumgarter, T., A. Soutar, and V. Ferreira-Bartrina. 1992.
Paul E. Smith
Reconstruction of the history of Pacic sardine and north-
National Marine Fisheries Service
ern anchovy populations over the past two millennia from
Revised by:
sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California. Calif.
Darrin R. Bergen
Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 33:24-40.
California Department of Fish and Game
Hill, K.T., N.C.H. Lo, and D.R. Bergen. 2000. In prep. Stock
assessment and management recommendations for Pacic
sardine (Sardinops sagax). Calif. Dept. Fish. Game Marine
Region Admin Rept. 00-XX. In prep.
MacCall, A.D. 1979. Population estimates for the waning
years of the Pacic sardine shery. Calif. Coop. Oceanic
Fish. Invest. Rep. 20:72-82.
Murphy, G.I. 1966. Population biology of the Pacic sar-
dine (Sardinops caerulea). Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. Fourth
Series 34(1):1084.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1998. Amendment
8 (To the Northern Anchovy Fishery Management Plan)
incorporating a name change to: The Coastal Pelagic
Species Fishery Management Plan.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
302
Northern Anchovy
History of the Fishery fornia Code of Regulations, currently provides a process
Northern Anchovy
for the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG)
T hree separate sheries in both California and Mexico to issue permits for reduction shing, decreased prices
exploit northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax). Anchovy of shmeal and the low prices offered to shermen have
landed by the reduction shery are converted to meal, deterred any signicant reduction shing in recent years.
oil, and soluble protein. These products are sold mainly The non-reduction live-bait eet in recent years has con-
as protein supplements for poultry food, and also as feed sisted of about 18 boats that are distributed mostly along
for farmed sh and other animals. Meal obtained from the southern California coast to serve the principal sport
anchovy is about 65 percent protein compared to about shing markets. Live bait boats sh for a variety of spe-
50-55 percent for meal from other shes. cies, but anchovies comprised approximately 85 percent
Anchovy harvested by the live bait shery are not landed of the catch prior to 1991. Pacic sardines became avail-
but kept alive for sale to anglers as bait. Transactions able to the live bait shery again in 1992, and the compo-
between buyers and sellers of live bait take place at sition of live bait catches shifted from primarily anchovy
sea or at bait wells tied up at docks. Live bait dealers to primarily sardine. From 1996 through 1999, sardines
generally supply bait to commercial passenger shing ves- constituted approximately 72 percent of the live bait
sels (CPFVs) on a contract basis and receive a percentage catch. Historically, the anchovy live bait catch ranged
of the fees paid by passengers. Bait is also sold by the from 4,000 to 8,000 tons per year and averaged approxi-
“scoop” to anglers in private vessels. Anchovy landed by mately 4,500 tons annually between 1974 and 1991. This
the non-reduction (other than live bait) shery are used average dropped to slightly over 2,500 tons between 1992
as dead frozen bait, fresh sh for human consumption, and 1994. Current estimates of the live bait catch are
canned sh for human consumption, animal food, and available from the DFG Pelagic Fisheries Assessment Unit
anchovy paste. in La Jolla, California. Non-reduction (other than for live
bait) landings averaged slightly over 2,200 tons per year
Reliable records of California landings of northern anchovy
from 1965 to 1994, and increased to an average of about
date from 1916. Landings were small until the scarcity of
4,122 tons per year between 1995 and 1999.
Pacic sardines caused processors to begin canning ancho-
vies in quantity during 1947, when landings increased to Anchovy landed in Mexico, other than a small amount used
9,464 tons in 1947 from 960 tons in 1946. To limit the for bait, have been used primarily for reduction. Mexico’s
quantity of anchovies being reduced to shmeal, the Cali- harvesting and processing capacity increased signicantly
fornia Fish and Game Commission required each processor in the late 1970s when several large seiners were added
to can a large proportion of the harvest (40-60 percent to the shing eet and a large reduction plant was con-
depending on can size). Anchovy landings declined with structed in Ensenada. Mexican anchovy landings averaged
the temporary resurgence of sardine landings around 1951. approximately 85,500 tons from 1962 to 1989, with a high
Following the collapse of the sardine shery in 1952, of over 285,000 tons in 1981. Northern anchovy catch
anchovy landings increased to nearly 43,000 tons in 1953, decreased sharply in 1990, and despite landing 19,600 tons
but subsequently declined due to low consumer demand in 1995, average annual Mexican landings from 1990 to
for canned anchovy and increased sardine landings. Land- 1999 were only 3.600 tons.
ings remained low through 1964. During the early years The U.S. northern anchovy central subpopulation sheries
(1916 through 1964), anchovy were harvested almost have been managed by the Pacic Fishery Management
exclusively by California shermen. Mexico did not begin Council since 1978, and the central and northern subpopu-
harvesting anchovy until 1962.
Beginning in 1965, the California Fish and Game Commis-
sion managed anchovy on the basis of a reduction quota.
This quota had been taken by a eet of approximately 40
small purse seine vessels operating off southern California
known collectively as the “wetsh” eet, which shes for
other species in addition to anchovy. In 1965, only 171 tons
of anchovy were landed for reduction, which increased to
an average of over 64,000 tons per year between 1965 and
1982. After 1982, reduction landings decreased dramati-
cally to an average of only 923 tons per year from 1983
to 1991, and fell to zero in 1992 through 1994. During
lations since 1998. The shery management plan has been
the period 1995 to 1999, only four tons were reported as
Northern Anchovy, Engraulis mordax
reduction landings. Although Section 147 of Title 14, Cali-
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 303
Status of Biological Knowledge
amended to include all four species of nsh collectively
Northern Anchovy
known as coastal pelagic species (CPS); Pacic sardine,
N orthern anchovy are distributed from the Queen Char-
Pacic mackerel, jack mackerel, in addition to northern
lotte Islands, British Columbia to Magdalena Bay, Baja
anchovy, and has been renamed as the Coastal Pelagic
California. The population is divided into northern, cen-
Species Fishery Management Plan. Regulations described
tral, and southern subpopulations or stocks. The central
in the shery management plan designate the northern
subpopulation ranges from approximately San Francisco,
anchovy shery as not actively managed due to low shery
California to Punta Baja, Baja California, with the bulk
demand and high stock size. If conditions change, and
being located in the Southern California Bight.
active management is required, then provisions in the
shery management plan require calculation of an Allow- Northern anchovies are small, short-lived sh typically
able Biological Catch (ABC) for northern anchovy sheries found in schools near the surface. They rarely exceed
in U.S. waters. As of May 31, 2000, there were 63 vessels four years of age and seven inches total length, although
licensed to sh CPS nsh under the NMFS limited entry individuals as old as seven years and nine inches have
program, which is in effect south of 39° N. latitude (Pt. been recorded. There is a great deal of regional variation
Arena, California). North of this area, there is open access in age composition (number of sh in each age group)
to the shery. and size at age with older sh and larger sh found at
relatively offshore and northerly locations. In warm years,
Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for northern anchovy in
relatively old and large sh are found farther north than
the central subpopulation is estimated to be 135,600 tons
during cool years. These patterns are probably due to
per year at a total biomass level of about 808,000 tons.
northern and offshore migration of large sh, regional dif-
At present, northern anchovy are not actively managed,
ferences in growth rate, and water temperatures. North-
but a recommended default MSY control rule gives an ABC
ern anchovies in the central subpopulation are typically
for the entire stock equal to 25 percent of the MSY catch,
found in waters that range from 54° to 71° F.
or just over 34,000 tons. An estimated 82 percent of
the stock is resident in U.S. waters. ABC in U.S. waters Information about changes in anchovy abundance during
is, therefor, 82 percent of 34,000 tons or 27,600 tons. 1780 to 1970 is available from scales counted in sediment
Under federal management, there is no longer a separate cores from the Santa Barbara basin. These data indicate
quota for reduction landings of anchovy. Although sher- signicant anchovy populations existed throughout the
ies in Mexican as well as U.S. waters harvest the northern time period and that biomass levels during the late 1960s
anchovy, there is no bilateral management agreement were modest relative to those during most of the 19th and
with Mexico. The Mexican shery is managed indepen- early 20th centuries.
dently and is not restricted by a quota.
The age at which northern anchovy become vulnerable
Economics explain a great deal about the current dynam- to California sheries depends on the location of the
ics of anchovy sheries in California, because the sheries shery and type of shery. Fish become vulnerable to
are more limited by prices and markets than by biological the inshore live bait shery at an earlier age than they
constraints. The price paid to sherman for anchovy become vulnerable to the reduction shery. However,
landed as live bait in southern California was about $440 substantial numbers of zero and one-year-old sh are
per ton in 1999, slightly less than the $480 per ton paid for taken by both sheries in most years.
sardines as live bait. Although prices and revenues for live
Anchovy are all sexually mature at age two. The fraction
bait tend to be surprisingly high, annual catches have been
of one-year-olds that is sexually mature in a given year
modest due to market limitations.
depends on water temperature and has been observed to
During 1981 to 1999, the price paid for anchovy landed range from 47 to 100 percent. They spawn during every
for non-reduction purposes other than live bait averaged month of the year, but spawning increases during late
about $330 per ton. As with live bait, market limitations winter and early spring and peaks during February to
have resulted in modest annual catches despite relatively April. Spawning has been observed over a temperature
high prices paid to shermen. range of 54° to 71° F. Individual females spawn batches
of eggs throughout the spawning season at intervals as
The average price for anchovy landed by the U.S. reduc-
short as seven to 10 days. The eggs are found near the
tion shery during 1981 to 1999 was about $80 per ton,
surface, and require two to four days to hatch, depending
but the price paid during 1997 was only $40 per ton.
on water temperatures. Eggs and larvae are both found
Low prices, as well as market problems have prevented a
near the surface.
signicant U.S. reduction shery in recent years.
Northern anchovy are subject to intense predation
throughout all life stages. Anchovy eggs and larvae fall
prey to an assortment of invertebrate and vertebrate
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
304
Northern Anchovy
350
millions of pounds landed
300
Northern Anchovy
250
200
150
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
100
Northern Anchovy
50 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Total anchovy harvests and exploitation rates since 1983
14
have been below the theoretical levels for maximum sus-
millions of pounds landed
12
Anchovy Bait Catch
tained yield, and stock biomass estimates are unavailable
10
for recent years but, based on abundance index data, the
8
stock is thought to be stable at a modest biomass level.
6
The size of the anchovy resource is now being determined
4
mostly by natural inuences, such as ocean temperature.
2
0 1974 1979 1985 1989 1994
Live Bait landings of anchovy in CA, 1974-1994 Darrin R. Bergen
Data source: DFG Database California Department of Fish and Game
Lawrence D. Jacobson
planktivores. As juveniles in nearshore areas, anchovies
National Marine Fisheries Service
are vulnerable to a variety of predators, including birds
and some recreationally and commercially important spe-
cies of sh. As adults offshore, anchovies are fed upon by
References
numerous marine shes (some of which have recreational
and commercial value), mammals, and birds, including Conrad, J. M. 1991. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
the state and federally listed California brown pelican. A 1998. Amendment 8 (To the Northern Anchovy Fishery
link between brown pelican breeding success and anchovy Management Plan) incorporating a name change to: The
abundance has been documented. Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan.
Northern anchovy eat plankton either by lter feeding or Jacobson, L.D., N.C.H. Lo, J.T. Barnes. 1994. A biomass
biting, depending on size of the food. Adult anchovy are based assessment model for northern anchovy, Engraulis
known to lter anchovy eggs and it is possible that this mordax. Fish. Bull. 92:711-724.
type of cannibalism is an important factor in regulating
Methot, R.D. 1989. Synthetic estimates of historical abun-
population size.
dance and mortality for northern anchovy. In: E. Vetter
and B. Megrey (eds.). Mathematical analysis of sh stock
dynamics: reviews, evaluations and current applications.
Status of the Population Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. Series No. 6. Am. Fish. Soc., Beth-
E
hesda, MD.
stimates of the biomass of northern anchovy in the
central subpopulation averaged 359,000 tons from 1963 Parrish, R.H., D.L. Mallicoate, and K.F. Mais. 1985.
through 1972, increased rapidly to over 1.7 million tons Regional variations in the growth and age composition
in 1974 and then declined to 359,000 tons in 1978. of northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax. Fish. Bull.
Since 1978, biomass levels have tended to decline slowly, 83:483-495.
falling to an average of 289,000 tons from 1986 through
1994. Anchovy biomass during 1994 was estimated to be
432,000 tons.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 305
Pacific Mackerel
History of the Fishery recovery, the market for canned mackerel has uctuated
due to availability and economic conditions. At present,
P acic mackerel (Scomber japonicus), also called chub most Pacic mackerel is used for human consumption,
mackerel or blue mackerel, are harvested by three canned, or used for pet food, with a small but increasing
separate sheries – the California commercial shery, a amount sold as fresh sh. Minor amounts of Pacic mack-
sport shery based primarily in southern California, and erel are used by anglers for live and dead bait. Mackerel
the Mexican commercial shery. In the commercial sher- prices increased from $45 per ton in 1956 to $315 in
ies, Pacic mackerel are landed by the same boats that 1981, but have declined to $120 per ton in 1999. Domestic
catch jack mackerel, Pacic sardine, and market squid. demand for canned Pacic mackerel appears to have
decreased in recent years. During the early shery, Pacic
Pacic mackerel supported one of California’s major sh-
mackerel were taken by lampara boats, which were
eries during the 1930s and 1940s and again in the 1980s.
replaced in the 1930s by the same purse seine eet that
The canning of Pacic mackerel began in the late 1920s
shed for sardines. The purse seiners shed for Pacic
and increased as greater processing capacities and more
mackerel until the moratorium in 1970, and were able
marketable packs were developed. Landings decreased in
to sh for jack mackerel, northern anchovy, and other
the early 1930s, due to the economic depression and a
species until the shery reopened in 1977. Fishing orig-
decline in demand, and then rose to a peak of 73,214 tons
inally occurred near port, but by the late 1930s it
in 1935. During this period, Pacic mackerel was second
extended along the entire coast from San Diego to Santa
only to Pacic sardine in annual landings. The mackerel
Barbara, and included the Channel Islands. Beginning in
shery then experienced a long, uctuating decline. A
the 1952-1953 season, shing extended to Tanner and
moratorium was placed on the shery in 1970 after the
Cortez Banks.
stock had collapsed.
Until the mid-1950s, there was a seasonal pattern to the
In 1972, legislation was enacted which imposed a landing
shery. Pacic mackerel were mostly unavailable from
quota based on the age one-plus biomass. A series of suc-
January through May, then increased in availability until
cessful year classes in the late 1970s initiated a recovery,
late fall. Most of the catch was taken by purse seiners
and the shery was reopened under a quota system in
until September, when the sardine shery began. During
1977. During the recovery period from 1977 to 1985, vari-
the declining years of the shery, catches became more
ous adjustments were made to quotas for directed take
sporadic, with no apparent seasonal patterns.
of Pacic mackerel and to incidental catch limits. These
measures were intended to lessen the impact of the At present the purse seine eet shes the Southern Cali-
recovering population on the jack mackerel shery, and fornia Bight, including the Channel Islands and offshore
to accommodate the development of the Pacic mackerel banks. A small portion of the catch (approximately 10
shery as the population increased. From 1990 through percent in recent years) is taken in the Monterey Bay
1999, Pacic mackerel accounted for 87 percent of total area. The purse seine eet shes year-round. Landings are
mackerel landings in California. Pacic mackerel ranked typically slow during April and May, increase beginning
third in volume of California nsh landings throughout in June, peak during the third quarter of the year, and
the 1990s. decrease after September. As of June 2000, 63 purse sein-
ers hold permits to participate in the NMFS limited entry
Before 1928, when canning began, Pacic mackerel were
shery for coastal pelagic species, which is in effect
landed incidentally in the sardine shery and used primar-
south of 39° N. latitude (Pt. Arena, California). North
ily as fresh sh. For many years, demand for canned
of this area, there is open access to the shery. These
mackerel was steady and exceeded supply. Following the
vessels participate not only in the Pacic mackerel shery,
but also take jack mackerel, Pacic sardine, northern
anchovy, and market squid. Other types of gear take
Pacic mackerel incidentally.
Pacic mackerel sheries in California were managed
by the state through 1999, and a shery management
plan (FMP) for coastal pelagic species, including Pacic
mackerel, was implemented by the Pacic Fishery Man-
agement Council (PFMC) in January 2000. State regula-
tions, enacted in 1985, had imposed a moratorium on
directed shing when the total biomass was less than
20,000 tons, and limited the incidental catch of Pacic
Pacific Mackerel, Scomber japonicus
mackerel to 18 percent during a moratorium. The shing
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
306
season for Pacic mackerel was set to extend from July 1 mackerel usually occur within 20 miles of shore, but have
Pacific Mackerel
to June 30 of the following year. A seasonal quota, equal been taken as far offshore as 250 miles.
to 30 percent of the total biomass in excess of 20,000 Adults are found in water temperatures ranging from 50.0°
tons had been allowed when the biomass was between to 72.0° F and larvae in 57.2° to 70.0° F. Adults occur
20,000 and 150,000 tons, and there was no quota when from the surface to 1,000 feet deep. Sub-adult and adult
the total biomass was 150,000 tons or greater. From Pacic mackerel in the northeastern Pacic move north-
1985 to 1991, the biomass exceeded 150,000 tons and no ward along the coast during the summer. The most north-
quota restrictions were in effect. The quotas from the erly records occur during El Niño events. There is an
period 1992 through 2000 averaged 24,445 tons, with a inshore-offshore migration off California, with increased
high at 47,200 tons set by the PFMC for the 1999-2000 abundance inshore from July to November and increased
shing season. abundance offshore from March to May. Pacic mackerel
Pacic mackerel have ranked among the top 11 most are typically found near shallow banks, and juveniles are
important sportsh caught in southern California waters, commonly found off sandy beaches, around kelp beds, and
primarily because they are abundant rather than desir- in open bays.
able. The recreational catch of Pacic mackerel averaged The largest recorded Pacic mackerel was 24.8 inches
1,500 tons per year from 1977 through 1991, and 700 and weighed 6.4 pounds, although commercially harvested
tons per year from 1993 through 1999. During the com- Pacic mackerel seldom exceed 16 inches and two pounds.
mercial shing moratorium, the sport shery became the Growth is believed to be density-dependent, as sh reach
largest exploiter of Pacic mackerel in California. The rec- much higher weights-at-age when the population size is
reational catch increased during the late 1970s and early small. The oldest recorded age, determined by otolith
1980s, with more than one million sh per year caught reading, was 12 years, but most Pacic mackerel in the
from 1979 through 1981. Recent estimates of annual recre- commercial catch are less than four years old. Some
ational catches indicate a steady decline since 1981 to Pacic mackerel mature as one-year olds, although most
about 200 tons of Pacic mackerel in southern California are not sexually mature until age two or three. Pacic
in 1999. The catches from commercial passenger shing mackerel become available to the commercial shery in
vessels (CPFVs) have declined from a peak in 1980 of their rst year of life and are not fully recruited to the
over 1.31 million Pacic mackerel, and an average of over shery until age four. However, substantial numbers of
700,000 sh per year during the 1980s, to an average of younger sh are taken by the commercial shery and
slightly over 330,000 sh per year through the 1990s. The make up the bulk of the catch.
reported CPFV catch in 1998 totaled only 136,614 sh.
Recruitment of Pacic mackerel is variable and loosely
Demand for Pacic mackerel in Baja California, Mexico linked to the size of the spawning biomass. Reproductive
increased after World War II. Mexican landings remained success is somewhat cyclical, with periods of roughly
stable for several years, rose to 8,000 tons in 1963, then three to seven years. The annual rate of natural mortality
declined to a low of 100 tons in 1968. Catches remained is thought to be approximately 40 percent in the absence
insignicant until the mid-1970s. During the period 1990 of shing.
to 1999, annual landings of Pacic mackerel in Ensenada
There are three spawning stocks in the northeastern
peaked twice, rst in 1990 at 39,426 tons, and again
Pacic – one in the Gulf of California, one near Cape San
in 1998 at 55,916 tons. The average for Baja California
Lucas, and one along the Pacic coast north of Punta
annual landings during the 1990s was 20,108 tons per year.
Abreojos, Baja California. Spawning occurs from Eureka,
Mexican landings of Pacic and jack mackerels, Pacic sar-
California to Cape San Lucas, two to 200 miles offshore,
dines, northern anchovy, and round herrings, are primarily
and in the Gulf of California.
used for reduction into shmeal, and approximately 20
Off California, spawning occurs from late April to July at
percent used for human consumption.
depths to 300 feet. Individual sh may spawn eight times
or more per year and release at least 68,000 eggs per
Status of Biological Knowledge spawning. Off Baja California, spawning occurs from June
through October.
P acic mackerel occur worldwide in temperate and
Pacic mackerel larvae eat copepods and each other.
subtropical coastal waters. In the eastern Pacic, they
Larvae normally begin to feed within 50 hours of hatching.
range from Chile to the Gulf of Alaska, including the
Juvenile and adult Pacic mackerel feed primarily on
Gulf of California. They are common from Monterey Bay,
small shes, sh larvae, squid, and pelagic crustaceans
California to Cape San Lucas, Baja California, but are most
such as euphausiids.
abundant south of Point Conception, California. Pacic
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 307
Pacific Mackerel
160
millions of pounds landed
140
120
Pacific Mackerel 100
80
Commercial Landings
60
1916-1999, Pacific Mackerel
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
40
and commercial landing receipts.
20
Pacific mackerel were
aggregated as unclassified
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
mackerel prior to 1926.
Pacic mackerel larvae are subject to predation from was an unusual event that might be expected to occur
a number of invertebrate and vertebrate planktivores. about once every 60 years.
Juvenile and adults are eaten by larger shes, marine It is estimated that the maximum long-term yield of
mammals, and seabirds. Pacic mackerel school as a Pacic mackerel might be 29,000 to 32,000 tons under
defense against predation, often with other pelagic spe- management systems similar to that in current use. It is
cies, including jack mackerel and Pacic sardine. Principal difcult to assess the effects on the catch of recent warm
predators include porpoises, California sea lions, brown temperatures, possible changes in availability of young
pelicans, striped marlin, black marlin, sailsh, bluen sh, and the deteriorating markets. However, it is unlikely
tuna, white seabass, yellowtail, giant sea bass, and that the recent high harvest levels can be sustained.
various sharks.
Eddy S. Konno and Patricia Wolf
California Department of Fish and Game
Revised by:
1.4
Darrin R. Bergen
1.2
millions of fish landed
Pacific Mackerel
California Department of Fish and Game
1.0
0.8
0.6
References
0.4
0.2
Fitch, J.E. 1952. The decline of the Pacic mackerel sh-
0.0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
ery. Calif. Fish and Game. 38:381-389.
Recreational Catch 1947-1999, Pacific Mackerel
Hill, K.T., M. Yaremko, and L.D. Jacobson. 1999. Status of
Data source: DFG commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) logbooks
the pacic mackerel resource and shery in 1998. Calif.
Status of the Population Dept. Fish and Game Marine Region Admin. Rep. 99-3. 57p.
H
Hill, K.T. and D. R. Bergen. 2000. Stock assessment
istorical estimates of Pacic mackerel biomass along
and management recommendations for Pacic mackerel
the Pacic Coast indicate a decline in total biomass
(Scomber japonicus) in 2000. Calif. Dept. Fish. Game
from 1932 until 1952. After a brief resurgence, the popu-
Marine Region Admin. Rept. 00-XX. In prep.
lation reached a peak in 1962, then declined to less
than 10,000 tons by 1966, and remained low until the Klingbeil, R.A. 1983. Pacic mackerel: a resurgent
late 1970s. resource and shery of the California Current. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:35-45.
A series of successful year classes beginning in 1976
brought about a resurgence, and the age one-plus biomass MacCall. A.D., R.A. Klingbeil, and R.D. Methot. 1985.
peaked in 1982, at over one million tons. Since then, it has Recent increased abundance and potential productivity of
precipitously declined. Recent stock assessments indicate Pacic mackerel (Scomber japonicus). Calif. Coop. Oceanic
that biomass in the late 1990s was approximately 120,000 Fish. Invest. Rep. 26:119-129.
tons. Information derived from deposits of Pacic mack-
Parrish, R.H. and A.D. MacCall. 1978. Climate variation
erel scales on the sea oor indicates that the prolonged
and exploitation in the Pacic mackerel shery. Calif.
period of high biomass during the late 1970s and 1980s
Dept. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 167. 110 p.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
308
Jack Mackerel
History of the Fishery 1983 to 1990 for the shery which occurs north of 39°
Jack Mackerel
latitude (Point Arena). The shery south of 39° is not
T he jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), originally regulated. In 1991, the ABC was raised to 57,990 tons and
known as horse mackerel, was reported in the com- the quota to 51,530 tons where it remained throughout
mercial catch as early as 1888, and was a minor compo- the 1990s.
nent of the coastal pelagic species (CPS) shery until Since much of the trawl-caught jack mackerel is discarded
1947. The CPS shery uses encircling nets (purse and at sea, total catch is not available. Estimates of jack
drum seine, and lampara nets) to target market squid, mackerel caught by Pacic whiting trawlers has ranged
Pacic sardine, Pacic mackerel, northern anchovy, and from less than 500 tons to over 2,000 tons in the 1970s
jack mackerel in the waters off California. Much of the and 1980s. After a US-USSR survey of jack mackerel con-
catch between 1926 and 1946 was taken incidentally with ducted in 1991, an experimental shery was attempted off
sardine and Pacic mackerel and was sold at fresh sh California. Large factory trawlers from Alaska came south
markets where it did not spoil as quickly as Pacic mack- searching for jack mackerel, but found few sh and the
erel. Landings were low, varying between 200 and 15,000 shery never developed.
tons annually and comprising less than three percent of
In the early 1990s, southern California shermen and pro-
the CPS landings each year.
cessors became concerned over the possible expansion
In 1947, jack mackerel landings increased almost tenfold of the jack mackerel shery and lobbied heavily for Fed-
to 65,000 tons as the canning industry turned to jack eral management of the CPS shery. In 1999, the Coastal
mackerel in the face of the collapsing sardine shery. The Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPS FMP) was
U.S. Food and Drug Administration authorized changing adopted by the PFMC and jack mackerel was included
the common name from horse mackerel to jack mackerel in the plan as a monitored species and dropped from
in 1947 to increase consumer appeal. Between 1947 and the Pacic Coast Groundsh FMP. The CPS FMP sets the
1979, jack mackerel landings ranged from 800 to 73,000 ABC at 52,910 tons with a quota of 34,170 tons based on
tons, comprising six percent to 65 percent of the annual the portion (65 percent) of the population in US waters.
CPS landings. Should the jack mackerel catch exceed the quota for
The recovery of the Pacic mackerel population in the two consecutive years, the PFMC would have to decide
late 1970s shifted effort away from jack mackerel. The whether to change the shery to active status, resulting
CPS eet prefers Pacic mackerel, because jack mackerel in a need for an annual biomass estimate and subsequent
occur farther from port and tend to aggregate over rocky harvest guideline.
bottom where there is increased chance of damage to the In addition to the whiting trawl shery, a few adult
encircling nets. The recovery of the Pacic sardine and jack mackerel are also taken in the northern California
increased demand for squid worldwide have also contrib- salmon troll shery. Landings from the salmon shery are
uted to the decline in jack mackerel landings in California. a small portion (less than one percent) of the total jack
Since 1991, jack mackerel has been caught primarily mackerel landings.
from December through April, with landings low during Large jack mackerel have occasionally contributed to the
the remainder of the year. Landings have averaged commercial passenger shing vessel (CPFV or partyboat)
less than 2,000 tons each year, comprising only two per- sport shery. In 1953, a run of large sh was encountered
cent of the CPS landings. Most of the catch occurs in in southern California, which contributed 13 percent of
southern California. the CPFV catch in southern California and 8.6 percent
The CPS eet catches jack mackerel only when the young
sh, less than six-years-old form schools near the surface.
As jack mackerel grow older, their behavior changes, and
they inhabit deeper waters farther offshore. The unpre-
dictable availability of jack mackerel also plays a part in
the erratic catches, since there are times when the eet
cannot nd jack mackerel schools for several months.
Large, adult jack mackerel were taken incidentally in
the Pacic whiting (hake) trawl shery off California in
the 1970s and 1980s. Because of this, jack mackerel was
included in the Pacic Fisheries Management Council’s
(PFMC) Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Management Plan
(FMP). The allowable biological catch (ABC) and equiva- Jack Mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus
Credit: DFG
lent quota for jack mackerel was set at 13,230 tons from
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 309
statewide. That was an exceptional year and, since then, (number of eggs per spawning event) changes over time
Jack Mackerel
jack mackerel have been of minor importance in the CPFV with females producing almost 104,000 eggs during the
catch. Smaller jack mackerel are caught at times from rst spawning event and 73,000 during subsequent events.
shing piers in southern and central California. Since 1980, Most (70 percent) female jack mackerel from the southern
recreational landings have been highly variable, ranging California shery become mature around their rst birth-
from an estimated 5,000 sh to over 350,000, based on day. By their second birthday, 90 percent of the females
data collected by Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commis- are spawning. Most of the eggs are spawned in 57° to 61°
sion samplers. These data are expanded from direct obser- F water. Eggs are about 0.04 inches in diameter and oat
vations and information collected from anglers. For minor free in the ocean for three to ve days before hatching,
recreational species, such as jack mackerel, these expan- depending on the water temperature.
sions may greatly over-estimate the catch. Live bait land- Larval jack mackerel feed primarily on copepods. Juvenile
ings of jack mackerel in the 1990s have been negligible jack mackerel seem to prefer copepods, pteropods, and
due to a preference for Pacic sardine and northern euphausiids, although at times they feed almost exclu-
anchovy as bait by sport anglers. sively on juvenile squid and anchovies. Food habits of
the older, offshore sh are unknown. Jack mackerel are
preyed upon by large sh like tuna and billsh. Smaller sh
Status of Biological Knowledge and marine birds are unlikely to feed on jack mackerel,
J
except young-of-the-year and yearlings, because they are
ack mackerel are actually members of the jack family,
too large to be eaten. A study of the diet of the California
Carangidae, and are not true mackerel. They are
sea lion in the northern Channel Islands from 1981 to
widely distributed throughout the northeastern Pacic
1995 found that jack mackerel ranked as the fourth
Ocean, where young sh (up to six years and 12 inches
most frequently occurring species. The importance of jack
fork length) are found schooling over shallow rocky reefs,
mackerel in the diet of other marine mammals is not
generally less than 200 feet deep, and along rocky shore-
well known.
lines of the coast and islands off southern California and
Baja California. Large sh (16 years and older and 20
inches fork length) are found offshore and farther north,
Status of the Population
east of a line that goes from Cabo San Lucas to the
T
eastern Aleutian Islands, and includes the Gulf of Alaska. he most recent estimate of total biomass was made-
The offshore segment of the population does not form the more than 17 years ago, in 1983. Total biomass was
dense, shallow-water schools observed in young sh. The estimated at 1.63 to 1.99 million tons with spawning bio-
distribution of jack mackerel between six and 15 years is mass accounting for 1.50 million tons. These estimates
not well known. The movement of the larger sh into the must be viewed as tentative approximations of the popu-
Gulf of Alaska appears to be related to summer warming lation because of two factors. First, at the time, the
of the surface waters. Not all of the large sh migrate spawning frequency of jack mackerel was not known, and
north, since some large jack mackerel are caught off estimates were based on the spawning frequencies of
southern California and Baja California waters throughout northern anchovy (15 percent of females spawn each day
the year. during the peak spawning months) which has similar gonad
Jack mackerel spawn in the offshore waters (60 - 300 morphology and a protracted spawning season like jack
miles) between Punta Eugenia and Point Conception from mackerel. Second, estimates were derived from plankton
March through July. The center of offshore spawning activ- surveys for eggs and larvae in the Southern California
ity moves north as the season progresses. There is little Bight, which did not cover the entire range of the spawn-
production in the inshore waters (up to 80 miles) of the ing population, and assumptions were made for the contri-
Southern California Bight until July, presumably when the bution of older jack mackerel outside the survey area. A
young sh begin to spawn. Little is known about the sea- recent study estimated the spawning frequency for jack
sonal and geographic limits of the offshore and northern mackerel at 20 percent of the spawning population. Using
spawning areas. A 1955 survey found jack mackerel eggs a spawning frequency of 20 percent would have yielded
and larvae offshore (100 - 1,000 miles) off Oregon and a lower biomass estimate in 1983. Although we now have
Washington in August. A second survey in October 1972 an estimate of spawning frequency, no other biomass
found an area of spawning jack mackerel 200 to 600 miles estimates have been produced since 1983.
off Washington. There has been a decrease in the percentage of older sh
Like anchovy and Pacic mackerel, jack mackerel appear (three to six years) in the catch since the 1960s, which has
to be multiple spawners, with females spawning on aver- caused some concern. It is unclear whether this change
age every ve days and 25 times per year. Batch fecundity
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
310
Jack Mackerel
160
millions of pounds landed
140
120
Jack Mackerel
100
80 Commercial Landings
60 1916-1999, Jack Mackerel
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
40
and commercial landing receipts.
20 Jack mackerel were aggregated
as unclassified
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 mackerel prior to 1926.
References
is due to a decrease in the number of older sh or to a
change in the distribution of these sh.
Blunt, C. E., Jr. 1969. The jack mackerel (Trachurus sym-
metricus) resource of the eastern North Pacic. Calif.
Management Considerations Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 13:45-52.
MacCall, A. D., H.W. Frey, D.D Huppert, E.H. Knaggs,
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
J.A. McMillan, and G.D. Stauffer. 1980. Biology and eco-
further information.
nomics of the shery for jack mackerel in the northeast-
ern Pacic. NOAA Tech. Memo., NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-4.
Jan Mason
MacCall, A. D., and G.D. Stauffer. 1983. Biology and shery
National Marine Fisheries Service
potential of jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). Calif.
Revised by: Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:46-56.
Traci Bishop
Macewicz, B.J., and D.N. Abramenkoff. 1993. Collection of
California Department of Fish and Game
jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus, during 1991 coop-
erative US-USSR cruise. NOAA Admin. Rep. NOAA-NMFS-
SWFSC-LJ-93-07.
MacGregor, J.S. 1966. Synopsis on the biology of the jack
mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). U. S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Fish. 526 1-16.
Mason, J.E. 1991. Variations in the catch of jack mackerel
in the southern California purse seine shery. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 32:143-151.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1998. Draft amend-
ment 8 of the coastal pelagic species shery management
plan. 306 p.
Pacic Fishery Management Council. 1999. Amendment
11 to the Pacic coast groundsh shery management
plan, including nal environmental assessment/regulatory
impact review. October 1998.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 311
Commercial Landings -
Coastal Pelagics
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
Anchovy Jack Pacific Unclassified
Sardine1
Market Squid Anchovy Live Bait Mackerel Mackerel Mackerel
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 275,620 531,209 ---- ---- ---- 1,113,998 15,648,839
1917 439,438 528,753 ---- ---- ---- 3,345,563 104,103,331
1918 361,714 868,161 ---- ---- ---- 4,005,906 157,652,811
1919 3,698,242 1,609,548 ---- ---- ---- 2,654,596 153,877,179
1920 508,199 569,774 ---- ---- ---- 2,997,308 118,520,914
1921 432,559 1,946,881 ---- ---- ---- 2,914,613 59,332,305
1922 209,641 652,516 ---- ---- ---- 2,466,762 93,399,900
1923 1,180,446 307,074 ---- ---- ---- 3,553,954 158,159,356
1924 6,831,029 346,951 ---- ---- ---- 3,227,300 242,685,958
1925 1,891,220 93,071 ---- ---- ---- 3,506,103 315,294,986
1926 3,135,561 60,157 ---- 235,151 3,610,098 ---- 286,741,250
1927 6,014,113 368,201 ---- 462,539 4,728,903 ---- 342,275,289
1928 1,351,992 357,470 ---- 538,446 35,251,298 ---- 420,269,665
1929 4,660,572 382,445 ---- 698,290 57,973,952 ---- 651,771,904
1930 10,969,462 319,561 ---- 368,828 16,531,364 ---- 502,062,747
1931 1,738,621 307,494 ---- 563,108 14,254,081 ---- 364,351,801
1932 4,229,743 299,217 ---- 536,409 12,473,746 ---- 422,609,716
1933 824,543 317,292 ---- 1,010,850 69,613,680 ---- 626,397,481
1934 1,530,450 257,505 ---- 1,581,274 113,848,585 ---- 1,119,931,099
1935 815,944 178,970 ---- 9,983,924 146,427,202 ---- 1,095,758,548
1936 945,439 195,122 ---- 4,599,382 100,542,214 ---- 1,463,543,700
1937 501,662 226,229 ---- 6,541,026 60,936,701 ---- 1,071,490,525
1938 1,599,319 735,144 ---- 4,133,918 79,848,015 ---- 1,023,389,489
1939 1,162,056 2,147,901 ---- 3,760,155 80,909,374 ---- 1,160,793,581
1940 1,800,632 6,317,797 ---- 1,432,637 120,504,412 ---- 905,973,403
1941 1,431,136 4,105,382 ---- 2,068,685 78,167,200 ---- 1,262,480,393
1942 943,783 1,694,290 ---- 5,348,501 52,553,663 ---- 969,747,099
1943 9,164,361 1,570,803 ---- 12,698,974 75,214,799 ---- 972,269,915
1944 10,936,595 3,891,029 ---- 12,777,077 83,656,900 ---- 1,147,207,882
1945 15,225,664 1,616,880 ---- 9,032,987 53,716,765 ---- 845,062,774
1946 38,024,528 1,921,627 ---- 15,093,321 53,875,327 ---- 510,759,173
1947 14,542,649 18,940,521 ---- 129,048,507 46,478,362 ---- 255,513,948
1948 19,255,687 10,835,930 ---- 72,898,335 39,385,801 ---- 362,037,087
1949 6,859,129 3,322,273 ---- 51,250,088 49,771,273 ---- 633,379,791
1950 5,996,335 4,878,687 ---- 133,255,752 32,649,969 ---- 714,522,761
1951 12,382,869 6,954,852 ---- 89,838,095 33,518,520 ---- 328,900,731
1952 3,670,923 55,782,870 ---- 146,521,673 20,604,761 ---- 14,330,420
1953 8,917,114 85,835,478 ---- 55,750,855 7,502,181 ---- 9,468,892
1954 8,155,105 42,410,364 ---- 17,333,581 25,392,604 ---- 136,504,017
1955 14,271,968 44,691,582 ---- 35,754,707 23,310,302 ---- 145,607,749
1956 19,483,984 56,920,585 ---- 75,762,110 50,013,009 ---- 69,554,345
1957 12,449,121 40,547,526 ---- 82,011,785 62,043,775 ---- 45,862,106
1958 7,457,418 11,602,724 ---- 22,065,801 27,648,485 ---- 207,445,837
1959 19,653,013 7,173,739 ---- 37,507,227 37,602,134 ---- 74,366,856
1960 2,561,520 5,058,603 ---- 74,945,453 36,808,690 ---- 57,532,719
1961 10,285,791 7,711,573 ---- 97,606,304 44,110,194 ---- 43,169,064
1962 9,368,149 2,764,003 ---- 89,978,933 48,578,820 ---- 15,362,952
1963 11,560,854 4,570,380 ---- 95,442,284 40,242,676 ---- 7,131,221
1964 16,433,624 4,975,089 ---- 89,692,911 26,827,881 ---- 13,137,483
1965 18,619,893 5,733,024 ---- 66,666,380 7,050,059 ---- 1,924,219
1966 19,025,879 62,280,236 ---- 40,862,409 4,629,504 ---- 878,359
1967 19,601,922 69,609,377 ---- 38,180,547 1,166,607 ---- 148,766
1968 24,932,713 31,076,116 ---- 55,667,682 3,133,446 ---- 124,088
1969 20,779,382 135,277,718 ---- 51,921,162 2,357,194 ---- 105,273
1970 24,590,865 192,485,074 ---- 47,746,509 621,919 ---- 442,319
1971 31,517,408 89,705,068 ---- 59,882,985 155,847 ---- 297,886
1972 20,159,312 138,201,573 ---- 51,117,573 108,078 ---- 372,230
1973 12,061,632 265,271,871 ---- 20,615,827 56,848 ---- 151,599
1974 28,904,678 165,433,480 7,813,185 25,457,593 133,446 ---- 14,050
1975 23,621,984 317,021,422 7,242,187 36,779,231 287,121 ---- 5,300
1976 20,306,005 249,838,707 9,451,220 44,893,081 353,729 ---- 16,190
1977 28,243,779 219,368,803 9,078,638 98,711,993 11,757,254 ---- 11,023
1978 37,798,628 24,808,622 11,468,450 67,803,179 24,676,345 ---- 8,818
1979 43,407,642 106,029,137 5,132,363 36,012,516 59,961,335 ---- 35,274
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
312
Commercial Landings -
Coastal Pelagics, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
Anchovy Jack Pacific Unclassified
Sardine1
Market Squid Anchovy Live Bait Mackerel Mackerel Mackerel
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 33,917,646 93,156,343 9,594,520 44,134,347 64,240,508 ---- 74,957
1981 51,829,718 113,463,125 10,544,713 30,842,675 84,445,878 ---- 61,729
1982 35,953,265 91,238,321 8,428,274 57,284,923 61,544,255 ---- 284,396
1983 4,020,353 9,327,760 8,558,347 39,892,652 70,609,664 ---- 762,800
1984 1,243,458 6,411,044 8,950,770 23,157,360 91,566,810 ---- 509,268
1985 22,652,461 3,527,397 9,310,124 20,304,577 75,074,026 ---- 1,285,295
1986 46,908,622 4,142,487 7,963,099 24,025,981 89,542,966 ---- 2,524,293
1987 44,056,904 3,139,383 7,879,323 25,690,471 90,303,561 ---- 4,543,728
1988 82,080,486 3,183,476 9,235,167 22,392,355 93,035,089 ---- 8,210,016
1989 90,152,660 5,313,141 10,128,039 42,939,441 78,369,937 ---- 8,476,775
1990 62,714,437 6,957,790 10,674,786 10,745,332 80,944,937 ---- 6,106,806
1991 82,426,950 9,224,142 10,718,878 3,675,106 67,150,611 ---- 16,810,250
1992 28,902,795 2,477,996 5,670,291 12,958,774 40,939,848 ---- 39,564,164
1993 94,185,070 4,307,833 5,557,855 3,558,261 27,317,483 ---- 30,518,596
1994 122,345,905 8,113,013 4,239,490 4,746,553 22,134,415 ---- 29,586,040
1995 159,480,780 4,146,896 ---- 5,820,205 19,107,467 ---- 95,790,868
1996 177,255,664 9,742,229 ---- 4,376,177 22,676,752 ---- 71,767,091
1997 155,174,427 12,606,034 ---- 2,559,567 45,448,302 ---- 101,844,762
1998 6,381,504 3,212,136 ---- 2,138,484 44,253,397 ---- 90,513,000
1999 201,762,132 11,417,742 ---- 2,123,052 21,003,443 ---- 125,105,739
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
1916 - 1969 sardine data include reduction fishery.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 313
Recreational Landings -
Coastal Pelagics
Commercial Landings - Coastal Pelagics
Pacific
Mackerel
No. of Fish1
Year
1947 148,041
1948 203,012
1949 95,158
1950 66,969
1951 47,188
1952 76,568
1953 61,467
1954 315,037
1955 151,018
1956 121,136
1957 151,960
1958 136,607
1959 88,952
1960 79,370
1961 113,988
1962 116,738
1963 146,560
1964 101,219
1965 151,896
1966 205,090
1967 108,366
1968 78,933
1969 120,036
1970 129,770
1971 224,223
1972 245,882
1973 199,104
1974 102,619
1975 129,944
1976 51,441
1977 484,722
1978 940,204
1979 1,272,038
1980 1,315,971
1981 1,007,198
1982 914,238
1983 630,006
1984 604,324
1985 695,708
1986 605,716
1987 517,166
1988 412,924
1989 363,700
1990 472,006
1991 438,979
1992 327,747
1993 417,640
1994 336,655
1995 271,150
1996 335,240
1997 240,977
1998 129,747
1999 83,634
All data based on CPFV logbooks.
1
All data presented in number of fish.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
314
Highly Migratory
Species: Overview reduce the catch of marine mammals. The state has fol-
Highly Migratory Species: Overview
lowed the recommendation of the team and implemented
regulations covering gear, area and seasonal closures to
H ighly migratory species include the tunas, billshes, assure few marine mammals are taken. The drift gillnet
pelagic sharks, and dolphinsh. As a group, they con- shery also operates under a December 2000 NMFS bio-
tribute to some of the most valuable commercial sheries logical opinion which closes central California from August
and are also very important in the sport shery, especially 15 through October 31 to protect leatherback turtles, and
in southern California. Currently, the harvest of highly southern California during August and January of El Niño
migratory species is regulated by the state. However, years to protect loggerhead turtles.
beginning in 2001, the Pacic Fishery Management Council
The nal gear type is pelagic longline. While the state
has proposed adopting a shery management plan regulat-
does not allow longline vessels to sh in the exclusive eco-
ing the take of highly migratory species within and outside
nomic zone, they may le for offshore shing declarations,
the Exclusive Economic Zone. Upon completion of the
sh outside 200 miles and return to the state with their
shery management plan process, which may take more
catch. Offshore longline vessels usually target swordsh
than two years, jurisdiction over the harvest of these
but will sh for tunas during times of local abundance.
species will pass to the federal government.
Currently there are no longlining restrictions except shing
Currently, ve distinctive gear types are used to take is not allowed within 200 miles of shore.
highly migratory species commercially. The oldest and
Recreational anglers using hook and line gear target highly
most common is hook and line gear. The gear may be used
migratory species whenever the opportunity arises. Com-
to take any highly migratory species but, traditionally,
mercial passenger shing vessel and private boat anglers
most of the shing has been for tunas. The majority of
pursue these species in U.S. waters and territorial seas of
albacore are taken by trolling vessels with a small portion
Mexico. Oceanic regimes play a major role in determining
of sh landed by pole-and-line shing using live bait.
availability and which species will be harvested. During
Albacore are taken along the West Coast of the U.S. and
1999, highly migratory species accounted for over 9.5
Canada, as well as on the high seas of the north and south
percent of all sh landed by California anglers. During
Pacic Oceans. A very small eet of bait boats continues
eight of the past 10 years, tropical species such as yel-
to target the tropical tunas, yellown and skipjack tuna,
lown tuna, skipjack tuna, and dolphinsh have dominated
off Mexico and Central America. Southern California has
the catch. Temperate tunas (albacore and bluen tuna)
a small harpoon eet (< 50 vessels) pursuing swordsh
have only contributed signicant catches in the years fol-
during the summer months. This is in contrast to the more
lowing a major El Niño event. Catches of sharks and billsh
than 200 vessels shing during the 1950s and 1960s. They
are important to anglers of the state, but constitute a
generally operate within the Channel Islands but occasion-
minor portion of the overall catch. When the highly migra-
ally may venture as far north as Morro Bay. The third type
tory species shery developed at the turn of the century,
gear used to take highly migratory species is the purse
shing activity was conned to southern California with
seine. Two distinct eets exist; a small remnant high seas
most of the effort at Santa Catalina Island. As shing
eet that shes for tropical tunas in the eastern Pacic
vessels developed the capability to go further, sport
and 40 wetsh vessels that occasionally land tuna when
anglers followed the sh to the offshore islands and banks.
they are locally available. The high-sea purse seine eet
San Clemente, Santa Barbara, San Nicholas, the Channel
shes in an area regulated by the Inter-American Tropical
Islands, plus associated banks started to play a greater
Tuna Commission and is subject only to state licensing and
role in the shery. Sport shing for albacore started
landing taxes on sh landed in the state. The wetsh eet
in northern California following World War II but never
targets bluen tuna during the summer but also takes
reached the magnitude of the southern California shery
yellown and skipjack tuna. Occasionally, in some years,
because of the lack of anglers and sh. Trips from San
they may catch signicant amounts of albacore.
Diego to northern Mexico originated in early 1930s, and
California currently allows drift gillnet vessels shing with expanded to the offshore islands and southern Baja Cali-
large mesh nets to take swordsh, tunas and sharks. They fornia in the late 1940s. Extended long-range trips off
generally sh off southern California in the summer and Mexico, greater than 800 miles, started in the late-1950s
move north with the sh in the fall. Access is limited and and continue to be popular today with both party boat
the vessels are restricted by seasonal and area closures. In and private boat anglers.
addition, the shery must be in compliance with federal
Currently, the stocks of all highly migratory species are
regulations governing the take of marine mammals and
considered to be healthy although common thresher shark
protected species. To this end, the National Marine Fisher-
may face some reductions in take under the Council’s
ies Service has established a Take Reduction Team to
shery management plan because they were overshed
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 315
in the 1980s. Most of the controversy surrounding the
Highly Migratory Species: Overview
take of highly migratory species centers around user
conicts, take of state and federally protected species,
longlining inside 200 miles, and bycatch. User conicts
exist between commercial gear types (harpoon vs. drift
gillnets, drift gillnets vs. longline) but a more controver-
sial issue is the conict between commercial shers and
sport anglers. Area and time closures have helped to
eliminate some of the conicts between drift gillnets
and sport marlin anglers and prohibiting longlines inside
200 miles has also helped to reduce the conict. Some
conicts arise over the take of tuna when sport anglers
encounter purse seiners shing in areas they are shing.
Finally, the environmental community is concerned over
the take of marine mammals, protected species, and
bycatch in the commercial shery. Their concerns have
been alleviated to some extent by implementation of
recommendations from the take reduction team for the
drift gillnet shery and the recent Biological Opinion on
the take of sea turtles in the shery. Bycatch will con-
tinue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline sher-
ies until effective measures are developed which reduce
the catch to close to zero. This is especially true for
shark bycatch.
Steve Crooke
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
316
Albacore
History of the Fishery gears, such as longlines, purse seines, and drift gillnets
Albacore
have also been used by California shermen, but trolling
A lbacore (Thunnus alalunga) is a highly migratory spe- operations have dominated since the early 1980s and
cies that has been targeted by California’s recreational now contribute over 90 percent of the annual catch of
anglers and commercial shermen for more than 100 albacore. Generally speaking, troll, pole-and-line, purse
years. Currently, it ranks among the state’s most impor- seines, and drift gillnet vessels operate in surface sheries
tant marine sh resources, in terms of both economic that target two to ve-year-old sh (juvenile albacore)
value and sport-related benets. Commercial landings of in the upper portions of the water column, and longline
albacore at California ports have increased from $4 million vessels operate in subsurface sheries that harvest ve
to $10 million (ex-vessel dollars) on an annual basis since to ten year-old sh (adult albacore) from deeper waters.
1996. In recent times, the recreational shery for albacore California-based troll vessels, or jig boats, can be broadly
has contributed at least $25 million per year to California’s classied into two groups – relatively small boats (30-50
economy through angling-related expenditures. feet in length) that typically carry a crew of two or
three shermen, spend one to three weeks at sea, and
The commercial sheries for albacore developed rapidly
target albacore in inshore waters; and larger boats (50-90
following the rst canning operations of this species in
feet in length) that commonly operate with three to ve
1903 in San Pedro Bay, California. The vast majority of
shermen, spend one to two months at sea, and sh
albacore commercially harvested by California shermen
both inshore and offshore waters. Historically, commercial
is processed as canned “white meat” tuna that generally
shing effort for albacore has uctuated over the past
commands premium prices in the marketplace. Through
100 years, based primarily on market and oceanic condi-
the rst quarter of the 20th century, the tuna-canning
tions. For example, from 1916 to 1925, about 300 vessels
industry and its related sheries endeavored to meet
equipped for one-day trips participated in the shery,
increasing demands for seafood, particularly packed prod-
operating exclusively in coastal waters. The commercial
ucts that had a long shelf life. The commercial sheries
eet that shed the central Pacic Ocean, as well as
for albacore continued to expand through the mid-1940s,
inshore waters, grew steadily over the next 25 years,
extending northward to coastal waters off northern Cali-
reaching 3,000 boats in 1950. The number of vessels
fornia, Oregon, and Washington, and westward to the cen-
declined during the 1950s, and by 1960, 1,000 boats were
tral Pacic Ocean, several hundred miles off the California
involved in the shery. During the 1970s, the commercial
coast. The geographic expansion of the sheries slowed
eet began to increase once again to over 2,000 vessels,
during the 1950s through the mid-1960s, but the our-
but by the late 1980s and through the 1990s, fewer than
ishing market continued, with record landings during
500 boats typically landed their commercial catches at
this period that averaged roughly 30 million pounds annu-
California ports.
ally. During the mid-1970s, the commercial shing eet
extended farther into the central Pacic Ocean, with Albacore are harvested commercially by countries other
some vessels shing north and west of the Hawaiian than the United States, including Japan, Taiwan and South
Islands, as far as the International Date Line. Since the and North Korea in the western Pacic Ocean, and
1980s, the albacore sheries of California have typically Canada and Mexico in the eastern Pacic Ocean. Cur-
operated within roughly 900 miles of the U.S. Pacic rently, the California troll shery accounts for roughly
coast; the distance largely dependent on the stock’s 10 percent of the total commercial landings of North
migratory route in any given year. California’s commercial Pacic albacore, with Japan (75 percent) contributing the
shery for albacore has generally concentrated on the largest amount, followed by Oregon/Washington, Taiwan,
North Pacic albacore stock during the summer and fall and Canada (about ve percent each). In a typical year,
seasons as the sh move through waters of the northeast- during the late spring and summer, the Japanese pole-
ern Pacic Ocean during their annual migration. However, and-line eet will target the juvenile albacore as they
in recent years during the winter months, some vessels
have also targeted the South Pacic albacore stock that
inhabits waters off New Zealand’s east coast between the
International Date Line and 110˚W longitude. Commercial
landings of albacore in California have varied over the last
decade, ranging from a high of 12.3 million pounds in 1999
to a low of 1.8 million pounds in 1995.
During the early years of California’s commercial sheries
for albacore, pole-and-line (live bait shing) and troll
(articial-jig shing) gears were used extensively. Other Albacore, Thunnus alalunga
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 317
Albacore
100
millions of pounds landed
80
60
Albacore
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Albacore
40
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial land-
20
ing receipts. Data includes ship-
ments and landings from areas
north and south of the state 0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
between 1916 and 1969.
form identiable schools and begin their annual migration nia, where less than 200 albacore were landed on CPFV-
in waters off the east coast of Japan to the central related trips. In 1999, the stock took a more southerly
Pacic Ocean (Emperor Seamount). In the summer and route as it neared the U.S. Pacic Coast and spent much
into the fall, the U.S. and Canada troll eets will follow of the summer and fall in inshore waters off southern
the albacore as they continue their migration to the east- California and northern Mexico, where anglers on CPFVs
ern Pacic Ocean and coastal waters off the U.S. Pacic landed a total of 258,448 sh – the highest total on
Coast. record. The long tradition of albacore sport shing in
California is not only due to the CPFV industry, but also
Recreational shing for albacore developed during the
an increasing number of anglers that sh from privately-
early 1900s, when vessel owners in southern California
owned boats. Both represent an enthusiastic sport shery
rst realized that the angling community was very willing
that anxiously awaits the arrival of the rst pulse of
to charter their boats for shing. As the popularity of
albacore to California’s inshore waters each summer. Sport
albacore increased, as a food and sport sh, so did the
shing in California typically peaks during the mid-summer
partyboat (commercial passenger-carrying shing vessels
months (July and August) as the bulk of the stock travels
or CPFV) industry. In the very early years of the sport
to inshore waters off the U.S. Pacic Coast. However,
shery, only a few CPFV trips were made, concentrating
arrival and departure times associated with the stock’s
in waters around the Channel Islands; however, by the
migration through U.S. owned shing grounds have varied
mid 1950s, more than 100 CPFVs carried anglers to other
substantially over the years, with spring arrivals and
inshore waters in pursuit of the stock as it conducted its
winter departures frequently observed.
annual migration. The CPFV industry continued to grow
during the 1960s, with increases in shing capacity and The actual operations of most sheries, including those
range, which allowed boats to carry more anglers and associated with albacore, are essentially dened in accor-
venture further from port in years when the albacore dance with the biological characteristics and ecological
remained farther offshore. Over the last 10 years, from relations exhibited by the species. This is particularly true
40 to 60 large CPFVs, that typically accommodate from for albacore and its related sheries, given that the migra-
15 to 60 anglers for one-to three-day trips, have shed tion and distribution patterns of this species are highly
for albacore in California waters, mostly based in southern inuenced by the prevailing oceanographic conditions.
California, with several operations further north in Morro
Bay and San Francisco. Additionally, from 60 to 90 smaller
Status of Biological Knowledge
CPFVs have routinely operated in California since the early
1990s, with these vessels usually carrying six to 10 anglers
A lbacore are members of the Scombridae family, which
on one-day shing excursions. Catches of albacore on
includes 40 to 50 species of tuna and mackerel, 23
CPFV trips have been highly variable over the years, based
of which are found, for at least a part of their life, in
largely on the migratory behavior of the stock in any given
North American waters. Albacore, as well as other species
year. For example, in 1994, as the stock approached the
of tuna, have unique biological characteristics that enable
coast of North America, the bulk of the population trav-
them to swim continuously at very high speeds and cover
eled north to waters off Oregon and Washington, resulting
vast areas during annual migrations. Albacore are literally
in a poor shing season for recreational anglers in Califor-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
318
built for speed, with torpedo-shaped (fusiform) bodies, ing sh are typically bounded by these thermal gradients
Albacore
smooth skin, and streamlined ns, and can reach speeds as they conduct their round-trip travel across the Pacic
of more than 50 miles per hour for short periods of time. Ocean. Although the bulk of the migrating stock is typi-
Albacore are metallic dark blue along the back, with cally observed within this SST range, telemetry studies
dusky to silvery white coloration along the sides and on have shown that this species will spend brief periods
the belly. The pectoral ns are exceptionally long, extend- of time in much colder water (49˚F). Upwelling, where
ing to nearly half the length of the body, and albacore nutrient-rich waters from the ocean depths rise to the sur-
are commonly referred to as longn tuna. In addition to face, is another important phenomenon associated with
these morphological adaptations, albacore possess highly oceanic fronts and ultimately, an event that highly inu-
specialized physiological functions that allow for rapid ences the distribution of the migrating albacore. It is likely
movement and sustained endurance. First and foremost, that the albacore are attracted to upwelling fronts, given
many tuna, including albacore, have a highly evolved cir- these areas are very productive and contain much forage
culatory system that includes countercurrent exchangers for predatory sh such as albacore. Although scientists are
that act to reduce the loss of heat generated by increased quite certain that oceanic fronts dene albacore distribu-
muscular activity, allowing them to regulate their body tion and thus, vulnerability to sheries, they feel other
temperature and ultimately, increase the efciency of oceanographic parameters also inuence the migratory
their muscles. Additionally, albacore have higher blood behavior of the stock, including salinity, ocean color and
pressure and volume than most of the other species of sh. clarity, and vertical thermal/density structure. In general,
catches from the commercial sheries indicate that alba-
Albacore are widely distributed throughout the world’s
core are most abundant along the warm side of upwelling
oceans in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate zones. The
fronts in clear blue oceanic waters that are associated
North Pacic albacore stock, the population targeted by
with salinity gradients between 33 and 35 parts per thou-
both the commercial and recreational sheries of Califor-
sand and well dened thermoclines. Recent research indi-
nia, is centered around 35° N latitude in the Pacic Ocean.
cates that the sh adjust their behavior to very different
This stock’s distribution extends from the central (west)
oceanic conditions when passing through at least four dis-
coast of Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska in the eastern Pacic
tinct physical regimes (geographical strata) of the North
Ocean, and from the equator to the north (east) coast of
Pacic Ocean. Thus, determining what are the most inu-
Japan in the western Pacic Ocean. The actual boundaries
ential environmental parameters depends on where in the
of the stock’s range depend largely on the season of the
ocean and what time of year the assessment is conducted.
year and oceanic conditions. Currently, shery researchers
are uncertain whether the population of albacore inhab- Albacore are top carnivores in the ocean ecosystem and
iting the North Pacic Ocean is strictly a single stock opportunistically prey on schooling stocks, such as sardine,
or possibly, composed of two (or more) stocks. Results anchovy, and squid. Albacore are preyed upon by man,
from some tagging experiments indicate that substocks as well as the larger species of billsh, tuna, and sharks.
of albacore may exist in the North Pacic Ocean, based Similar size albacore travel together in school groups that
on differences in migratory routes, growth and mortality contain small aggregations of sh, which collectively, can
rates, and size distributions of the commercial catches. be up to 19 miles wide. At the onset of the migration,
However, more information concerning albacore biology during the spring and summer months in the western
and genetics is needed before denitive conclusions can Pacic Ocean, the young albacore form relatively small,
be drawn regarding the stock structure of the North loose, and broadly scattered groups. As the seasons prog-
Pacic population of albacore. ress, the groups become more compact and contain
greater numbers of schools. The more sedentary, older
As stated previously, the North Pacic albacore stock, par-
albacore typically form more compact schools. Generally
ticularly juveniles, typically complete an expansive annual
migration that begins in the spring and early summer off
Japan, continues throughout the late summer into inshore
300
waters off the U.S. Pacic Coast, and ends late in the
year in the western Pacic Ocean. It is generally believed 250
thousands of fish landed
that oceanic conditions strongly inuence both the timing
Albacore Tuna
200
and geographical extent of the albacore’s migration in any 150
given year. Migrating albacore concentrate along thermal 100
discontinuities (oceanic fronts) associated with waters of 50
the Transition Zone in the North Pacic Ocean. The vast 0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
majority of albacore are caught in waters with sea-surface
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Albacore Tuna
temperatures (SSTs) that range from 59˚-67˚F. The migrat-
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 319
Status of the Population
speaking, albacore schools are not as large or as dense
Albacore
as those of some of the larger schooling tunas, such as
F ishery researchers generally agree that the North
yellown and skipjack. Bluen, yellown, and skipjack
Pacic albacore population is currently a relatively
tunas are occasionally caught along with albacore by the
healthy stock that has responded favorably to rates of
surface sheries off the U.S. Pacic Coast. Although alba-
exploitation over the last decade or so. Recent assess-
core spend much of their time in the surface waters of
ments of the entire stock indicated that sustainable
the ocean, they will also explore deeper waters of the
yields, on a global basis, likely range between 176.4 and
thermocline in search of prey.
220.5 million pounds, roughly the level of total annual
North Pacic albacore mature at roughly ve to six years
catch observed during the latter part of the 1990s. For
of age (approximately 33 inches in length). Peak spawning
example, the combined commercial and recreational land-
of albacore in the Pacic Ocean is generally believed to
ings in 1999 (U.S. and foreign) was approximately 209.5
occur in subtropical waters centered around 20˚N and 20˚S
million pounds. Catches and shing effort associated with
latitude. It is assumed that the North Pacic albacore
U.S. sheries for albacore, both commercial and recre-
stock spawns from March through July on grounds located
ational, were considerably higher in the latter part of
in the western and central Pacic Ocean. There is some
the 1990s than during the early and mid 1990s, which is
information, albeit limited, that albacore may spawn mul-
baseline information that generally indicates the popula-
tiple times in a year. Albacore are believed to be pelagic
tion has responded relatively well to recent levels of
spawners that broadcast their gametes in open water,
exploitation. Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) data from the
often near the surface, with fertilization being external.
U.S. troll shery, a shing statistic often used as an index
Estimates of female fecundity (number of eggs) range
of population size, has been relatively constant over the
from 0.8 to 2.6 million eggs per spawning. The early life
last 10 years (30 to 60 sh per day), with the exception of
history of albacore is not clearly understood, but very
1996 and 1998, when shing success peaked at roughly 100
young albacore (larvae and juveniles in their rst year of
sh per day. The CPUE statistics from the pole-and-line
life) are believed to remain relatively close to the spawn-
shery of Japan, which harvests juvenile albacore similar
ing grounds and eventually, congregate in waters south
to the U.S. troll eet, have been generally consistent
and east of Japan prior to beginning their rst migration.
since the early 1990s as well, with the trend increasing
Approximate growth rates for North Pacic albacore are as
noticeably during the late 1990s. The CPUE time series
follows: age-one sh are 14.2 inches and 2.2 pounds; age-
associated with the Japan longline shery, which targets
two sh are 20.5 inches and 6.5 pounds; age-three sh are
adult albacore and larger juveniles, indicates a productive
25.6 inches and 12.7 pounds; age-four sh are 30
stock that has been increasing in size since the early
inches and 20.3 pounds; age-ve sh are 33.5 inches
1990s. It is more difcult to assess the status of the
and 28.3 pounds, and age 10-12 sh can reach up to
overall population using CPUE data from the recreational
55.0 inches and over 100 pounds. Albacore are believed
sheries, given the inuence of oceanic factors on alba-
to reach a maximum age of roughly 11-12 years, although
core’s migratory behavior. It is likely that catch and shing
interpretations of age for older sh are typically subject
effort associated with the North Pacic albacore stock
to increased uncertainty and thus, longevity cannot be
will remain at or slightly above current levels into the
strictly dened at this time. The sex ratio of juvenile
near future, given favorable oceanographic and market
albacore is approximately one to one, but males appear
conditions.
to outnumber females as the sh age, e.g., the sex ratio
Although shing pressure is likely an important factor
of the catches from the longline sheries, which target
that inuences albacore abundance in the North Pacic
adult sh, is generally skewed towards higher numbers of
Ocean, it must necessarily be interpreted in the context
males than females.
of the overall condition of the stock’s environment. That
is, albacore abundance in the North Pacic Ocean has
uctuated considerably over the last several decades,
with strong and weak periods occurring intermittently, based
largely on the ocean’s carrying capacity in any given year.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
320
Management Considerations References
Albacore
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for Bartoo, N., and T.J. Foreman. 1994. A review of the
further information. biology and sheries for North Pacic albacore (Thunnus
alalunga). Pages 173-187 in Interactions of Pacic tuna
sheries, Volume 2: papers on biology and sheries, R.S.
P. R. Crone
Shomura, J. Majkowski, and S. Langi (editors). FAO Fisher-
National Marine Fisheries Service
ies Technical Paper No. 336/2. Rome, FAO.
Clemens, H.B. 1961. The migration, age, and growth of
Pacic albacore (Thunnus alalunga), 1951-1958. California
Department of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 115. 128 p.
Clemens, H.B., and W.L. Craig. 1965. An analysis of Califor-
nia’s albacore shery. California Department of Fish and
Game, Fish Bulletin 128. 301 p.
Foreman, T.J. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the
albacore tuna, Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788), in
the Pacic Ocean. Pages 17-70 in Synopses of biological
data on eight species of scombrids, W.H. Bayliff (editor).
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, Special Report
No. 2. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla,
CA.
Laurs, R.M., and R.J. Lynn. 1977. Seasonal migration
of North Pacic albacore (Thunnus alalunga) into North
American coastal waters: Distribution, relative abun-
dance, and association with Transition Zone waters. U.S.
Fishery Bulletin 75(4):795-822.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 321
Swordfish
History of the Fishery ing takes of sh swimming just below the surface and not
visible from the vessel. Most harpoon vessels sell their
S wordsh (Xiphias gladius) is an important resource sup- catch fresh daily and achieve a premium price above that
porting major sheries in all oceans of the world. The for longline and drift net-caught sh.
quality of swordsh esh is excellent and is marketed both The harpoon shery remained the only legal gear until the
frozen and fresh. Major Pacic shing areas include the late 1970s when a few drift gillnet vessels began targeting
waters off Japan, the North Pacic Transition Zone north common thresher sharks. This rapidly developed into the
of Hawaii, the west coasts of the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador, successful drift net shery for swordsh and thresher
Peru, Chile, and off Australia and New Zealand. Much sharks, which proved more cost effective in terms of fuel
of the Pacic catch is taken incidentally in longline sh- economy and yielded greater catches than was possible
eries targeting tunas. Reported annual Pacic-wide land- with harpoon gear.
ings averaged 26 million pounds per year between 1950
Annual landings of drift net caught swordsh increased
and 1986. Recent landings peaked in 1992 at 75 million
rapidly peaking in 1984 at 5.2 million pounds valued at
pounds and now average around 65 million pounds annu-
10.3 million dollars. These vessels use nets up to 6,000
ally. Japan, Taiwan and the U.S. account for about 70 per-
feet in length with mesh sizes ranging between 14 to
cent of current reported production, with Mexico, Ecuador
22 inches. The netting is attached to a oatline and a
and Chile providing the remainder. In the eastern Pacic,
weighted leadline at the bottom allows the webbing to
swordsh are primarily harvested using longlines, drift
hang as a loose curtain in which the swordsh become
nets and hand-held harpoons.
entangled. Drift nets are set at sunset and hauled at sun-
Early coastal and island middens of American Indians rise. Regulations enacted in 1985 were designed to reduce
provide the rst evidence of swordsh being utilized shing effort and landings, limit the number of permits
as a food source. The California harpoon shery dates to 150, restrict the season of operation and provide for
back to the early 1900s and the Tuna Club of Avalon several time-area closures aimed at reducing bycatch and
reported the rst record of a recreationally caught sword- interactions with recreational anglers. Drift net vessels,
sh in 1909 that weighed 339 pounds. In 1931, the State which numbered 220 in 1985, have decreased due to those
Legislature required commercial shing licenses and regulations and now number about 120 vessels, of which
allowed only harpoons for the commercial take of only about 100 are fully active. These shermen ply the
swordsh. Recreational anglers were allowed to harpoon waters from the Mexican border to Oregon and offshore
swordsh until 1935. Participation in the harpoon shery to 200 miles. Approximately two-thirds of the landings and
peaked in 1978 with 309 vessels landing 2.6 million pounds earnings occur in southern California, while one-third are
before being largely displaced by the more efcient drift landed in northern California, less than two percent of
net shery. A small number of harpoon vessels continue to the landings occur in Oregon and Washington. This shery
sh swordsh off southern California from May to Decem- is in a period of steady production with annual yields of
ber. Primary shing areas are from San Diego to Point 2.6 million pounds worth an estimated $5 million dollars.
Conception during the early season although these sher- This level of production, along with imports from Mexico,
men operate as far north as Oregon during periods of has been known to saturate local markets, driving down
warm water. Harpooners require calm waters to see the ex-vessel prices.
swordsh nning, or basking, at the surface. When a n-
Hawaii’s longline shery began targeting swordsh in 1988
ning swordsh is spotted, the sherman guides his vessel
and landings expanded to 13.2 million pounds worth 21
over the sh and throws the harpoon from the bow plank
million dollars by 1998. These long-range vessels operate
extending far beyond the vessel bow. Harpooned sh are
over a vast area of the north central Pacic accounting for
recovered using an attached line, buoys and marker ag.
as much a 36 percent of U.S. production in the Pacic.
Use of spotter aircraft greatly improved catches by allow-
A small California-based, high seas longline shery, operat-
ing beyond the EEZ, developed in 1991. These vessels
were joined by other vessels from the Gulf Of Mexico in
1993 and numbered 31 by 1994. Most of these vessels
returned home by 1995. Judicial ruling in Hawaii closed
a vast area north of Hawaii to longline shing in 2000.
This resulted in nearly 20 longline vessels departing their
Hawaiian base of operations to operate out of southern
California ports.
In 1983, Mexico restricted the use of longlines along their
Swordfish, Xiphias gladius
coast by limiting the catch of billsh within 50 miles of
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
322
Swordfish
6
millions of pounds landed
5
4
Swordfish
3
2
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Swordfish
1
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
their coast. A small eet of drift net vessels, based in north of Hawaii toward the U.S. West Coast. Catch records
Ensenada began shing swordsh in 1986. They operated from Japanese longliners suggest greatest catches from
from Ensenada moving south along the Baja peninsula and Baja California, Mexico in the spring and summer, while
generally within 100 miles of the coast. They averaged catch data from the California drift net shery show
nearly one million pounds of swordsh between 1986 and swordsh moving through coastal waters from August to
1993. Concerns over bycatch of sport and protected species, January. Acoustic tracking indicates some diel movement
prompted the Mexican government to issue permits in 2000 from deeper depths during the daytime and moving into
allowing these drift net vessels to convert to longline gear. the mixed surface water at night. At times, they appear to
follow the deep scattering layer, and small prey, as they
undertake these vertical movements.
Status of Biological Knowledge It is generally believed that females grow larger than
B
males, as males over 300 pounds are rare. Females mature
roadbill swordsh, is the single species within its own
at four to ve years of age in northwest Pacic and males
family Xiphidae. It is characterized by a long, at
mature rst at about three to four years although there is
bill in contrast to the smooth, round bill of the marlins.
some controversy as to size at rst maturity in different
Swordsh are elongate, round bodied, and lack teeth
areas. In the North Pacic, batch spawning occurs in water
and scales as adults. They have a tall, non-retractable
warmer than 75° F from March to July and year round in
dorsal n, and pelvic ns are lacking. They reach a maxi-
the equatorial Pacic. Reproductive material from nearly
mum size of 14 feet and 1,190 pounds. The International
500 female swordsh, of mature sizes, examined from the
Game Fish Association’s all tackle angling record is for a
California drift net shery contained no mature oocytes
1,182-pound sh taken off Chile in 1953.
indicating swordsh were not reproductively active while
Swordsh are found in all tropical, subtropical, and tem-
vulnerable to that shery.
perate waters, sometimes entering sub-temperate water
Adult swordsh forage from surface waters to the bottom
as well. In the western Pacic, it ranges from 50º N to
in coastal areas and are reported to 1,600 feet in the open
45º S whereas in the eastern Pacic, from 50º N to 35º S.
ocean. Prey includes pelagic sh including small tuna,
Swordsh tend to concentrate where major ocean currents
dorado, barracuda, ying sh, mackerel as well as benthic
meet, and along temperature fronts. They are epi- and
species of hake and rocksh. Squid are also important
meso-pelagic, inhabiting the mixed surface waters where
when available. Swordsh likely have few predators as
temperatures are greater than 55º F but also can move
adults although juveniles are vulnerable to predation by
into water as cool as 41º F for short periods aided by
large pelagic sh.
specially adapted brain and eye heat exchange organs.
Areas of high apparent abundance in the North Pacic are
north of Hawaii along the North Pacic transition zone,
along the west coasts of the U.S. and Mexico and in the
western Pacic, east of Japan. Migration patterns have not
been described although tag release and recapture data
indicate an eastward movement from the central Pacic
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 323
Status of the Population Management Considerations
Swordfish
T he condition of the swordsh stocks in the Pacic See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Ocean is unclear. Results of assessment studies so further information.
far have a large margin of uncertainty, owing in part
to uncertainty in the stock structure of the population.
David Holts
Recent genetic studies suggest swordsh off the western
National Marine Fisheries Service
coast of the Americas mix with swordsh from the central
and western North Pacic. This result tends to support
the hypothesis of a single stock in the Pacic with an
References
uneven distribution that results in areas of high and low
abundance. Studies of catch rates, on the other hand, sug- Coan, A.L., M. Vojkovich, and D. Prescott. 1998. The
gest three or more stocks as demonstrated by high catch California harpoon shery for swordsh, Xiphias gladius.
rates persisting in distinct areas that are separated by Barrett, I., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, and N. Bartoo (eds) Interna-
areas of low to zero catch rates in between. Also, genetic tional Symposium of Pacic swordsh, Ensenada, Mexico,
studies in the western Pacic found signicant differences 11-14, December 1994. U.S Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
between southern and northern swordsh, indicating little Rep. NMFS 142. 276 pp.
mixing. Stock assessment studies using both hypotheses
Fulsom, W.B, D.M. Crory, and K. Brewster-Geisz. 1997.
have concluded that the stocks appear to be in good
North America Swordsh Fishing. World Swordsh Fish-
condition and with exploitation at or below estimated
eries: An analysis of swordsh shing operations. Past-
MSY levels. These studies, however, have not included
Present-Future. Vol. IV. Ofce of Science and Technology
shery statistics from recent years when some sheries
NMFS, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD,
expanded signicantly, nor have they taken into account
1997.
the complex biology, such as sexual dimorphism and diur-
Hanan, D.A., D.B. Holts and A.L. Coan. 1993. The Califor-
nal behavior, of swordsh indicating a need for more cur-
nia drift gillnet shery for sharks and swordsh, 1981-82
rent stock assessment.
through 1990-91. Fish Bulletin 175. 95 pp.
With recent expansion of the sheries and indications that
Holts, D.B. and O. Sosa-Nishizaki. 1998. Swordsh, Xiphias
the expansion will continue, an up-to-date and accurate
gladius, sheries of the eastern North Pacic Ocean. Bar-
stock assessment is critically needed. Without such an
rett, I., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, and N. Bartoo (eds) Interna-
assessment, it is difcult to rationally evaluate shery
tional Symposium of Pacic swordsh, Ensenada, Mexico,
management options for conservation and for implement-
11-14, December 1994. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
ing the precautionary approach.
Rep. NMFS 142. 276 pp.
In September 2000, major shing nations in the Pacic
agreed to an international convention on the Conservation
and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks of the
western and central Pacic Ocean. This convention pro-
vides a mechanism for comprehensive monitoring and
collection of data from swordsh sheries, international
cooperation in performing an up-to-date swordsh stock
assessment, and implementation of conservation mea-
sures by all major shing nations. In addition, swordsh
will soon be covered in the shery management plan for
the West Coast highly migratory species being developed
for the Pacic Fishery Management Council. Although
swordsh is not a species of immediate concern to this
convention, the convention provides a mechanism for
comprehensive monitoring and collection of data from
the swordsh sheries, international cooperation in per-
forming an up-to-date swordsh stock assessment, and
implementation by all major shing nations of conservation
measures, including the use of the precautionary approach.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
324
Pacific Northern
Bluefin Tuna discovered off Isla Guadalupe, Baja California, and about
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
40 percent of the catch was made in that area. From
1930 through 1947, shing was conducted off California
and Baja California, but in most years the majority of
History of the Fishery the catch came from off California. From 1948 to the
F
present, however, most of the catch has been made off
ishing for Pacic northern bluen tuna (Thunnus orien-
Baja California. The average annual catches made off
talis) began in California as a sport in 1898. Prior
California during the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s have
to World War I, many large sh were taken, particularly
been considerably less than the average annual catches
by vessels based at Santa Catalina Island. The largest of
made in the same area from 1918 to 1929.
these sh weighed 251 pounds. More recently, the average
size of the sport-caught sh has been roughly 50 pounds, From January through April, there are typically only light
although large sh are still taken. A large portion of the and sporadic catches. Most of these are made off the
sport-caught sh is taken by shermen who are directing coast of Baja California between 24° N and 26° N and
their efforts primarily toward albacore. in the vicinity of Isla Guadalupe. In May and June, the
catches increase, and most of them are made between 24°
The commercial shery for Pacic northern bluen began
N and 27° N. In July, the shing area expands to the north
in 1918. Since bluen are rarely caught by the troll, bait
and is at its broadest distribution of the year; most of the
boat, or gillnet sheries, the catches by purse seiners
catch is made between 25° N and 33° N. In August, there
have far exceeded those by any other type of gear. From
are usually only light catches at the southern end of the
1918 until about 1960, most of the vessels were relatively
shing area, most of the catch is being made between 28°
small, with sh-carrying capacities less than about 200
N and 33° N. In September, most of the catch is made in
short tons. None of them shed exclusively for bluen.
the same area as in August, but the amount of catch is
The smaller ones, sometimes referred to as wetsh ves-
usually considerably less. In October, the catches continue
sels, shed chiey for sardines, mackerel, and pelagic
to decline, and most of them are made north of 30° N.
sh other than tropical tunas, and the larger ones shed
In November and December, as in the rst months of the
mostly for yellown and skipjack. During 1959 and 1960,
year, the catches are light and sporadic.
most of the larger tuna bait boats were converted to purse
seiners and, during the ensuing years, many new purse Small amounts of Pacic northern bluen are caught off
seiners were built. During the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and the California coast by drift gillnets and further offshore
1990s, many of the smaller, older vessels sank or dropped by longline vessels. Extremely large bluen are caught
out of the shery, and the new vessels that replaced them in some years off southern California, principally during
tended to be larger. As a result, there are now more large November and December. Nearly 1,000 such sh were
purse seiners and fewer small ones than there were during caught during the period between October 31, l988, and
the early 1960s. January 3, 1989. Most of these were own to Japan, where
they brought high prices.
Bluen are now taken by vessels of all sizes, but the
smaller ones (capacities less than about 400 tons) account The total annual catches of Pacic northern bluen by
for a proportionally larger share of the catch. The propor- commercial and sport vessels in the eastern Pacic Ocean,
tion of the bluen catch made by the wetsh eet is prior to 1918, were negligible. The data for 1918 through
less now than it was during the early years of the shery 1960 include only the catches landed in California, but
because there are now fewer wetsh vessels and because it is believed that the catches landed elsewhere, prior
many of the sh are intercepted by larger vessels shing
off Baja California before they reach the area where
these vessels normally sh. Most of the sh caught by
purse seiners weigh less than 50 pounds, but larger ones
have sometimes been caught, including one weighing
1,009 pounds.
Most of the information regarding distribution of the
catches of Pacic northern bluen by tuna purse seiners
has been obtained from the logbook records of these
vessels. Bluen are rarely encountered south of Cabo San
Lucas, Baja California, or north of Point Conception, Cali-
fornia. Within this area, a considerable change has taken
place during the 20th century. Until 1930, shing was con-
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna, Thunnus orientalis
ducted only off California. During that year, bluen were Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 325
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
40
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
35
millions of pounds landed
30
25
Commercial Landings
1916-1999,
20
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
15
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
and commercial landing receipts.
10
Data includes shipments and
5
landings from areas north and
south of the state between 1916
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and 1969.
to 1961, were inconsequential. The catches tended to be Most of the sh caught are in their second or third year
greater during the 1960s and 1970s than during the previ- of life, but some older, larger sh are also taken. After a
ous period, probably because of the conversion during sojourn in the eastern Pacic, which may or may not be
1959 and 1960 of most of the tuna bait boats to purse interrupted by temporary visits to the central or western
seiners, and the addition of many new purse seiners to Pacic, the survivors return to the western Pacic, where
the eet. they eventually spawn. Spawning probably rst occurs at
about ve or six years of age.
The approximate lengths and weights attained by Pacic
Status of Biological Knowledge northern bluen at various ages are: age one, 23 inches
S
and 10 pounds; age two, 33 inches and 28 pounds; age
pawning of Pacic northern bluen occurs between
three, 43 inches and 60 pounds; age four, 53 inches and
Japan and the Philippines in April, May, and June,
109 pounds; and age ve, 63 inches and 177 pounds.
off southern Honshu in July, and in the Sea of Japan in
August. The larvae, postlarvae, and juveniles produced Pacic northern bluen consume many species of sh and
south of Japan are carried northward by the Kuroshio invertebrates in the eastern Pacic, including anchovies,
Current toward Japan. Fish in their rst year of life, about red crabs, sauries, squid, and hake. Red crabs are a
six to 24 inches in length, are caught in the vicinity of signicant part of the diet only south of 29° N. “Boiling”
Japan during the summer, fall, and winter. The results of and jumping schools of sh are much more common north
tagging experiments indicate that some of these remain of that latitude, where sh are the principal item of the
in the western Pacic Ocean and others depart for the diet. The differences in behavior in the two areas could
eastern Pacic during the fall or winter of their rst year be due to differences in the food, i.e., lter feeding
of life or the summer, fall, or winter of their second might be employed for feeding on red crabs, while pursuit
year of life. The journey from the western to the eastern of individual sh would be required for feeding on sh.
Pacic takes as little as two months, or perhaps even less. Japanese scientists have reported that bluen are heavily
dependent upon sardines for food in the western Pacic.
The sh that migrate from the western to the eastern
Albacore, yellowtail, barracuda, and mackerel compete
Pacic form the basis for the shery in the eastern Pacic.
with bluen for food in the eastern Pacic.
40
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
35
thousands of fish landed
Status of the Population
30
25
T
20 he catches of Pacic northern bluen in the eastern
15
Pacic have been less, on average, during the 1980s
10
and 1990s than during the 1960s and 1970s. Catch data,
5
length-frequency data, and data on sh tagged in the
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
western Pacic and recaptured in the eastern Pacic sug-
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna gest that this decline is due to a decrease in the avail-
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
326
ability of bluen in the eastern Pacic (i.e., a decrease
Pacific Northern Bluefin Tuna
in the proportion of the population which has migrated to
the eastern Pacic) and a decrease in the number of boats
which direct their effort at bluen.
William H. Bayliff
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
References
Bayliff, William H. 1993. Growth and age composition
of northern bluen tuna, Thunnus thynnus, caught in the
eastern Pacic Ocean, as estimated from length-frequency
data, with comments on trans-Pacic migrations. Inter-
Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Bull., 20 (9): 501-540.
Bayliff, William H. 1994. A review of the biology and sher-
ies for northern bluen tuna, Thunnus thynnus, in the
Pacic Ocean. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., 336 (2): 244-295.
Bayliff, William H., Yoshio Ishizuka, and Richard B. Deriso.
1991. Growth, movement, and attrition of northern bluen
tuna, Thunnus thynnus, in the Pacic Ocean, as deter-
mined by tagging. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm., Bull.,
20 (1): 1-94.
Calkins, Thomas P. 1982. Observations on the purse seine
shery for northern bluen tuna (Thunnus thynnus) in
the eastern Pacic Ocean. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna Comm.,
Bull., 18 (2): 121-225.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 327
Skipjack Tuna
History of the Fishery sheries. Some sh are also caught in troll, gillnet, and
longline sheries.
S kipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) have been har- Before the 1960s, bait boats supplied the majority of
vested in the eastern Pacic by commercial bait boats the commercial skipjack tuna landings in California. The
since the early 1900s, and later by commercial purse rst bait boats operated in coastal waters off southern
seine, gillnet, troll sheries and recreational sheries. California and Mexico. They could only make short trips
Skipjack tuna mixed with yellown tuna are frequently because they used ice to preserve catches and relied
caught by these sheries. Skipjack tuna are highly migra- on catching bait close to the coast and offshore islands.
tory and have been shed by many different countries In the 1930s, with the development of new refrigeration
such as the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador, France, and Spain. techniques and construction of larger vessels, the shery
Landings from these countries are marketed throughout expanded to areas farther south and offshore. Bait boats
the Pacic Rim, Puerto Rico, and the European Commu- ranged from 30 to 200 tons of carrying capacity. The U.S.
nity. Fisheries landing skipjack tuna in California operate eet that operated in the eastern Pacic decreased from
between 150°W longitude and the coast of the Americas 75 vessels in 1976 to one in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, bait
and between 40°N and 20°S latitude. California landings boat landings averaged 12 percent of the total skipjack
of skipjack tuna are important to both commercial and tuna landings in California.
recreational sheries.
Purse seiners started to replace bait boats in the late
Commercial landings of skipjack tuna in California started 1950s and by 1961 supplied the majority of the commercial
in 1918, and mainly supplied canneries where skipjack skipjack tuna landings in California. Purse seiners usually
tuna were processed as light meat tuna. Small quantities catch skipjack tuna in sets on free-swimming schools or in
of skipjack tuna were also sold to local markets. Com- sets on schools associated with oating objects. Skipjack
mercial landings of skipjack tuna in California increased tuna are usually caught mixed with yellown and bigeye
from three million pounds in 1918 to 156 million pounds tunas. The carrying capacity of purse seiners ranged from
in 1954. The landings, while uctuating considerably, then 150 tons to 2000 tons. The U.S. eet operating in the
decreased to a low of 30 million pounds in 1973 before eastern Pacic decreased from 141 vessels in 1976 to
peaking again at its highest level (174 million pounds) nine in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, purse seine landings
in 1980. Since 1976, skipjack tuna landings in California of skipjack tuna accounted for 80 percent of the total
declined to average 10 million pounds from 1985 to 1999. commercial skipjack tuna landings in California.
The decline in commercial landings in California can be
From 1991 to 1999, other commercial sheries, troll,
attributed to the relocation of cannery operations to
longline, and gillnet, landed less than one percent of
American Samoa and Puerto Rico and the re-agging of
the annual skipjack tuna landings in California. These
some vessels. Currently, only one cannery is operating in
sheries catch skipjack tuna incidentally while targeting
California. Prices paid by the canneries for skipjack tuna
other tunas, sharks or swordsh.
are based on sh size and market conditions and from
California recreational sheries for skipjack tuna typically
1990 to 1994 varied from $200 to $1,000 per ton. Based
operate in waters off southern California and Mexico. The
on a cannery price of $900 per ton, the 1999 California
duration of trips is usually one to seven days. The eet
landings of skipjack tuna was worth approximately $4 mil-
consists mainly of commercial passenger-carrying shing
lion. The majority of the commercial skipjack tuna land-
vessels (CPFV) and some private shing vessels. Recre-
ings in California are from the purse seine and bait boat
ational anglers use rod and reel shing gear. Skipjack tuna
landings from the CPFV shery reached highs of 103,000
sh in 1983, and 52,000 sh in 1990. Since 1990, skipjack
tuna recreational landings have generally decreased to
14,000 sh in 1998.
U.S. commercial vessels that sh for skipjack tuna in the
eastern Pacic must comply with all state and federal reg-
ulations and regulations proposed by the Inter-American
Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and any other interna-
tional regulatory agency to which the U.S. is a member.
These include compliance with the Marine Mammal Pro-
tection Act and a mandatory logbook program under the
High Seas Fishing Compliance Act of 1995 that requires a
license and submission of the IATTC logbook.
Skipjack Tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
328
Recreational shermen must carry California state shing 20 to 22 inches. Egg production is estimated between 0.1
Skipjack Tuna
licenses, comply with state regulations, and purchase Mex- to 2.0 million eggs per spawning.
ican shing licenses while shing in the Exclusive Eco- Skipjack tuna can grow to approximately 42.5 inches or 77
nomic Zone (EEZ) of Mexico. Currently, California limits pounds. They have dark purplish-blue backs and, silvery
the recreational take of skipjack tuna to 10 sh per day. sides with four to six longitudinal dark bands. They have
a strong keel on each side of the caudal n base between
two smaller keels. Skipjack tuna enter surface sheries
Status of Biological Knowledge at approximately 10 inches (0.5 pound) and commonly
S
reach lengths up to 31.5 inches (26 pounds). Some longline
kipjack tuna occur throughout the tropical, subtropical
sheries also catch large skipjack tuna. Skipjack tuna
waters and warm temperate waters of all oceans.
growth is rapid and approximate sizes at age are: one
There are two stock structures hypothesized for Pacic
year, 12 inches, 1.1 pound; two years, 20 inches, six
skipjack tuna, a single stock with isolated subgroups
pounds; three years, 25 inches, 12.8 pounds; four years,
or two or more different stocks. This description
20 inches, 19 pounds. Maximum age is probably around
considers skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic east of
seven years.
150° W longitude.
Skipjack tuna feeding is opportunistic on sh, crustaceans
In the eastern Pacic, skipjack tuna are generally dis-
and cephalopods. Stomach samples of skipjack tuna in
tributed between 40°N and 40°S latitude and between
the eastern Pacic contained 59 percent pelagic crabs, 37
150°W longitude and the coastlines of the U.S., Mexico,
percent sh, and three percent squids. A high percentage
Central and South America. During El Niño events skipjack
of stomach samples were empty. Larger sh tended to
tuna may be found as far north as 50°N along the
have higher percentages of crustaceans and lower percent-
U.S. West Coast. Fishing concentrations are located in
ages of sh in their stomachs. Predators of skipjack tuna
the northeastern Pacic near Baja California, the Revil-
include billsh, sharks and other large tunas, including
lagigedo Islands, and Clipperton Island, and in the south-
skipjack tuna.
eastern Pacic near Central America, northern South
America, Cocos Island-Brito Bank, and the Galapagos
Islands and offshore south of 10°N. Skipjack tuna migrate
Status of the Population
from the equatorial spawning grounds in the eastern
I
Pacic in two migrating groups, one migrates to the Baja n general, the population of skipjack tuna in the eastern
California shing grounds and the other to the Central and Pacic is underutilized by sheries operating in the area
South American shing grounds. The groups remain on the and is well above levels that are needed to produce
shing grounds for several months before returning to the maximum sustainable yield (MSY). The apparent abun-
equatorial spawning grounds dance of skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic is highly
Skipjack tuna typically prefer sea surface temperatures variable. This variability is apparently caused more by
between 59º F and 86° F. Aggregations of skipjack tuna effects of environmental conditions than by the effects
tend to be associated with convergence zones, boundaries of the shery. The simplest estimate of abundance can
between cold and warm water masses (i.e., the polar be obtained from trends in catches. Catches peaked at
front), up welling zones, and other hydro-graphical discon- 186,800 tons in 1978, and decreased to 54,500 tons in
tinuities. Skipjack tuna are found in surface waters and to 1985. During the period from 1986 to 1994, catches varied
depths of 850 feet during the day, but seem to stay closer between 69,000 and 100,000 tons before increasing to
to the surface at night than during the day. Skipjack tuna 266,000 tons in 1999. Other abundance estimates for skip-
are most frequently found in surface schools aggregated jack tuna, standardized catch per days shing (CPDF),
around oating objects in the eastern Pacic. The larger have been developed by the IATTC. However, these esti-
sh are found in free-swimming unassociated schools. mates are not considered satisfactory and indicate that
Smaller yellown and bigeye tunas (less than 40 inches) further studies are needed. In general, the estimates show
are frequently found in schools mixed with skipjack tuna. CPDF in the 1960s, between nine and 15 tons per days
shing, and uctuating between two and seven tons per
Skipjack tuna spawn throughout the year in equatorial
day shed from 1972 to 1996.
waters of the eastern Pacic, and from spring to early fall
in subtropical waters. The spawning season is abbreviated The status of skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic is
as distance from the equator increases. Females mature at monitored annually by the IATTC. They are reasonably
about 16 inches. However, in some areas of the eastern certain that skipjack tuna stocks in the eastern Pacic
Pacic, the minimum size at maturity has been noted at are under shed. Traditional age-based analyses and pro-
duction models cannot be used to verify this conclusion
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 329
Skipjack Tuna
200
millions of pounds landed
150
Skipjack Tuna
Commercial Landings
100
1916-1999, Skipjack Tuna
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
50
landing receipts. Data includes
shipments and landings from
areas south of the state between 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1916 and 1969.
References
due to the violation of the unit stock concept. However,
skipjack tuna catches in the western Pacic are near one
Forsbergh, Eric 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the
million tons, and tagging studies there have shown that
skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758), in
catches could easily double without adversely affecting
the Pacic Ocean. In: Synopsis of biological data on
the stock. Based on this, it seems that further increases in
eight species of scombrids, William Bayliff editor. Inter-
the eastern Pacic skipjack tuna catch could be attained.
American Tropical Tuna Commission specialreport No.2.
However, caution should be exercised until the exchange
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA. p.
between the eastern and western Pacic is fully under-
295-360.
stood. The IATTC also notes that its assessment of skipjack
tuna in the eastern Pacic could change and studies to IATTC 1999. Annual report of the Inter-American Tropical
learn more about this species and its relationships to the Tuna Commission 1997. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com-
environment are needed. mission, La Jolla, CA. 310 p.
Wild, Alex and J. Hampton 1994. A review of the biology
Management Considerations and sheries for skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis, in the
Pacic Ocean. In: Interactions of Pacic tuna sheries,
Shomura, Majkowski, Langi editors. FAO Fisheries Techni-
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
cal Paper 336/Vol. 2. p 51-107.
further information.
Wild, Alex 1992. Yellown and skipjack tunas. In: Califor-
nia’s living marine resources and their utilization, Leet,
Atilio L. Coan, Jr.
Dewees, Haugen editors. California Sea Grant Extension
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pub. UCSGEP-92-12. p. 140-143.
120
100
thousands of fish landed
Skipjack Tuna
80
60
40
20
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Skipjack Tuna
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
330
Yellowfin Tuna
History of the Fishery shery, catches and effort from this shery gave way to
Yellowfin Tuna
the more efcient purse seine method.
Y ellown tuna (Thunnus albacares) have been har- Purse seiners started to replace bait boats in the late
vested, in the eastern Pacic, by commercial bait boat 1950s, and by 1961, supplied the majority of the com-
sheries since the early 1900s, and later by commercial mercial yellown tuna landings in California. Purse seine
purse seine, longline, gillnet, troll and recreational sher- carrying capacity ranged from 150 tons to 2,000 tons.
ies. Yellown tuna, frequently caught in schools mixed Purse seiners, because of their size and ability to stay
with skipjack and bigeye tuna, are highly migratory and at sea for long-periods of time, expanded the shery to
have been shed in the eastern Pacic by many different areas between southern California and Peru and out to
countries. U.S. sheries that land yellown tuna in Cali- 150°W longitude. Historically, three types of sets have
fornia operate between 150° W longitude and the coast been used to catch yellown tuna: sets on sh associated
of the Americas and between 40° N and 20° S latitude. with schools of dolphins, sets on sh in free-swimming
California landings of yellown tuna are important to both schools and sets on sh associated with oating objects.
commercial and recreational sheries. Until the 1990s, U.S. purse seiners in the eastern Pacic
California landings of commercially caught yellown tuna primarily caught yellown tuna in sets associated with
date back to 1919. These landings supplied canneries schools of dolphins. Purse seiners employed a standard
mainly in California, where yellown tuna were processed purse seine with the exception of a porpoise panel that
as light meat tuna. In recent years, some commercial, yel- was used to reduce entanglement of dolphins. The purse
lown tuna landings were also purchased by local markets seines were deployed with a seine skiff and, when shing
and restaurants. Cannery prices paid for yellown tuna dolphin schools, speedboats were used to herd the dol-
depend on sh size and canned tuna market conditions. phins into a compact school so that the net could be
During the early 1990s, prices ranged from $200 to $1,100 set around them. Once the schools of tuna and dolphins
per ton. Commercial landings of yellown tuna in Califor- were surrounded, the net was pursed and a backdown
nia, while uctuating, generally increased from 350,000 procedure was used to free the trapped dolphins. In
pounds in 1919 to 280 million pounds in 1976. Since 1976, the mid 1970s, marine mammal regulations were enacted
yellown tuna landings declined steadily to three million to reduce dolphin mortality associated with purse seine
pounds in 1999. Assuming a cannery price of $1,000 per shing and in the 1990s canneries stopped buying yel-
ton, the estimated value of the 1999 California commer- lown tuna caught on dolphins. The canneries “dolphin
cial yellown tuna landings was $1.5 million. The decline safe” policy drove many U.S. purse seiners to the western
in commercial landings in California can be attributed to Pacic and as a result, the U.S. eet that operated in the
the relocation of cannery operations to American Samoa eastern Pacic decreased from 141 purse seiners in 1976
and Puerto Rico and the re-agging of some U.S. vessels. to nine in 1999. From 1984 to 1999, purse seine landings
Currently, only one cannery is operating in California. averaged 86 percent of the total yellown tuna landings
Purse seine and bait boat sheries supply the bulk of in California.
the California commercial yellown tuna landings. Some Longliners, based in California, started shing in the east-
commercial landings are also supplied by longline, troll, ern Pacic in 1991. These vessels usually targeted bigeye
and gillnet sheries. tuna or swordsh outside the California 200-mile Exclusive
Before the 1960s, bait boats supplied the majority of the Economic Zone (EEZ) and yellown tuna are an incidental
commercial yellown tuna catch. Initially, bait boats oper- catch in this shery. Longliners usually sh between 30°N
ated in coastal waters of southern California and Mexico.
The vessels could only make short trips because they used
ice to preserve catches and relied on catching bait close
to the coast and offshore islands. In the 1930s, improve-
ments in refrigeration methods and construction of larger
vessels enabled the shery to expand farther south and
offshore. From 1984 to 1999, California bait boat landings
averaged 11 percent of the total landings of yellown tuna
in California. Bait boat carrying capacity ranged from 30
to 200 tons carrying capacity. The U.S. eet that operated
in the eastern Pacic ranged from 75 bait boats in 1976 to
one in 1999. While bait boat sheries dominated landings
in the early days of the eastern Pacic yellown tuna
Yellowfin Tuna, Thunnus albacares
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 331
Yellowfin Tuna
300
millions of pounds landed
250
Yellowfin Tuna
200
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Yellowfin Tuna
Data Source: DFG Catch
100
Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. Data includes 50
shipments and landings from
areas south of the state between 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
1916 and 1969.
and 40°N latitude between Hawaii and the U.S. West Coast 120
EEZ. The U.S. longline eet uses standard longline gear 100
thousands of fish landed
with oats and branch lines. The gear is deployed at Yellowfin Tuna 80
various depths, depending on the target species sought, 60
and light sticks are used to attract sh. From 1991 to 1999,
40
longline-caught yellown tuna were less than one percent
20
of the total yellown tuna landed in California.
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
From 1984 to 1999, commercial troll and gillnet shing
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Yellowfin Tuna
gears supplied less than three percent of the annual yel-
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
lown tuna landings in California. These gears incidentally
catch yellown tuna inside the EEZ south of San Francisco. High Seas Fishing Compliance Act of 1995, which requires
Gillnet sheries usually target swordsh and sharks, while a license and submission of the IATTC logbook. U.S.
troll sheries typically target albacore. purse seiners shing for yellown tuna associated with
California recreational sheries for yellown tuna typically dolphins in the eastern Pacic must also abide by dolphin
operate in waters off southern California and Mexico. quotas stipulated in the Marine Mammal Protection Act,
The duration of trips is usually from one to seven days. and all large purse seiners (greater than 400 tons) must
The eet consists mainly of commercial passenger-carry- carry observers.
ing shing vessels (CPFV) and some private shing vessels.
Recreational anglers use rod and reel shing gear. Yel-
Status of Biological Knowledge
lown tuna landings from the CPFV shery, reached a
record high of 120,000 sh in 1983, decreased to 4,000
Y ellown tuna in the eastern Pacic are distributed
sh in 1985, and averaged 81,000 sh from 1995 to 1998.
throughout areas between 40°N and 40°S latitude and
Since the recreational catch cannot be sold, the value of
between 150°W longitude and the coastlines of the U.S.,
the recreational shery is difcult to determine, but must
Mexico, Central, and South America. The eastern Pacic
reach millions of dollars and extend to many sectors of
stock is generally considered a separate population that
the business community. Anglers buy equipment, y in
is not believed to interact appreciably with stocks in
from various locations and stay in local hotels. Vessel
the central and western Pacic. Yellown tuna are typi-
operators collect fares that are based on trip length but
cally found in sea surface temperatures between 65°F and
also collect fees for food and equipment rentals. Anglers
88°F and are usually conned to the upper 330 feet of the
may catch yellown tuna, but they also catch bluen,
water column, or between the surface and the thermo-
skipjack, bigeye and albacore tuna, and other sh.
cline. Seasonal migrations are primarily along the coast.
U.S. commercial vessels that sh for yellown tuna in the Surface schools of small yellown tuna in the eastern
eastern Pacic must abide by all federal and state regu- Pacic can be found aggregated around oating objects
lations, including those proposed by the Inter-American or in free-swimming unassociated schools, while larger
Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), and any other interna- yellown tuna are usually found in schools associated
tional regulatory agency in which the U.S. is a member. with dolphins. Small yellown tuna (less than 40 inches)
These include a mandatory logbook program under the
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
332
are frequently found in schools mixed with skipjack and since then have remained fairly constant at slightly lower
Yellowfin Tuna
bigeye tuna, whereas larger yellown tuna usually do not levels than in 1986.
mix with other tunas. Stock assessments for yellown tuna in the eastern Pacic
Yellown tuna spawn throughout the year and across their are conducted annually by the IATTC. The latest assess-
entire range. However, 75°F is probably the lower tem- ment indicated that the eastern Pacic yellown tuna
perature limit for yellown tuna spawning. Off Mexico shery could continue to harvest approximately 297,000
and Central America, spawning can occur throughout the tons annually without further lowering the stock size. In
year, with peak spawning occurring at different times in accordance with these ndings, the IATTC set the annual
different areas. Spawning is likely abbreviated and more 1998 yellown quota at 231,000 tons, with 16,500 ton
sporadic in coastal areas than in offshore northern equa- increments added at the discretion of the IATTC. Closure of
torial areas. Most females mature at sizes above 36 inches the shery based on this quota in 1988 was in November.
and produce from two to seven million eggs per spawn.
Yellown tuna can grow to approximately 83 inches. The
Management Considerations
larger sh have very large anal and second dorsal ns
that may extend to over 20 percent of the fork length. See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Approximately 20 broken, nearly vertical lines cross the further information.
sides of the sh and a yellow coloration are present on the
sides, dorsal and anal ns and nlets. Yellown tuna enter
Atilio L. Coan, Jr.
surface sheries at approximately 10 inches and commonly
National Marine Fisheries Service
reach lengths up to 60 inches. Growth is rapid at these
approximate sizes at and ages: one year, 19 inches; two
years, 34 inches; three years, 50 inches; four years, 59
References
inches; ve years, 68 inches. Maximum age is probably
around 10 years.
Cole, Jon S. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the yel-
Yellown tuna are opportunistic feeders and therefore lown tuna, Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788), in the
have a very diverse diet; however, a few sh, cephalopods Pacic Ocean. In: Synopsis of biological data on eight spe-
and crustaceans are dominant in stomach samples from cies of scombrids, William Bayliff editor. Inter-American
sh in the eastern Pacic. The most dominant are bullet Tropical Tuna Commission special report No.2. Inter-Amer-
tuna and pelagic crabs. Other organisms include sh com- ican Tropical Tuna Commission, La Jolla, CA. p. 71-150.
monly found around otsam such as skipjack tuna, black
IATTC 1999. Annual report of the Inter-American Tropical
skipjack, ying sh, light sh, and squid. Predators of
Tuna Commission 1997. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Com-
yellown tuna include sharks, billshes and other large
mission, La Jolla, CA. 310 p.
tuna, including yellown tuna.
Wild, Alex 1994. A review of the biology and sheries for
yellown tuna, Thunnus albacares, in the eastern Pacic
Status of the Population Ocean. In: Interactions of Pacic tuna sheries, Shomura,
Majkowski, Langi editors. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper
I n general, the population of yellown tuna in the east- 336/Vol. 2. p 51-107.
ern Pacic is being fully utilized by sheries operating in
the area and is at levels that will produce the maximum
sustainable yield (MSY). The IATTC has recommended an
annual yellown tuna catch quota in the eastern Pacic
since 1966 to maintain the stock at MSY. Catches peaked
at 277,300 tons in 1976, decreased to 111,500 tons in 1983,
peaked again in 1989 at 337,000 tons, and then decreased
to 301,400 tons in 1997. Because of management-imposed
measures, it is difcult to use strictly catch as an indica-
tor of overall population abundance. However, four abun-
dance indices, one based on estimates of standardized
catch-per-days shing, two based on age models, and one
based on a searching-time method, have been developed
and indicate that abundance dropped steeply from the
late 1960s to historically low levels in the early 1980s.
Abundance estimates rebounded substantially in 1986 and
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 333
Striped Marlin
History of the Fishery In Mexican waters, striped marlin are taken for local mar-
kets and export to other countries. These sheries include
S triped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) support important both artisan, using hand-hauled gillnets and longlines, and
commercial and recreational sheries in the central larger drift net vessels targeting swordsh and sharks.
and eastern Pacic and in the Indian oceans. They were The water off the southern tip of the Baja California
directly targeted by high seas sheries in the 1960s and peninsula to Manzanillo, Mexico, is an area of high striped
1970s, although today most are taken as incidental catch marlin abundance, which supports a large recreational
in tuna longline sheries. Pacic-wide landings currently shery. Mexican tourist enterprises aggressively advertise
average near 26.5 million pounds per year and represent to attract billsh anglers to the area. The striped marlin
about 86 percent of world landings. catch rate is greatly improved off Baja where anglers aver-
age 0.3 to 0.65 striped marlin per day of shing. Estimated
Striped marlin are seasonal visitors to southern California
recreational catches of striped marlin off Los Cabos, Baja
waters providing recreational billsh anglers an oppor-
California Sur, averaged 12,000 sh annually between
tunity to sh for local large gamesh during summer
1992 and 1996, but only averaged 260 sh off Mazatlan.
and fall. Recreational and commercial shing for striped
The estimated incidental catch from the longline shark
marlin began off southern California in the early-1900s
shery in Mazatlan averaged 680 striped marlin over the
using hand-held harpoons or rod-and-reel. The California
same period.
Legislature banned the use of harpoons to take striped
marlin in 1935 and further curtailed the sale and Interest in angler-based tagging and survey programs have
import of striped marlin in 1937 thus preserving the south- intensied greatly in recent years. The trend toward
ern California shery entirely for recreational anglers. catch and release and tagging of striped marlin has also
Currently, most striped marlin shing is from privately increased as anglers became more aware of perceived
owned boats based in local southern California marinas. conservation needs. Current estimates of striped marlin
Generally, sh begin arriving in the coastal and insular released off southern California have exceeded 80 percent
waters off southern California in June and remain until of those captured. Annual marlin tournaments now award
at least October. The number of sh moving into the points to anglers for releasing sh and the rst all-tag
Southern California Bight during any particular year is and release marlin tournament was held in San Diego in
associated with water temperatures. Warmer water gener- September 2000.
ally means more sh, better catches and higher catch
rates. The colder water north of Point Conception usually
Status of Biological Knowledge
limits their northward distribution, although during El
Niño years they commonly range north to San Francisco
T he striped marlin (family Istiophoridae) is a large,
and persist for extended periods. A 31-year-long angler
oceanic sh with a long, round bill, small teeth and
survey indicates fairly low, but steady, catch rate averag-
tall dorsal n which decreases in height ending just
ing 0.10 sh per anger shing day but ranging to 1.0 or
before the second dorsal n. The species is widely distrib-
greater during El Niño periods. The southern California
uted throughout most tropical, sub-tropical and temper-
catch of striped marlin taken by the commercial passenger
ate waters of the Pacic and Indian oceans but does
shing vessel (CPFV) eet averages six striped marlin per
not occur in the Atlantic except for occasional strays
year. Commercial landings in Oregon and Washington are
off western South Africa. Japanese longline data indicate
legal but rare.
a horseshoe-shaped distribution across the central North
and South Pacic with a continuous distribution along the
west coast of Central America. It is apparently more abun-
dant in eastern and north central Pacic than elsewhere.
Movements tend to be diffusive, as this species does not
under take annual migrations as seen in some tunas.
Striped marlin do not form dense schools but rather occur
singularly or in groups of several sh, usually segregated
by size. Adult sh are found in the north and south central
Pacic where spawning occurs. Larvae are recorded from
North Pacic west of 150° W, in the South Pacic and
more recently have been found off central Mexico. Sub-
adult sh move east toward the coast of Mexico where
they are found in high abundance around the tip of the
Striped Marlin, Tetrapturus audax
Baja peninsula. Tag-recapture data indicate movement
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
334
Status of the Population
Striped Marlin
400
350
T
number of fish landed
he Pacic striped marlin resource appears healthy
300
Striped Marlin
regardless of whether a single Pacic-wide stock or
250
200
two separate north and southern stocks are assumed.
150
The relationship between catch and shing effort in the
100
Japanese longline sheries show sustained catches over a
50
wide range of shing intensities, suggesting Pacic-wide
0 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
catches are below the estimated maximum sustainable
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Striped Marlin
yield of 53 million pounds. Catches are fairly stable
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
at around 25 to 30 million pounds. Angler catch and
effort surveys indicate CPUE off California and Mexico has
from southern California to Baja California Sur but show changed little since 1985.
little or no movement in the reverse direction. Also, tag-
recapture data reveal movements from off Mexico and
Management Considerations
southern California to near Hawaii, Peru, and the South
Pacic near the Marquises Islands. Striped marlin are
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
epipelagic, and are commonly bounded by 68° to
further information.
78° F temperature regime during all stages of their life-
cycle. Acoustic telemetry studies indicate they spend
86 percent of their time in the mixed layer above
David Holts
the thermocline and avoid temperature changes greater
National Marine Fisheries Service
than 14° F.
Stock structure in the Pacic is unclear. Current evidence
References
indicates striped marlin are probably a single Pacic-wide
stock because of the continuous distribution throughout
Hunter, John R. and David B. Holts, (eds.) 1999. Pacic
the Pacic, spawning in the south and northwest Pacic
Federal Afliation for Billsh - a NOAA Workshop Report
and eastern Pacic off Mexico, and from tag-recapture
and Research Plan. SWFSC Admin. Rep., LJ-99-11, 34 pp.
studies. The possibility of separate North and South Pacic
stocks does exist and is based on catch-per-unit effort Squire, J. and D. Au. 1990. Management of striped marlin
(CPUE) analysis, temporal and geographically separate resources in the northeast Pacic; A case for local deple-
spawning areas, and morphological differences. Genetic tion and core area management, p67-80. In: Stroud, R.S.
data further indicate some population structuring in the (ed.) 1989. Planning the future of billshes. Research and
Pacic which implies discrete spawning areas for sh from management in the 1990s and beyond. Proceedings of
Hawaii, Australia, and the eastern tropical Pacic. the second International Billsh Symposium, Kailua-Kona,
Hawaii, August 1-5, 1988. Parts 1 and 2.
Striped marlin mature between 55 and 63 inches eye-to-
fork length (EFL) and reach a maximum size of nearly
12 feet and more than 450 pounds. The International
Gamesh Association all-tackle record is for a 494-pound
sh caught near New Zealand in 1986. Most striped marlin
caught in the southern California sport shery are three to
six years old, and weigh 120 to 200 pounds. Examination of
gonad material from the recreational and drift net sher-
ies indicates that striped marlin off southern California are
not reproductively active while in residence.
Striped marlin are opportunistic feeders primarily on epi-
pelagic shes including mackerel, sardine, anchovy, and
will take invertebrates including squid and red crab when
available. Off southern California, they are often seen
feeding at the surface on these small coastal sh. Preda-
tion on adult marlin has not been documented but may
occur from large pelagic sharks or toothed whales.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 335
Shortfin Mako Shark
History of the Fishery the California Fish and Game Commission established an
experimental shark shery for mako and blue sharks using
S ince the late 1970s, the shortn mako (Isurus oxyrin- drift longlines. This gear proved much more efcient than
chus) has been taken incidentally in the commercial drift gillnets. By 1990, stringent regulations were imple-
drift gillnet sheries for thresher shark and swordsh. mented that included an annual quota, time-area clo-
Up until 1987, there were no sheries that specically sures, and a requirement to reduce the bycatch and waste
sought mako. of blue sharks by establishing a market. In 1992, the
commission did not renew the longline permits and the
There are several reasons why mako sharks took so long
experimental shery ended. This was due to the inability
to become a primary target of a commercial shery.
of the shermen to establish a market for the bycatch
Although readily marketable, shortn makos off southern
of blue sharks and a well organized opposition by the
California averaged only 34 pounds dressed, while thresh-
sport shing industry to a directed commercial shery for
ers had an average dressed weight of about 150 pounds.
mako sharks.
As long as threshers were plentiful, shermen paid little
attention to mako sharks. This situation might have Currently, mako sharks are taken by drift gillnets and
changed during the mid-1980s when the thresher popula- hook-and-line. Most mako sharks, however, are taken in
tion began to show signs of decline, but the drift gillnet the drift gillnet shery for thresher sharks and swordsh.
eet, which pursued the thresher, also took a more valu- Annual landings have uctuated from over 600,000 pounds
able species – swordsh. Swordsh had a commercial value in 1987 to less than 100,000 pounds in 1999.
of $4 per pound, compared to $1 per pound for most The shortn mako shark is also taken by the high seas
sharks, and they averaged nearly 200 pounds dressed. As shark and swordsh drift longline shery, which developed
a result, the drift gillnet eet gave little regard to the between 1991 and 1994. This shery operates outside
mako shark resource. the 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in interna-
It took the application of an entirely different shing gear tional waters. A small portion of the catch is landed in
to create commercial interest in the mako. During 1988, California ports with annual landings ranging from 128,116
to 9,523 pounds between 1991 and 1999.
Makos have long been esteemed as prized game sh along
the East Coast of the U.S. During the early-1980s, the
mako captured the attention of the southern California
sport shing public. In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates
of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew
ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually. The principal
target of these trips was the shortn mako shark. After
the increase during the 1980s, the sport shery for mako
sharks has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual
landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308
pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both
cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following
the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger shing vessels
run shing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in
southern California.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he shortn mako shark is distributed in temperate and
tropical seas worldwide. In the eastern Pacic, it is
distributed from Chile to the Columbia River and can be
found off the U.S. West Coast from southern California
northward to Washington. However, it is most common
off southern California and is seldom caught north of
the Mendocino Escarpment. It is considered an oceanic
species, occurring from the surface to at least 500 feet
Shortfin Mako Shark, Isurus oxyrinchus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
336
Shortfin Mako Shark
700
thousands of pounds landed
600
Shortfin Mako Shark
500
400
Commercial Landings
300
1916-1999,
Shortfin Mako Shark
200
Data Source: DFG Catch
100 Bulletins and commercial land-
ing receipts. All shark landings
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 were aggregated until 1977.
in depth, and is rarely found in areas where the water other eggs. It is estimated that females have from four to
temperature falls below 61° F. 30 pups. The gestation period is estimated to last from
12 to 19 months. At birth, pups are approximately 2.0 to
Evidence from size and mark-recapture data suggest that
2.5 feet TL.
the Southern California Bight, which extends from Point
Conception to the Mexican border, is an important pup- The shortn mako is a top carnivore in the ocean food
ping and nursery area for the shortn mako shark. High chain. It is known to prey upon many species of sh
recapture rates for tagged juveniles show that newly born such as mackerel, sardine, anchovy, tuna, other sharks,
makos remain in these waters for about two years, after and squid. Other items in the adult diet probably include
which they appear to move offshore or to the south. Many several marine mammals. The mako, however, is an oppor-
sh tagged in the Southern California Bight have been tunistic feeder like many of its oceanic relatives. It may
recaptured locally, but others have been caught as far eat whatever is abundant in its surroundings.
north as Point Arena, northern California; as far south as
Acapulco, Mexico; and as far west as Hawaii in the central
Status of the Population
Pacic. Although some of the tagging data have not been
subjected to formal analyses and no migratory pattern has
T he present status of the shortn mako shark in state
become obvious, these documented movements suggest
and federal waters off California is not known but is
that the California-Mexico stock is wide-ranging and is not
of concern. Adult mako sharks do not frequent California’s
an isolated population.
coastal waters; therefore, they are not subject to local
There is an ongoing disagreement surrounding the proper sheries. The real threat to the mako population off
aging of shortn mako sharks, particularly in large size California and in the eastern Pacic lies in the potential
classes. Results differ among age-growth studies, which for over-development of sheries within the coastal nurs-
may be due to stock differences, different aging inter- ery. This threat is particularly insidious, as the effect of
pretations of the periodic deposition of vertebral rings, overshing would not become apparent until the missing
and the difculty of interpreting growth rings, especially juveniles were of an age to become the spawning stock.
in older specimens. Young makos appear to grow fairly Since a sudden population collapse could follow, efforts to
rapidly, reaching nearly ve feet in total length (TL) by monitor the shortn mako shark are needed.
the age of two. After two years, however, growth rate is
less dened. Males reportedly mature at six feet TL and
Management Considerations
as early as four years old, while females reach maturity
at nine feet TL and not before seven or eight years old.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Females either mature at a much later age than males, or
further information.
the sexes grow at greatly differing rates. The maximum
size of a mako shark is reported to be approximately 13
feet and possibly as old as 40 years.
Valerie B. Taylor and Dennis W. Bedford
Like the thresher shark, shortn makos are ovoviviparous. California Department of Fish and Game
The embryos have no umbilical attachment to the mother
and receive all their intrauterine nourishment by eating
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 337
References
Shortfin Mako Shark
Bedford, D. 1992. Mako shark. In W.S.Leet, C.M. Dewees,
and C.W. Haugen, eds, California’s living marine resources
and their utilization. pp. 51-53. California Sea Grant Publi-
cation UCSGEP-92-12.
California Department of Fish and Game. 1999. Ocean
sport shing regulations concerning mako shark. State of
California Natural Resources Agency. 2:1-11.
California Department of Fish and Game. Shark Tagging
News. California Department of Fish and Game, Long
Beach, California. (newsletter series).
Calliet, G.M. and D.W. Bedford. 1983. The biology of three
pelagic sharks from California waters, and their emerging
sheries: a review. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisher-
ies Investigations Reports. 24:57-69
Camhi, M. 1999. Sharks on the line II: An analysis of Pacic
state shark sheries. National Audubon Society, Living
Oceans Program, Islip, N.Y. pp. 52
Mollet, H.F., G. Cliff, H.L. Pratt, Jr., and J.D. Stevens.
In press 1999. Reproductive parameters of female
shortn mako Isurus oxyrinchu (Ranesque 1809). Fish
Bulletin, U.S.
Pratt, H.L. and J.G. Casey. 1983. Age and growth
of the shortn mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, using four
methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sci-
ences. 40:1944-1957.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
338
Thresher Shark
History of the Fishery to central Oregon in waters up to 200 miles offshore
Thresher Shark
in depths from 30 to 2,000 fathoms over banks, escarp-
T he common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is the ments and canyons. Up until recently, because of various
leading commercial shark in California, although land- time/area closures and seasonal availability of swordsh,
ings are much less than they were during the rst decade most of the annual shing effort occurred between
of the drift gillnet shery. In the early years, from 1977 mid-August through January outside of state waters to
through 1989, annual commercial landings averaged 1.1 about 150 miles offshore. In addition to various existing
million pounds dressed weight (dw) per year, ranging from time/area closures, beginning August 15, 2001, the area
0.1 million pounds in 1977 to a peak of 2.3 million pounds between Point Conception and 45 degrees north latitude
in 1982. More recently, catches from 1990 through 1998 will be closed to drift gillnet shing through October 31 to
have averaged about 0.4 million pounds with a low of 0.3 reduce interactions with leatherback sea turtles. If an El
million in 1995 and a high of 0.8 million pounds in 1991, Niño condition is predicted, or is occurring, the area south
remaining at 0.4 million pounds over the past three years. of Point Conception will be closed to drift gillnet shing
In 1998, the average ex-vessel price was $1.36 per pound. from August 15 to August 31, and during the month of
Fish are taken primarily by drift gillnets (78 percent) January, to reduce loggerhead sea turtle impacts through
followed by set gillnets (18 percent), and other assorted recreational angling for thresher sharks, especially from
gears (4 percent). Two other species of thresher shark, private boats and skiffs, which have become increasingly
the pelagic (A. pelagicus) and the bigeye thresher (A. popular in recent decades in coastal waters between San
superciliosus) also occur off California, but these species Diego and Santa Barbara, California. Currently, there are
are much less common, averaging only about one and nine about eight shark shing tournaments held annually in
percent, respectively, of the total drift net thresher catch southern California. Party boat catches, which are thought
in the 1990s. to represent a relatively small portion of the total sport
catch, have averaged about 55 sh per year, with a peak
The early thresher shark drift net shery began in south-
of 163 sh taken in the 1993 El Niño year. Title 14 of the
ern California and expanded rapidly, reaching a peak in
California Fish and Game Code limits the take of thresher
1982 when 225 vessels were permitted in the shery. Fish-
sharks to two per day, but sport anglers may possess more
ing then expanded northward rst to Morro Bay and then
than this limit depending on the length of the shing trip.
to Monterey and San Francisco. By 1987, experimental sh-
A one-inch square of skin must be left on each llet, if
ing was being conducted off Oregon and Washington. The
lleted at sea.
drift net shery was initially developed to target common
thresher, but emphasis later shifted to broadbill swordsh,
with thresher and shortn mako shark being secondary
Status of Biological Knowledge
market species. Also, catches of threshers off California
soon began to decline, and some of the most heavily
T he common thresher shark is a large pelagic shark
exploited size classes were observed to disappear from with a long scythe-like tail, which makes up nearly
the catches after the mid-1980s. These size/age classes half of its total body length. Its body is white below and
were thought at the time to be all immature sh approxi- blue-gray to gray above with a slight wash of bronze. It
mately three to six years old, but more recent maturity is generally distinguished from other species of thresher
data suggest that many may also have been mature indi- sharks by the white of the abdomen that extends in a
viduals four to seven years old. Regulatory measures in splotchy pattern above the base of the pectoral ns;
California, particularly area and season closures imposed
after the mid-1980s, were instituted to address swordsh
user conicts (gill-netters versus harpooners versus rec-
reational anglers), to protect marine mammals, and to
protect thresher shark. In 1990, a California state voter
initiative banned gillnetting within three miles and com-
pletely prohibited drift net shing on threshers during
peak seasons and in nearshore areas. Since January 1996,
the landing of shark ns detached from any carcass
has been prohibited, except for threshers, which can be
landed with the ns and tails removed providing that a
corresponding carcass is also landed.
Currently, the shery is under a non-transferable permit
system and takes place from the Mexican border north Thresher Shark, Alopias vulpinus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 339
Thresher Shark
3.0
millions of pounds landed
2.5
Thresher Shark
2.0
1.5
Commercial Landings
1.0
1916-1999, Thresher Shark
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0.5
and commercial landing receipts.
All shark landings were
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
aggregated until 1977.
unlike the bigeye and pelagic thresher, which are uni- and Oregon and Washington. This migration hypothesis
formly pigmented blue-gray to gray above the pectoral is derived from patterns of early catches in the drift
ns. The common thresher also does not possess the large gillnet shery prior to seasonal and area restrictions, and
eyes distinctive of the bigeye thresher or the deep lateral the incidence in the 1980s of thresher sharks taken off
grooves on the sides of the head. California carrying Japanese longline hooks, indicating an
origin outside the U.S. EEZ. It has been proposed that
The distribution of the common thresher shark is circum-
large adult common thresher sharks pass through southern
global. In the eastern Pacic, it occurs from Goose Bay,
California waters in early spring of the year, remaining
British Columbia south to off Baja California, and off
in offshore waters from one to two months during which
Panama and Chile. Abundance in the Pacic Ocean is
time pupping occurs. Pups are then thought to move into
thought to decrease rapidly beyond 40 miles from the
shallow coastal waters. The adults then continue to follow
coast, although catches off California and Oregon do occur
warming water and perhaps schools of bait northward, and
as far as 100 miles offshore and sometimes beyond. It
by late summer, arrive off Oregon and Washington. Sub-
is found in temperate and warm oceans penetrating into
adult individuals appear to arrive in southern California
tropical waters, seeming to prefer areas characterized
waters in early summer, and as summer progresses they
by high biological productivity, the presence of strong
move up the coast as far north as San Francisco. In fall,
frontal zones separating regions of upwelling and adjacent
these sub-adults are thought to move south again. Little
waters, and strong horizontal and vertical mixing of sur-
is known about the presumed southward migration of the
face and subsurface waters. Such habitats are conducive
large adults, which do not appear along the coast until
to production and maintenance of schooling pelagic prey
the following spring. Recent satellite pop-up tagging by
upon which it feeds. Adults, juveniles, and post-partum
NMFS has conrmed active transboundary migration in this
pups occur within California waters.
species. Two common thresher sharks tagged in June off
After parturition and during their rst few years of life,
Laguna Beach and Santa Monica Bay, California, were relo-
the young occur close to shore off beaches and in shallow
cated off Baja California, Mexico, and 540 miles southwest
bays, often near the surface of the water. During most
of La Paz, Mexico, within 120 and 210 days of tagging.
years, concentrations of young threshers may be found
Recent genetic analyses of tissue biopsies collected
within two to three miles off the beaches from Santa
off the U.S. West Coast and Mexico (with samples
Monica Bay into Santa Barbara County, and as far north as
from off Oregon-Washington grouped together and com-
Monterey Bay and San Francisco Bay during warm water
pared to samples collected off California and Baja Cali-
years. One young thresher was tracked in Morro Bay for
fornia, Mexico) showed no signicant differences in haplo-
18 hours where it spent 70 percent of the time in shallow
typic frequencies, indicating a single homogenous West
water over mudats, increasing its activity at the onset
Coast population.
of darkness and during high tide periods. Larger mature
Reproduction is ovoviviparous; normal brood size appears
individuals over 10 feet in total length tend to show a
to be two to four fetuses. Brood sizes of up to seven
greater range of habitat and more offshore distribution.
fetuses have been recorded off Spain, indicating there
Some anecdotal evidence and patterns of observed
may be some plasticity in this trait. The developing
catches suggest seasonal north-south migration of this
fetuses are oophagous. Mating presumably takes place in
species between San Diego and Baja California, Mexico,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
340
midsummer along U.S. West Coast EEZ with a gestation size of sh and in catch-per-unit of effort has been noted
Thresher Shark
period of about nine months. Parturition is thought to in the thresher shark catch off Point Conception – an area
occur in the spring months off California, judging from the that historically has had the most consistent and highest
number of post-partum-sized pups that have been taken in thresher catches. It is not known, however, to what extent
the catch at this time. environmental changes and shifts in distribution might
inuence these observations, since this area is but a
Maximum size reported is 20 feet total length, but off
small portion of the total coastal range of the species.
California the largest ever recorded was 18 feet long. Size
The potential annual rate of population increase for the
at rst maturity has been variously estimated and inter-
common thresher shark at the maximum sustainable yield
preted. A re-examination of male and female maturity
population level has been estimated at four to seven
data suggests that off the U.S. West Coast, size and age
percent per year.
at rst maturity is about 10 feet in total length and about
ve years old.
Size at birth varies considerably, ranging from 45 to 61 Susan E. Smith
inches long, with only slight variation among geographical National Marine Fisheries Service
regions around the world. The species has been variously Debbie Aseltine-Neilson
estimated to reach a maximum age of from 19 to 50 years. California Department of Fish and Game
Feeding is primarily on small to medium-sized schooling
shes and pelagic invertebrates. Prey items include
References
anchovy, Pacic sardine, herring, mackerel, Pacic hake,
lancetsh, lanternsh, Pacic salmon, squid, octopus,
Bedford, D. 1987. Shark management: A case history – the
pelagic red crab, and shrimp. A recent study of the
California pelagic shark and swordsh shery. In S. Cook,
diet of sh taken in the drift gillnet shery found in addi-
ed Sharks-An Inquiry into biology, behavior, sheries, and
tion, Pacic and jack mackerel, shortbelly rocksh, louvar,
use, p. 161-171. Oregon State Univ. Extension Pub. EM
grunion, white croaker, queensh, and Pacic sanddab.
8330.
Thresher sharks have been observed to use their long
Cailliet, G. M., and Bedford, D. W. 1983. The biology of
caudal n to bunch up, disorient and stun prey at or near
three pelagic sharks from California waters, and their
the surface and are often caught tail-hooked by longlines.
emerging sheries: a review. California Cooperative Oce-
Predation on this species, other than by man, has not
anic Fisheries Investigations Reports XXIV, 57-69.
been documented.
Camhi, M. 1999. Sharks on the line II: An analysis of
Pacic state shark sheries. National Audubon Society,
Status of the Population Living Oceans Program, Islip, N.Y. 116 p.
I
Hanan, D.A., Holts D.B., Coan A.L., Jr. 1993. The Califor-
n 1990, this species came under the oversight of
nia drift gillnet shery for sharks and swordsh, 1981-1982
the Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, which
through 1990-91. Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 175,
has provided a general forum for coordinating thresher
95 p.
shark management among the states of California, Oregon
and Washington, guided by an interjurisdictional shery Holts, D.B., A.Julian, O. Sosa-Nishizaki and N.W. Bartoo.
management plan for thresher shark. No quotas were 1998. Pelagic shark sheries along the West Coast of the
ever established, but the three states did agree to an United States and Baja California, Mexico. Fish. Res. 39(2):
annual coastwide landings guideline of 750,000 pounds 115-125.
dressed weight of thresher shark, which since 1991 has
Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission (PSMFC). 1990.
never been approached. A stock assessment of this spe-
Interjurisdictional Fishery Management Plan for thresher
cies is currently underway, and it has been included as
shark off the coasts of California, Oregon and Washington
a management unit species within the Pacic Fisheries
(Stick,K., G. Fleming, A. Millikan, L. Hreha, and D. Hanson,
Management Council’s shery management plan for highly
eds). Pacic States Marine Fisheries Commission, Portland
migratory species, currently being drafted.
Oregon, 28 pp.
There are indications that management actions taken
after the mid-1980s and resulting reduction in shing pres-
sure may have contributed to a rebuilding in the stock
over the last decade. In the early-1990s, some mid-sized
sh were beginning to reappear in wholesale market sam-
ples in California. More recently, an increase in average
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 341
Blue Shark
History of the Fishery out the 1990s, blue shark harvest continually declined.
This may be due to the fact that most blue sharks
B lue sharks (Prionace glauca) are not a major target of are released alive. Shark shing trips aboard commercial
California’s recreational or commercial sheries. Urea passenger shing vessels (CPFVs) are offered from most
stored in their blood system quickly turns to ammonia southern California sport shing landings from two to
when the shark dies, thus rendering the meat unpalatable. seven nights per week during the summer.
Development of a quality meat product has been the The greatest source of shing mortality for southern Cali-
limiting factor in creating commercial interest. Only two fornia blue sharks in the past three decades probably
serious attempts at developing a quality food product in occurred as a result of their incidental capture during the
California have occurred. The rst took place in 1979 and developing years of the drift gillnet shery for swordsh
1980 when one vessel shed blue sharks experimentally and thresher sharks. Annual estimated bycatch in the
with longline gear. Product quality was judged to be good late 1970s and early 1980s was between 15,000 and
enough to establish blue shark as a viable alternate sh- 20,000 blue sharks. Changes in season length, eet size,
ery, and 150,000 pounds dressed meat were sold at about time-area closures and the use of large mesh nets substan-
$0.25 per pound. Although market interest developed in tially reduced blue shark mortality, although there are no
several western states, a steady demand could not be reported estimates of current mortality in this shery.
assured and the shery was discontinued.
The second attempt at developing a food product began
Status of Biological Knowledge
in 1988 with an experimental longline shery directed at
shortn mako and blue shark. Participants in the shery
T he blue shark is an oceanic-epipelagic and fringe lit-
were required to develop a market for human consump-
toral species with a circumglobal distribution. It is
tion with the bycatch of blue sharks, which were not
found in all temperate and tropical oceans and is thought
released alive. In 1989 and 1990, a total of 54,000 pounds
to be the most wide-ranging shark species. Although this
of blue shark was sold for making jerky and “sh and
species can be found in oceanic waters between 43˚F
chips.” It was clear from these attempts, however, that
and 82˚F, it is most commonly found in cooler water
a quality food product and related market had not been
temperatures between 45 F and 61˚F. In tropical waters,
achieved. Participants in the shery substantially reduced
blue sharks show submergence and are typically found
the incidental mortality of blue sharks by developing a
at greater depths. In temperate waters, blue sharks
hook removal tool, which allowed up to 88 percent of the
are caught within the mixed layer and generally range
blue shark catch to be released alive. As a result, the
between the surface and the top of the thermocline,
requirement to develop a wholesale market for blue sharks
but have been documented as deep as 2,145 feet. In the
was dropped in 1991. Between 1991 and 1999, the com-
Pacic, blue sharks are most predominant between 35˚N
mercial harvest of blue sharks dropped to 37,500 pounds.
and 45˚N.
The recreational catch of blue sharks grew tremendously
Age and growth studies of blue sharks indicate that they
throughout the 1980s. Estimated annual catch increased
may reach maturity in six to seven years, although there
ten-fold between 1981 and 1988 with over 400,000 angler-
may be regional differences in growth. They are thought
trips on private boats, which had “sharks” (including
to be opportunistic feeders at all life stages and prey
mako sharks) as the primary or secondary target species.
primary on small pelagic shes, crustaceans, and ceph-
Although angler effort for “sharks” remained high through-
alopods. Blue sharks off southern California have also
been shown to exhibit seasonal dietary shifts when
prey such as squid become abundant during their mass
spawning events.
The blue shark is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta.
Litter size is quite variable ranging from four to 135 pups
and may be dependent on the size of the female. In
the Pacic, it is thought that mating occurs during the
summer months in the equatorial region from May through
August. Gestation period is thought to range from nine
to 12 months and may vary depending on location. Off
California, mating occurs in late spring to early winter.
The Southern California Bight is a major birthing area and
is generally considered a nursery area for immature blue
Blue Shark, Prionace glauca
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
342
Blue Shark
250
thousands of pounds landed
200
Blue Shark
Commercial Landings
150
1916-1999, Blue Shark
Data Source: DFG Catch
100 Bulletins and commercial
landing receipts. All shark
landings were aggregated
50
under the market category
“unspecified shark” until
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 1977.
sharks. Female blue sharks have been shown to exhibit Most of the larger catches of blue sharks have been made
sperm storage, which may also explain variability in gesta- in or just south of this zone.
tion period estimates. Late-term pregnant females are Diel movements of blue sharks acoustically tracked off
found in the northern Pacic in summer months where southern California and in the North Atlantic indicate that
they give birth to large, well-developed pups averaging 14 adult blue sharks increase their activity at night and make
inches. This suggests that mature females in the Pacic shallower dives than during the day. Sharks tracked off
may only reproduce every other year. southern California ventured inshore at night, presumably
Seasonal migrations are thought to occur in the Atlantic, to feed on seasonally available spawning squid. The cycli-
Pacic, and Indian Ocean populations with seasonal peri- cal diving behavior is thought to serve as a hunting,
ods of sexual segregation. A shark tagging program orientation, and/or thermoregulatory function.
recently initiated by the department may further elu- Although adult blue sharks are opportunistic feeders and
cidate the migratory movements of blue sharks in the prey mainly on small pelagic shes, cephalopods, and
eastern Pacic. However, because no blue shark-tag and crustacean, they have also been observed scavenging on
recapture programs have been initiated in the central marine mammal carcasses at sea. Unfortunately, there are
Pacic, the extent of blue shark migration in the central few data on the diet composition of blue sharks in the
Pacic is still unconrmed. central Pacic.
Blue sharks appear to aggregate in loose schools and are
generally caught more frequently over depths greater than
Status of the Population
3,300 feet. They exhibit daily diving behavior similar to
that of other pelagic shes and sharks and appear to
T he size of California’s blue shark stock is unknown.
show a fair degree of niche overlap with swordsh. Blue
Local abundance undergoes major seasonal uctua-
sharks are incidentally caught in pelagic longline tuna
tions with juveniles to three year olds most abundant
and swordsh sheries in the Pacic and can seasonally
in the coastal waters from early spring to early winter.
comprise the largest percentage of the catch in these
Mature adults are uncommon in coastal waters.
sheries. In recent years, there has been an increase in
Fishery-dependent data needed for determining abun-
the number of blue sharks taken in the tuna and swordsh
dance, mortality, etc. are lacking because blue sharks
longline shery in Hawaii, where sharks are “nned” at
are usually discarded at sea and the catch often goes
sea, and the ns are then sold to Asian markets. The
undocumented. Local abundance depends on recruitment
meat is seldom landed and sold at market due its low
of juveniles and immigration of individuals from Mexico
commercial value.
and offshore into California waters. Although there are no
Based on spatial and temporal changes in blue shark
abundance estimates (local or Pacic-wide), some sher-
abundance in the Pacic, it is suspected that the north-
men and eld biologists speculate that there are fewer
south difference in catch rates of blue sharks is mediated
blue sharks than there were 10 to 20 years ago. The
by the transition zone. This is the area of water between
combined mortality from recreational anglers, commercial
the cooler Aleutian Current and the warmer water from
set net and drift net sheries, Mexican sheries and for-
the North Pacic Current. This transition zone shifts from
eign high seas sheries undoubtedly has the potential
31° N and 36° N in the winter to 41° N and 36° N in the fall.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 343
References
to impact the population and the local blue shark stock
Blue Shark
to an unknown extent. Currently though, all research
Cailliet G.M. and D.W. Bedford. 1983. The biology of three
and statistics indicate that blue shark populations within
pelagic sharks from California waters and their emerging
California waters remain within healthy levels.
sheries: A review. Cal. COFI Rep. 24:57-60.
Carey, F.G. and J.A. Scharold. 1990. Movements of blue
David B. Holts
sharks in depth and course. Marine Biology, 109: 329-342.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Harvey, J.T., 1989. Food habits, seasonal abundance, size,
Carrie Wilson
and sex of the blue shark, Prionace glauca, in Monterey
California Dept. of Fish and Game
Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 75(1):33-44.
Christopher G. Lowe
Nakano, H. 1994. Age, reproduction and migration of blue
Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State University
shark in the North Pacic Ocean. Bull. Nat. Res. Inst. Far
Long Beach
Seas Fish. 31:141-256.
Pratt, H.L. 1979. Reproduction in the blue shark, Prionace
glauca.. Fish. Bull. US. 77(2): 445-470.
West Coast Fishery Development Foundation. 1981. A
report on the development of the Pacic blue shark
as a commercial shery. NMFS, S-K Contract No:
80-ABH-00052. 255 p.
Strasburg, D.W. 1958. The distribution, abundance, and
habits of blue sharks in the central Pacic Ocean. Bulletin,
Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, 58: 331-365.
Tricas, T.A. 1979. Relationships of the blue shark, Prionace
glauca, to its prey species near Santa Catalina Island.
Fishery Bulletin, 77:175-182.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
344
Other Mackerel
Sharks Basking sharks are presumed to be ovoviviparous, but
Other Mackerel Sharks
whether they have intrauterine cannibalism like other
lamnoids is uncertain. Gravid females have never been
History of the Fishery observed in this species. Males mature at about 13 to 16
feet, and females at about 27 to 29 feet. The maximum
T he mackerel sharks (Order Lamniformes) are a small, size for this species is 36 feet. The smallest recorded
but diverse group containing seven families, six of free-living basking shark measured 5.6 feet, but size at
which occur along the California coast. In addition to birth is unknown. Maturity has been estimated at six to
mako and thresher sharks, there are three additional seven years, although the aging technique has never been
mackerel shark species that are caught or have been veried for this species and may underestimate the age
shed along the coast, the basking shark (Cetorhinus by one-half. These sharks may live for 30 to 50 years or
maximus), white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), and
salmon shark (Lamna ditropis).
The basking shark was the object of a localized harpoon
shery off the central California coast, but the shery was
sporadic due to periodic declines in the stocks. As with
most shark species, the basking shark is slow growing,
long-lived and probably produces relatively few young.
The California basking shark shery began in the 1930s,
and peaked during the 1940s and 1950s. They were shed
for their oil-rich livers, which were used for tanning
leather and as a base for paints and cosmetics. In addi-
tion, they were utilized for food for human consumption, Basking Shark, Cetorhinus maximus
Credit: DFG
and their ns were used as soup stock. Presently, there is
no shery for these sharks in state coastal waters.
Since they are not abundant enough to be of commercial
importance, there has never been a directed shery for
white sharks off California. They are often taken inciden-
tally in commercial catches and by sport anglers. The
meat is of good quality, the ns may be used as soup
stock, and the teeth and jaws as decorations or jewelry.
Although they have not been targeted in California, the
state nevertheless imposed a ban on white shark shing
in 1993. This followed similar bans in Australia and South
Africa where local artisan sheries for this species had
taken place.
Salmon sharks are not very abundant off California and
are mainly taken as a bycatch to other species. The meat
White Sharks circling research boat, Carcharodon carcharias
is of high quality and is readily sold along with the ns, Credit: DFG
which are used for soup stock. Fishermen often consider
salmon sharks an annoyance because they destroy shing
gear used in more commercially important sheries such
as those for salmon.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he basking shark is a coastal pelagic species usually
found in areas where the water temperature is
between 46° and 57° F. They are found close inshore to
well offshore at depths of over 330 feet, but usually over
the continental shelf. A common species from the Gulf of
Salmon Shark, Lamna ditropis
Alaska to the Gulf of California, although they appear to Credit: DFG
be less abundant south of Point Conception.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 345
Other Mackerel Sharks
10
millions of pounds landed
8
Unspecified Shark 6
Commercial Landings
4
1916-1999,
Unspecified Shark
2
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial land-
ing receipts. All shark landings 0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
were aggregated until 1977.
more. Basking sharks grow at an estimated rate of about ern California, while intermediate sized animals are more
16 inches per year, but with the onset of maturity this rate common in northern California waters.
slows considerably. White sharks are oviphagous, with litters of between three
The basking shark is one of three gigantic lter-feeding and 14 young. The low frequency with which pregnant
species of shark and feeds almost exclusively on small females have been captured suggests that they may segre-
planktonic organisms that it traps in its gill rakers. The gate away from the main population and that only a
prey items include small copepods, barnacles, crusta- small proportion of the population may be gravid at any
ceans, and sh eggs and larvae. Approximately one-half one time. The Channel Islands off southern California
ton of food material may be present in the stomach of seem to be an area where large females and small white
an individual shark. It has been estimated that an adult sharks are occasionally captured, leading to speculation
basking shark cruising at a constant speed of two knots that females may give birth there. Size at maturity is
passes approximately 2,000 tons of water over its gills per somewhat problematic for females since few pregnant
hour. Adult basking sharks probably have few predators due individuals have been captured and accurately measured,
to their enormous size, young specimens though are preyed but 15 to 16.5 feet appears to be a close approximation.
upon by white sharks, sperm whales, and killer whales. Males mature at about 12 feet and grow to about 18 feet.
The largest reliably measured white shark from California
Basking sharks are highly migratory, appearing and then
waters measured 18.8 feet; however, there is an uncon-
disappearing seasonally at specic localities. These sharks
rmed record of one individual that measured 33 feet.
are especially abundant between October and April off
The size at birth is four to ve feet. The growth rate of
the California coast but move northward to Washington
white sharks has been estimated to be around 12 inches
and British Columbia during late spring and summer. Bask-
per year, and they may live to a maximum age of 30 years
ing sharks are very social animals and are often observed
or more.
in small groups of three to 10, but at times number up to
500 or more individuals. The white shark is perhaps the most formidable of large
marine predators. It has a broad spectrum of prey species
The white shark has a worldwide distribution from cold
that includes bony shes, other sharks, rays, and marine
temperate to tropical waters, though it is most common
mammals. Sharks over 10 feet long tend to feed on marine
in temperate waters between 53° and 68° F. In the east-
mammals while those less than 6.5 feet feed more on bony
ern North Pacic the white shark occurs from the Gulf
and cartilaginous shes. White sharks tend to congregate
of Alaska to the Gulf of California. It is fairly common
around seal rookeries, especially when these mammals are
off central California and around the offshore islands of
breeding. Sub-adult and young non-breeding adult seals
southern California.
appear to be most susceptible to predation.
The white shark occurs along the nearshore waters of
The salmon shark range in the eastern Pacic Ocean is
the California coast, including bays and estuaries, but
from the Bering Sea to central Baja California. It is a
sometimes may be oceanic since individuals are common
coastal and oceanic shark of subarctic and temperate
around the offshore islands. There seems to be some
waters, most often found in temperatures of less then 64 °
spatial segregation by size, as young white sharks under
F and depths less than 1,200 feet. The salmon shark is
eight and older ones over 16 feet are common off south-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
346
References
common on continental offshore waters to close inshore,
Other Mackerel Sharks
but also ranges far from land, over deep oceanic waters.
Ainley, D.G., R.H. Henderson, H.R. Huber, R.J. Boekel-
Salmon sharks are oviphagous with litters of two to
heide, S.G. Allen, and T.L. McElroy. 1985. Dynamics of
ve young. Birth usually occurs in the spring between
white shark/pinniped interactions in the Gulf of the Faral-
March and May after a 12-month gestation. Males mature
lones. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Mem. 9: 109-122.
between six and eight feet, and females at 6.25 to 8.25
Cailliet, G.M., L.J. Natanson, B.A. Welden, & D.A. Ebert.
feet. The maximum reported size is 10 feet. Size at birth
1985. Preliminary studies on the age and growth of
is 25.5 to 31.5 inches. Estimated age at maturity is ve
the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, using vertebral
years for males and nine or 10 years for females, with a
bands. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci. Mem. 9: 49-60.
maximum age of between 20 and 30 years.
Parker, H.W. and F.C. Stott. 1965. Age, size, and vertebral
The salmon shark feeds mostly on bony shes. They may
calcication in the basking shark, Cetorhinus maximus.
follow their main prey, salmon, as they migrate around
Zool Meded., 40(34): 305-319.
the North Pacic Ocean basin. Salmon sharks are known
to forage in groups of 30 to 40 individuals using social Paust, B.C. and R. Smith. 1986. Salmon shark manuel.
facilitation to hunt salmon and other schooling species. The development of a commercial salmon shark, Lamna
When attacking a school of salmon these sharks usually ditropis, shery in the North Pacic. Uni. Alaska, Alaska
initiate the attack from below and catch their prey by Sea Grant Rept. 86-01, May 1986: 1-430.
running it down in a high-speed chase rather than
ambushing it.
Status of the Populations
T he basking shark has not been commercially shed for
more than 30 years, and no recent stock assessment
has been made.
Although no demographic studies exist to estimate the
white shark’s population in our area, circumstantial evi-
dence suggests that their numbers may be increasing in
response to the burgeoning marine mammal population.
With California’s increasing human population this may
inevitably lead to more human-shark interactions. One
researcher has estimated that between 10 and 20 white
sharks are caught per year along the California coast.
Unfortunately, more accurate data are unavailable.
There is virtually no information on the salmon shark’s
abundance and stock structure in the eastern North Pacic.
David Ebert
US Abalone
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 347
Opah
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
O O
pah (Lampris guttatus) are taken commercially as ne of two living species known within the Lampridae
an incidental catch in the drift gillnet shery (94 family, this species is most commonly referred to by
percent), but are also captured in the high seas longline its West African name, opah; however, it may also be
shery (three percent) beyond the U.S. Exclusive Eco- called African pompano, giant pompano, Hawaiian moon-
nomic Zone (200 mile limit) off California. Prior to 1976, sh, moonsh, mariposa or Jerusalem haddock. The genus
they were also recorded as incidental catch in the Pacic Lampris is derived from the Greek lampros meaning radi-
halibut, sardine, salmon, and albacore sheries. ant, while the species guttatus is likely derived from
the Latin word for spot, guttat. The opah’s laterally com-
Between 1976 and 1989, only 1,660,856 pounds of opah
pressed, oval body is an iridescent, silvery-blue with
were landed in California, with no landings in some years,
round to oval white spots. The snout, lips and ns are a
and the largest landings following the 1982-1983 El Niño
brilliant red. The bones of the small, toothless mouth are
(516,126 pounds in 1984). Between 1990 and 1999, approx-
capable of protruding forward, forming an unusual upper
imately 1,470,653 pounds of opah were landed in Califor-
jaw mechanism employed during feeding. The forked
nia, with annual landings ranging from 81,669 to 246,530
caudal n and lateral red musculature likely function in
pounds. The highest landings of the decade occurred in
low-speed swimming, the caudal n and lateral white
1998; once again associated with a warm water event (the
musculature in acceleration and the moderately long pec-
1997-1998 El Niño). Although the majority of opah landed
toral ns in maintaining normal cruising speeds. The
in California since 1990 were landed from San Luis Obispo
modes of locomotion associated with the opah’s muscula-
County south (about 50 percent from San Diego County
ture are well-suited to its pelagic lifestyle. Many pelagic
alone), landings were reported as far north as Crescent City.
shes undergo periods of sustained swimming with inter-
Sport shermen targeting albacore from British Columbia
mittent bursts of speed used during activities such as
to Baja California occasionally catch opah. Within Califor-
feeding. The opah maintains neutral buoyancy by means
nia, many sport caught opah are taken from the northern
of a functional air bladder and a skeletal structure of
Channel Islands south to the Coronado Islands, just below
oil-lled, porous bones.
the U.S.-Mexico border. Anglers state that opah hit live
Opah occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas. In
bait or articial lures with considerable fury.
the eastern Pacic, they occur from Chile to the Gulf of
Opah esh is tasty, can be prepared in a variety of ways,
Alaska. All life stages of this species are pelagic and oce-
and is excellent when smoked. The salmon-colored esh,
anic, occurring from the sea surface to a depth of 1,680
darker over the pectoral n, is very fatty just below the
feet. Seasonal movements are not known in the northeast-
skin but is otherwise rich, dry, rm and delicate.
ern Pacic, but in the northeastern Atlantic opah catch
has been reported in the North Sea and waters off Iceland
solely during the summer.
Little is known about opah reproduction. Spawning loca-
tions and seasons are unknown; however, a mature female
was taken in the spring off California. Neither reproduc-
tive capacity nor the size of eggs is known. Very small
opah, nearly one-half inch long, resemble miniature adults
in body form, and have a complete set of n rays. Fish up
to eight inches in length are referred to as juveniles while
those greater than 41 inches are called adults, although
the exact size and age at maturity is unknown. Opah
are known to grow to at least 54 inches in length, but
have been reported to reach 72 inches. They are known
to reach a weight of at least 160 pounds and have been
reported to reach 500 to 600 pounds. The maximum age
of opah is unknown.
The diet of larvae and juveniles is undetermined. As
adults, opah are midwater predators that eat cephalo-
pods, crustaceans and bony shes such as anchovy, lan-
cetsh, and cutlasssh. Aside from humans, predators of
Opah, Lampris guttatus
Credit: J.B. Philips opah have not been documented.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
348
Opah
600
thousands of pounds landed
500
400
Opah
300 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Opah
200
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
100
landing receipts. Commercial
landing data not available for
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 Opah prior to 1976.
Status of the Population References
T he size of the opah population, worldwide or off the Freeman, K. 1984. Opah the moonsh. Pacic Fishing.
coast of California is not known. Opah are probably August: 25-27.
solitary sh as few are encountered at any one time. It Herald, E. S. 1939. The opah (Lampris regius) and its
is not known whether local subpopulations exist or how occurrence off the California coast. Calif. Fish Game 25(3):
far individual opah travel. Based upon trends over the 228-232.
last two decades, opah landings in California are likely to
Olney, J.E., G.D. Johnson, and C.C. Baldwin. 1993. Phylog-
increase after El Niño events.
eny of lampridiform shes. Bulletin of Marine Science
52(1): 137-169.
Management Considerations Parin, N. V., and N. S. Kukuyev. 1983. Reestablishment
of the validity of Lampris immaculata Gilchrist and the
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for geographical distribution of the Lampridae. J. Ichthyol.
further information. 23(1): 1-12.
Sarah D. MacWilliams
California Department of Fish and Game
M. James Allen
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 349
Louvar
History of the Fishery year but overall have remained relatively stable, with an
average of 10,923 pounds (1986-1989), and 9,584 pounds
O ff California, louvar (Luvarus imperialis) tend to be (1990-1999).
seasonal transients associated with warm water cur- Landings off California from 1990 through 1999 had a total
rents late in the year. When present, they are considered ex-vessel value of $297,500 with an average of $29,750
a desirable, but incidental catch species primarily in the per year. The ex-vessel price per pound ranged from
shark and swordsh drift gillnet shery. Although primar- $2.48 in 1992 to $3.71 in 1998, with a mean value of $3.20.
ily taken in this shery, landings from other gear types Although landing amounts have remained relatively con-
such as set gillnet, hook-and-line, harpoon, trawl, and stant, the average price paid for louvar has increased over
round haul nets have been recorded. The majority of three-fold since 1986. Louvar esh is delicate and white
catches occur off the Southern California Bight, with suc- with a mild avor, and is considered by many shermen to
cess being highest in the area encompassing Point Loma, be among the most delicious of shes. This admiration has
San Clemente Island, and Cortez Bank. In the drift gillnet been carried over to the markets where the fresh sh are
shery, sh tend to be caught at depths of 18 to 78 feet. sold to the better restaurants.
Inasmuch as louvar are strongly associated with warmer
water currents, catches of this species typically increase
Status of Biological Knowledge
during the late summer through fall and show a dramatic
rise during strong El Niño events. Louvar occasionally are
L uvarus imperialis, meaning “silver emperor,” is the
found stranded on the beach or drifting dead at the sea
only member of the family Luvaridae. This streamlined
surface. There is not a signicant recreational shery
sh has a strongly compressed body and a blunt head with
for louvar.
a small, terminal, toothless mouth and a horizontal groove
From 1990 through 1999, a total of 95,844 pounds were
above each eye. The caudal n is lunate with a keel on the
landed in California; annual landings ranged from 5,190
caudal peduncle. Males have long laments in front of the
pounds in 1994 to 17,498 pounds in 1992. Annual landings
soft dorsal and anal ns. Adults have frothy pink bodies
since the mid-1980s have shown uctuations from year-to-
covered with dark spots and crimson ns, although after
death the body turns silvery. Except for the blunt head,
louvar are adapted for rapid swimming, with their lunate
caudal n and keeled caudal peduncle. When swimming
slowly, louvar presumably scull with their caudal n.
Louvar occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas.
In the eastern Pacic they are found from central Wash-
ington to Chile. Although generally uncommon, they are
relatively abundant in southern California. All life stages
of this species are pelagic and oceanic. Adults occur from
the sea surface to a depth of 1,970 feet, but most are
found at depths below 660 feet. The larvae have been
taken at temperatures of 70.9-82.2° F. Spawning occurs
in temperate waters between 40° N and 40° S latitude,
from late spring to summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
A ripe individual was taken off Morro Bay, California in
May. Louvar fecundity is very high, which is typical of non-
schooling, oceanic shes; a female 66.9 inches (5.6 feet)
long had a fecundity of 47.5 million eggs.
Larvae range from 0.14 to 0.42 inches in length. The
larvae and small juveniles look sufciently different from
the adult that they were once thought to be different
species. They have strong, serrated dorsal and anal spines
and a short body. The smallest juveniles have long, deep
ns and dark spots on the body. Larger juveniles (four
to eight inches) are similar to the adult but have longer
dorsal and anal ns.
Louvar, Luvarus imperialis
Credit: Charles Cranford
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
350
Louvar
20
thousands of pounds landed
16
12
Louvar
8 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Louvar
4 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
and commercial landing receipts.
Commercial landing data are not
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 available prior to 1984.
Management Considerations
The size and age of louvar at rst maturity is not known;
however, a 295-pound female was mature. Louvar grow to
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
at least 74 inches and 305 pounds. Because the otoliths
further information.
are tiny and not useful for aging, the maximum age
is unknown.
As midwater browsers, they feed primarily on gelatinous Michael Dege
zooplankton such as jellysh, ctenophores, and free- California Department of Fish and Game
swimming tunicates (salps and pyrosomes), but occasion-
M. James Allen
ally eat small sh. Only about 20 percent of the louvar
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
taken have had food in their stomachs.
The louvar stomach is lined with numerous papillae and
References
the coiled intestine is extremely long. The intestine of
adults is about eight to nine times as long as the sh.
Decamps, P. 1986. Luvaridae. Pages 998-999 In: P. J. P.
These features presumably are adaptations for feeding
Whitehead, M.-L. Bauchot, J-C. Hureau, J. Nielson, and E.
on jellysh.
Tortonese (eds.), Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and
An eight-inch louvar was found in the stomach of a wahoo.
the Mediterranean, Vol. 2. UNESCO, Paris, Fr.
Otherwise, predators other than man are not known. The
Fitch, J.E., and R. J. Lavenberg. 1968. Deep-water Fishes of
gastrointestinal areas of louvar are often parasitized by
California. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, CA. 155 p.
digenean trematodes.
Gotshall, D. W., and J. E. Fitch. 1968. The louvar Luvarus
imperialis in the eastern Pacic, with notes on its life
Status of the Population history. Copeia 1968(1):181-183.
T
Nishikawa, Y. 1987. Larval morphology and occurrence of
he size of the louvar population worldwide or off
the louvar, Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae). Jpn. J. Ichthyol.
California is not known. Louvar are solitary sh and
34(2):215-221.
few are taken at any one time. Because the population is
worldwide in tropical and temperate seas, the California Tyler, J. C., G. D. Johnson, I. Nakamura, and B. B. Collette.
shery probably has little impact on the species as a 1989. Morphology of Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae), with a
whole. It is not known whether local subpopulations exist phylogenetic analysis of the Acanthuroidei (Pisces). Smith-
or how far individual louvar travel. Using recent landings son. Contrib. Zool. No. 485. 78 p.
as an indicator, the local availability of the species is likely
to become more abundant off California following warm
water periods or El Niño events. Although commercial
landings of louvar are recorded by the California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, the louvar is not presently a
target species and the shery is not actively managed.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 351
Dolphin
History of the Fishery is also a species that commonly associates with surface
oating objects, and thus may have evolved avoidance
T he dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus), also known as mahi capabilities that prevent it from becoming entangled in
mahi, or more commonly in California, as dorado, drifting materials.
occurs in the California recreational catch primarily during
warm water years. Most catches occur in the Southern
Status of Biological Knowledge
California Bight, especially south of Los Angeles. Before
1972, the annual California commercial passenger shing
G rowth in dolphin is extremely rapid. Fish reach matu-
vessel (CPFV) catches during the July through October
rity in less than a year (at about 14 inches or seven
shing season seldom exceeded a few hundred sh. There-
months old) and only rarely live beyond three to four
after over 1,000 were taken in 23 of the next 25 seasons.
years. Actual growth rates vary among regions and are
A major shift occurred in 1990 when the catch exceeded
sensitive to prevailing water temperatures. In captivity,
31,000 sh, and averaged 15,602 sh per year between
dolphin grow about 0.05 inches per day at 64˚F, 0.13
1990 and 1997 (range: 1,000 to 31,548).
inches per day at 77˚F, and 0.23 inches per day at 84˚F.
In commercial sheries, an estimated average of 1,084 Length/age data from sh taken in the wild show dolphin
dolphin have been landed and 324 released per year by have an average growth of about a 0.09 inches per day.
the high seas longline shery landing in California during In the western Pacic, dolphin reach a length of 15 inches
the period August 1,1995, through December 31, 1999. It the rst year, 27 inches the second year, 35 inches the
is occasionally taken by albacore bait and troll boats and third year, and 43 inches the fourth year.
tuna purse seine vessels. It is rare in the drift gillnet
Larval dolphin feed mainly on crustaceans, particularly
catch, possibly because its surface-swimming habits take
pontellid copepods, with sh larvae appearing in the diet
it above the reach of the top of these nets. Judging from
of young juveniles greater than eight inches. Adult dolphin
the length of net extenders deployed, observed sets have
are mainly piscivorous, with ying sh being the most
averaged about 35 feet below the surface over the past
important in volume and occurrence. Jacks, mackerels,
decade. During the summer of 1996, when over 21,000
rabbitshes, squids and portunid crabs are also taken in
dorado were taken by the CPFV eet, the >68˚ F layer
various parts of their range. Adults can swim faster than
was observed to be less than 33 feet deep, indicating
33 feet per second, and can feed at low light levels.
a very shallow suitable habitat zone for dolphin. This
All life stages of dolphin serve as prey for other oceanic
shes, particularly marlin, epipelagic sharks, swordsh,
sailsh, and other dolphin.
There is little information about Pacic Ocean migrations,
but dolphin are thought to migrate relatively long dis-
tances in the western Atlantic and Mediterranean. In the
eastern Pacic, temperature seems to be an important
factor in dening the range and possibly the movements of
this species, the northern barrier being the California Cur-
rent, and in the south, the Peru Current. Various authors
report seasonal patterns in catches, possibly relating to
spawning migrations or seasonal intrusion of preferred
warm water temperatures. Norton noted the dramatic
increase in recreational catches of dolphin off southern
California and northern Mexico over the past 30 years
(especially during the last decade). He suggested that
the habitat of dolphin has been expanding northward
in response to an oceanic and atmospheric regime shift
that has brought periods of warmer water and enhanced
northward current ow to California. It has also brought
less cold water upwelling off northern Mexico, which had
formerly inhibited northward dispersal.
Dolphin are oviparous with pelagic eggs and larvae; fertil-
ization is external. Spawning is thought to occur year
round in waters above 75˚ F, although there may be
Dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus
Credit: NMFS
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
352
Dolphin
90
thousands of pounds landed
80
70
60
Dolphin
50
Commercial Landings
40
1916-1999, Dolphin
30 Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
20 and commercial landing
10 receipts. No commercial land-
ings are reported for dolphin
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 prior to 1977.
Status of the Population
reproductive peaks with eggs released in batches within
a given reproductive pulse. Fecundity increases sharply
T he status of the population is unknown. Since Califor-
with size, and assuming three spawns a year, estimated
nia is on the northern range of dolphin, our sheries
total egg production varies from about 240,000 to almost
may be subject to a great deal of variation due to changes
3 million eggs per year for sh. Certain times of the year
in oceanographic patterns and even moderate variations
may be more conducive to larval survival, e.g., in Hawaii
in stock size.
the strongest cohorts are spawned in July. Spawning of
the California-Mexico dolphin population evidently takes
place in waters south of the U.S. West Coast EEZ. In
Management Considerations
CalCOFI larval sh surveys, larvae have been collected
off central and southern Baja California, Mexico, and only
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
occasionally in warm water years, off southern California,
further information.
with peak abundance in August and September. Age at
Susan Smith
female maturity is 0.6 years with maximum reproductive
National Marine Fisheries Service
age at four.
Stephen J. Crooke
Little is known of stock structure in the Pacic. Because of
California Department of Fish and Game
the dolphin’s brief life-cycle and seasonal catch patterns,
it seems unlikely that the U.S.-Mexico stock is shared
with Hawaii or shing nations in the central and western
References
Pacic, however, stock mixing cannot be ruled out. The
relationship of the Mexico stock to stocks occurring fur-
Lasso, J. and L. Zapata. 1999. Fisheries and biology
ther south along the Pacic coast of Central and South
of Coryphaena hippurus (Pisces: Coryphaenidae) in the
American is not known. Because seasonal migrations in
Pacic Coast of Columbia and Panama. Scientia Marina 63
the North Pacic show a reverse tendency to that in the
(3-4): 387-399.
Southern Hemisphere, there may be at least two stocks in
Massutí, E. and B. Morales-Nin (eds.) 1999. Biology and
the Pacic Ocean separated by the equator.
Fishery of Dorado and Related Species. Scientia Marina
63(3-4):261-266.
35
Norton, J.G. 1999. Apparent habitat extensions of dorado
30
thousands of fish landed
(Coryphaena hippurus) in response to climate transients in
25
Dolphin
the California Current. Scientia Marina 63(3-4):239-260.
20
15
Palko, B.J., G.L. Beardsley, and W.J. Richards. 1982. Syn-
10
opsis of the biological data on dolphin-shes, Coryphaena
5
hippurus Linnaeus and Coryphaena equiselis Linnaeus. FAO
0 1947
Fisheries Synopsis No.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Dolphin
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 353
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Tunas Sharks
Albacore Bluefin Skipjack Yellowfin Blue Shortfin Thresher Unspecified
Tuna1 Tuna1 Tuna 2 Tuna 2 Shark3 Mako Shark3 Shark3 Shark3
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 22,899,309 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 36,247
1917 30,556,242 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 287,872
1918 7,265,422 ---- 3,022,964 ---- ---- ---- ---- 403,093
1919 13,630,899 14,990,860 6,892,427 348,081 ---- ---- ---- 612,683
1920 18,876,647 10,530,272 7,957,277 1,965,024 ---- ---- ---- 811,349
1921 15,276,727 1,971,813 1,134,993 1,297,451 ---- ---- ---- 539,333
1922 13,231,823 2,811,283 11,857,833 7,405,279 ---- ---- ---- 282,018
1923 12,514,833 3,218,090 11,462,522 10,836,925 ---- ---- ---- 360,363
1924 17,695,362 3,241,110 3,774,058 3,063,398 ---- ---- ---- 392,634
1925 22,206,923 3,803,677 14,222,453 13,237,898 ---- ---- ---- 372,332
1926 2,469,921 6,526,533 20,951,348 12,564,986 ---- ---- ---- 506,723
1927 4,656,959 4,898,465 33,805,960 25,933,966 ---- ---- ---- 325,653
1928 4,065,729 13,700,870 15,946,910 32,253,206 ---- ---- ---- 623,816
1929 6,110,330 7,526,857 27,066,588 37,444,924 ---- ---- ---- 833,985
1930 7,288,685 21,921,282 20,485,587 56,657,768 ---- ---- ---- 647,297
1931 6,976,401 3,534,030 16,506,761 36,581,376 ---- ---- ---- 596,134
1932 3,087,215 2,125,001 21,636,577 36,923,410 ---- ---- ---- 850,888
1933 2,794,452 1,449,828 17,093,041 51,075,630 ---- ---- ---- 471,030
1934 4,287,296 18,357,828 16,409,439 61,137,102 ---- ---- ---- 526,280
1935 5,678,793 25,319,614 19,803,954 72,294,127 ---- ---- ---- 555,256
1936 2,456,004 19,669,935 29,271,030 78,361,272 ---- ---- ---- 471,861
1937 4,743,709 13,217,984 54,698,995 92,406,606 ---- ---- ---- 914,205
1938 13,574,635 17,732,359 26,152,974 78,363,005 ---- ---- ---- 7,504,329
1939 16,423,234 11,835,715 31,186,950 110,417,801 ---- ---- ---- 9,227,750
1940 7,078,334 19,970,268 56,910,522 113,898,209 ---- ---- ---- 7,860,030
1941 4,314,508 9,519,012 25,707,064 76,701,820 ---- ---- ---- 7,617,334
1942 11,091,866 12,844,564 38,735,228 41,466,614 ---- ---- ---- 3,551,566
1943 21,384,864 10,178,768 28,893,784 49,261,328 ---- ---- ---- 3,729,334
1944 20,989,479 20,343,550 30,037,236 63,143,891 ---- ---- ---- 2,613,431
1945 21,333,779 20,594,309 33,347,896 87,331,440 ---- ---- ---- 2,438,096
1946 18,077,899 22,031,802 41,087,994 127,246,675 ---- ---- ---- 1,608,846
1947 13,427,281 20,837,673 52,460,168 150,459,384 ---- ---- ---- 2,637,926
1948 37,609,789 6,696,987 58,771,706 191,723,981 ---- ---- ---- 2,480,555
1949 44,290,320 4,389,471 78,574,657 185,612,094 ---- ---- ---- 1,550,992
1950 66,123,624 2,846,841 128,041,078 190,446,466 ---- ---- ---- 717,247
1951 48,436,233 3,864,530 118,637,672 173,668,653 ---- ---- ---- 842,324
1952 72,328,772 4,576,685 88,891,667 185,517,690 ---- ---- ---- 623,238
1953 80,022,721 9,835,062 130,653,919 140,544,952 ---- ---- ---- 449,753
1954 64,573,673 21,795,967 169,463,946 149,103,693 ---- ---- ---- 770,337
1955 73,846,973 13,952,523 120,524,989 162,818,007 ---- ---- ---- 576,201
1956 57,377,986 12,788,843 135,995,434 203,885,507 ---- ---- ---- 1,085,314
1957 83,089,272 20,637,570 111,436,303 182,041,635 ---- ---- ---- 728,900
1958 54,673,098 31,477,208 148,158,256 218,075,149 ---- ---- ---- 491,713
1959 62,482,446 15,797,703 146,194,191 210,992,058 ---- ---- ---- 602,191
1960 71,452,175 13,416,411 74,798,635 272,648,098 ---- ---- ---- 694,191
1961 59,414,251 22,155,190 86,747,632 262,310,262 ---- ---- ---- 623,972
1962 73,354,129 33,119,729 99,059,469 218,148,910 ---- ---- ---- 753,177
1963 65,804,803 32,701,801 106,284,833 162,326,222 ---- ---- ---- 665,367
1964 74,720,964 26,831,939 72,554,280 202,855,729 ---- ---- ---- 646,569
1965 68,025,134 16,734,506 89,919,213 196,435,355 ---- ---- ---- 648,265
1966 73,908,838 37,939,210 65,225,532 189,844,772 ---- ---- ---- 653,790
1967 71,747,685 13,735,595 114,958,800 167,251,535 ---- ---- ---- 596,898
1968 76,099,731 13,016,373 60,673,827 212,238,450 ---- ---- ---- 499,947
1969 71,055,426 15,607,319 48,680,081 240,746,510 ---- ---- ---- 478,235
1970 29,931,714 8,655,295 76,480,634 231,956,638 ---- ---- ---- 420,318
1971 36,116,734 17,250,966 101,377,638 150,941,111 ---- ---- ---- 421,335
1972 21,001,214 24,877,721 35,944,884 241,704,982 ---- ---- ---- 400,769
1973 8,640,852 20,187,207 29,809,281 232,793,961 ---- ---- ---- 418,694
1974 11,806,150 11,605,792 59,975,341 246,110,479 ---- ---- ---- 497,359
1975 15,412,778 16,360,774 73,810,130 234,252,185 ---- ---- ---- 533,954
1976 27,759,376 18,789,445 122,694,052 276,064,610 ---- ---- ---- 862,204
1977 15,904,840 6,939,994 81,620,289 195,596,189 ---- 19,911 129,522 1,070,685
1978 21,549,428 9,561,343 137,185,991 191,100,304 ---- ---- 302,073 1,184,411
1979 8,442,098 13,273,516 94,796,032 165,845,675 ---- 35,334 735,743 1,157,227
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
354
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Tunas Sharks
Albacore Bluefin Skipjack Yellowfin Blue Shortfin Thresher Unspecified
Tuna1 Tuna1 Tuna 2 Tuna 2 Shark3 Mako Shark3 Shark3 Shark3
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 11,958,760 5,371,000 174,406,052 190,185,117 192,130 155,336 1,806,007 1,423,633
1981 20,584,321 1,912,748 127,578,862 167,751,112 203,074 277,345 1,974,037 909,596
1982 9,436,938 5,301,256 92,381,839 136,176,299 57,838 533,839 2,397,171 449,024
1983 16,545,410 1,682,296 99,196,795 122,885,366 13,983 330,260 1,726,646 433,410
1984 26,126,747 1,400,998 68,896,983 77,299,186 3,864 242,837 1,659,104 314,251
1985 14,197,002 7,173,299 6,562,190 33,123,315 2,385 226,695 1,540,799 277,951
1986 7,248,173 10,431,044 3,000,340 47,436,173 3,316 473,684 606,595 201,201
1987 3,511,503 1,814,041 12,619,100 51,149,000 3,410 612,020 525,104 167,867
1988 2,669,538 1,771,706 19,539,462 43,033,185 7,147 489,217 536,711 44,236
1989 1,918,914 2,246,118 9,932,415 38,834,297 13,521 388,322 649,984 22,775
1990 1,902,318 2,040,073 4,472,810 18,759,062 43,675 577,128 461,606 18,111
1991 1,493,811 228,896 7,511,801 9,209,749 1,200 322,097 758,266 10,704
1992 2,772,642 2,396,650 5,700,648 7,384,579 2,880 215,876 394,192 6,966
1993 4,027,882 1,163,581 10,006,587 8,254,649 522 185,254 356,059 9,773
1994 6,989,093 2,012,277 4,653,967 11,141,997 24,828 193,782 427,513 12,422
1995 1,833,340 1,567,454 15,428,051 6,685,493 7,360 145,278 342,335 25,076
1996 11,332,004 10,327,599 12,024,568 7,376,529 320 142,013 405,042 9,618
1997 7,398,111 4,958,129 13,381,560 10,524,823 236 210,518 411,487 12,919
1998 5,311,746 4,281,798 12,614,505 12,736,163 1,070 148,331 413,775 11,867
1999 12,294,268 364,508 8,286,038 2,981,179 116 94,646 328,415 13,354
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
Data includes shipments and landings from areas north and south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
2
Data includes shipments and landings from areas south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
3
All shark landings were aggregated until 1977.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 355
Commercial Landings -
Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Dolphin Fish Louvar Opah Swordfish Dolphin Fish Louvar Opah Swordfish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1980 4,507 ---- ---- 1,197,187
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1981 8,344 ---- 2,989 1,142,897
1918 ---- ---- ---- 18,442 1982 2,424 ---- 69,347 1,691,161
1919 ---- ---- ---- 18,252 1983 1,183 ---- 179,914 2,675,218
1920 ---- ---- ---- 12,513 1984 7,774 18,009 516,126 4,393,278
1921 ---- ---- ---- 14,803 1985 424 ---- 394,873 5,196,685
1922 ---- ---- ---- 23,256 1986 3,453 ---- 218,769 3,845,932
1923 ---- ---- ---- 11,691 1987 714 11,674 92,493 2,741,015
1924 ---- ---- ---- 31,833 1988 377 10,917 67,868 2,484,428
1925 ---- ---- ---- 27,045 1989 828 8,196 116,966 2,861,277
1926 ---- ---- ---- 45,543 1990 1,510 14,105 103,606 1,871,535
1927 ---- ---- ---- 130,288 1991 713 6,147 81,678 1,564,946
1928 ---- ---- ---- 426,001 1992 7,123 17,498 112,785 2,354,831
1929 ---- ---- ---- 693,081 1993 37,250 15,020 123,614 2,684,569
1930 ---- ---- ---- 562,729 1994 82,211 5,191 155,811 2,574,758
1931 ---- ---- ---- 340,769 1995 10,915 5,300 143,473 1,764,736
1932 ---- ---- ---- 661,470 1996 19,502 9,512 180,340 1,768,544
1933 ---- ---- ---- 850,699 1997 10,318 6,343 178,147 2,205,694
1934 ---- ---- ---- 263,958 1998 6,970 10,951 247,586 2,054,089
1935 ---- ---- ---- 669,283 1999 35,795 8,509 144,947 3,054,630
1936 ---- ---- ---- 577,402
1937 ---- ---- ---- 625,307 - - - - Landings data not available.
1
1938 ---- ---- ---- 722,478 Data includes shipments and landings from areas north and south of the State between 1916
1939 ---- ---- ---- 594,360 and 1969.
2
1940 ---- ---- ---- 887,168 Data includes shipments and landings from areas south of the State between 1916 and 1969.
3
1941 ---- ---- ---- 916,739 All shark landings were aggregated until 1977.
1942 ---- ---- ---- 445,908
1943 ---- ---- ---- 336,386
1944 ---- ---- ---- 751,596
1945 ---- ---- ---- 363,093
1946 ---- ---- ---- 863,494
1947 ---- ---- ---- 1,009,957
1948 ---- ---- ---- 1,113,808
1949 ---- ---- ---- 198,361
1950 ---- ---- ---- 26,494
1951 ---- ---- ---- 228,034
1952 ---- ---- ---- 265,690
1953 ---- ---- ---- 142,831
1954 ---- ---- ---- 23,055
1955 ---- ---- ---- 134,659
1956 ---- ---- ---- 275,174
1957 ---- ---- ---- 375,986
1958 ---- ---- ---- 471,775
1959 ---- ---- ---- 448,220
1960 ---- ---- ---- 324,754
1961 ---- ---- ---- 368,855
1962 ---- ---- ---- 39,057
1963 ---- ---- ---- 98,074
1964 ---- ---- ---- 183,023
1965 ---- ---- ---- 327,174
1966 ---- ---- ---- 468,772
1967 ---- ---- ---- 305,067
1968 ---- ---- ---- 199,398
1969 ---- ---- ---- 1,031,583
1970 ---- ---- ---- 944,745
1971 ---- ---- ---- 154,418
1972 ---- ---- ---- 265,982
1973 ---- ---- ---- 613,544
1974 ---- ---- ---- 649,502
1975 ---- ---- ---- 865,536
1976 ---- ---- 2,458 83,623
1977 10,646 ---- ---- 511,388
1978 159 ---- ---- 2,604,233
1979 694 ---- ---- 586,529
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
356
Recreational Catch -
Highly Migratory Finfish
Recreational Catch - Highly Migratory Finfish and Sharks
Albacore Bluefin Skipjack Yellowfin Striped
Tuna Tuna Tuna Tuna Marlin Dolphin Fish
No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1
Year No. of Fish
1947 11,445 2,194 698 137 37 15
1948 15,414 104 460 18 58 ----
1949 22,692 1,941 9 11 28 ----
1950 118,087 27 31 6 115 1
1951 75,924 7,142 132 56 58 ----
1952 187,267 145 38 34 57 2
1953 23,363 4,276 279 ---- 4 ----
1954 20,098 966 50 ---- 9 12
1955 78,688 8,179 10 1 6 ----
1956 65,814 34,187 13 78 32 2
1957 41,540 6,428 6,453 325 22 2,805
1958 6,482 884 491 13 84 ----
1959 39 1,330 514 4 349 4
1960 76,075 97 378 2,124 9 1
1961 184,891 2,268 11 21 8 3
1962 229,314 2,453 40 3 2 ----
1963 158,372 737 8,149 80 37 139
1964 112,358 693 3,961 103 48 4
1965 99,771 92 2,142 101 46 341
1966 74,680 1,998 1,012 241 40 48
1967 96,497 3,166 1,656 10,801 81 198
1968 129,710 1,231 4,250 8,499 60 929
1969 48,887 1,470 9,998 4,210 66 170
1970 112,106 1,833 15,561 3,840 52 103
1971 160,361 749 62 6,622 32 188
1972 86,890 1,470 281 849 12 206
1973 9,858 5,347 855 1,783 34 5,941
1974 12,814 5,765 1,345 2,524 29 1,967
1975 81,562 3,348 455 2,556 5 604
1976 84,973 2,040 5,400 4,437 10 6,509
1977 70,274 1,838 21,423 7,689 33 4,300
1978 92,646 479 10,520 6,708 13 2,330
1979 10,196 1,087 487 4,042 34 9,184
1980 21,309 729 3,891 11,217 58 8,840
1981 26,648 542 435 4,559 67 1,281
1982 36,690 665 32 2,035 33 1,099
1983 17,161 1,912 103,040 116,298 65 4,992
1984 211,285 2,834 30,357 8,648 287 6,532
1985 172,493 4,980 238 3,898 68 1,307
1986 27,322 693 2,249 5,505 43 1,866
1987 7,046 1,859 8,181 14,794 168 3,518
1988 559 321 1,898 20,065 134 3,349
1989 29,728 6,519 19,736 19,076 40 2,341
1990 3,816 3,756 16,305 49,118 105 31,548
1991 1,009 5,289 6,319 11,453 11 1,301
1992 380 8,586 52,302 73,739 25 22,727
1993 393 10,535 23,823 37,142 30 8,952
1994 171 2,309 15,327 46,831 42 5,318
1995 1,296 14,648 43,048 87,347 35 5,022
1996 1,873 2,478 6,356 72,449 17 21,939
1997 88,133 7,974 19,170 89,097 24 28,606
1998 155,985 18,985 13,735 75,367 16 6,485
1999 254,983 36,390 2,707 21,215 2 3,633
- - - - Landings data not available.
All data based on CPFV logbooks.
1
All data presented in number of fish.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 357
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
358
Groundfish:
Overview improved information about rocksh life history (such
Groundfish: Overview
as age, growth, and reproduction), better stock assess-
ments and environmental conditions that generally have
M ore than 80 species of marine sh are included not been favorable to rocksh reproduction or survival for
under the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Manage- many years. As a result, rocksh cannot support harvest
ment Plan (FMP) that was adopted by the Pacic Fishery rates as high as previously thought. Management is further
Management Council (PFMC) in 1982. In general, the FMP complicated because the habitats and ranges of many
provides for management of bottom dwelling nsh spe- rocksh species overlap, so that it is difcult to catch one
cies (including all rocksh and whiting) that are found in species without catching other species at the same time.
U.S. EEZ waters off Washington, Oregon and California. Fishing must be reduced for an entire group of rocksh
Of these, fewer than 20 of the commercially and recre- in order to realize lower catches that are necessary to
ationally most important have ever been comprehensively rebuild overshed stocks. For example, although a few
assessed. Each year, stock assessments are conducted on shelf rocksh species such as chilipepper and yellowtail
ve to 10 species, typically as part of a three-year rota- appear to be comparatively healthy, their allowable har-
tion. Only Pacic whiting is assessed each year. Species vest has been set at levels below the potential yield to
and species groups that are actively managed under the protect the weaker species of shelf rocksh that tend to
FMP are: “Minor rocksh” (which includes most rocksh); be caught with them, such as bocaccio and canary.
Pacic Ocean perch; sablesh; thornyheads; Dover sole;
Prior to 2000, the allowable catch of all rocksh in the
whiting; canary rocksh; widow rocksh; yellowtail rock-
PFMC’s southern management area for rocksh (most of
sh; bocaccio; chilipepper rocksh; cowcod; darkblotched
California) was combined into a single quota. To better
rocksh; splitnose rocksh; and lingcod.
align shing opportunities with the resources that support
Groundsh management is complicated and demanding them, shery managers have grouped rocksh into three
because sheries for many of the species are inter- new categories – nearshore, shelf, and slope. In addition,
related, but the various stocks have responded differently management has been rened by setting individual quotas
to shing pressure. For example, atsh populations such for a few species, which reduces the aggregate quota
as Dover, Petrale, and English soles have been subjected for other remaining rocksh species. While this approach
to signicant commercial sheries for decades, yet have lowers the harvest of overshed rocksh species, such as
not shown the magnitude of declines that have occurred bocaccio, it also reduces the opportunities for nearshore
in some of the rocksh populations. species that are no longer grouped with certain deepwater
species that are typically under-harvested.
The current status of many rocksh and lingcod off the
west coast is poor, and signicant changes in the ground- No individual sector is responsible for creating the current
sh shery have been necessary to address this situation. situation. For example, since 1982 commercial landings
There are over 60 different species of rocksh in Califor- accounted for about 56 percent of all lingcod and about
nia. Formal assessments of these sh populations are 81 percent of all rocksh catches in California, while the
challenging, due to the number of species and the large recreational shery took the remainder. In order to return
commitment of time and effort to conduct the necessary depressed rocksh and lingcod stocks to a healthy condi-
research and analysis. To date, 15 rocksh species have tion, everyone has been asked to share in the conserva-
been formally assessed, and the results are not encourag- tion measures needed for recovery. For the recreational
ing. Nearly all of these species are currently below opti- shery, bag limits have been reduced, gear restrictions
mal abundance levels. Lingcod and six rocksh species, imposed, seasons closed, and minimum size limits estab-
including four that are important to California anglers and lished. In the commercial shery, the aggregate rocksh
commercial shermen (bocaccio, canary rocksh, widow quota for 2001 was reduced by about 57 percent com-
rocksh and cowcod), are at such low levels (estimated pared to 1997, and the allowable commercial lingcod land-
at or below 25 percent of the pristine population of each ings were reduced by about 83 percent during the same
species) that they have been declared overshed by the period. Rocksh rebuilding plans call for decades of ongo-
PFMC. Federal law requires that steps be taken to rebuild ing special efforts to allow the overshed species to
overshed stocks under strict guidelines that place an recover, while lingcod is more prolic and is expected to
emphasis on a reasonable likelihood of achieving success be restored much more quickly, by 2009. Although the
within specied time periods for each species. lingcod stock seems to be responding favorably to the
initial stages of the rebuilding plan, it will be important
Several factors affect the abundance of rocksh and ling-
to coordinate lingcod and rocksh management because
cod and the ability to manage them effectively. Recent
they are found on the same shing grounds and are often
analyses have shown that rocksh stocks are not as pro-
caught together.
ductive as previously thought. This is due in part to
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 359
A total of about 1,900 businesses in California are directly recent history. Groundsh production exhibited a long-
Groundfish: Overview
affected by commercial groundsh catch regulations. Most term downward trend in landings during the 1990s, with
of the affected businesses are shing vessels. There are annual landings reduced by roughly 60 percent during
approximately 1,580 commercial shing vessels in Califor- the decade. For the rst time, rocksh became the most
nia that catch and sell groundsh as part of their opera- signicant element of the groundsh shery during 1998,
tions. That eet is comprised of two main elements -- the when they comprised over 50 percent of the value and
limited entry eet and the open access eet. nearly 37 percent of the tons landed. Another tradition-
ally important component was the “DTS Complex” (Dover
Vessels in the limited entry eet have a federal permit
sole, thornyheads, sablesh), which accounted for most
that gives greater rights concerning the harvest of ground-
of the remainder of the landings. The number of federal
sh. Consequently, vessels with limited entry permits gen-
limited entry groundsh permits registered to shermen
erally rely heavily on groundsh as a major source of
in California continued a slow decline during 1999 for
income. There are 288 limited entry vessels in California.
all three gear types; at mid-season there were 162
Vessels that land groundsh under open access provisions
vessels with trawl permits, 113 longline permits, and 13
may or may not depend on groundsh as a major source
trap permits.
of income. Many vessels that predominately sh for other
In response to the sharp decline in groundsh landings
species also may inadvertently catch and land groundsh.
and the generally poor condition of West Coast groundsh
Although 1,295 open access vessels landed groundsh
stocks, the secretary of commerce formally announced a
in California during 1997, most landed less than 1,000
disaster determination for the shery in January 2000.
pounds. A total of 525 open access vessels each landed
The intent of the declaration was to minimize economic
more than 1,000 pounds of groundsh during the calendar
and social impacts on shing communities while protecting
year. In addition to the commercial shing eet, there
and rebuilding groundsh stocks. Although, the declara-
are approximately 325 wholesale sh buying businesses
tion did not include relief funding, it was the rst step
in California that purchase groundsh from commercial
in the process of securing funds from Congress to assist
shing vessels.
affected shermen.
The 1999 California commercial groundsh harvest was
approximately 34.0 million pounds, with an ex-vessel
value of $19.7 million. This was a 12-percent decline in J. Thomas Barnes
value from 1998 ($22.3 million), and the lowest total in California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
360
Bocaccio
History of the Fishery The number of developing eggs increases from 20,000
Bocaccio
in a 15-inch sh to about 2.3 million in a sh 30.5
B ocaccio (Sebastes paucispinis), sometimes called red inches long.
snapper, rockcod, grouper, salmon grouper, or tomcod Off central and northern California, larval release occurs
(as juveniles), was the dominant rocksh in California’s from January through May, peaking in February. In south-
early longline shery. It was the most abundant rocksh ern California spawning takes place from October through
in the bottom trawl shery from Morro Bay to Fort Bragg July, peaking in January. In central California, most larvae
until the mid-1980s. In the late 1980s, two-thirds of the that survive to the juvenile stage are born in January and
bocaccio landed were taken by trawl, with the remainder February, but months of successful reproduction can shift
being taken by set net, longline, and the recreational substantially from year to year. In southern California,
shery. Before 1970, estimated landings by all sheries some females produce as many as three broods in a
averaged approximately six million pounds per year. Fol- season, but multiple brooding is uncommon farther north.
lowing 1970, combined landings increased, peaking in 1983
Larval bocaccio are initially pelagic and are most common
at over 15 million pounds. Landings have declined steadily
within 100 feet of the sea surface, where they feed on
since then, and fell below 0.5 million pounds in 1998. In
plankton. Larval bocaccio have been captured in plankton
1978, nearly 40 percent of the sampled trawl landings
nets as far as 300 miles from shore. By late May or
contained half or more bocaccio by weight, but this value
early June, they settle to the bottom at lengths of 1.5
has declined to a very small percentage of landings in
to 2.5 inches, often in kelp beds. Before completing their
recent years.
rst year of life, these fast growing young-of-the-year
Recreational catches of bocaccio are generally made on start eating the young of other rockshes, surfperch,
rocky reefs by party boat shermen at depths of 250 to jack mackerel, and various small inshore shes. Adults
750 feet. In some years, however, juveniles concentrate are found from depths of 60 to 1550 feet. They feed
in shallow sandy areas near piers off central and southern on smaller rockshes, sablesh, anchovies, lanternsh,
California, where they are easily taken on small baited and squid.
hooks. Estimated catches for the recreational shery are
available from 1980 onward and averaged 15 percent of
Status of the Population
the total landings in recent years. Recreational catches
since 1984 have shown the same decline as the trawl shery.
D uring the past two decades bocaccio landings have
been dominated by the 1977, 1984, and 1986 year
Status of Biological Knowledge classes. A long string of recruitment failures occurred
from 1989 to 1998, which under intense shing led to a
B ocaccio range from central Baja California to Kodiak severely depleted population. By 1999, abundance had
Island, Alaska, and are common from northern Baja fallen to about three percent of the level seen in 1969,
California to the Washington-British Columbia border. and the Pacic Fishery Management Council declared the
Genetic studies indicate partial separation between the population as “overshed.” Evidence from entrainment of
bocaccio population off the Pacic Northwest and that off young sh at the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station
California. indicates that the 1999 year class is large.
Among rockshes, bocaccio are noted for their relatively
rapid growth, large adult size, and high variation in year-
class strength. They are known to attain a length of 36
inches, a weight of 15 pounds, and a maximum age of
about 50 years. Some fast growing individuals are caught
with trawl gear at age one, and substantial numbers are
landed by age two at lengths of about 16 inches.
Bocaccio are live-bearing sh. At extrusion (release),
larvae are about 0.25 inch in length and absorb yolk from
the egg stage during the rst eight to 12 days. They grow
rapidly to about seven inches by the end of their rst
year. A few mature when they are three years old, about
14 inches long and one pound. Fifty percent are mature
at 16.5 inches and four years. Males mature at a slightly
smaller size than females. By the time they are 10 years Bocaccio, Sebastes paucispinis
Credit: DFG
old, they average over 24 inches and weigh ve pounds.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 361
Commercial Landings
Bocaccio
14
1916-1999,
Bocaccio Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
12
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Bocaccio Rockfish
10
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
eries Information Network (PacFin),
8
National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
6
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data
4
are derived from DFG commercial
landing receipts with expansions
2
based on port samples collected by
PacFin samplers. Expansion data not
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
available for years prior to 1978.
Management Considerations References
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for MacCall, A. D., S. Ralston, D. Pearson and E. Williams.
further information. 1999. Status of bocaccio off California in 1999 and outlook
for the next millennium. In Status of the Pacic Coast
groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended accept-
David H. Thomas
able biological catches for 2000. Pacic Fishery Manage-
California Department of Fish and Game
ment Council, 2130 SW Fifth Ave., Suite 224, Portland, OR
Revised by: 97201.
Alec D. MacCall
Moser, H.G. 1967. Reproduction and development of
National Marine Fisheries Service
Sebastodes paucispinis and comparison with other rock-
shes off southern California. Copeia. 1967:773-797.
Wilkins, M.E. 1980. Size composition, age composition, and
growth of chilipepper, Sebastes goodei, and bocaccio, S.
paucispinis, from the 1977 rocksh survey. Mar. Fish. Rev.
42:48-58.
Historic photo of a catch of boccaccio and chilipepper being unloaded from a trawler.
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
362
Cowcod
History of the Fishery such as Sebastes were sought in order to maintain
Cowcod
angler satisfaction.
C owcod (Sebastes levis) are important to commercial Although highly sought in recent decades, cowcod have
and recreational sheries in California. Estimated total consistently composed a very small fraction of the rec-
catch peaked in 1976 at 213 tons, and then trended down- reational rocksh catch. Cowcod were estimated to com-
ward to 14 tons in 1999. Recreational catch of cowcod prise greater than one percent of the CPFV rocksh catch
exceeded commercial landings between 1959 and 1980 in 1961, 0.4 percent of total rocksh during the 1970s,
but commercial catch has been larger since. Recreational and only 0.3 percent from 1985 through 1987. Cowcod
landings peaked in 1976 at 154 tons, and then declined to seasonal catch in the sport shery tends to peak in late
less than two tons from 1997 through 1999. Commercial autumn through early spring, which is the time of year when
landings reached a record 155 tons in 1984. Fishing southern California CPFVs normally target bottom shes.
grounds nearest to major ports have been progressively
Historically, commercial landings were highest in the
exploited. Most of the remaining productive cowcod sh-
Southern California Bight but landings in the Monterey
ing grounds in the Southern California Bight are found well
area have been larger during most recent years. Hook-
offshore, out-of-range for many private skiffs.
and-line and set net gear shed in deep water on rocky
Cowcod reach the largest size of any rocksh in central bottom accounts for the bulk of historical landings in
and southern California, and are a highly prized trophy the commercial shery. Set net catches declined after
in the recreational shery. The ofcial California record 1989, but hook-and-line has remained important. Trawling
for sport caught cowcod is 21 pounds 14 ounces, but the accounts for most cowcod landings in northern areas.
recreational shery has produced conrmed specimens as Trawls tend to take cowcod that are smaller and more
large as 34 pounds in recent years. often immature than sh taken by hook-and-line. Prior to
Cowcod are caught along with other species of rocksh 2000, discard of cowcod in commercial and recreational
by the recreational shery. Recreational effort is directed sheries was probably insignicant. Beginning in 2000,
at cowcod from private shing boats and commercial pas- new regulations limited commercial landings to one sh
senger shing vessels (CPFVs). CPFVs include both charter per trip, which may have resulted in increased discards.
boats (carrying a prearranged or closed group of anglers), Fourteen species of rocksh have been landed in the
and party boats (generally open to the general public, cowcod market category; of these, the bronzespotted
without prior reservation). The CPFV industry began in rocksh is the most common. Species associated with
southern California around 1919, and by 1939 the eet con- cowcod vary by gear type. In the trawl shery, which
sisted of over 200 boats. CPFV operators targeted numer- is primarily in the Monterey management area, the main
ous species prior to 1950, such as tuna, giant sea bass, species taken with cowcod are chilipepper, bocaccio, and
marlin, swordsh, mackerel, California halibut, kelp and widow rocksh. In the hook-and-line and set net shery,
sand bass, bonito, barracuda, and yellowtail. However, which is primarily in the Conception management area,
early reports do not list rocksh as a CPFV target group bronzespotted rocksh, bocaccio, and vermilion rocksh
during the rst half of the century. are most important.
Following World War II, there was a notable expansion of Cowcod are valuable in the commercial shery. Fishermen
the CPFV eet, and in 1953 it totaled about 590 boats. received $1.37 per pound for cowcod in 1998, more than
By 1963, the statewide CPFV eet had declined to 476
vessels, 450 of which operated out of central and southern
California ports. The majority of the 1963 CPFV eet (256
vessels) was based in the Southern California Bight. Spe-
cies of preference for the southern California CPFV eet
in 1963 did not include Sebastes, although rocksh were
listed as an important part of the catch. As recently as
1969, there were reports that “some [CPFV] shermen
would rather sh for yellowtail, and catch little or noth-
ing, than to take home a sack of rocksh. Those who
prefer rocksh to yellowtail are in a minority.” However,
by 1974 attitudes of the typical CPFV sherman had
changed, and there was increased effort directed toward
rocksh. With the decline in availability of “traditional”
double the price for unspecied rocksh. In general,
sportsh in the 1960-1970s, less lively “food” sh
Cowcod, Sebastes levis
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 363
Commercial Landings
Cowcod
400
1916-1999, Cowcod
thousands of pounds landed
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative 350
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
300
eries Information Network (PacFin),
250
National Marine Fishery Service
Cowcod
(NMFS), and California Department
200
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
150
derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based 100
on port samples collected by PacFin
50
samplers. Cowcod landings expansion
0
data not available for 1979 and years
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
prior to 1978.
cowcod landed by hook-and-line command higher prices with some larvae present from November through August.
than those landed by set net or by trawl. Larvae spend about 100 days in the plankton and settle
to the bottom as juveniles at about two to 2.4 inches in
Prior to 2000, the Pacic Fishery Management Council
length. In Monterey Bay, juveniles recruit to ne sand and
managed cowcod under regulations established annually
clay sediments at depths of 130 to 330 feet during the
for commercial groundsh, the Sebastes complex and
months of March through September. Adults are found at
remaining rocksh. Remaining rocksh were managed as
depths of 300 to 1,680 feet usually on high relief rocky
a group without specic allowable biological catch or
bottom. Cowcod reach 37 inches FL and 33 pounds.
optimum yield levels for individual species. During those
years, Sebastes complex cumulative trip limits were high Cowcod have been aged by counting annuli in sectioned
relative to landings of cowcod, and it is unlikely that the and polished otoliths. Although age determinations have
regulations had affected commercial shing for cowcod. not been validated, there was good agreement among
Specic regulations to limit the commercial and recre- independent readers. Based on a sample of 259 specimens
ational take of cowcod were rst established in 2000. collected in the 1970s and 1980s, the youngest sh in
In order to achieve an optimum yield of 5.5 tons for the landings was age seven, and the oldest was age 55.
recreational and commercial landings combined, the rec- Cowcod are thought to become fully recruited to recre-
reational bag limit in 2000 was reduced to one cowcod ational and commercial sheries at age 17, which is similar
(with a maximum of two cowcod per boat), and com- to the age at which all females become mature.
mercial regulations allowed only one cowcod to be landed The approximate length (inches) and age of rst, 50 per-
per shing trip. cent and 100 percent maturity is as follows:
Status of Biological Knowledge Male Female
Maturity Length (in) Age Length (in) Age
C owcod range from central Oregon to central Baja Cali-
First 13.5 8 16.5 11
fornia, and offshore to Guadalupe Island. The geo-
graphic center of distribution is the southern California 50% 17.5 12 17 11
Bight. They are uncommon off Oregon and northern Cali-
100% 19 14 20 16
fornia. Adult cowcod habitat is primarily rocky reefs from
165 to 1,000 feet, most of which are found in the vicinity
of offshore banks and islands in the Southern California
Bight. Smaller sh generally occur at the shallower end of
the depth range.
Status of the Population
As with other species of Sebastes, fertilization is internal
and females give birth to rst-feeding stage planktonic
C owcod were reported to be abundant off southern
larvae during the winter. Gonad-somatic indices of
California in the 1890s. However, the rst formal stock
females are highest from November through April. Peak
assessment of cowcod was in 1999. Results of the assess-
abundance of cowcod larvae is January through April,
ment suggest that spawning biomass in 1916 was near the
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
364
References
virgin level and it remained stable through a rather long
Cowcod
historical period (1916-1950). Biomass began to decline
Butler, J. L., L. D. Jacobson, J.T. Barnes, H.G. Moser and
slowly in the 1950s and accelerated through the 1970s.
R. Collins. 1999. Stock assessment of cowcod. In: Pacic
Recruitment declined dramatically and biomass continued
Fishery Management Council. 1999. Appendix: Status
to decline after the early 1980s. The best estimate of
of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery through 1999 and
cowcod spawning biomass in the Southern California Bight
recommended biological catches for 2000: Stock assess-
during 1998 is 262 tons, which is about seven percent of
ment and shery evaluation.
the estimated unshed stock size.
Karpov, K.A., D.P.Albin and W.H. Van Buskirk. 1995. The
Based on the results of the 1999 stock assessment,
marine recreational shery in northern and central Cali-
cowcod were formally declared overshed by the National
fornia; A historical comparison (1958-86), a status of the
Marine Fisheries Service in 2000. A rebuilding plan will
stocks (1980-86), and effects of changes in the California
be adopted to provide assurance that abundance will be
current. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull.(176): 192 p.
restored to 40 percent of the unshed stock size in a
minimal length of time. However, due to the unproductive Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle, and W. V. Buskirk. 1998. A
nature of the stock, it is likely that rebuilding will require severe decline in the commercial passenger shing vessel
many decades. rocksh (Sebastes spp.) catch in the Southern California
Bight, 1980-1996. CalCOFI Rep. 39: 180-195.
Young, P.H. 1969. The California partyboat shery
J. Thomas Barnes
1947-1967. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.
California Department of Fish and Game
145. 91 p.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 365
Chilipepper
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
T C
he chilipepper (Sebastes goodei) is one of California’s hilipepper range from Queen Charlotte Sound, British
most important rocksh species; it is a major con- Columbia to Magdalena Bay, Baja California. Adults are
tributor to commercial and sport landings. In fact, from found on deep rocky reefs, as well as on sand and mud
1996 through 1998 chilipepper was ranked rst in state- bottoms, from 150 to 1,400 feet; juveniles school and are
wide commercial rocksh landings, with an annual aver- frequently found in shallow nearshore waters, particularly
age of over 3.8 million pounds. Important ports of landing in kelp beds. Spawning occurs from September to April
are throughout central and much of northern California, with a peak occurring in December and January. About
including Fort Bragg, Bodega Bay, San Francisco, Princ- 50 percent of female chilipepper are sexually mature at
eton, Monterey, Moss Landing, and Morro Bay. Chilipepper four years when they are between 11 and 12 inches, while
also contribute to southern California rocksh landings, males mature at two years and between eight and nine
although not so heavily. inches. Chilipepper attain a maximum age of 35 years
and a size of up to 23 inches, with females growing
In the late 1800s, chilipepper and most other rocksh
substantially larger than males.
were caught by Portuguese longline shermen who shed
Monterey Bay from small two or three-person vessels. Adults feed on krill and other small crustaceans, squid,
Longlines provided most, if not all, rocksh landings until and a variety of small shes. Probable predators of chili-
the mid-1940s. Improvements in otter trawl technology pepper include marine birds and mammals, king salmon,
subsequently led to trawl gear replacing longlines as the lingcod, Pacic hake, sablesh, and other rocksh.
primary gear used to catch rocksh. Trawl gear enabled
shermen to make much larger landings with larger ves-
Status of the Population
sels. Trawlers have since accounted for the great majority
of chilipepper landings, followed by set gill net and hook-
T he last stock assessment of chilipepper, conducted in
and-line gears. During the 1990s, gill net landings have
1998, indicated that unlike most other rocksh popula-
declined to very low levels, whereas hook-and-line gears
tions, the stock was in quite good condition. At that time,
have comprised a relatively higher portion of the catch.
the population size was determined to be 35,000 tons,
Historically, chilipepper was not considered an important which is about 50 percent of the unexploited level. The
component of the party boat angler’s catch in central healthy status of the chilipepper stock has been due to
and northern California due to its deep offshore distribu- a very strong 1984 year-class that supported the shery
tion. In the early 1980s, Monterey and Santa Cruz party throughout the 1990s, although recent recruitments have
boat skippers began shing chilipepper schools in the been lower and the stock is slowly but steadily declining.
vicinity of the Monterey underwater canyon in late spring Based on the assessment, the Pacic Fishery Management
through summer. In contrast, southern California chilipep- Council set the acceptable biological catch at 4,100 tons,
per partyboat landings peak during the winter months. although the Council lowered the total allowable catch
Chilipepper was ranked third among rockshes taken (TAC) to 2,000 tons out of concern for bocaccio bycatch in
off central and northern California in 1989-1990, but its chilipepper sheries. Even with the lower TAC, the various
relative importance in the recreational shery has dwin- sheries have not been catching the quota.
dled throughout the 1990s. Since 1995, sport landings
have comprised less than two percent of the total
Stephen Ralston
chilipepper catch.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Kenneth T. Oda
California Department of Fish and Game
Chilipepper, Sebastes goodei
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
366
Chilipepper
7
millions of pounds landed
6
Chilipepper Rockfish
5
Commercial Landings
4 1916-1999,
Chilipepper Rockfish
3
Data Source: CalCom Database
2 utilizing DFG commercial land-
ing receipts. Expansions of port
1 samples are conducted by Pacific
States Fishery Management
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 Council with input from DFG.
12
Bocaccio/Chilipepper Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
10
Commercial Landings
8 1916-1999,
Bocaccio/Chilipepper
6 Rockfish
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
4
and commercial landing receipts.
The market category Bocaccio/
2
Chilipeper Rockfish were aggre-
gated within the market
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
category Rockfish prior to 1979.
References
Lenarz, W. H. 1987. A history of California rocksh sher- S. paucispinis, from the 1977 rocksh survey. Mar. Fish.
ies, pp. 35-41. In: B. R. Melteff (ed.), Proceedings of the Rev. (Mar-Apr): 48-53.
International Rocksh Symposium, University of Alaska, Wyllie-Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of Califor-
Alaska Sea Grant Report No. 87-2. nia rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990. Fish. Bull. (U. S.) 85: 229-250.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California Bight. NOAA Tech.
Rept. NMFS 87. 38 p.
Phillips, J. B. 1964. Life history studies on ten species of
rocksh (Genus Sebastodes). Calif. Dept. Fish and game,
Fish Bull. 126. 70 p.
Ralston, S., D. E. Pearson, and J. A. Reynolds. 1998. Status
of the chilipepper rocksh stock in 1998. In: Appendix to
the Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through
1998 and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for
1999, Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 99 p.
Wilkins, M. E. 1980. Size composition, age composition,
and growth of chilipepper, Sebastes goodei, and bocaccio,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 367
Blackgill Rockfish
History of the Fishery 2,520 feet, usually deeper than 660 feet, and are most
abundant from 825 to 1,980 feet. Juveniles live in the
U ntil the 1970s, the relative abundance of shallow- shallower part of the depth range.
water rockshes precluded substantial commercial Pelagic juveniles settle out of the plankton at a minimum
exploitation of blackgill rocksh (Sebastes melanostomus). of about one inch long, generally in waters greater than
Beginning in the mid-1970s, a shery developed in deep about 660 feet. Small immature individuals are taken
waters off southern California and spread northward. Most in bottom trawls on at substrates, but seldom over
blackgills are taken in central and southern California. rocks. They are also found on shell mounds of some
The shery was rst conducted with vertical longlines deeper-water oil platforms. Adults live on deep high relief
and then with longlines and gill nets. Currently, most rock outcrops in areas with extensive caves and crevices.
blackgills in southern California are taken with horizontal Although they are often seen hiding in crevices or closely
setlines, while trawls take the majority of sh further associated with rocky substrates, shermen have reported
north. Statewide landings increased dramatically, peaking taken them in midwater above reefs.
in 1983, then declined to about one-third in the late
Blackgills live to at least 87 years, although the largest
1990s. From a recent stock analysis, it appears that the
specimens have not been aged. However, no age valida-
blackgill population has been substantially reduced on
tion has been done on this species. Females reach a
particular reefs. Blackgills are a very important rocksh
larger size and probably live longer. By the middle of their
species in the Asian sh markets of southern California.
life span, females tend to be larger at any given age.
In 1998, the California commercial catch of about 336,000
Males reach maximum lengths earlier than females. Off
pounds was worth $231,000. In recent years, as the rock-
northern and central California, males appear to mature
sh recreational shery moved to deep banks, blackgills
at a smaller length than females; this is not the case off
have become an occasional catch in southern California.
southern California. Based on two California studies, the
smallest mature sh are 12 inches, 50 percent are mature
Status of Biological Knowledge at 14 inches and all are mature at 16 inches. Off Oregon,
50 percent maturity for males is 15 inches and for females
T his is a spiny and heavy-bodied species. Juveniles are is 16 inches. Blackgills appear to mature at a very late
reddish with distinct brown saddles and a dark blotch age. One percent of females is mature at about 13 years,
on the gill cover. Adults are dark red or dark pink with or 50 percent at 20 years, and 99 percent at about 26 years.
without dark saddles and have a black edge on the rear of Similarly, one percent of males is mature at about 13
the gill cover. Blackgills reach two feet in length. years, 50 percent at about 19 years, and 95 percent at
about 24 years. Off southern California, females release
Blackgills are found from at least central Vancouver Island
larvae from January to June, off northern and central
(British Columbia), and perhaps to northern Vancouver
California from February to April (both with February
Island, to Isla Cedros, (central Baja California). Pelagic
peaks) and off Oregon in April. Females produce between
juveniles have been taken as far south as Punta Abreojos
about 152,000 and 769,000 eggs per season in one brood.
(southern Baja California), strongly implying that adults
Blackgills feed primarily on shes, including lanternshes.
live in southern Baja California. Blackgills are relatively
uncommon from Oregon northward. It appears that some
records from north of Washington probably refer to rough-
Status of the Population
eye and shortraker rockshes. Adults are found in 288 to
T he rst stock assessment of this species, completed
in 1998, estimated that the current shable/mature
biomass was at between 40 and 54 percent of the
virgin level.
Milton Love
University of California, Santa Barbara
John Butler
National Marine Fisheries Service
Blackgill Rockfish, Sebastes melanostomus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
368
Commercial Landings
Blackgill Rockfish
3.5 1916-1999,
Blackgill Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
3.0 Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Blackgill Rockfish
2.5 survey with input from Pacific Fish-
eries Information Network (PacFin),
2.0 National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
1.5
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
1.0 derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based
0.5 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
References
Barss, W. H. 1989. Maturity and reproductive cycle for 35
species from the family Scorpaenidae found off Oregon.
Butler, J. L., L. D. Jacobson and J. T. Barnes. 1998.
Stock assessment for blackgill rocksh. Appendix to the
Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery through 1998
and Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for 1999.
Pacic Fishery Management Council.
Moser, H. G. and E. H. Ahlstrom. 1978. Larvae and pelagic
juveniles of blackgill rocksh, Sebastes melanostomus,
taken in midwater trawls off southern California and Baja
California. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 35(7):981-996.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California Bight. NOAA Tech.
Rep. NMFS 87, 38 p.
Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: Maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish.
Bull. 85:229.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 369
Widow Rockfish
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
W W
idow rocksh (Sebastes entomelas) is one of the top idow rocksh are found from Todos Santos Bay, Baja
three rocksh species in California commercial land- California, to Kodiak Island, Alaska. Peak abundance
ings, although it is a minor constituent in the recreational is off northern Oregon and southern Washington, with sig-
shery. During the 1970s, there were occasional reports of nicant aggregations occurring south to central California.
large trawl catches of “brownies” made incidental to the While many commercial catches occur at bottom depths
harvest of other rocksh, but commercial landings were between 450 and 750 feet, young sh occur near the sur-
small until markets improved in 1979 and the midwater face in shallow waters, and adults have been caught over
trawl shery exploded. At that time, shermen began bottom depths to 1,200 feet. Widow rocksh often form
targeting widow rocksh and annual California landings midwater schools, usually at night, over bottom features
exceeded 10,000 tons by 1982. Since 1983, however, such as ridges or large mounds near the shelf break. The
strict regulations have limited the commercial harvest and schooling behavior of widow rocksh is quite dynamic and
recent landings in California have been in the vicinity of probably related to feeding and oceanographic conditions.
1,000 tons. Along the entire U. S. Pacic Coast, annual There appears to be some seasonal movement of sh
landings are restrained by a quota imposed by the Pacic among adjacent grounds, and there is evidence that sh
Fishery Management Council that applies to the sheries move from area to area as they age, with sh of the same
of California, Oregon and Washington. Trip landings and size tending to stay together.
frequency are adjusted in order to maintain a year-round The maximum recorded age for widow rocksh is 59 years,
shing season. but sh older than 20 years are now uncommon. Most are
Over 50 percent of the widow rocksh commercial catch less than 21 inches long, corresponding to a weight of
is landed in the most northern portion of the state (i.e., just under ve pounds. The maximum size is 24 inches or
Eureka and Crescent City), while San Francisco and Bodega about 7.3 pounds. At rst, growth is fairly rapid and by age
Bay have also been historically important, accounting for ve widow rocksh average 13.5 inches. By age 15, growth
about 30 percent of all landings. Although a small amount slows greatly, when the average size is about 19 inches for
of catch is landed at Fort Bragg and Monterey, very little females and 17.5 inches for males. Widow rocksh do not
appears further south. When processed, widow rocksh become reproductive until years after birth. For example,
are typically lleted and marketed as Pacic red snapper only 50 percent are mature by age ve, but almost all
or rockcod, with the ex-vessel landed value generally are mature by age eight when they are 16.5 inches long.
in the vicinity of $1,000,000 annually. Widow rocksh Off California, fecundity ranged from 55,600 eggs for a
are almost exclusively caught by trawlers, which have 12.8-inch female to 915,200 eggs for an 18.8-inch sh.
accounted for over 80 percent of the catch each year. The release of larvae by widow rocksh peaks in January-
Before the advent of restrictive trip landing limits, most February and appears to occur in the same areas where
of the sh were caught with very large midwater trawls, they are caught during that season. The larvae are about
and during the early days of the shery, it was often 0.2 inch when released. The young sh lead a pelagic
difcult to avoid capturing more widow rocksh in one existence until they are about ve months old. During the
tow with a midwater trawl than trip limits allowed. As a latter part of the pelagic stage, the two-inch sh feed
consequence, many vessels now use less efcient bottom mostly on copepods and small stages of euphausiids. Adult
trawls. Widow rocksh are also taken in the gill net and widow rocksh feed on midwater prey such as lantern sh,
longline sheries, although the gill net catch has declined small Pacic whiting euphausiids, sergestid (deep-water)
from its peak in 1987, when it accounted for 21 percent shrimp, and salps. Juvenile rocksh, including widow rock-
of landings. sh, are important prey items for sea birds and chinook
salmon in May and June. Little is known about predation
of adult widow rocksh.
Widow Rockfish, Sebastes entomelas
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
370
Commercial Landings
Widow Rockfish
30 1916-1999,
Widow Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
25 Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Widow Rockfish
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
20 eries Information Network (PacFin),
National Marine Fishery Service
15 (NMFS), and California Department
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
10 derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based
5 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
Status of the Population References
T he population was virtually unshed prior to 1979. Boehlert, G. W., W. H. Barss, and P. B. Lamberson. 1982.
By 1982, it became obvious that the population was Fecundity of the widow rocksh, Sebastes entomelas, off
being rapidly depleted and would soon be overshed, the coast of Oregon. Fish. Bull., U. S. 80:881-884.
if catches were not restricted. The shery was placed Gunderson, D. R. 1984. The great widow rocksh hunt of
under stringent regulations in 1983. Even so, the stock 1980-82. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 4:465-468.
was recently declared overshed by the Pacic Fishery
Lenarz, W. H., and D. R. Gunderson (editors). 1987. Widow
Management Council because spawning potential was
rocksh: Proceedings of a workshop, Tiburon, California,
reduced to below 25 percent of the unshed condition.
December 10-11, 1980. U. S. Dept. Commer., NOAA Tech.
In response, a rebuilding plan for the stock will be imple-
Rep. NMFS 48.
mented in 2002 that will reduce catches to less than 1,000
Ralston, S., and D. Pearson. 1997. Status of the widow
tons per year. With a harvest rate of less than three
rocksh stock in 1997. In: Appendix to the Status of the
percent the stock should rebuild in about 35 to 40 years
Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 1997 and Recom-
to the productive shery it once was, with yields in excess
mended Acceptable Biological Catches for 1998; Stock
of 3,000 tons per year.
Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 54 p.
Williams, E., A.D. MacCall, S.V. Ralston, and D.E. Pearson.
Management Considerations 2000. Status of the widow rocksh resource in Y2K. In:
Appendix to the Status of the Pacic Coast Groundsh
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Fishery Through 2000 and Recommended Acceptable Bio-
further information.
logical Catches for 2001; Stock Assessment and Fishery
Evaluation. 122 p.
Stephen Ralston
National Marine Fisheries Service
William H. Lenarz
College of Marin, Kenteld
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 371
Yellowtail Rockfish
History of the Fishery 86 percent of the catch has come from northern California
waters. There are, however, differences in the types of
Y ellowtail rocksh (Sebastes avidus), frequently called commercial shing conducted at each port. For example,
“greenies” by commercial shermen, are a major com- from Fort Bragg north, trawling has been the primary
ponent of the groundsh shery. Over the period from method of harvesting yellowtail. In contrast, commercial
1983 to 1998, yellowtail rocksh accounted for 13 percent sheries in San Francisco, Bodega Bay, and Monterey have
of all rocksh landed on the U.S. West Coast and six relied more heavily on hook-and-line and setnet xed
percent of all groundsh, exclusive of Pacic whiting. gear to capture this species. In recent years, the setnet
Among the rocksh/rockcod, only widow rocksh have shery has declined to negligible quantities, but from 1983
supported a greater West Coast harvest. The center of to1986 large quantities of yellowtail rocksh were taken in
yellowtail rocksh population abundance is off the states the gill net shery that operated between Monterey and
of Oregon and Washington, with lower abundance off San Francisco.
California. Even so, from 1980 to 1998, the total combined
landings among all yellowtail rocksh sheries in the state
Status of Biological Knowledge
have ranged from 370 to 2,460 tons per year, with an
average catch over that period of 1,080 tons per year.
Y ellowtail rocksh are found from Kodiak Island, Alaska
Catches exceeded 2,200 tons per year during 1982 and
to San Diego, although they are rare south of Point
1983, declined to 550 tons per year through 1988, rose to
Conception. They are wide-ranging and are reported to
levels above 1,100 tons per year from 1989 through 1992,
occur from the surface to 1,800 feet and are known to
and then declined to about 550 tons per year thereafter.
form large schools, either alone or in association with
After bocaccio and blue rocksh, yellowtail rocksh was
other rocksh, including widow rocksh, canary rocksh,
the third most abundant rocksh taken in the California
redstripe rocksh, and silvergray rocksh. They are pri-
recreational shery for several years.
marily distributed over deep reefs on the continental
Over the last two decades, the recreational shery has shelf, especially near the shelf break, where they feed on
been responsible for a substantial portion of the yel- krill and other micronekton.
lowtail rocksh catch in California, accounting for over
There is some controversy about the existence of distinct
one-third of all landings. Among the commercial sheries,
stocks of this species. Some allozyme and parasitological
trawl shing has produced the greatest catch (28 percent
evidence supports the view that multiple stocks exist,
of total landings), but hook-and-line and setnet sheries
whereas other genetic data indicate one single coastal
have also been important, accounting for 24 percent and
stock. Within U.S. waters, the species is currently man-
13 percent, respectively. Thus, yellowtail rocksh have
aged as two stocks, with a separation at Cape Mendocino,
been harvested in signicant quantities by all groundsh
although that boundary is purely based on human consid-
sheries in the state, perhaps more so than any other
erations, including differences in shing patterns and data
species, with the exception of bocaccio.
availability.
The northern distribution of the yellowtail rocksh stock
Like many other species of rocksh, yellowtail are long-
is distinctly evident in the commercial landings statistics
lived. The age distribution of sh sampled in commercial
compiled from each port of landing within the state. Of
sheries off Oregon and Washington can span six decades,
the combined “greenie” catch, 94 percent has been taken
with the oldest known specimen a 64-year-old male. They
from Monterey north. Similarly, in the recreational shery
typically reach their maximum size at about 15 years of
age and the largest recorded specimen was a 28-inch
female. Females begin to mature at 10 to 15 inches, with
half reaching maturity by a size of 15 to 18 inches; males
do not grow quite as large as females.
Yellowtail Rockfish, Sebastes flavidus
Credit: J. Mello DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
372
Commercial Landings
Yellowtail Rockfish
2.8 1916-1999,
Yellowtail Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
2.4
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Yellowtail Rockfish
2.0 survey with input from Pacific Fish-
eries Information Network (PacFin),
1.6 National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
1.2
of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
0.8 derived from DFG commercial land-
ing receipts with expansions based
0.4 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
Status of the Population References
A recent assessment of the northern portion of the Eschmeyer, W. N. 1983. A Field Guide to Pacic Coast
population indicates that unlike many of our rocksh Fishes of North America From the Gulf of Alaska to Baja
stocks, the resource is very healthy. Based on a wide California. Houghton Mifin Co., Boston, 336 p.
variety of information collected over the last 30 years Tagart, J. V., F. R. Wallace, and J. N. Ianelli. 2000. Status
or more, population abundance is currently believed to of the yellowtail rocksh resource in 2000. In: Status
be about 77,000 tons, down to 60 percent of the virgin of the Pacic Coast Groundsh Fishery Through 2000 and
population size, but still well above the target population Recommended Acceptable Biological Catches for 2001;
size, which is 40 percent of the unexploited level. Stock Assessment and Fishery Evaluation. 125 p.
Stephen Ralston
National Marine Fisheries Service
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 373
Thornyheads
History of the Fishery Increased landings during the 1980s were the result of
higher prices and demand for thornyheads, primarily as
L ongspine (Sebastolobus altivelis) and shortspine ( S. a headed and gutted product exported to Japan. As
alascanus) thornyheads are both important to commer- markets for thornyhead matured, minimum marketable
cial sheries in California, Oregon, Washington, Canada size decreased and smaller longspine thornyheads became
and Alaska, but are insignicant in recreational sheries. valuable. During the 1980s, most processors began accept-
In California, Oregon and Washington, thornyheads are ing sh as small as 10 inches, the shery expanded
taken in the deepwater commercial shery for Dover sole, into deeper waters, and landings of longspine thornyhead
thornyheads, and sablesh, known as the DTS complex. increased. By the 1990s, a two-tier price structure (higher
In terms of landed weight and ex-vessel value, the DTS prices for large sh) replaced the minimum size limits that
complex is the most important element in the California had been previously imposed by the buyers.
groundsh shery. Market factors and shery regulations effect discard rates,
Fishing for thornyheads is typically by bottom trawl and particularly for small sh. Discard rates have changed over
longline gear on sand or ne sediment, and in relatively time but have often been substantial. During the late
deep water (1,800 to 3,000 feet, although some shing 1990s, trip limits imposed by shery managers caused
grounds are as shallow as 600 feet). Fishermen report additional discarding of shortspine thornyhead because
that there are areas where both thornyhead species are shortspine trip limits were reached before the limits for
found together and other areas where one or the other longspine. In 1999, managers assumed a 30 percent discard
is prevalent. Most of the thornyheads landed in California rate for shortspine thornyheads, and a ve percent discard
are taken in the Eureka, Fort Bragg, and Morro Bay areas. rate for longspine thornyheads.
Few thornyheads are taken south of Point Conception. California landings of thornyheads are consistently the
Although there are physical differences between the two largest on the West Coast. During most years, the Califor-
species and shortspine thornyheads grow to larger size, nia shery accounted for over one-half of the combined
distinguishing between them can be difcult under eld California, Oregon and Washington landings. From 1953
conditions. Landings and other data for each species may, to 1969, annual thornyhead landings in California were
therefore, be less reliable than data for thornyheads as below 440 tons. Thornyheads became more common in
a group. It is likely that thornyhead landings were mostly landings when California trawlers began shing intensively
shortspine during the early years when the shery oper- for Dover sole in the early 1970s. Landings averaged 1,540
ated in relatively shallow water. Longspine thornyheads tons annually from 1970 to 1979, increased throughout the
were not landed in large quantities until later when the 1980s, and reached a record high of 7,800 tons in 1992.
shery expanded into deeper water. The long-term trend Following the record high, landings during the remainder
is toward a lower proportion of shortspine in landings. of the 1990s trended sharply downward due to harvest
During the 1980s, thornyhead landings were about 75 restrictions, to a low of 1,628 tons in 1999.
percent shortspine, which decreased to only 25 percent As export markets developed in the 1980s, nominal prices
shortspine thornyheads in the 1990s. paid to shermen increased by more than 60 percent,
The west coast shery for thornyheads rst developed in from $0.23 in 1983 to $0.38 per pound by the end of
northern California during the 1960s, when large thorny- the decade. Gross revenues for thornyheads landed in
heads (primarily shortspine, minimum size 12-14 inches) California rose from $728,000 in 1980 to $5,971,000 in
were marketed as rocksh llets in domestic markets. 1990 (dollar amounts not adjusted for ination) as the
result of increased prices and landings. The relative value
of thornyheads in the groundsh shery also increased
during that time. Revenues from thornyheads were only
12 percent of total revenues for the deepwater shery
(DTS complex) during 1980, but increased to 39 percent by
1990. The value of California thornyhead landings trended
upwards through the mid-1990s, and reached a high of
$8,292,000 in 1995, which coincided with record high ex-
vessel prices (excluding live sh) of $1.05 per pound.
Annual thornyhead revenues declined after 1995 due the
decreased tons landed and slightly lower prices (excluding
live sh). Annual revenues from landings totaled about
$3,286,000 during both 1998 and 1999.
Longspine Thornyhead, Sebastolobus altivelis
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
374
Commercial Landings
Thornyheads
14 1916-1999, Thornyheads
Data for total thornyhead includes
millions of pounds landed
12
landings for lonspined thornyhead,
10 shortspined thornyhead, and
Thornyheads
unspecified thornyhead. Expansion
8 data not available for years
prior to 1978. Landings data
6
for lonspined thornyhead, short-
4 spined thornyhead, and unspeci-
fied thornyhead are presented in
2 the landings tables at the end of
Groundfish Chapter. Data Source:
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 CalCom, a cooperative survey with
input from Pacific Fisheries Infor-
An important specialty market has developed for live mation Network (PacFin), National Marine Fishery Service (NMFS), and California Department
thornyheads since 1993, which takes advantage of their of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are derived from DFG commercial landing receipts with
lack of a swim bladder and ability to survive after capture expansions based on port samples collected by PacFin samplers.
at depth, and ex-vessel prices that are several times
higher than for dead sh. Landings of live thornyhead
Status of Biological Knowledge
increased from two tons in 1993 to an estimated 107
tons in 1999. Despite steady growth, the live shery has
T hornyheads (genus Sebastolobus) belong to the same
remained a minor part of the total tons of thornyheads
family (Scorpaenidae) as the rockshes (Sebastes spp.)
landed. However, due to the high ex-vessel prices, live
but are distinguished from them in having more dorsal
sh accounted for a signicant fraction (18.8 percent,
and head spines, in losing their swim bladder at the time
or $619,000) of the total value of thornyhead landings
they settle to the bottom, and in spawning gelatinous
in 1999.
egg masses. Shortspine thornyheads grow to larger size
With the 4.5-inch mesh cod ends currently used in the and when small are found in shallower water than long-
commercial trawl shery, thornyheads become vulnerable spine thornyheads. Population dynamics of the two spe-
to bottom trawls at about ve to seven inches in length cies differ. Shortspine thornyheads have longer life span,
and at an age of about eight to nine years. Thornyheads lower natural mortality, and smaller biomass than long-
are seldom taken by gill nets or in the recreational shery spine thornyheads. Consequently, shortspine thornyheads
because of the depths at which they live. are less productive than longspine thornyheads with
respect to shery yields.
Thornyheads are managed by the Pacic Fishery Manage-
ment Council under the Groundsh Management Plan. Shortspine thornyheads tend to migrate toward deep
Shortspine and longspine thornyheads were rst regulated water as they grow, and larger shortspine thornyheads
in 1990. Annual quotas and associated shing regulations may be found in deeper water with longspine thorny-
were established for thornyheads as a group during heads. Longspine thornyheads, in contrast, spend their
1990-1994 because of difculties in separating the two entire lives in a more narrow range of depth. The adults
species in the landings. Beginning in 1995, individual of both species are major components of the assemblage
quotas and trip limits were adopted and enforced for of shes on the continental slope. Both species have
each species. The separate trip limits for each species special enzymatic adaptations that allow metabolic activ-
resulted in a requirement that catches be sorted by spe- ity despite the high pressure, low oxygen, and low tem-
cies prior to weighing. Shortspine trip limits have been perature at the depths where they live. Peak spawning
about 75 percent smaller than limits for longspine in biomass for both species is in the deep “oxygen minimum
recent years, which has likely caused some discards of zone” at 1,200 to 3,000 feet, where concentrations of
shortspine because vessels could continue shing for long- dissolved oxygen may be less than 0.5 parts per thousand.
spine after the shortspine limits were reached. During Longspine thornyheads have been described as “oxygen
2000, the total West Coast optimum yield for shortspine minimum zone specialists.”
thornyheads was 1,250 tons of landed catch, and for
Estimates of ages for both species are based on counts of
longspine thornyhead it was 4,980 tons.
growth rings in thin-sectioned otoliths. Shortspine thorny-
heads can grow to 30 inches and may be quite long-lived.
Radiochemical analysis of otoliths from shortspine thorny-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 375
Status of the Population
heads suggest larger size-at-age than were obtained by
Thornyheads
annuli counts. It is particularly difcult to determine the
S tock assessments are carried out for both longspine
age of older individuals, but recent estimates indicate
and shortspine thornyheads. Results are used by sh-
that the maximum age of shortspine thornyheads off Cali-
ery managers to determine allowable shing mortality
fornia may be in excess of 100 years. Longspine thorny-
each year. Shortspine thornyheads along the west coast
heads grow to a maximum length of 15 inches. Their
of the U.S. were assessed in 1998 by two independent
maximum age is probably at least 45 years.
analyses. Both assessments used data from the shery and
Shortspine thornyhead are found at depths of about 100
data from scientic trawl surveys. Based on the combined
to over 5,000 feet along the west coast of North America
results, the stock in 1999 had declined to 32 percent
from northern Baja California to the Bering Sea and across
of unshed abundance. The best estimate of spawning
the North Pacic to the coast of Japan. It is not known
biomass from central California to the U.S./Canada bound-
if separate stocks exist. Off California, shortspine thorny-
ary in 1998 was 32,365 tons, compared to an estimated
head spawn during late winter and early spring. Males off
unshed stock size of 95,755 tons. Maximum surplus pro-
Alaska may spawn at about 6.5 inches in length (estimated
duction and yield for thornyheads probably occurs at bio-
age ve). About half of all females off California are sexu-
mass levels greater than 40 percent of unshed stock size.
ally mature at 8.25 inches in length (estimated age 13) and
Consequently, current abundance of shortspine thorny-
almost all are sexually mature at 13.5 inches (estimated
head is less than desired, and recent shing quotas have
age 28). A female may release as many as 400,000 eggs
been set at levels to allow some growth in stock size.
annually in gelatinous egg masses that oat to the surface.
The most recent assessment of longspine thornyheads
Larvae free themselves from the egg when about 0.25 inch
was done in 1997, using shery and survey data to esti-
in length and transform to juvenile sh at about 0.75 inch.
mate changes in abundance and associated uncertainty.
Larvae and young juveniles are pelagic for 14 to 15 months
The assessment covered the portion of the stock found
and settle to the bottom when about one inch long during
from central California to the U.S./Canada international
January to June of the year after they hatch. Juveniles
boundary. Results indicate that spawning biomass steadily
settle in shallow water along the upper boundary of
declined in recent decades, from a high of 36,958 tons
their habitat and move to deeper water as they grow.
in 1964 to 20,203 tons in 1996. The degree to which
They spend the rest of their lives closely associated with
longspine thornyheads have been shed down is generally
the bottom. Shortspine thornyheads in Alaska are known
thought to be appropriate for attaining maximum shery
to eat crustaceans, crabs, worms, clams, octopus, sea
yields from the stock, based on biological characteristics
cucumbers, and sh. Longspine thornyheads feed primar-
and population dynamics of the species.
ily on polychaetes and small crustaceans.
Longspine thornyheads are found from Cape San Lucas,
Baja California to the Aleutian Islands in water from J. Thomas Barnes and Sandra L. Owen
about 1,000 to over 5,000 feet deep. It is not known California Department of Fish and Game
if separate stocks exist. Like shortspine thornyheads, long-
Lawrence D. Jacobson
spine thornyheads spawn in the late winter and early
National Marine Fisheries Service
spring. Half of the females are sexually mature at about
7.5 inches (estimated age 14) and most are mature at
8.75 inches (estimated age 18). A female may produce as
many as 100,000 eggs annually, which, like the eggs of
the shortspine thornyhead, are released in gelatinous egg
masses that oat to the surface. Two to four batches of
eggs may be spawned each year. Larval sh are pelagic
after hatching and transform into juveniles during July
to December. Young juveniles are pelagic for as long
as 20 months and begin settling to the ocean bottom
when about two inches long. Settlement starts during the
summer of the year after they hatch. Juvenile longspine
thornyheads settle in deeper water than do shortspine
thornyheads, with newly settled juveniles occupying the
same depth range as adults. There does not appear to be
a tendency for individuals to move deeper as they grow.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
376
References
Thornyheads
Jacobson, L.D., and R.D. Vetter. 1996. Bathymetric demog-
raphy and niche seperation of thornyhead rocksh: Sebas-
tolobus alascanus and Sebastolobus altivelis. Can. J. Fish.
Aquat. Sci. 53: 600-609 (1996).
Moser, H.G. 1974. Development and distribution of larvae
and juveniles of Sebastolobus (Pisces: family Scorpaeni-
dae). Fish. Bull. 72: 491-494.
Rogers, J., T. Builder, P. Crone, J. Brodziak, R. Methot,
R. Conser, and R. Lauth. 1998. Status of the thornyhead
resource in 1998. In Pacic Fishery Management Council.
1998. Appendix: Status of the Pacic coast groundsh sh-
ery through 1998 and recommended acceptable biological
catches for 1999, Stock assessment and shery evaluation.
Rogers, J.B., L.D. Jacobson, R. Lauth, J.N. Ianelli, and
M. Wilkins. 1997. Status of the thornyhead resource
in 1997. Appendix to: Status of the Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1997 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 1998, Stock assessment and
shery evaluation.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 377
Bank Rockfish
History of the Fishery Juveniles and sub-adults tend to be found in shallower
waters than adults are.
M ost bank rocksh (Sebastes rufus) are taken commer- Demersal juveniles and adults often are found over high
cially by trawls, although gill nets were also impor- relief boulder elds or steep cliff faces with plenty of
tant early in the shery. Most of the catch occurs off crevices and caves. They also are found over cobblestones
California, although substantial landings are occasionally or on mixed mud-rock bottoms, where they shelter near
made off southern Oregon. Until the 1980s, bank rocksh or beneath the hard substrate. Small numbers have been
were a relatively minor part of the commercial catch. observed around the bottom of deeper offshore oil plat-
However, as shing effort off California expanded into forms. Banks usually are found either alone or in small
deeper waters, landings of this species sharply increased. groups of up to 30 individuals, often hiding in, or very
From 1981 to 1992, banks ranked among the top 10 rock- close to, sheltering sites. It is also possible that this
sh species taken in California, averaging 1,115 tons annu- species previously formed large schools before it was sub-
ally, and ranked among the top three rocksh species jected to intense shing pressure. In southern California,
landed at Monterey and Morro Bay. In general, catches banks are often found with blackgill rocksh.
after 1992, though variable, have remained somewhat
Bank rocksh live to at least 53 years. They are among
steady. Since the 1970s, there has been a decrease in
the slowest growing of the rockshes. Females grow larger
both age and length of individuals in the shery. In 1998,
than males and, at least among older sh, appear to be
about 450,000 pounds of bank rocksh were caught in
larger at a given age. Males reach maximum length at a
the California commercial shery; these were valued at
slightly faster rate than females and mature at a smaller
about $207,000.
size than females. A few males are mature at 11 inches
While bank rocksh are rarely caught in the recreational and 10 years, and all are mature at 14.8 inches and
shery north of Pt. Conception, California, they are a 20 years. Off California, banks release larvae from Decem-
frequent catch of recreational anglers in deep waters off ber to May (peaking in January and February) and from
southern California. January to April off Oregon. Individual females produce
between about 65,000 and 608,000 eggs. Off southern
California, females release larvae in several batches per
Status of Biological Knowledge season, although this is not the case further north. Little
B
is known of their food habits, although krill and gelatinous
ank rocksh are oval-shaped sh with small head
zooplankton have been found in their stomachs.
spines. They are dusky red or red-brown, often with a
clear pinkish-orange zone along the lateral line and black
spotting on the body and spinous portion of the dorsal
Status of the Population
n. However, some individuals may not have spots. This
species reaches a maximum length of 21.7 inches.
I n 2000, a partial stock assessment was made on bank
Bank rocksh are found from Queen Charlotte Sound, rocksh. This assessment implied that there has been
British Columbia to central Baja California and Isla Guadal- a substantial decrease in the bank rocksh population,
upe (off central Baja California). They are abundant from particularly in the 1990s.
the southern Oregon-northern California area to at least
southern California. They live in depths between 100 and
Milton Love
1,500 feet, but most commonly between 300 and 800 feet.
University of California, Santa Barbara
Diana Watters
California Department of Fish and Game
Bank Rockfish, Sebastes rufus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
378
Commercial Landings
Bank Rockfish
5 1916-1999,
Bank Rockfish
millions of pounds landed
4 Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
survey with input from Pacific Fish-
Bank Rockfish
eries Information Network (PacFin),
3
National Marine Fishery Service
(NMFS), and California Department
2 of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
derived from DFG commercial land-
1 ing receipts with expansions based on
port samples collected by PacFin sam-
plers. Expansion data not available
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 for years prior to 1978.
References
Barss, W. H. 1989. Maturity and reproductive cycle for 35
species from the family Scorpaenidae found off Oregon.
Ore. Dep. Fish Wildl., Inf. Rep. 89-7.
Love, M. S., P. Morris, M. McCrae and R. Collins. 1990.
Life history aspects of 19 rocksh species (Scorpaenidae:
Sebastes) from the southern California bight. NOAA Tech.
Rep. NMFS 87.
Pearson, D. E. 2000. Data availability, landings, and length
trend of California’s rocksh. NMFS, SWFSC Adm. Rep.
SC-00-01.
Watters, D. 1993. Age determination and conrmation
from otoliths of the bank rocksh, Sebastes rufus (Scor-
paenidae). M.S. thesis, San Jose State Univ.
Wyllie Echeverria, T. 1987. Thirty-four species of California
rockshes: maturity and seasonality of reproduction. Fish.
Bull. 85:229-250.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 379
Shortbelly Rockfish
History of the Fishery The quota for catches off California, Oregon and Washing-
ton in 2000 is 13,900 tons. Applications by joint venture
T he shortbelly rocksh (Sebastes jordani) is the most companies to sh for shortbelly rocksh submitted in
abundant rocksh off California but has been shed the early 1990’s were not approved. Those companies
very little. A directed shery occurred in 1982, when a intended to use the catch for surimi (articial crab).
joint venture with the USSR caught 700 tons off central There has been little current interest in development
California. Otherwise, a few shortbelly rocksh occasion- of a shery. Bocaccio is one of the most common
ally appear with other rocksh landed in California ports. bycatch species. Since bocaccio has been declared an
There is no domestic market for shortbelly rocksh at overshed species, it is unlikely that a commercial shery
present. If a market develops, special shing permits will for shortbelly rocksh will be allowed to develop in the
be required, because shing with legal mesh sizes is not foreseeable future.
practical for this small species. Large catches of shortbelly
rocksh can be made using midwater or bottom trawls
Status of Biological Knowledge
with ne mesh cod ends. Research has shown, however,
that while directed shing for shortbelly rocksh results
S hortbelly rocksh are found from Punta Baja, Baja
in low incidental catches of other species when midwater
California, to La Perouse Bank, British Columbia. Larg-
trawls are used, high incidental catches can occur when
est numbers are found between the Farallon Islands and
bottom trawls are used. Because of the concern that
Santa Cruz, and off the Channel Islands. Young-of-the-year
bottom trawls would take unacceptably high numbers
shortbelly rocksh have been observed in the surf line,
of small sh of other important species, scientists have
and adults have been reported as deep as 930 feet. The
recommended against the use of bottom trawls for
peak abundance of adults is over bottom depths of 400 to
shortbelly rocksh.
700 feet. Adults commonly form very large schools over
The potential shery for shortbelly rocksh is contro- smooth bottom near the shelf break. Schools are often
versial. Some shermen express concern that signicant near or on the bottom during the day and tend to be less
amounts of salmon may be caught incidentally to shing dense and higher in the water column at night. The size of
for shortbelly rocksh, but scientists have not observed shortbelly rocksh tends to increase with bottom depth.
incidental salmon catches on numerous research cruises
The maximum reported age for shortbelly rocksh is 32
and believe that a shery for shortbelly rocksh is
years, but sh older than 10 years are uncommon. Most
likely to be offshore from concentrations of salmon. Fish-
are less than 11.5 inches in length, which corresponds to a
ermen and environmental groups also express concern
weight of 0.5 pound. The largest measured specimen was
because young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are forage
13.4 inches, about 0.7 pound. Early growth is fairly rapid,
for salmon, sea birds and marine mammals. Scientists
and by age three the average size is 7.8 inches for males
have recommended quotas that are thought to be suf-
and 8.3 inches for females. Growth slows by age eight,
ciently low so as not to impact either the recruitment or
when the average size is 9.7 inches for males and 10.3
the availability of young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh for
inches for females. About 50 percent of female shortbelly
forage. Scientists have also recommended close monitor-
rocksh are mature by age three, and almost all are
ing of shing for shortbelly rocksh to verify that high
mature by age four. Fecundity ranges from 6,200 eggs for
incidental catches of this species and/or depletion of
a 6.8-inch sh to 50,000 eggs for a 12.0-inch sh.
forage do not occur.
Plankton surveys during the January-April parturition
season indicate that larvae are released in the same areas
inhabited in the summer and fall by large aggregations of
adults. However, the sh may be more dispersed during
late winter because aggregations of adults have been dif-
cult to locate then. Larvae are about 0.2 inch when
released. The young sh lead a pelagic existence until
June, when they are about ve months old, after which
they settle out to lead a semi-pelagic existence. In June,
the young shortbelly rocksh begin to take on the behav-
ior of adults. Divers have occasionally observed them in
large, compact schools in fairly shallow water. Large num-
bers of moribund young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are
sometimes found on beaches after periods of wind pat-
Shortbelly Rockfish, Sebastes jordani
terns that are thought to cause currents, which carry
Credit: David Ono, DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
380
Commercial Landings
Shortbelly Rockfish
160 1916-1999,
thousands of pounds landed
Shortbelly Rockfish
140
Data Source: CalCom, a cooperative
Shortbelly Rockfish
120 survey with input from Pacific Fish-
100 eries Information Network (PacFin),
National Marine Fishery Service
80 (NMFS), and California Department
60 of Fish and Game (DFG). Data are
derived from DFG commercial land-
40 ing receipts with expansions based
20 on port samples collected by PacFin
samplers. Expansion data not avail-
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 able for years prior to 1978.
References
them into shallow waters. These sh did not appear to be
either starved or diseased. They appear to be maladapted
Chess, J. R., S. E. Smith, and P. C. Fisher. 1988. Trophic
to contact with the abrasive bottom when in the near-
relationships of the shortbelly rocksh, Sebastes jordani,
shore environment.
off central California. CalCOFI Rep. 29:129-136.
During the latter part of the juvenile pelagic stage, the
Kato, S. 1981. Checking out shortbelly rocksh - Colintino
two to three-inch shortbelly rocksh feed mostly on cope-
Rose II’s mission accomplished. Pacic Fishing (November,
pods and young stages of euphausiids. Adults feed pri-
1981):96-100.
marily on euphausiids but also consume some copepods.
Young-of-the-year shortbelly rocksh are important prey Lenarz, W. H. 1980. Shortbelly rocksh, Sebastes jordani:
for salmon and sea birds. They have also been found in a large unshed resource in waters off California. Mar.
the diet of lingcod and northern fur seals. Adult shortbelly Fish. Rev. (March-April):34-40.
rocksh are occasionally found in the diet of large sh
Pearson, D. E., J. E. Hightower, and J. T. H. Chan. 1991.
such as lingcod.
Age, growth, and potential yield for shortbelly rocksh
(Sebastes jordani). Fish. Bull. 89:403-409.
Status of the Population
T he population is at the unshed level. Biomass esti-
mates have been attempted on four hydroacoustic
surveys from Santa Cruz to the Farallon Islands in 1977,
1983, 1986, and 1989. Large aggregations needed for the
hydroacoustic technique were found only on two of the
four surveys. The two estimates of biomass were 168,000
tons and 325,000 tons. It was estimated that the biomass
in this area could support annual catches of at least
14,800 tons without reducing the spawning stock below
levels thought to be needed to maintain good recruit-
ment. Recent larval abundance surveys have suggested
that recruitment is low which may be related to unfavor-
able oceanographic conditions.
William H. Lenarz
College of Marin
Revised by:
Donald E. Pearson
National Marine Fisheries Service
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 381
Dover Sole
History of the Fishery Council (PFMC) as a trip limit on the aggregate poundage
of Dover sole, thornyheads, and sablesh (the DTS com-
T he stature of Dover sole (Microstomus pacicus) has plex). Prior to that time, market demand and gear regula-
evolved from that of an undesirable by-product of tions controlled statewide Dover sole landings. The intent
bottom trawling prior to the 1940s, to the most abundant of this regulation was to reduce the harvest of sablesh
groundsh in statewide landings. This phenomenal rise by restricting effort for the DTS complex. While reduced
was the result of market demand during and following quotas and increasingly restrictive trip limits were placed
World War II and technological advances in sh handling on the DTS complex coast-wide during the 1990s, the
and processing. major reason for the decline in California Dover sole land-
ings was a reduction in market demand. The port of
At the advent of trawling in the 1870s, Dover sole were
Eureka has historically supported the largest Dover sole
inadvertently caught by lateen sailboats using paranzella
shery and was strongly impacted by the loss of a major
nets. California’s Dover sole shery expanded from its
Army contract. Fort Bragg, Crescent City, San Francisco,
beginning in San Francisco Bay to its present scope
Monterey, and Morro Bay are other ports with signicant
extending from Santa Barbara to the Oregon border. The
Dover sole landings.
developing trawl shery experienced major changes in
vessels and netting. Sailboats were replaced by steam, Sport utilization of Dover sole is practically nonexistent.
gasoline, then diesel-powered vessels. The original paran- The depth distribution of Dover sole normally places
zella trawl net was supplanted by the more efcient otter them beyond most sport shing activity, and Dover sole,
trawl in the 1920s. By the 1980s, some trawl shermen because of their feeding habits, are not vulnerable to
began to use roller or bobbin trawls to capture Dover hook-and-line shing.
sole and other deep-slope groundsh instead of more
conventional trawls with rubber mudlines between the
Status of Biological Knowledge
trawl doors and footrope to create a sh-herding mud
cloud. A quick-freezing method, developed during World
D over sole occur from the Bering Sea to northern Baja
War II, hardened the soft esh of the Dover sole to
California on mud bottoms at depths from 180 to
produce marketable llets. This advance and the wartime
4,800 feet. Although early tagging experiments off Oregon
demand for sh allowed trawlers to turn their attention to
and California suggested Dover sole move inshore in the
the large north coast population of Dover sole.
summer, a more recent California Department of Fish and
The directed Dover sole shery began in 1943 when Game (DFG) tagging study discovered that not all Dover
28 tons were landed. Between 1944 and 1947, landings sole participate in the summer inshore movement. Most of
ranged from 62 tons to 1,400 tons. The shery expanded the mature sh tagged and released in deep water were
to 3,600 tons in 1948, at which time Dover sole landing recovered in deep water regardless of season. The DFG
records were separated from nominal or unspecied sole tagging data indicate that two substocks may exist – one
landings, and rose further to 5,850 tons by 1952. Annual that migrates and one that does not. Juvenile Dover sole
landings then remained stable at approximately 4,000 tons settle on the continental shelf and gradually move down
until 1969. From 1969 through 1989, landings averaged the slope over their lifetime, reaching the oxygen-mini-
10,200 tons and from 1990 through 1999, average landings mum zone as they become sexually mature.
dropped to 5,892 tons.
Growth is rapid during the early years of life but decreases
Commercial Dover sole landing limits were imposed coast- with age. Five-year-old Dover sole grow 0.7 inch per year,
wide in 1989 and 1990 by the Pacic Fishery Management but by 10 years of age, growth slows to 0.4 inch annually.
Dover sole may attain an age of over 50 years and reach
30 inches in length. Fifty percent of Dover sole females
12 inches long are mature. The youngest mature Dover
sole in 1987-1988 studies was six years old, whereas earlier
studies reported mature ve-year-old females.
Dover sole may spawn nine batches to release all eggs in
a spawning season. Egg production is correlated with size.
Fish of 0.6 pound produce 33,000 eggs, while 2.4-pound
sh produce 54,000 eggs on average. Incubation time for
the buoyant eggs may vary from 10 days to one month
depending on the ambient water temperature. Larvae
are unusually large (one to two inches long) and have a
Dover Sole, Microstomus pacificus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
382
Dover Sole
30
millions of pounds landed
25
Commercial Landings
20
Dover Sole
1916-1999,
Dover Sole
15 Prior to 1931, all soles were com-
bined as one group; individual
10 species were tabulated separately
when they became sufficiently
5
important. Data Source: DFG
Catch Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
prolonged pelagic life of at least one year before settling Francis D. Henry
to the bottom. Larvae have been found along the entire California Department of Fish and Game
California coast, as far as 60 miles south of the U.S.- N. Chyan-huei Lo
Mexico border and up to 280 miles offshore. National Marine Fisheries Service
Dover sole feed commonly on polychaete worms, pelecy- Revised by:
pod and scaphopod mollusks, shrimp, and brittle stars. David Thomas
Only Pacic sleeper sharks and spiny dogsh are known to California Department of Fish and Game
prey on Dover sole.
References
Status of the Population
Brodziak, J., L. Jacobson. R. Lauth, and M. Wilkins.
I n 1987 and 1988, the National Marine Fisheries Service 1998. Assessment of the Dover Sole Stocks for 1997. In:
(NMFS) conducted two surveys to assess the adult bio- Status of the Pacic coast groundsh shery through 1997
mass of Dover sole in the area from Point Conception and recommended acceptable biological catches for 1998.
to Monterey Bay. The surveys found that 98 percent of Pacic Fishery Management Council, Portland Oregon.
the spawning biomass of Dover sole in central California
Hagerman, F.B. 1952. The biology of the Dover sole
waters live on the continental slope between 2,100 and
(Microstomus pacicus) (Lockington). Calif. Dept. Fish and
3,300 feet deep, an area characterized by low oxygen
Game, Fish Bull. 85. 48 p.
concentrations and very cold temperatures. A 1991 assess-
Hunter, J.R., B.J. Macewicz, N.C.H. Lo, and C.A. Kimbrell.
ment using 1990 NMFS bottom trawl survey data provided
1992. Fecundity, spawning, and maturity of female Dover
estimates of biomass and yields for the area from Cape
sole, Microstomus pacicus, with an evaluation of assump-
Mendocino, California to Cape Blanco, Oregon (Eureka
tions and precision. Fish. Bull., U.S. 90: 101-128.
area). Another assessment, conducted in 1992, included
the Eureka area and the Columbia area and another Turnock, J. and R. Methot. 1992. Status of west coast
completed in 1995 included the northern Monterey area as Dover sole in 1992. In: Status of the Pacic coast ground-
well as the US Vancouver area. sh shery through 1992 and recommended acceptable
biological catches for 1993. Pacic Fishery Management
The last Dover assessment, conducted in 1997, treated the
Council, Portland, Oregon.
entire population in the Monterey area through the U.S.
Vancouver area as a single stock based on research on the Turnock, J., M. Wilkins, M. Saelens, and R. Lauth. 1995.
genetic structure of the population. The Point Conception Status of west coast Dover sole in The US Vancouver and
area population has yet to be fully assessed. Using yield Northern Monterey Areas in 1995. In: Status of the Pacic
recommendations presented in the 1997 assessment, the coast groundsh shery through 1995 and recommended
PFMC set a coastwide landed catch limit of 8,955 tons. acceptable biological catches for 1996. Pacic Fishery
This stock is believed to be in equilibrium and near the Management Council, Portland, Oregon.
target biomass level that would provide maximum sustain-
able yield.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 383
English Sole
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
E E
nglish sole (Pleuronectes vetulus) has been commer- nglish sole range from San Cristobal Bay, Baja Califor-
cially important since the introduction of the rst nia to northwest Alaska in water as deep as 1,800 feet.
trawl net, the paranzella, in San Francisco in 1876. The Fish tend to move to deeper water in the winter and
use of trawl nets made the catch of “sole” species one shallower water in the summer, and shing effort follows
of the leading categories of sh landed in California, and these movements. Tagging studies in California, Oregon,
English sole was the leading atsh in that group until Washington, and British Columbia show that, although
Dover sole took rst place in 1949. Since then, English there is little overall migration, small seasonal north-
sole has been second in pounds landed except for 1970 south movements probably occur, and some sh have been
through 1972, when petrale sole was second. The peak found to move in excess of 200 miles. Analysis of tag
year for English sole was 1929, when 8.7 million pounds returns also suggest that four separate stocks are found in
were caught off central California and at new shing areas California: south of Point Conception, Point Conception to
off Fort Bragg and Eureka. Annual landings in California Bodega Bay, Monterey to Eureka, and Eureka to southern
averaged 2.8 million pounds during the 10 years from 1980 Oregon. The overlap in areas is a result of apparent north-
to 1989 and dropped to an average 1.3 million pounds south movement of the stocks. Some seasonal intermin-
between 1990 and 1999. The majority of recent California gling between stocks probably also occurs.
landings were made by trawlers shing on the grounds Three-year-old female English sole, on average, are only
off Eureka and San Francisco. Little is taken commercially about eight inches, while 10-year-old females are about
south of Point Conception. 14 inches. Fifty percent of female English sole are usually
English sole are shed primarily by trawling in water 120 mature at ve years and nine inches. Spawning generally
to 900 feet deep on sandy bottoms. Because of the shal- occurs over sand and mud-sand bottoms at depths of 200
low water in which this species is found, relatively small to 360 feet from September to April. In California, peak
vessels can participate in the shery. A very small portion spawning occurs from December through February, with
of the catch is taken by commercial hook-and-line or by annual variations in timing apparently related to water
gill net, and it is not an important species for recreational temperature. Each sh probably spawns only once per
shing. Female sh greater that 11 inches comprise the year. Egg diameter is approximately 0.04 inch. Fertilized
majority of landings because females tend to be longer eggs are buoyant when rst released, but shortly before
and heavier than males, and markets request sh of at hatching they begin to sink into the water column.
least 11 inches in order to produce reasonable size llets. When the eggs hatch, in four to 12 days, the larvae are
While English sole llets are desirable for the market and approximately 0.1 inch long. Typically the larvae are in the
restaurant trade, demand is affected by the abundance of midwater column but sink deeper as they approach meta-
other atsh and roundsh as well as the availability and morphosis. During development, the larvae may be car-
price of imported sh products. ried toward shore on lower-level water currents. Spawning
and development during times of rapid plankton growth
may result in good recruitment. During their pelagic phase
of six to 10 weeks, the larvae grow to about 0.75 inch,
then settle to the bottom and metamorphose to the adult
benthic body form.
After metamorphosis, and for the rst year of life, juvenile
English sole are found in shallow bays and estuaries and
feed all the way up to the intertidal zone. Juveniles are
found in sand, mud, and eelgrass habitats. The population
density of juvenile English sole in estuaries is several
times higher than on the open coast; however, it is not
known how important estuaries are to survival of juvenile
English sole. In southern California, the shallow open coast
may be more important as juvenile habitat than it is
further north. As the sh grow they tend to move to
deeper water. While in the estuary and nearshore shallow-
water environment, juveniles feed on copepods, the palps
of segmented worms, siphons of small clams, brittle stars,
English Sole, Pleuronectes vetulus and other small invertebrates. At the end of their rst
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
384
English Sole
9
8
millions of pounds landed
7
6
English Sole
Commercial Landings
5 1916-1999, English Sole
4 Prior to 1931, all soles were
combined as one group; indi-
3
vidual species were tabulated
2 separately when they became
1 sufficiently important. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
year of life (about ve inches), most juveniles have moved Donald E. Pearson
to offshore waters. National Marine Fisheries Service
Adult sh are seldom found in estuaries. They are oppor- Sandra L. Owen
tunistic feeders eating shallowly burrowed or surface- California Department of Fish and Game
active prey such as worms, small crustaceans, clams, and Revised by:
occasionally small sh, crabs, and shrimp. Adults can also Dave Thomas
dig into the sediment to reach deeper prey. The largest California Department of Fish and Game
recorded English sole, from British Columbia, was 22.5
inches, and 21-inch sh have been taken in California.
References
The oldest recorded age is 22 years. English sole are
aged by counting the annual rings on the interopercular
Jow, T. 1969. Results of English sole tagging off California.
bone. The English sole is capable of interbreeding with the
Pac. Mar. Fish. Commis. Bull. 7:15-33.
starry ounder producing an inter-generic hybrid called
the hybrid or forkline sole or ounder. Kruse, G.H. and A.V.Tyler. 1989. Exploratory simulation of
English sole recruitment mechanisms. Transactions of the
AFS 118:101-118.
Status of the Population Krygier, E.E. and W.G. Pearcy. 1986. The role of estuarine
L
and offshore nursery areas for young English sole, Paroph-
ittle information is available to estimate the status of
rys vetulus Girard, of Oregon. Fish. Bull., U.S. 84:119-132.
the English sole stock in California. Catch-per-unit-of-
effort data exist but are complicated by the multiple spe- Lassuy, D.R. 1989. Species proles: life histories and envi-
cies aspect of trawl shing. In 1993, an assessment using ronmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
data collected from 1977 through 1992, was conducted for brates (Pacic northwest)–English sole. U.S. Fish Wildl.
the English sole stocks off Oregon and Washington. Results Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.101). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
indicate that the biomass increased steadily during the TR EL-82-4. 17 p.
assessment period, which was attributed to high recruit-
Rosenberg, A.A. 1982. Growth of juvenile English sole,
ment. The author concluded that English sole stocks can
Parophrys vetulus, in estuarine and open coastal nursery
sustain a high exploitation rate because a large portion
grounds. Fish. Bull., U.S. 80:245-252.
of the spawning stock is comprised of small females
Sampson , D. B. and Al-Jufaily, S.M. 1999. Geographic
that are not caught by the shery due to the small
variation in the maturity and growth schedules of English
size-at-maturity.
sole along the U.S. west coast. J. Fish Bio. 54:1-17.
The California shery is currently managed by the Pacic
Toole, C.L. 1980. Intertidal recruitment and feeding in
Fishery Management Council through gear regulations such
relation to optimal utilization of nursery areas by juvenile
as trawl net mesh size and a recommended Acceptable
English sole (Parophrys vetulus: Pleuronectidae). Env.
Biological Catch (1,100 metric tons at present). Landings
Biol. Fish. 5:383-390.
are monitored and populations continually assessed for
signs of biological stress.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 385
Petrale Sole
History of the Fishery Tagging studies in Washington, Oregon, and California indi-
cate that petrale sole concentrate for spawning in deep
T he California shery for petrale sole (Eopsetta jordani) water during winter and, shortly after spawning, disperse
began in the San Francisco Bay area during the late inshore and northward through the spring and summer
1880s. Petrale were then, as they are now, a highly desir- months. During fall and winter, they show an offshore and
able atsh. Most are lleted for the fresh market, with southerly movement again concentrating on local deep
the remainder being cleaned and smoked or dried. The water spawning grounds. Seasonal landing distributions
majority of the petrale sole landed are taken commer- show the same pattern. During winter, a targeted shery
cially with bottom trawls, along with various other at- occurs in deep water and large catches and landings of
shes and rockshes, although some are caught by long- petrale are made, while during summer, they are caught
line or entangling nets. The sport shery is negligible, in association with many other groundsh and individual
with only a few thousand pounds being landed annually. petrale landings are relatively small. Within California,
The principal sport catch is made by partyboats shing for four spawning populations of petrale sole have been delin-
bottomsh species such as rockshes. eated by tagging experiments and by locating spawning
sh. These are in the Cape Mendocino, Point Delgado,
In 1924, there were 66,000 pounds of petrale sole landed.
Point Montara, and Point Sal areas.
From 1924 through 1933, annual landings averaged about
250,000 pounds, with over 1.4 million pounds landed in Age and growth studies on petrale sole in California have
1931. The trawler eet increased greatly in size and been very limited. However, growth appears to be rapid
efciency following World War II. New gear technology during the rst few years for both male and female sh,
allowed trawling on new grounds at greater depths, result- after which the growth rate becomes disproportionate,
ing in larger landings. Also contributing to increased pro- with females growing more rapidly than males. The maxi-
duction was the discovery of winter spawning grounds at mum recorded sizes and ages of California petrale sole are
depths of 900 to 1,200 feet. Concentrations here were 19.5 inches and 21 years for males and 25.2 inches and 25
very dense and catches increased accordingly. Over ve years for females. Petrale sole enter the shery at about
million pounds were landed in 1948. Between 1982 and three years of age, but most of the petrale catch consists
1991, landings averaged 1.7 million pounds. From 1992 to of females between ve and seven years old and about 14
1999 landings averaged 1.3 million pounds. to 17 inches long.
Petrale sole reproduce in water between 900 and 1,200
feet deep from November through March, with peak
Status of Biological Knowledge spawning during January and February. Males reach rst
P
maturity at three years of age and 11.7 inches long, and
etrale sole are found from the Bering Sea to northern
females at four years and 12.5 inches. About 50 percent of
Baja California on sandy bottoms at depths ranging
the males are mature at seven years and 16 inches. The
from 60 to 1,500 feet. These sh have been known to
largest immature male recorded was 15.2 inches and eight
move great distances; tagged sh released off Eureka,
years; the largest immature female, about 18.5 inches and
California have been recovered in British Columbia. Never-
nine years. Eggs are pelagic and hatch in about 8.5 days
theless, most tagged petrale sole are recovered within
at 44.6 F.
short distances of the release point.
Petrale sole are among the largest California atsh. They
feed on euphausiids, shrimp, anchovies, herring, juvenile
hake, small rocksh, and other atsh.
Status of Population
A 1999 stock assessment, which focused on petrale
stocks off Oregon and Washington did not estimate
absolute
biomass or offer a harvest projection for California.
However, the authors did examine some limited data
from California including a set of shelf survey indices of
biomass and noted that this index has been steadily
Pertrale Sole, Eopsetta jordani
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
386
Petrale Sole
6
millions of pounds landed
5
4
Petrale Sole
Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Petrale Sole
3
Prior to 1931, all soles were
combined as one group;
2
individual species were tabulated
separately when they became
1
sufficiently important. Data
Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 commercial landing receipts.
References
increasing since 1980. This assessment suggests recent
California catches are sustainable, prompting the PFMC
Best, O.A. 1963. Movement of Petrale sole, Eopsetta jor-
to retain a statewide acceptable biological catch of 3.3
dani (Lexington) tagged off California. Pac. Mar. Fish.
million pounds.
Comm. Bull. 6:24-38.
Memory, R.L. 1987. Progress report on the status of
David H. Thomas
petrale sole in the INPFC Columbia-Vancouver areas in
California Department of Fish and Game
1987. Appendix E in Status of the Pacic coast groundsh
shery through 1985 and recommended acceptable biolog-
ical catches for 1986. Pacic Fishery Management Council,
Portland, Oregon.
Forrester, C.R. 1969. Life history information on some
groundsh species. Fish. Bd. Canada, Tech. Rept. 105:1-17.
Ketchen, K.S. and C.R. Forrester. 1966. Population dynam-
ics of the Petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani, in waters off
western Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 153:1-195.
Sampson, D.B. and Lee, Y.W. 1999. An Assessment of
the Stocks of Petrale Sole Off Washington, Oregon, and
California in 1998. Appendix in Status of Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1999 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 2000.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 387
Rex Sole
History of the Fishery compressed head, a small mouth, and a nearly straight
lateral line that lacks an accessory branch.
T he rex sole (Errex zachirus, formerly Glyptocephalus Rex sole rst appear in the trawl catch when they are
zachirus) is taken commercially by bottom trawl nets about 12 inches long and 10.5 years of age. They can
from southern California to the Bering Sea at depths of attain a length of 23.25 inches and an age of 24 years.
300 to 1,200 feet. Despite its wide-distribution, this spe- Male rex sole rst spawn in their second year when about
cies does not lend itself to a high-production targeted ve inches long. Females rst spawn at age three and
shery, because it rarely aggregates in any one location about eight inches. Rex sole become fully mature at age
at any certain time of year. It is rarely taken by four and about nine inches in length. After 3.5 years of
sport shermen. age, females grow somewhat faster than males; they also
The commercial shery for rex sole in California had been tend to live longer.
steady and stable between 1970 and 1989, with most Although rex sole in spawning condition have been col-
catches made incidentally to other groundsh species. lected throughout the year, peak spawning activity is from
Annual California landings of rex sole from 1970 to 1989 February through March off San Francisco and during the
averaged 1.6 million pounds, with a range of 1.3 to 2.0 mil- summer off Eureka. Spawning rex sole are most abundant
lion pounds. However, during the 1990s landings declined at depths of 300 to 900 feet.
along with landings of other groundsh. By the end of
The number of eggs produced by a single female rex sole
the 1990s, landings were down to approximately 630,000
increases with size. A 9.5-inch female will produce about
pounds worth $243,772 to shermen. Prices have been
3,900 eggs, while a 23.25-inch female can have as many
steady at $.35 to $.40 per pound for the past decade.
as 238,000 eggs. Rex sole eggs average about 0.10 inch in
Traditionally, the majority of the landings in California
diameter, are fertilized near the sea bed, become pelagic,
have come from the Eureka-Crescent City area. Since
and probably require a few weeks to hatch.
1985, rex sole landings from other ports as far south as
Rex sole eggs hatch to produce pelagic larvae that are
Morro Bay have grown relative to landings in the Eureka-
about 0.25 inch in length. Larvae have been collected
Crescent City area.
from nearshore to 200 miles offshore during California
Rex sole is primarily processed for the fresh food market,
Cooperative Oceanic Fishery Investigations (CalCOFI) sur-
where it is held in high esteem by seafood connoisseurs
veys and are most abundant from April to July. The larvae
because of its bright, white esh and its sweet, distinctive
retain an extended pelagic existence for about a year
taste. Most rex sole are marketed in a dressed form
before settling out to the bottom as two-inch-long juve-
(eviscerated with the head off), which gives processors a
niles. The long pelagic phase may make rex sole larvae
35 to 45 percent yield by weight. Rex sole is generally not
more susceptible to dispersal and drift by currents, a
lleted because its thin, slight body does not allow for
factor that might affect survival and subsequent year-class
efcient recovery.
strength. Juveniles are common on the outer edge of the
continental shelf, which is possibly used as a nursery area,
Status of Biological Knowledge at depths of 490 to 660 feet.
Little is known about rex sole movements and migrations.
T he rex sole belongs to the family Pleuronectidae, They are found from shallow water (60 feet usually deeper
the right-eyed ounders. It is distinguished by a long than 200 feet) to depths of 2,100 feet. They show a prefer-
narrow pectoral n on the eyed side of the body, a short ence for a muddy-sandy bottom but also frequent both
sand and mud bottoms.
Stomach analyses show that rex sole feed primarily on
amphipods and polychaetes; shrimp are also eaten. Rex
sole are preyed upon by sharks, skates, rays, lingcod, and
some rocksh.
Rex Sole, Errex zachirus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
388
Rex Sole
2.5
millions of pounds landed
2.0
Commercial Landings
Rex Sole
1.5
1916-1999, Rex Sole
Prior to 1931, all soles were
1.0 combined as one group;
individual species were tabulated
0.5 separately when they became
sufficiently important. Data Source:
DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
Status of the Population References
T he rex sole is listed under the “other atsh” category Hosie, M. J. 1976. The rex sole. Oregon Department of Fish
in the Pacic Coast groundsh plan. It is believed and Wildlife Information Report 76-2:1-5.
to be adequately protected by trawl mesh-size regula- Hosie, M.J. and H.F. Horton. 1977. Biology of the rex sole,
tions, which result in the retention of only the larger Glyptocephalus zachirus, in waters off Oregon. Fish. Bull.,
sh. Yet, insufcient information is available to determine U.S. 75:51-60.
possible trends in stock abundance. Increased restrictions
Pearcy, W. G. 1978. Distribution and abundance of small
on trawling effort may be partially responsible for recent
atshes and other demersal shes in a region of diverse
reductions in landings.
sediments and bathymetry off Oregon. Fish. Bull., U.S.
76:629-640.
Lawrence F. Quirollo Pearcy, W.G. , M.J. Hosie, S.L. Richardson 1977. Distribu-
California Department of Fish and Game tion and duration of pelagic life of larvae of Dover sole,
Revised by: Microstomus pacicus; rex sole, Glyptocephalus zachirus;
Christopher M. Dewees and petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani, in waters off Oregon.
University of California, Davis Fish. Bull. U.S. 75: 173-184.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 389
Sablefish
History of the Fishery worth $3.63 million, ranked fourth in ex-vessel value
among groundsh species. Between 1990 and 1999, Cali-
T he sablesh (Anoplopoma mbria) resource off Califor- fornia landings had an average ex-vessel value of 5.1 mil-
nia has a lengthy history of commercial exploitation. lion dollars. Sablesh are marketed commonly as “black
Prior to 1935, landings averaged about 500 tons annually. cod” and smaller sh are often lleted and sold as “but-
By 1935, annual landings had risen to 1,400 tons at a tersh.” The high oil content of the esh produces an
time when sablesh livers, because of their high vitamin A excellent smoked product, and most of the large indi-
content, commanded a higher price than the edible parts viduals are sold domestically in this form. Sablesh are
of the sh. Landings increased to over 3,000 tons in 1945 typically exported in frozen, dressed (headed-and-gutted)
due to strong wartime market demand, then varied from form. There is a large price difference with size.
approximately 770 to 2,200 tons per year until 1972. Sport utilization of sablesh is negligible, with rare
More intensive exploitation of sablesh began in 1972 instances of large catches when schools of small sablesh
with the development and widespread use of sablesh concentrate around public piers. The depth distribution
traps, which proved highly effective. Foreign shing eets of sablesh normally places them beyond most sport
from the U.S.S.R, Japan, and the Republic of Korea shed shing activity.
for sablesh off California from 1967 to 1979, catching
Sablesh are captured commercially with longline, trap,
relatively minor quantities in most years. However, in
bottom trawl, and gill net gears. Before 1943, sablesh
1976 the Republic of Korea reported a catch of 9,500
were landed principally by small two- to three-man long-
tons off California. The establishment of the U.S. 200-mile
line boats shing deep for large sablesh for the smoked
shery conservation zone in 1977 phased out foreign sh-
sh market. Catches by trawlers became signicant in
ing in those waters; consequently Japan, the principal
1944. The distribution of landings among gear types has
foreign market for sablesh, became increasingly reliant
varied considerably over time, but bottom trawlers have
on imports of U.S.-caught sablesh. Japanese demand for
accounted for about 70 percent of annual California land-
sablesh helped drive California landings to a record high
ings in recent years. In recent years, a small number of
of 14,287 tons in 1979, followed by a market collapse the
sablesh have been caught in the recently developed live-
next year to just 5,141 tons.
sh shery.
The rst commercial sablesh landing limits were imposed
Trawls and gill nets capture sablesh in mixed-species
coastwide in 1982 by the Pacic Fishery Management
catches with a variety of other groundshes, whereas
Council. Prior to that time, market demand, not resource
longline and trap gears target on sablesh. Off California,
availability or quotas, was the dominant force controlling
most trawl-caught sablesh are taken in association with
statewide sablesh landings. From 1982 to 1989, regula-
Dover sole and thornyheads in deep (1,200-4,200 feet)
tions constrained statewide sablesh landings to an aver-
water. Longlines and traps are also shed at such depths
age of approximately 6,175 tons. Annual coastwide landing
for sablesh, but gill net-caught sablesh commonly are
quotas remained at 19,183 tons from 1982 to 1984, then
captured with rocksh at depths less than 900 feet.
gradually declined to 9,800 tons in 1990 as the stock was
Because of the immense shing power of the West Coast
shed down to the recommended long-term target level.
groundsh eet and a robust market demand, rather
Between 1990 and 2000, the Allowable Biological Catch
intensive management of sablesh became necessary in
(ABC) was reduced slightly to 10,661 tons.
the 1980s to prevent overexploitation and to accomplish
The economic importance of sablesh to California has
other management goals. Trip landing and frequency
increased considerably in recent years. In 1989, sablesh,
limits, a 22-inch minimum size limit, user-group alloca-
tions, as well as more commonly used quotas and gear
restrictions, have been applied to the commercial sable-
sh shery by the PFMC. Trip landing and frequency
limits prevent early quota attainment, thereby reducing
the discard of sablesh by-catch in non-directed sheries
and providing year-round availability of fresh sablesh
to domestic consumers. The minimum size limit, imple-
mented in 1983, prevents the excessive harvest of juvenile
sablesh. Quota allocation distributes the harvest among
user groups to achieve social and economic goals. Quotas
and gear restrictions are designed to ensure the optimal
long-term harvest of sablesh.
Sablefish, Anonlopoma fimbra
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
390
Sablefish
35
millions of pounds landed
30
25
Sablefish
20
15
Commercial Landings
10
1916-1999, Sablefish
5 Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
The sablesh resource is unique among West Coast Approximately 50 percent of female sablesh reach matu-
groundshes, for the annual commercial catch quota has rity at 23.6 inches long and six years of age off California.
been allocated between trawl and non-trawl gears since Females grow faster than males from age two and attain a
1986. Trawl/non-trawl allocations, based on historical larger maximum size. Sablesh may attain an age of over
shares and incidental catch requirements, have ranged 50 years and reach a size of 47 inches and 126 pounds but
from 58:42 to 52:48 during 1986 to 2000. Separate alloca- are usually less than 30 inches and 25 pounds. Sablesh
tions are needed because trawl-landing restrictions put enter the trawl shery as early as one year of age but are
trawlers at a disadvantage with non-trawl shermen when fully selected by trawl and nontrawl sheries at ages four
both groups compete for a joint quota. Most non-trawl to six. Large, older sh are most selected by the trap and
shermen land only sablesh; thus an unrestricted open longline sheries.
shery followed by a closure is acceptable to them. Quota Sablesh are conventionally aged using the broken and
allocation allows each group to use their optimal harvest burnt otolith method. There is very poor agreement
strategy within regulatory constraints. among agers and therefore the estimated ages are ques-
tionable. This is in spite of a considerable amount of
research on the problem.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he geographic distribution of sablesh extends from
Status of Population
the Asiatic coast of the Bering Sea to northern Baja
F
California. Tagging studies by the National Marine Fisher- or management purposes, a unit stock is assumed to
ies Service (NMFS), Department of Fisheries and Oceans- exist in waters off California to the Canadian border.
Canada, and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Considerable progress has been made in the 1980s towards
indicated that adult sablesh are relatively sedentary, understanding the dynamics, structure, and size of this
as most sh were recaptured within 50 nautical miles stock. Two types of sheries-independent surveys were
of release sites. However, some sablesh, particularly conducted by the NMFS, triennial groundsh trawl surveys
those tagged in southern California, have moved in excess (initiated in 1977) from Monterey Bay to the Canadian
of 1,000 nautical miles. Adult sablesh are found from border and biennial sablesh trap surveys in the INPFC
less than 300 to more than 4,800 feet deep, but peak Conception to Eureka areas (Mexican border to 43° 00’ N
abundance off California is at about 1,200 to 1,800 feet. latitude). In 1991, the biennial trap survey was discontin-
Length and age generally increase with depth. ued due to a lack of funding. In addition, a systematic
The spawning season extends from October through Feb- landings sampling program and trawl logbook data pro-
ruary. A central California study determined that spawn- vided insight into catch-per-effort, and age- and length-
ing occurs at depths greater than 2,700 feet. Initially, composition trends. In general, these disparate data sets
larval sablesh inhabit surface waters offshore; later they presented a somewhat equivocal picture of stock status in
move into nearshore nursery areas. Juveniles aggregate in California waters.
water depths of continental slope and abyssal areas. The Fisheries-independent and dependent studies have had
diet of juvenile sablesh includes copepods, amphipods, conicting results. Stock assessments have been hampered
euphausiids, sh eggs, and sh larvae. Adults eat euphau- by the lack of reliable age data. In 1998, two independent
siids, tunicates, and sh. stock assessments were performed which resulted in bio-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 391
References
mass estimates ranging between 33,000 and 319,000 tons.
Sablefish
Given the highly uncertain status of the population, it
Hastie, J.D. 1988. Catch and revenue characteristics
is unclear whether management has been too liberal or
of vessels harvesting sablesh off the west coast of
too conservative.
the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
F/NWC-144.
Francis D. Henry
Hunter, J.R, B.J. Macewicz, and C.A. Kimbrell. 1989.
California Department of Fish and Game
Fecundity and other aspects of the reproduction of sable-
Revised by:
sh, Anoplopoma mbria, in central California waters.
Donald E. Pearson
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 30:61-72.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Melteff, B.R. 1983. Editor. Proceedings of the International
Sablesh Symposium. Alaska Sea Grant Report 83-8. Alaska
Sea Grant College Program, University of Alaska-Fairbanks.
Methot, R.D., P.Crone, R.J. Conser, J. Brodziak, T. Builder,
D. Kamikawa. 1998. Status of the sablesh resource of the
U.S. pacic coast in 1998. In Status of the Pacic coast
groundsh shery through 1998 and recommended accept-
able biological catches for 1999. Pacic Fishery Manage-
ment Council, Portland, Oregon.
Parks, N.B. and F.R. Shaw. 1989. Relative abundance
and size composition of sablesh (Anoplopoma mbria)
in the coastal waters of California and southern
Oregon, 1984-1988. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS
F/NWC-167.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
392
Pacific Hake
History of the Fishery In 1964, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
Pacific Hake
demonstrated that large catches of hake (to 60,000
T he Pacic hake (Merluccius productus), also known pounds per half-hour haul) could be achieved off coastal
as Pacic whiting, makes up more than 50 percent Washington and Oregon using newly developed depth
of the potential annual harvest of West Coast groundsh telemetry systems on midwater trawlers. This shery grew
off Washington, Oregon, and California and is the largest from 484 tons in 1964 to 15,883 tons in 1967.
groundsh resource managed under the Pacic Fishery Knowledge of the large hake resource off the West Coast
Council’s Groundsh Management Plan. Pacic hake was attracted a large eet of Soviet trawlers and accompa-
considered an underutilized domestic species until 1991, nying support vessels in 1966. Between 1973 and 1976,
the rst year the entire harvest was captured and pro- Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany),
cessed by the U.S. seafood industry. the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), and
A member of the cod family, Pacic hake is a delicate Bulgaria entered the shery. Japan also participated in
sh that requires careful handling to achieve a marketable the shery before 1977; their peak harvest was 9,104 tons
product. The sh must be chilled, processed, and frozen in 1974. The estimated catches of Pacic hake during this
soon after the harvest. Also, Pacic hake are infected with period of expansion ranged from 130,000 tons to 262,000
a myxosporidian parasite that can appear as black spots tons. Catches peaked in 1976 and were subsequently
within the esh. Protease enzymes associated with the reduced due to restrictions on foreign effort imposed by
parasite can cause degradation of the esh if the sh are the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act
not handled properly. (MFCMA) of 1976.
The Pacic hake shery is a high-volume, low-value sh- Two types of shing operations involving foreign vessels
ery (ex-vessel prices have ranged from $0.025-$0.08 per were conducted off Washington, Oregon, and northern
pound). Its product contains, on average, about 15 percent California after the implementation of the MFCMA in 1977.
protein and three percent fat. Domestic production had In one shery (the foreign trawl shery or “directed sh-
been primarily geared towards the frozen headed and ery”), sh were caught and processed by foreign vessels.
gutted market, shipped in high volume on a penny-a- In a second shery, known as the joint venture (JV) sh-
pound margin. However, with the growth of the domestic ery, U.S. trawl vessels deliver their catch to foreign pro-
shery in the 1990s, there has been signicant growth cessing vessels at sea.
in the production of surimi (sh paste), Individual The joint venture shery for Pacic hake started in
Quick Frozen (IQF) llets, and frozen blocks. Today 1978 between foreign nations and the United States and
60 to 80 percent of production is surimi, 10 to 20 Canada. Consistent with the intent of the MFCMA to
percent headed and gutted, 10 to 20 percent llets. A encourage development of domestic sheries, landings of
signicant proportion of the waste products is processed hake declined in the foreign directed shery while increas-
into shmeal and fertilizers including hydrolosate and ing in the JV shery. In 1978, the foreign catch amounted
compost-based products. to 98 percent of the total hake catch in the U.S. manage-
Economic contributions to the Pacic Coast states of hake ment zone. The foreign catch declined to 11 percent of
harvesting/processing vary according to product form and the total by 1988, and in 1989 there was no foreign catch.
harvest/processing mode. Each pound harvested and pro- U.S. shermen harvested the entire annual hake quota in
cessed in headed-and-gutted form contributes about $0.38 1989, eliminating the foreign directed shery, and in 1991
per round pound. For surimi, the state contribution is
between $0.27 and $0.32 per round pound. In 1999, the
hake shery generated an estimated cumulative economic
impact to West Coast states of between $134 and $185
million dollars.
The shery has been multi-national in character, having
been exploited commercially since before 1900 by the U.S.
shing industry and since 1966 by foreign eets. A small
domestic shery has existed for coastal hake since at least
1879. Most catches prior to 1960 were made incidental
to the pursuit of more valuable trawl-caught species and
were either discarded or delivered to reduction plants
producing animal food and shmeal. The average annual
California catch from 1959 to 1966 was 248 tons. Pacific Hake, Merluccius productus
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 393
domestic processors were able to process the entire catch allocation agreement was approved by the PFMC, shing
Pacific Hake
thereby eliminating the JV shery. companies with factory trawler permits established the
Pacic Whiting Conservation Cooperative (PWCC). The pri-
The phase out of foreign sheries opened development to
mary role of the PWCC is to allocate the factor trawler
domestic sheries. This took the form of domestic factory
quota between its members. Benets of the PWCC include
trawlers, which catch and process their catch, mother-
more efcient allocation of resources by shing compa-
ships which take sh at sea from catcher vessels, and the
nies, improvements in processing efciency and product
development of shoreside processing plants. Development
quality, and a reduction in waste and bycatch rates rela-
was accelerated by the discovery of enzyme inhibitors
tive to the former “derby” shery in which all vessels
that made it possible to utilize hake for surimi.
competed for a eet-wide quota.
The domestic at-sea and shore-based sheries grew
The rapid development that took place in the 1990s
through the 1990s with the at-sea sector harvest increas-
has resulted in full utilization of the combined U.S. and
ing from 4,700 tons in 1990 to 197,000 in 1991. The Pacic
Canadian hake catch. The 1994 combined catch reached
Fisheries Management Council (PFMC) reduced the at sea
359,000 tons, the largest yield since the inception of the
harvest in following years to allow growth in the shoreside
shery. Since 1994, the total hake harvest has declined
sector. Prior to 1991, shore-based deliveries of Pacic
slightly, as biomass declined from high levels, and aver-
hake were relatively small with an annual harvest of less
aged 312,000 tons from 1996 to 1999.
than 10,000 tons. Between 1985-1991, the shore-based
shery concentrated off northern California with process-
ing plants at Eureka and Crescent City. As the domestic
Status of Biological Knowledge
shoreside shery grew, additional processing plants were
P
opened in Oregon and Washington. Shoreside deliveries acic hake are distributed from the Gulf of Alaska to
increased from 8,115 tons in 1990 to 87,862 in 1998. In the Gulf of California. Four major stocks have been
California, landings have increased from 41 tons in 1980 to identied within this area. The most abundant and widely
about 11,000 tons in 1999. distributed stock (which is the subject of this report)
In the early 1990s, shing seasons began April 15. Since spawns between central California and northern Baja Cali-
1998, PFMC has used a season-ending, forward-counting fornia and is referred to as the “coastal stock.” Two
protocol to estimate the season opening for the shore- of these stocks are generally referred to as the “inside
based sector only (the offshore sector still opens May 15). stocks;” they live and spawn in Puget Sound and the Strait
Using October 15 as the season ending date, the PFMC of Georgia. A fourth major stock occurs off the west coast
estimates daily harvesting and processing capacity and of southern Baja California.
shore-based quotas to determine the season opening date. The hake that spawn in Puget Sound and Strait of Georgia
The greater the quota or the lower the daily capacity, are considered a separate genetic stock from oceanic
the earlier the season opening. Before 1995, the season coastal hake. These hake spawn and live their lives
opened April 15, between 1995 and 1998 the season entirely within Puget Sound, are small in size (14 to 18
opened May 15, (mostly to avoid salmon bycatch), and inches total length), and lack the specic myxosporidian
since 1998 the season has opened June 15. The shift parasite that causes rapid postmortem esh decomposi-
in season opening date has had a signicant effect on tion in coastal stocks. The differences in parasitization
improving economic benets (recovery, quality, price, between inside and offshore stocks indicate the absence
and growth). of interchange between populations.
In 1996, the Makah Tribe in Washington requested an The oceanic coastal stock of adult Pacic hake is migra-
allocation of hake as part of its treaty entitlement. NMFS tory and inhabits the continental slope and shelf within
allocated 15,000 tons of the domestic TAC to the Makahs, the California Current system from Baja California to Brit-
increasing it to 25,000 in 1997 and 1998, and to 32,000 in ish Columbia. It is often classied as a demersal species
1999. The sh are harvested by Makah trawl vessels and (living on or near the sea bed), but its distribution and
delivered to a oating processor mothership. The shery behavior suggests a pelagic existence. It exhibits extreme
is limited to the Makah’s “usual and accustomed” shing night and day movement during spring and summer feed-
grounds off the northern Washington coast. ing migrations as it feeds on a variety of pelagic shes
In 1997, the PFMC adopted a sector allocation formula or zooplankton. It is commonly found at depths of 160
dividing U.S. non-tribal hake harvest guideline between to 1,500 feet but has been found from the surface to
factory trawlers (34 percent), vessels delivering to at-sea 2,600 feet.
processors (24 percent), and vessels delivering to shore- Coastal Pacic hake are pelagic spawners that appear to
based processing plants (42 percent). Shortly after this spawn from January to March. The location of spawning
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
394
appears to center on the Southern California Bight, but increased predation from cannibalism and to increased
Pacific Hake
spawning may take place within an area from San Fran- vulnerability to shing mortality.
cisco to Baja California at depths of 660 to 1,600 feet and When northward-migrating hake inhabit waters overlying
as far as 300 miles offshore. Active spawners aggregate in the continental shelf and slope, they form schools, which
loose, stationary bands that can be up to 150 feet thick. may be characterized as long, narrow bands whose axis
Coastal stock females mature at 16 inches total length is usually oriented parallel to the depth contours. Excep-
or larger, and at weights greater than 0.9 pounds. These tions to this generality are those schools that align per-
minimum sizes are achieved by some three-year-old sh pendicular to the edge of the continental shelf and extend
and most four-year-old sh. Fecundity estimates range offshore at a uniform depth, such that they are high-off
from 80,000 to 500,000 eggs per female, depending on the bottom over the continental slope. School sizes may
body size. The pelagic eggs drift with the ocean currents vary in length from several hundred feet to 12 miles. The
and hatch in about three days. Larval hake are abundant widths of schools have reached 7.5 miles at times. Most
from December through April within 25 miles of the coast schools usually have a vertical height of 20 to 70 feet.
from central California to northern Baja California. Peak During the summer, when feeding adults are distributed
occurrences of eggs and small larvae pinpoint January and over the continental shelf, schools exhibit pronounced
February as the chief spawning months. The majority of movement into midwater associated with nighttime feed-
eggs and larvae are found over the areas of the continental ing activities. Hake feed during the evening on euphausi-
slope where bottom depths ranged from 430 to 1,640 feet. ids, shrimp, and pelagic shes. Vertical movement away
Hake reach about 70 to 75 percent of their maximum from the sea bed occurs at nightfall and descent back
length and about 50 percent of their maximum weight by towards the bottom occurs near dawn. At dawn, coastal
age 4.3 years. As hake get older, differential growth is hake descend and begin to regroup into schools near the
observed between the sexes with females attaining larger sea bed (seven to 70 feet above the ocean oor), usually
lengths and weight at age than males. Average maximum in the same area where they were the day before. The
sizes are 22 inches fork length (FL) and 2.25 pounds for degree to which hake congregate during the day appears
males, and 24 inches FL and three pounds for females. to be related to the type of food that was available
The largest female hake measured off California was 34 during the feeding period. Schools are more dispersed
inches FL. when feeding on sh and other mobile nekton, but more
compact when feeding on euphausiids.
In late winter, following spawning, adult hake migrate
north in deep water overlying the continental slope to the The southward spawning migrations of the adults appears
summer feeding grounds off northern California, Oregon, to occur in November and December, just prior to the
Washington, and Vancouver Island. The peak period of spawning period. Availability of Pacic hake to bottom and
northward migration appears to be in March and April. The midwater trawls off Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver
migration behavior of hake is strongly age dependent, and Island drops sharply in November and is practically nil
inuenced by oceanographic conditions. In warm years, a during winter.
signicant portion (up to 50 percent) of the stock may Hake are a favorite prey for a great many creatures,
move into Canadian waters off Vancouver Island. Large especially marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, por-
adults may travel up to 1,100 miles, while newly mature poises, and small whales. Hake have also been found
hake may travel a maximum of 900 miles from southern
California spawning grounds during the summer feeding
period. Hake caught from Oregon to Vancouver Island
range from 16 to 18 inches FL and are four to 10 years
old. Young-of-the-year are usually concentrated off central
and northern California, and one year old hake are found in
nearshore waters from central California to northern Oregon.
Range extensions to the north occur during El Niños, as
evidenced by reports of whiting from southeast Alaska
during warm water years. During the warm periods expe-
rienced in 1990s, there have been changes in typical pat-
terns of distribution. Spawning activity has been recorded
north of California, and frequent reports of unusual num-
bers of juveniles from Oregon to British Columbia suggest
that juvenile settlement patterns have also shifted north- A catch of Pacific Hake is brought aboard
ward. Because of this, juveniles may be subjected to Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 395
Pacific Hake
18
Commercial Landings
millions of pounds landed
15
1916-1999, Pacific Hake
Data reflects commercial landings
Pacific Hake
12
that occurred at California ports, but
not foreign vessel catches landed
9
outside of California. The reduction
in commercial landings of Pacific
6
Hake in 1960 is due to a change
in the recording method for hake
3
landed for animal feed.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
and commercial landing receipts.
in the stomachs of swordsh, lingcod, soupn sharks, In the 1990s, hake recruitment averaged lower but was
Pacic halibut, electric rays, and an assortment of other less variable than in the 1980s. If this pattern continues,
piscivorous shes. the stock will continue to decline gradually. The most
recent hake assessment projected a moderate decline in
catches in 2001 as the 1994 year class, the most recent
Status of the Population strong-year class, passes out of the population and is
replaced by smaller sized year classes. However, the
T he coastal Pacic hake stock is at moderate abun-
dependence of the hake population on occasional large
dance. Stock biomass increased to a historical high
year classes makes these projections highly uncertain.
of 5.7 million tons in 1987 due to exceptionally large
Widespread changes in California current ecosystem con-
1980 and 1984 year classes, then declined as these year
tribute to that uncertainty. A coastwide U.S.-Canada
classes passed through the population and were replaced
acoustic survey of the hake resource is planned for
by more moderate year classes. The stock has uctuated
summer of 2001.
throughout its history from the irregular occurrences of
strong year classes, which appear about every three or
Management Considerations
four years and remain in the shery for about ve to seven
years. Recruitment is highly variable and appears to be
strongly inuenced by oceanic environmental conditions, See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
especially water temperature at the time of spawning. further information.
Over the past four years, stock size has been stable at
1.7 to 1.8 million tons. The mature female biomass in Lawrence F. Quirollo
1998 is estimated to be 37 percent of an unshed stock. California Department of Fish and Game
Although 1998 stock size is near a historical low, it is close
Revised by:
to average stock size under current harvest policies. The
Vidar G. Wespestad
exploitation rate was below 10 percent prior to 1993, then
Pacic Whiting Conservation Cooperative
increased to 17 percent during 1994-1998. Total U.S. and
Martin W. Dorn
Canadian catches have exceeded the ABC by an average
National Marine Fisheries Service
of 12 percent since 1993 due to disagreement on the
allocation between U.S. and Canadian sheries.
The prospects for the Pacic hake resource in the imme-
diate future are for stable to slightly declining yields,
depending on the timing of the next strong year class. An
assessment survey conducted by the National Marine Fish-
eries Service in 1998 estimated the population biomass at
1.1 million tons, a decline of 15 percent from estimates
made during a previous survey in 1995.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
396
References
Pacific Hake
Bailey, K.M. 1982. The early life history of the Pacic
hake, Merluccius productus, Fish. Bull., U.S. 80:589-598.
Bailey, K.M., R. Francis, and P. Stevens. 1982. The life
history and shery of Pacic hake, Merluccius productus.
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 23:81-92.
Dark, T.A. 1975. Age and growth of Pacic hake, Merluc-
cius productus. Fish. Bull., U.S. 73:336-355.
Dark, T.A. (ed.). 1985. Pacic whiting: the resource, indus-
try, and management history. Mar. Fish. Rev. 47(2):1-98.
Dorn, M.W. and R. D. Methot. 1990. Status of the
coastal Pacic whiting resource in 1991. In: Pacic Fishery
Management Council, Status of the Pacic Coast ground-
sh shery through 1991 and recommended acceptable
catches in 1992, p. A1-A44.
Dorn, M.W. 1995. The effects of age composition
and oceanographic conditions on the annual migration
of Pacic whiting, Merluccius productus. CalCOFI Rep.
36:97-105.
Dorn, M.W., M.W. Saunders, C.D. Wilson, M.A. Guttormsen,
K.Cooke, R.Kieser, and M.E. Wilkins. 1999. Status of the
coastal pacic hake/whiting stock in U.S. and Canada in
1998 In: Pacic Fishery Management Council, Status of the
Pacic Coast groundsh shery through 1998 and recom-
mended acceptable catches in 1999.
Larkin, S. and G. Sylvia. 1999. Intrinsic sh characteristics
and intraseason production efciency: A management
level bioeconomic analysis of a commercial shery.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81:29-43.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 397
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Bocaccio/
Bank 5 Blackgill 2; 5 Chilipepper 3 Bocaccio 4; 5 Chilipepper 5 Shortbelly 5 Widow 5: 6 Yellowtail 5 Unspecified
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,918,952
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,774,026
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,242,754
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,398,109
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,633,077
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,761,658
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,312,014
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,096,622
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,742,885
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,488,621
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,540,969
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,390,604
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,419,909
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,036,409
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,225,424
1931 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 7,277,688
1932 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,636,319
1933 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,787,744
1934 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,603,536
1935 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,831,174
1936 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,603,904
1937 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 4,291,214
1938 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,637,137
1939 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,333,126
1940 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,570,636
1941 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 3,405,622
1942 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 1,423,440
1943 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 2,762,192
1944 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,422,230
1945 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 13,286,076
1946 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,161,222
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,498,584
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 6,507,205
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,962,267
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,115,102
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,993,502
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,727,521
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 12,228,663
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 12,640,729
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 12,681,697
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 14,943,515
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 16,091,279
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 17,842,163
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 15,281,282
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 13,713,886
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,830,762
1962 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,834,393
1963 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,749,460
1964 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 8,117,912
1965 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,392,424
1966 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,063,592
1967 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,798,951
1968 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,444,493
1969 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 9,227,451
1970 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 10,686,844
1971 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,168,746
1972 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 16,421,252
1973 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 22,052,455
1974 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 21,498,984
1975 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 23,624,150
1976 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 24,603,179
1977 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- 20,900,305
1978 832,144 232,341 ---- 6,611,589 2,613,559 7,195 1,167,141 805,076 20,510,364
1979 121,041 11,798 8,935,837 3,766,632 2,701,208 10,000 4,833,977 656,505 19,632,482
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
398
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Bocaccio/
Bank 5 Blackgill 2; 5 Chilipepper 3 Bocaccio 4; 5 Chilipepper 5 Shortbelly 5 Widow 5: 6 Yellowtail 5 Unspecified
Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish Rockfish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 158,725 976,735 10,115,735 9,111,594 6,248,294 6,567 11,780,969 595,152 25,692,416
1981 2,202,588 2,104,908 7,831,367 9,816,582 5,087,316 609 11,071,879 862,289 27,295,022
1982 2,210,769 2,924,400 10,604,864 11,774,442 4,131,231 14,416 23,856,732 1,632,561 19,827,921
1983 2,613,466 2,023,211 9,841,652 11,118,007 4,639,861 7,654 8,781,700 1,956,643 19,599,497
1984 4,046,635 1,187,141 7,196,636 8,296,616 5,489,532 5,092 6,565,481 1,931,196 18,181,423
1985 2,760,142 1,420,096 6,299,317 4,799,757 5,669,493 62,749 7,101,038 1,381,153 14,383,905
1986 3,940,317 1,973,521 6,766,491 4,630,024 4,829,518 42,601 5,499,235 1,335,237 13,815,096
1987 2,922,307 1,736,977 5,029,313 5,420,165 3,759,112 1,811 5,655,481 834,014 15,816,720
1988 2,361,829 2,336,632 4,023,966 4,143,162 4,608,400 567 4,051,348 490,820 13,090,228
1989 1,585,979 1,133,985 4,110,006 5,166,105 6,437,291 4,215 4,828,775 1,978,450 15,358,303
1990 1,598,223 1,358,878 3,853,439 4,415,613 5,678,528 13,873 4,929,551 1,985,856 16,036,264
1991 1,595,339 827,030 4,122,938 2,997,035 6,502,562 7,427 2,928,155 1,412,624 11,326,256
1992 1,165,990 1,785,896 ---- 3,237,769 5,626,573 1,568 2,525,230 1,604,573 8,613,030
1993 758,709 883,202 ---- 3,031,592 5,135,472 5,299 2,655,014 645,218 7,177,482
1994 728,970 855,640 ---- 2,168,035 4,043,163 10,619 2,031,959 723,745 4,329,766
1995 957,140 772,323 ---- 1,604,367 4,406,698 25,169 3,853,755 684,933 4,329,467
1996 1,245,261 815,583 ---- 1,050,403 3,951,518 70,953 3,023,829 596,949 3,851,420
1997 937,738 595,059 ---- 707,066 4,468,794 134,178 2,959,535 925,866 3,859,850
1998 1,231,818 503,921 ---- 339,060 3,115,112 39,962 2,018,093 969,512 3,019,099
1999 72,213 120,773 ---- 160,987 2,082,043 17,683 1,390,413 210,986 639,655
- - - - Landing data not available.
1
Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 399
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Sole 6 Sole 6
Dover English Petrale Rex Dover English Petrale Rex
Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole Sole
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1980 18,046,924 4,573,524 2,350,525 1,899,609
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1981 20,418,283 3,773,262 1,775,054 1,727,754
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1982 22,089,490 3,221,471 1,741,721 1,466,411
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1983 18,913,890 2,607,636 1,287,287 1,410,762
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1984 21,563,452 2,098,964 1,301,912 1,252,976
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1985 26,499,393 2,341,942 1,888,394 1,979,244
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1986 24,365,419 2,385,989 1,600,400 1,856,179
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1987 23,723,648 2,914,768 1,815,856 1,818,777
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1988 18,071,140 2,351,350 1,752,940 1,854,324
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1989 17,027,320 2,321,586 1,853,165 1,651,684
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1990 13,933,132 1,967,050 1,495,680 1,226,691
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1991 17,021,228 1,789,777 1,619,211 1,369,558
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1992 19,054,146 1,268,119 1,172,949 970,859
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1993 14,426,111 1,044,544 1,021,859 1,007,925
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1994 9,888,498 1,019,307 1,211,845 1,256,861
1931 ---- ---- 1,375,535 831,240 1995 13,417,995 1,101,103 1,305,154 1,517,177
1932 ---- ---- 1,227,223 555,558 1996 14,107,539 1,281,212 1,803,549 1,097,983
1933 ---- ---- 953,424 559,743 1997 11,693,676 1,430,131 1,830,750 1,000,369
1934 ---- 5,280,154 2,456,989 715,498 1998 7,874,411 941,187 1,042,029 637,697
1935 ---- 6,035,966 1,988,325 631,432 1999 8,417,498 849,836 1,249,628 629,453
1936 ---- 6,286,867 1,126,527 515,648
1937 ---- 5,750,060 1,802,721 451,497 - - - - Landing data not available.
1938 ---- 4,953,934 2,026,166 515,254
1
1939 ---- 6,270,424 2,558,461 667,496 Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category
1940 ---- 5,056,535 1,575,489 593,359 landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
1941 ---- 3,278,638 893,426 371,130 Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
1942 ---- 2,020,562 611,580 387,545 Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
1943 ---- 3,092,170 918,925 495,672 Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
1944 ---- 3,066,865 1,123,986 413,286 Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts.
1945 ---- 5,857,240 1,232,801 442,179 Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin,
1946 ---- 7,176,727 2,666,285 570,418 NMFS, and DFG.
6
1947 ---- 8,379,502 2,947,177 842,968 Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
1948 7,234,438 8,171,645 5,089,684 893,248 Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabu-
1949 7,890,073 5,713,258 4,952,156 982,307 lated separately when they became sufficiently important.
9
1950 9,548,379 8,080,693 4,366,598 1,068,456 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.10 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
10
1951 8,621,238 5,631,659 2,726,304 1,013,890 Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
1952 11,748,215 4,911,468 2,893,619 1,185,451
1953 8,904,367 4,099,106 3,350,163 1,020,877
1954 9,930,438 3,748,245 4,171,901 1,183,538
1955 8,185,501 4,134,779 3,619,530 1,094,437
1956 8,268,424 3,826,297 2,830,158 1,147,523
1957 7,932,137 4,819,872 3,456,819 1,234,494
1958 8,053,040 5,150,234 3,157,678 1,422,891
1959 7,327,420 4,617,491 2,632,451 1,443,005
1960 9,184,814 2,375,383 2,475,661 1,107,372
1961 7,826,617 3,645,918 3,390,739 1,208,829
1962 8,581,091 4,206,048 3,041,164 1,408,245
1963 9,781,732 4,254,545 3,317,948 1,565,672
1964 9,265,238 4,592,752 2,697,670 1,410,647
1965 10,759,963 4,892,391 2,662,257 1,490,475
1966 10,311,633 4,844,868 2,927,190 1,635,399
1967 7,215,037 5,821,909 2,768,537 1,766,038
1968 8,535,521 5,811,438 2,946,605 1,930,583
1969 12,918,982 3,804,047 2,867,064 2,259,165
1970 15,160,886 3,282,316 3,415,708 1,741,479
1971 14,248,719 2,964,015 3,704,384 1,467,875
1972 22,081,697 3,001,965 3,575,245 1,661,610
1973 22,485,725 3,209,733 2,876,989 1,584,734
1974 19,087,485 3,813,499 3,430,685 1,381,737
1975 22,688,520 4,314,262 3,269,998 1,646,421
1976 22,756,812 4,282,998 2,977,557 2,012,820
1977 21,923,851 3,403,057 2,200,713 1,548,006
1978 20,770,086 3,974,782 2,634,044 1,537,347
1979 23,394,091 5,006,960 3,061,810 1,914,805
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
400
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Pacific Longspine Shortspine Unspecified
Cowcod 5 Hake 7 All Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5
Sablefish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- 189,219 83,623 ---- ---- ---- ----
1917 ---- 254,331 909,846 ---- ---- ---- ----
1918 ---- 193,018 498,937 ---- ---- ---- ----
1919 ---- 133,181 334,950 ---- ---- ---- ----
1920 ---- 141,981 781,032 ---- ---- ---- ----
1921 ---- 90,218 1,022,642 ---- ---- ---- ----
1922 ---- 74,516 268,554 ---- ---- ---- ----
1923 ---- 78,969 538,292 ---- ---- ---- ----
1924 ---- 60,780 933,310 ---- ---- ---- ----
1925 ---- 22,017 722,472 ---- ---- ---- ----
1926 ---- 58,335 175,642 ---- ---- ---- ----
1927 ---- 84,553 992,654 ---- ---- ---- ----
1928 ---- 108,648 916,955 ---- ---- ---- ----
1929 ---- 145,669 1,439,408 ---- ---- ---- ----
1930 ---- 56,088 1,359,147 ---- ---- ---- ----
1931 ---- 12,501 1,021,215 ---- ---- ---- ----
1932 ---- 29,001 975,373 ---- ---- ---- ----
1933 ---- 37,539 1,332,573 ---- ---- ---- ----
1934 ---- 56,901 2,117,048 ---- ---- ---- ----
1935 ---- 73,843 2,848,672 ---- ---- ---- ----
1936 ---- 50,791 1,035,530 ---- ---- ---- ----
1937 ---- 63,454 733,499 ---- ---- ---- ----
1938 ---- 36,428 415,836 ---- ---- ---- ----
1939 ---- 13,661 767,044 ---- ---- ---- ----
1940 ---- 18,049 573,785 ---- ---- ---- ----
1941 ---- 15,044 536,540 ---- ---- ---- ----
1942 ---- 41,981 1,972,522 ---- ---- ---- ----
1943 ---- 10,505 3,205,374 ---- ---- ---- ----
1944 ---- 4,751 4,116,451 ---- ---- ---- ----
1945 ---- 2,415 6,264,397 ---- ---- ---- ----
1946 ---- 550 2,656,873 ---- ---- ---- ----
1947 ---- 876 902,110 ---- ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- 4,600 2,068,439 ---- ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- 1,535 1,743,372 ---- ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- 500 1,584,301 ---- ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- 24,972 2,585,513 ---- ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- 6,145 1,343,867 ---- ---- ---- ----
1953 ---- 103,926 1,655,653 ---- ---- ---- ----
1954 ---- 611,522 2,357,531 ---- ---- ---- ----
1955 ---- 956,545 2,065,737 ---- ---- ---- ----
1956 ---- 1,376,217 2,868,407 ---- ---- ---- ----
1957 ---- 1,150,006 2,199,782 ---- ---- ---- ----
1958 ---- 1,135,138 1,732,992 ---- ---- ---- ----
1959 ---- 1,097,069 1,938,356 ---- ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- 325,088 2,419,024 ---- ---- ---- ----
1961 ---- 3,275 1,616,528 ---- ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- 78,530 2,015,237 ---- ---- ---- ----
1963 ---- 139,699 1,809,349 ---- ---- ---- ----
1964 ---- 111,529 2,463,452 ---- ---- ---- ----
1965 ---- 119,255 2,863,550 ---- ---- ---- ----
1966 ---- 69,002 3,215,939 ---- ---- ---- ----
1967 ---- 14,430 3,798,493 ---- ---- ---- ----
1968 ---- 6,494 3,219,455 ---- ---- ---- ----
1969 ---- 27,047 4,156,846 ---- ---- ---- ----
1970 ---- 9,775 4,428,077 ---- ---- ---- ----
1971 ---- 34,685 4,424,463 ---- ---- ---- ----
1972 ---- 10,525 8,395,714 ---- ---- ---- ----
1973 ---- 34,175 8,550,071 ---- ---- ---- ----
1974 ---- 32,210 12,038,542 ---- ---- ---- ----
1975 ---- 38,508 14,131,964 ---- ---- ---- ----
1976 ---- 28,521 13,331,261 ---- ---- ---- ----
1977 ---- 86,813 13,315,975 ---- ---- ----
1978 24,653 747,709 17,715,724 2,668,993 432,833 2,229,418 6,742
1979 ---- 1,836,264 28,573,600 4,095,918 310,877 3,755,624 29,417
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 401
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Pacific Longspine Shortspine Unspecified
Cowcod 5 Hake 7 All Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5 Thornyhead 5
Sablefish
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 32,435 1,527,992 10,284,930 3,411,449 699,083 2,339,704 372,662
1981 190,424 1,467,276 14,727,481 3,805,719 238,829 3,542,348 24,542
1982 141,863 2,251,253 20,996,253 4,506,242 842,307 3,651,959 11,976
1983 166,142 2,160,904 14,613,392 3,596,221 436,599 3,124,112 35,510
1984 352,869 5,147,912 10,633,321 4,695,974 589,932 4,089,042 17,000
1985 294,987 6,604,729 11,305,795 6,485,049 1,140,992 5,315,642 28,415
1986 339,676 6,574,845 13,585,936 6,501,347 1,306,111 5,138,999 56,237
1987 198,967 9,959,960 9,585,601 6,438,777 1,790,910 2,872,981 1,774,886
1988 209,633 14,401,883 8,360,454 10,008,902 5,587,483 4,310,853 110,566
1989 96,880 16,088,904 8,715,410 11,906,498 4,911,249 6,905,965 89,284
1990 74,945 12,166,681 8,042,899 11,898,501 7,600,557 4,243,813 54,131
1991 48,244 15,196,946 7,300,661 6,329,277 4,085,076 2,192,086 52,115
1992 153,820 10,868,278 8,078,145 9,654,483 6,344,552 3,228,425 81,506
1993 110,041 6,834,597 5,676,270 9,182,924 5,637,099 3,471,866 73,959
1994 76,102 7,964,783 4,784,967 7,289,241 4,503,103 2,629,627 156,511
1995 145,648 9,018,285 6,185,954 8,016,679 5,681,269 2,122,323 213,087
1996 105,483 6,395,184 6,998,149 7,309,101 5,353,926 1,713,345 241,830
1997 117,747 14,028,191 6,481,886 6,194,508 4,415,693 1,531,749 247,066
1998 34,188 12,617,919 3,155,536 4,173,425 2,667,011 1,399,066 107,348
1999 27,157 2,883,014 4,342,086 3,296,044 2,255,859 952,219 87,966
- - - - Landing data not available.
1
Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
402
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Rockfish1
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Canary/
Bolina 3 Deep 9 Gopher 10 Red 3 Rosefish 9 Small 3 Black/Blue 11 Vermilion 11
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1917 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1918 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1919 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1920 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1921 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1922 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1923 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1924 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1925 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1926 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1927 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1928 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1929 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1930 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1931 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1932 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1933 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1934 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1935 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1936 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1937 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1938 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1939 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1940 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1941 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1942 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1943 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1944 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1945 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1946 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1962 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1963 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1964 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1965 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1966 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1967 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1968 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1969 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1970 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1971 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1972 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1973 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1974 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1975 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1976 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1977 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1978 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
1979 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 403
Commercial Landings -
Groundfish and Flatfish, cont’d
Commercial Landings - Groundfish and Flatfish
Rockfish1
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Canary/
Bolina 3 Deep 9 Gopher 10 Red 3 Rosefish 9 Small 3 Black/Blue 11 Vermilion 11
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
1980 39,213 ---- ---- 263,829 ---- 35,608 ---- ----
1981 ---- ---- ---- 208 ---- ---- ---- ----
1982 58,421 36,025 ---- 250,750 361,583 3,487 ---- ----
1983 94,343 50 53 2,203,793 1,077,155 86,560 ---- ----
1984 84,585 405 26,103 3,834,957 1,343,759 356,287 ---- ----
1985 84,095 40,430 43,811 243,999 1,593,975 549,829 ---- ----
1986 95,834 681 72,714 2,090,707 1,359,133 560,443 ---- ----
1987 96,714 1,876 95,702 1,670,231 1,143,584 620,535 ---- ----
1988 163,983 ---- 156,017 2,045,468 911,889 1,016,713 ---- ----
1989 168,133 ---- 158,110 2,623,254 803,828 687,511 ---- ----
1990 135,187 578 147,435 2,804,469 1,028,221 1,030,960 ---- ----
1991 203,945 257 183,231 2,326,611 910,364 808,536 ---- ----
1992 162,071 1,063 172,256 168,459 854,455 497,502 ---- ----
1993 102,927 500 170,079 1,274,651 756,903 774,437 ---- ----
1994 73,732 2,368 147,069 1,354,763 549,425 1,099,405 10,309 147
1995 56,230 36,572 167,911 1,044,059 650,930 924,333 384 227
1996 97,338 6,138 221,345 1,225,811 594,180 1,210,981 2,226 33
1997 126,021 4,332 141,643 850,384 773,483 1,487,399 8,192 58
1998 125,799 379 135,196 710,134 2,761,055 1,236,840 2,695 ----
1999 108,878 ---- 28,375 242,840 409,839 288,096 487 164
- - - - Landing data not available.
1
Except where noted, rockfish commercial landings are presented as market category landings for all fishing modes rather than as individual species landings.
2
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1986.
3
Aggregated by DFG as rockfish prior to 1979.
4
Aggregated as by DFG as Bocaccio/Chilipeper prior to 1992.
5
Data derived from CalCom Database utilizing DFG commercial landing receipts. Expansions, based on port samples, are conducted by CalCom with input from PacFin, NMFS, and DFG.
6
Aggregated by DFG as as rockfish prior to 1981.
7
Prior to 1931, all soles were combined as one group; individual species were tabulated separately when they became sufficiently important.
8
The reduction in commercial landings of Pacific hake in 1960 is due to a change in the recording method for hake landed for animal feed.
9
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1982.
10
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1983.
11
Aggregated as as rockfish prior to 1994.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
404
Salmonids:
Overview coastal coho (threatened), southern Oregon/northern Cali-
Salmonids: Overview
fornia coho (threatened), southern California steelhead
(endangered), northern California steelhead (threatened),
C alifornia’s salmonid populations were a vital compo- and Central Valley, central California, and south-central
nent of American Indian society long before European California steelhead (threatened). In addition, three ESUs
settlers arrived, and they still play a signicant role in are also listed under the California Endangered Species
today’s coastal communities. Salmon provide a living for Act (CESA): Sacramento River winter chinook (endan-
commercial shermen, generate recreational marine and gered), Central Valley spring chinook (threatened), and
freshwater angling opportunities, support tourism within central California coastal coho (endangered).
our coastal and riverside communities, fulll Native Amer-
California’s main salmon conservation management objec-
ican cultural and economic needs, and are important
tives are as follows:
elements of California’s highly diverse marine and
• Klamath River fall chinook: a minimum adult natural
freshwater ecosystems.
escapement rate of 33-34 percent, with a minimum
There are seven salmonid species in California. The Cali-
spawner escapement of 35,000 adults in natural areas
fornia sheries primarily harvest chinook or king salmon
is required.
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), which is the salmonid most
• Sacramento River fall chinook: an escapement goal of
often encountered by shermen. Coho or silver salmon
122,000 to 180,000 hatchery and natural adult sh
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) are observed in small numbers
• Sacramento River winter chinook: the ESA jeopardy
but are presently under a no-retention catch policy. Occa-
standard is a 31 percent increase in the adult spawner
sionally in odd-numbered years, pink salmon (Oncorhyn-
replacement rate relative to the observed mean rate
chus gorbuscha) are landed. No sheries exist for
for 1989 to 1993.
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and chum salmon
(Oncorhynchus keta) due to their limited numbers in • Central Valley spring chinook: the Central Valley
California waters. Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are spring chinook population is under an NMFS nding of
caught recreationally in streams and rivers from the “no jeopardy,” and it also benets from Sacramento
Central Valley basin north to the California/Oregon River winter chinook conservation measures.
border. Small numbers of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus
• Coastal California chinook: the ESA jeopardy standard
clarkii) are found in northern coastal streams, lagoons,
limits the ocean harvest rate for age-four Klamath
and estuaries.
River fall chinook to 17 percent.
Several government agencies are involved in the manage-
• California coastal coho: the ESA objective requires no
ment of California salmon. The Pacic Fishery Manage-
retention of coho in any California shery and limits
ment Council (PFMC) manages sport and commercial sh-
marine shery impacts to no more than 13 percent,
eries in the Exclusive Economic Zone (three to 200 miles
as measured by projected impacts on Rogue/Klamath
offshore), the California Fish and Game Commission (FGC)
hatchery coho.
manages inland sport and ocean sport sheries in state
• Steelhead: shing regulations were revamped to
waters (to 3 miles offshore), and the California Depart-
enact time and area closures, catch and release sh-
ment Fish and Game (DFG) manages commercial sheries
ing, or retention of hatchery steelhead only (marked
in state waters via a delegation from the California Leg-
with an adipose n clip).
islature. California continues to have productive commer-
cial and recreational sheries due to the various con-
servation measures enacted by the PFMC, FGC, and
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). These measures
allow for reduced harvest levels on Central Valley and
Klamath River fall chinook stocks, while safeguarding
the recovery of endangered or threatened chinook and
coho populations.
While Central Valley and Klamath River fall chinook
stocks continue to be healthy, three salmonid species
and ten distinct populations, or Evolutionary Signicant
Units (ESU), are listed under the federal Endangered Spe-
cies Act (ESA): Sacramento River winter chinook (endan-
gered), Central Valley spring chinook (threatened), Cal-
Coho Salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch
ifornia coastal chinook (threatened), central California
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 405
The annual economic value of California’s commercial Traditional approaches for identifying and solving envi-
Salmonids: Overview
salmon shery from 1996 to 2000 ranged from 7.7 to ronmental issues, while still important, must evolve to
20.9 million dollars to the state’s economy, as assessed be effective with today’s complex problems. California’s
by the PFMC’S Fishery Economic Assessment Model. The salmon sheries have been increasingly regulated to
PFMC’s economic estimate for California’s recreational rebuild threatened or endangered populations, to equita-
ocean salmon shery ranged from 13.9 to 22.5 million bly allocate available sh among stakeholders, and to
dollars for the same period. A 1985 economic analysis achieve natural and hatchery spawning escapement goals.
estimated that steelhead shing in the Sacramento River Freshwater habitat restoration and revised water man-
and tributaries directly generated around 7.2 million dol- agement policies are necessary to return natural salmon
lars. Using the above estimates, all salmon sheries gener- production to former levels. A collaborative combination
ate approximately 28.8 to 50.6 million dollars annually to of marine and freshwater measures is needed to ensure
the California economy. The indirect economic benets that salmonid populations will thrive and provide shing
are difcult to separate and quantify, but it is clear opportunities, economic benets, and ecological value for
that California’s salmonid stocks are a signicant revenue all Californians, now and in the future.
source for the state.
As the population of California continues to increase, Scott Barrow and Marc Heisdorf
our relationships with our natural resources also change. California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
406
Pacific Salmon
C alifornia’s salmon resources are many things to the was stimulated by the canning industry; the rst salmon
Pacific Salmon
people of California. They are a source of highly nutri- cannery on the Pacic coast started operations on the
tious food for the general population and an important Sacramento River in 1864. By 1880, there were 20 can-
source of income for commercial shermen. Recreational neries operating in the Sacramento-San Joaquin river
anglers value them for their excellent sporting qualities system and intensied shing efforts provided them with
and American Indians celebrate them in annual events an ample supply of salmon for processing. The shery
welcoming the returning adults. Salmon play a key role, reached its peak in 1882 when about 12 million pounds
and occupy a unique niche, within the State’s highly were landed. Shortly thereafter, the shery collapsed due
diverse marine and inland ecosystems. They are a high to a sudden decline in salmon stocks caused primarily
level predator, but also contribute to the sustenance of by the pollution and degradation of rivers by mining, agri-
other high level predators. In addition, their spawned-out culture, and timber operations combined with increased
carcasses enhance the nutrient base of their ancestral landings. By 1919, the last cannery had shut down and
spawning streams. Like other anadromous species, their one by one, the rivers were closed to commercial shing.
survival depends on the quantity and quality of fresh Legislation closed the Mad River shery in 1919, the Eel
water spawning and rearing habitat available to them. River shery in 1922, and sheries (including tribal) on
The destruction of that habitat over the past 150 years the Smith and Klamath rivers in 1933. In 1957, the last
has resulted in many naturally spawning populations of inland commercial shing area open to the general citi-
salmon becoming so diminished that, in some cases, they zens of California (Sacramento-San Joaquin rivers) was
face biological extinction. We provide a brief overview of permanently closed.
the importance and role of salmon in the management of The commercial ocean troll shery began in Monterey Bay
California’s living marine shery resources. during the 1880s. These early shers trolled for salmon
using small sailboats that supported two hand rods, one
over each side with one hook and leader attached to
History of the Fishery each line. The leader was approximately 30 feet long
O
and carried a lead sinker midway between the main line
f the ve species of Pacic salmon found on the
and the lure. Circa 1908, several Sacramento River sher-
West Coast, chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and
men transported their powered gillnet boats to Monterey
coho (O. kisutch) are most frequently encountered off
Bay and began trolling for salmon. These boats were
California. Small numbers of pink salmon (O. gorbuscha)
a great improvement over the sailboats, but were still
are landed on occasion, mainly in odd-numbered years.
small compared to present standards. The shery grew to
Chum salmon (O. keta) and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) are
approximately 200 boats and by 1916, had expanded north
rarely seen in California.
to Fort Bragg, Eureka, and Crescent City.
Salmon sheries existed in California long before European
During the 1920s and 1930s, a typical salmon troller shed
settlers made their rst appearance in the state circa
four to nine lines that each carried ve or more hooks
1775. Harvests of Central Valley salmon by American Indi-
with up to 30 pounds of lead attached to keep the line at
ans may have exceeded 8.5 million pounds annually. In
the proper depth. Pulling weights, lines, and salmon onto
northern coastal areas, native peoples subsisted primarily
a moving boat by hand was a backbreaking job. Power
on salmon. Not only did salmon form the bulk of their
gurdies were soon developed to pull the lines and, by
diet – a family might eat up to 2,000 pounds of sh in a
the late 1940s, most of the professional salmon trollers
year – but it was also used as barter with other tribes.
Salmon was consumed fresh or dried and smoked for later
use throughout the year. The sh were of such signicance
to these early shers that ceremonies and rituals honoring
their existence and importance were created. Traditional
shing methods included the use of gill and dip nets,
shing spears, and communal sh dams.
Commercial salmon shing in California began in the early
1850s, coincidental with the massive inow of miners into
the gold country. By 1860, these gillnet salmon sheries
were well established in Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay, and
the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The shery
were using them. The shery changed little until the mid-
gradually spread to include rivers north of San Francisco,
although the Sacramento-San Joaquin shery
Chinook Salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
remained the largest. Growth of this shery Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 407
Commercial Landings
Pacific Salmon
16
1916-1999, All Salmon
14
Catch Data includes salmon
Total Commercial Salmon
millions of pounds landed
taken in the ocean, and coastal
12
rivers including the Sacramento
10
and Klamath. The Klamath River
commercial fishery closed after
8
1933; and the Sacramento
6
commercial fishery closed after
1959. Coho were no longer
4
permitted for take after 1992.
2
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins and commercial
0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
16 450
Recfreational Landings By Species
14
millions of pounds landed
400
number of fish landed
12 350
River and Ocean
300
10
250
8
200
6
150
4
100
2
50
0
1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
River Salmon Coho Salmon
Ocean Salmon Chinook Salmon
Commercial Catch 1947-1999 , River and Ocean Recreational Catch 1960-1999 , By Species
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins and commercial landing receipts. Catch Data Data Source: DFG, Ocean Salmon Project. Differentiation by salmon species (chinook
includes salmon taken in the ocean, and coastal rivers including the Sacramento or coho) was not reported prior to 1962. Coho were no longer permitted for take
and Klamath. The Klamath River commercial fishery closed after 1933; and the after 1992.
Sacramento commercial fishery closed after 1959. Coho were no longer permitted for
take after 1992.
1400
450
Commercial Landings By Species
400
1200
thousands of fish landed
number of fish landed
350
1000
300
All Salmon
800
250
200
600
150
400
100
200
50
0 1960 0
1970 1980 1990 1999 1947 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
Coho Salmon
Chinook Salmon
Recreational Catch 1960-1999 , All Salmon
Commercial Catch 1960-1999 , By Salmon Species
Data Source: DFG, commercial passenger fishing vessel logbooks.
Data Source: DFG Ocean Salmon Project. Coho were no longer permitted for take
after 1992.
1940s. After the end of World War II, a signicant increase adequate ocean-going boats, but most used small sport-
in shing effort occurred in conjunction with improved type boats that could be conveniently towed on a trailer.
transportation and a rebound in salmon populations. In Today’s salmon troller still uses the basic shing tech-
1935, an estimated 570 trollers were active in the shery; niques developed during the 1940s, including powered
by 1947 the eet had nearly doubled to 1,100 vessels. gurdies and four to six main trolling lines. Now, however,
During the 1970s, the salmon eet grew to almost 5,000 the vessels are also equipped with various electronic
vessels and included many summer shers who had other devices that greatly aid in nding and staying on the sh.
jobs during the remainder of the year. Some of these Radio communications are possible among several vessels
shers were serious about commercial shing and had simultaneously over large distances. Highly sensitive sonar
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
408
equipment aids the troller in nding the salmon or baitsh Between 1947 and 1990, the sport industry contributed
Pacific Salmon
schools and in pinpointing the depth at which to position about 17 percent to the total salmon catch annually in Cal-
lures. Precise vessel positioning is made possible through ifornia. During the last decade, however, the sport shery
the use of global positioning systems. It is easy today has accounted for about 31 percent of the total landings
to replicate a troll path or “tack” within a few feet of due to increased regulation of the commercial shery.
a previous or suggested path. Collectively, these instru- The catch has also been more evenly distributed between
ments have probably more than doubled the efciency of CPFVs and private skiff anglers. Before the 1990s, CPFVs
the modern troller compared to 70 years ago. accounted for more than 65 percent of the salmon
catch; during the 1990s, CPFVs landed 51 percent of the
Estimates of commercial salmon catches are available in
total sport catch. The highest sport landings occurred
one form or another for years as early as 1874. In 1952,
in 1995 when sport anglers landed a record 397,200 chi-
DFG began a systematic sampling of commercial ocean
nook salmon; the lowest landings during the last 30
salmon landings. During the 1960s and 1970s, the industry
years occurred in 1983, following the extreme 1982-1983
enjoyed relatively high and consistent harvests, mainly of
El Niño event.
chinook, averaging about seven million pounds dressed
weight. The following two decades produced much During the 1990s, a shing technique known as mooching
more variable catches. The largest commercial landings gained popularity among salmon sport anglers in Califor-
observed in California occurred in 1988 when more than nia. Mooching is generally used when salmon are feeding
1.3 million chinook (14.4 million pounds) and 51,000 on forage sh such as anchovies or herring in fairly shal-
coho (319,000 pounds) were landed. The lowest landings low, nearshore areas. Mooching differs from trolling in that
occurred in 1992, an El Niño year, when only 163,400 the bait is drifted to resemble dead or wounded prey
chinook (1.6 million pounds) and 2,500 coho (11,300 instead of being pulled through the water to simulate live
pounds) were taken in the commercial shery. Although swimming prey. When trolling, the hook generally sets
oceanic and in-river conditions play a major role in salmon itself as the salmon attacks the moving prey whereas
catches, variation among years can also be attributed to during mooching, line is fed out to the salmon when it
changes in shery regulations; since 1988, progressively strikes to encourage the salmon to swallow the bait and
more restrictive regulations have been placed on the sh- hook. Thus more salmon are gut-hooked when caught by
ery to protect salmon stocks of special concern. mooching. Onboard observations conducted by the depart-
ment’s Ocean Salmon Project (OSP) on commercial pas-
The state’s jurisdiction over tribal commercial shing in
senger shing vessels during 1993-1995 found that 60 per-
the Klamath Basin was challenged in 1969 when a Yurok
cent of the sublegal salmon (<20 inches total length)
sherman had his gillnets conscated for shing on the
caught via mooching were hooked in the guts or gills.
lower Klamath River. After years in the lower courts, the
Since studies have found that 80 to 90 percent of sublegal
First District Court of Appeals decided the issue in 1975
salmon hooked in the gut or gills die, there was concern
and found that the right of a tribal member to sh on a
that this new shing technique could seriously impact
reservation was created by presidential executive order,
stocks of special concern. Beginning in September 1997,
which was derived from statute and thus not subject to
all sport anglers mooching with bait were required to
state regulation. In 1977, the Bureau of Indian Affairs
use circle hooks to reduce the hooking mortality on all
(BIA) took over the management of tribal reservation
released salmon. Studies conducted by OSP during 1995
sheries in the Klamath Basin and the lower 20 miles
through 1997 found that the use of circle hooks signi-
of the Klamath River was opened to tribal gillnet shing
cantly reduced the hooking mortality on sublegal salmon.
for subsistence and commercial harvest; however in 1978,
the BIA closed the shery. The so-called conservation
moratorium remained in effect until 1987 when the BIA
Salmon Management History
reopened commercial shing by American Indians on the
I
lower Klamath River. In 1993, the Department of the Inte- n 1948, the Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission (PMFC)
rior determined that the Yurok and Hoopa Valley Indian was formed by the states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon,
tribes possessed a federally reserved right to harvest Idaho and California. A primary objective of the compact
50 percent of the total available harvest of Klamath was to make better use of the marine resources shared by
Basin salmon. the member states. Prior to that time, there was minimal
Ocean sport shing for salmon became popular with coordination of marine shing regulations between the
the development of the commercial passenger shing states. For example, in 1947 California had a 25-inch
vessel (CPFV) industry after World War II. In 1962, the minimum size limit and an April 1 to September 15 season
department expanded its dockside monitoring to include for both chinook and coho. Washington and Oregon both
recreational landings (private skiffs and charterboats). had a 27-inch limit and year-round season for chinook and
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 409
a July 1 to November 15 season for coho. Washington had salmon shery. This was done to increase prots of indi-
Pacific Salmon
an 18-inch limit for coho, while Oregon had no size limit vidual shermen and to reduce overall shery impacts
for the species. The rst commercial salmon recommen- on the resource. In 1983, a limited-entry program was
dation of the PMFC was a 26-inch total length minimum implemented that capped the shery at just over 4,600
size and March 15 to October 31 maximum season length commercial salmon vessels.
for chinook. For coho the recommended season was June In 1989, Sacramento River winter-run chinook was listed
15 to October 31 except that California could open May under the California and federal endangered species acts.
1 provided it retained its 25-inch minimum size limit for This, and subsequent listings, added another dimension to
the species. For many years the states uniformly adopted salmon management. The ESA requires that NMFS assess
the 26-inch standard and an April 15 opening date for the impacts of ocean sheries on listed salmon popula-
commercial chinook shing with a general September 30 tions and develop standards that avoid the likelihood of
closing date. The coho season opening was June 15 in both jeopardizing their continued existence. As more salmon
Oregon and Washington with no, or a very low, minimum populations have become listed, the ESA “jeopardy
size limit. California retained its 25-inch coho standard standards” have become a dominant factor in shaping
until about 1970 when it was dropped to 22 inches and the ocean sheries.
season opening date delayed until May 15.
NMFS has concluded that the harvest of the relatively
In 1976, the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Man- abundant Central Valley fall chinook stocks could continue
agement Act (Act) established the Exclusive Economic at reduced levels without jeopardizing the recovery of
Zone and the authority of the Secretary of Commerce listed chinook and coho populations. The California Fish
to manage sheries covered under federal shery manage- and Game Commission, PFMC and NMFS have implemented
ment plans from 3 to 200 miles offshore. The Act created various protective regulations to reduce shery impacts
regional shery management councils to develop shery on California populations of Central Valley winter and
management plans (FMPs) and recommend shing regula- spring chinook, and coastal chinook and coho, all of which
tions to the states, tribes, and the National Marine Fisher- are listed. The PFMC began in 1992 to severely curtail
ies Service (NMFS). It also created the Pacic Fishery the ocean harvest of coho salmon in California due to the
Management Council (PFMC) that had management author- depressed condition of most coastal stocks. Following the
ity over the federal sheries off the coasts of Washington, federal listing of California coho stocks in 1996 and 1997,
Oregon and California. Representation on the PFMC cur- NMFS extended the protective measures to a complete
rently includes the chief shery ofcials of California, prohibition of coho retention off California.
Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, the NMFS, a Tribal repre-
Although not listed under the ESA, Klamath River fall chi-
sentative, and eight knowledgeable private citizens. The
nook salmon have continued to play an important role in
PFMC receives advice from a Salmon Technical Team and
shaping ocean shing seasons. Ocean harvests of chinook
an advisory panel of various industry, tribal, and envi-
must be constrained to meet the spawning escapement
ronmental representatives. The PFMC’s salmon plan was
goal of the Klamath River fall chinook and to provide
developed in 1977 and was the rst FMP developed by the
for the federally reserved shing rights of the Yurok and
organization. The PFMC annually develops management
Hoopa Valley Indian tribes.
measures that establish shing areas, seasons, quotas,
legal gear, possession and landing restrictions, and mini-
mum lengths for salmon taken in federal waters off Wash-
Status of Biological Knowledge
ington, Oregon, and California. The management mea-
P
sures are intended to prevent overshing and to allocate acic salmon are anadromous (they migrate from
the ocean harvest equitably among ocean commercial and the ocean to the freshwater streams to spawn) and
recreational sheries. The measures must meet the goals semelparous (die after spawning). Both chinook and coho
of the FMP that address spawning escapement needs and salmon have similar spawning requirements and habits.
allow for fresh water sheries. The needs of salmon spe- Successful spawning requires water temperatures less than
cies listed under the federal Endangered Species Act 56˚ F, clear water, suitable gravel rifes, and a stream
(ESA) must also be met as part of the process. The mea- velocity sufcient to permit excavation of nests (redds)
sures recommended by the PFMC must be approved and and provide high subgravel ow to the deposited, fertil-
implemented by the U.S. Department of Commerce. ized eggs. The female digs the nest, lays the eggs, and
covers them after the male fertilizes them. After a period
During the 1980s, California ocean salmon sheries were
of time, depending primarily on water temperature (usu-
increasingly regulated under quotas and area closures.
ally 50 to 60 days in California), the eggs hatch into
In 1980, a moratorium was placed on the issuance of
yolk sac larvae (alevins), which remain buried in the
permits to new participants in the ocean commercial
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
410
gravel until the yolk sac is absorbed. The young salmon Chinook spend two to ve years at sea before returning
Pacific Salmon
(fry) wriggle up out of the gravel and begin feeding on to spawn in their natal streams. The small percentage of
microscopic organisms. chinook that mature at age two are predominately males
and are commonly referred to as “grilse,” or “jacks.” The
When the salmon are about two inches long, their backs
older age classes of chinook are composed of about equal
become brown and their bellies a light silver so that they
proportions of males and females.
blend inconspicuously with their background. Referred to
as ngerlings, the length of stream-residency by these The state record for a sport-caught chinook is 88 pounds,
juveniles varies according to species and race. Following landed by an angler on the Sacramento River in 1979. The
a period of rapid growth, the salmon begin changing physi- largest chinook on record is a 127-pounder taken from
ologically in preparation for life in the ocean. A young a trap in Alaska. Ocean sheries can have a signicant
salmon that has undergone the anatomical and physiologi- impact on the average age of spawning chinook because
cal changes that allow it to live in the ocean is called ocean-shing gear often selects for larger, older sh. In
a smolt. Following an instinctive internal cue, the smolts addition, minimum size limits allow for the harvest of
begin migrating in schools downstream towards the ocean. chinook in the sport shery starting at age two (20-inch
Many of the sh pause in estuaries, remaining there until minimum) and in the commercial shery at age three
the smoltication process is completed. The salmon then (26-inch minimum). As ocean harvest rates increase, the
enter the sea where they begin a period of rapid growth. average age of adult spawners declines. Fish destined to
After spending two to six years in the ocean, depending on mature at age ve must survive two more years of ocean
species, the sexually mature salmon begin their arduous sheries than sh destined to mature at age three. It has
journey upriver. not been documented that the selectivity of the ocean
sheries for older maturing sh has adversely affected the
Chinook salmon genetics of the populations, but it has probably reduced
the utilization of spawning habitats that are best suited
Chinook are the largest of the salmon species. Historically,
for larger, older sh. Larger sh, for example, are prob-
juvenile chinook have been reported in coastal streams as
ably better able to utilize the larger gravel found in the
far south as the Ventura River in southern California. Cur-
main stems of most river systems. High rates of ocean har-
rently, they spawn in suitable rivers from the Sacramento-
vest in recent decades have led to the virtual disappear-
San Joaquin system northward. Spawning migrations can
ance of ve-year-olds in chinook salmon runs throughout
require minimal effort, with spawning occurring within a
the state.
few hundred feet of the ocean, or it can be a major
undertaking, with spawning occurring hundreds of miles All Pacic salmon exhibit a strong tendency to return at
upstream. In addition, dams and other diversion structures a specic time each year to spawn in their natal streams.
can seriously impede the upstream passage of adults by This has resulted in the development of distinct stocks,
creating physical barriers and confounding migration cues or populations, within each species that are, to varying
due to changes in river ow and water temperatures. degrees, both reproductively and behaviorally isolated.
Stocks are often grouped into “runs” based on the time of
The female chinook selects a nesting site that has good
the year during which their upstream spawning migration
subgravel ows to ensure adequate oxygenation. Since
occurs. There are four distinct chinook runs in California
chinook eggs are larger and have a smaller surface-to-
- fall, late-fall, winter, and spring. In a river where all
volume ratio, they are also more sensitive to reduced
four runs of chinook spawn, adults migrate upstream and
oxygen levels than eggs of other Pacic salmon. Female
juveniles migrate downstream during all months of the
chinook will defend their redds once spawning has begun
year. The timing of chinook spawning is often inuenced
and will stay on the nests from four days to two weeks,
by stream ow and water temperature, and therefore
depending on the time in the spawning period. Spawning
adults can be easily chased off redds by minor distur-
bances which may result in unsuccessful spawning. At the
time of emergence, fry generally swim or are displaced
downstream, although some fry are able to maintain their
residency at the spawning site. As they grow older, the
ngerlings tend to move away from shore into midstream
and higher velocity areas. Once smoltication is complete,
the young chinook migrate to the ocean, where they tend
to be distributed deeper in the water column than other
Pacic salmon species.
Steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 411
varies somewhat from river to river, and even within migrate seaward from early July though the following
Pacific Salmon
river systems. March, but the bulk of the juveniles move seaward in
September. Winter-run smolts enter the ocean between
All four runs use the Central Valley (Sacramento River-San
December and May. The adults mature and spawn as
Joaquin River) basin with the fall run being the most
three-year-olds, unlike the other races, which include
numerous. Historical runs of winter and spring chinook in
many four-year-old sh. Because of winter chinook’s
the upper Sacramento drainage were signicantly reduced
unique life history, ocean sheries, which are structured
by the construction of Shasta Dam in 1945. Spring chinook
to harvest the more abundant fall chinook runs during
also formed a major run in the San Joaquin River, but the
spring and summer months, have less of an impact on
completion of Friant Dam in 1942 contributed to the run’s
winter chinook than on other runs.
subsequent extinction.
Spring run. Spring chinook salmon arrive in the spawning
On the coast, the Klamath, Eel, Mad and Smith rivers
areas between March and June, with the peak time of
have fall and late fall runs. Spring chinook are also pres-
arrival usually occurring in May or June, depending upon
ent in several streams within the Klamath River basin
ows. They rest in the deep, cooler pools during the
and occasionally appear in the Eel and Smith rivers. In
summer and then move onto the gravel rifes and spawn
the Klamath Basin, the abundance of spring and fall chi-
between late August and early October. Emergence of fry
nook are believed to have been comparable prior to the
varies among drainages with fry emerging in some tribu-
completion of barrier dams in upper river areas in the late
taries as early as November, while fry in other areas wait
1800s. Smaller coastal rivers have only fall chinook.
until late March to appear. Juveniles either exit their natal
Fall run. Fall chinook salmon are the most numerous
tributaries soon after emergence or remain throughout
salmon in California today. They arrive in spawning areas
the summer, exiting the following fall as yearlings, usually
between September and December, depending upon the
with the onset of storms starting in October. Yearling
river system, but peak arrival time is usually during Octo-
emigration from the tributaries may continue through the
ber and November. Under current ocean harvest rates,
following March, with peak movement usually occurring in
the fall chinook runs are dominated by three-year-old sh
November and December. Juvenile emigration alternates
followed by jacks and four-year-olds. Five-year-old sh are
between active movement, resting and feeding. Juvenile
rare. Spawning occurs in the main stem of rivers, as well
salmon may rear for up to several months within the
as in tributaries, from early October through December. In
Delta before ocean entry. Spring chinook runs tend to
general, there is a large outmigration of fry and ngerlings
be dominated by three-year-old sh followed by four-year-
from the spawning areas between January and March. An
olds and jacks.
additional outmigration from the spawning areas, consist-
Ocean distribution. The development and widespread use
ing primarily of smolts, occurs from April through June.
of the coded wire tag since the mid-1970s have provided
The juveniles enter the ocean as smolts between April
extensive data on the ocean distributions of Pacic coast
and July.
salmon stocks. Tagging studies in California, particularly
Late fall run. In California, late fall chinook salmon are
on Central Valley and Klamath River fall chinook salmon
found primarily in the Sacramento River system, but have
stocks, have provided better denition of the coastal
been reported from the Eel River as well. They arrive
areas used by these stocks, as well as the mix of stocks
in upper-river spawning areas between October and mid-
in a particular ocean area. Although Central Valley fall
April. The runs of late-fall chinook tend to consist of
chinook are distributed primarily off of California and
equal numbers of three and four-year-old sh. Spawning
Oregon, some sh have ventured as far north as Alaska.
occurs from January through mid-April, primarily in the
Klamath River fall chinook are more narrowly distributed
main stem of the Sacramento River. Some of the juveniles
between Point Arena in northern California and Cape
start migrating seaward as fry during May, but the bulk
Falcon in Oregon. Ocean conditions have been found to
of the juveniles leave the upper river between October
affect the ocean distribution patterns of these and other
and February. Late fall smolts enter the ocean between
Pacic coast salmon stocks.
November and April.
Coho salmon
Winter run. Winter chinook salmon are unique to the
Sacramento River system. Adults arrive in the upper Sac- Coho salmon are smaller than chinook salmon; the average
ramento River spawning area from mid-December through size of a mature coho is seven to 12 pounds. The California
early August, with a peak in March. Spawning occurs record for a sport-caught coho salmon is 22 pounds, taken
primarily in the main stem of the upper Sacramento River on Paper Mill Creek (Marin County) in 1959. The world
below Shasta Dam between late-April and mid-August. record is a 33-pound sport-caught coho landed in British
May and June are peak spawning months. The juveniles Columbia.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
412
In California, coho spawn in suitable streams from north- Coded wire tagging of California hatchery coho stocks has
Pacific Salmon
ern Monterey Bay northward, but they rarely enter the indicated that nearly all are harvested in ocean sheries in
Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Coho enter many their third year of life. Some are caught as far north as the
small coastal streams that are not utilized by chinook, central Washington coast, but most are caught within 100
but they also spawn in some larger river systems where miles of the stream from which they entered the ocean.
chinook occur. Compared to chinook salmon, there are
relatively few coho in California today. Most California
Status of Spawning Populations
streams utilized by coho salmon are short in length, but
some coho do make relatively long migrations, particularly
Central Valley Fall Chinook - Fall chinook are the most
into the Eel River system. Many smaller coastal rivers have
abundant of the four races of Central Valley salmon,
runs of coho salmon that enter during brief periods after
the rst heavy fall rains and move upstream.
Within California river systems, coho salmon populations
include only one race, or run, which is generally consistent
as to spawning area used and time of spawning. Most
spawning occurs between December and February. The
juveniles usually spend a little more than a year in fresh
water before migrating to the ocean; a few spend two
years. Most coho mature at the end of their third year
of life. Coho salmon older than three years are relatively
rare. A few males, or grilse, mature at age two.
Genetic analysis of California coho populations has indi-
cated a wide degree of mixing of the stocks in the past,
probably reecting past stocking and transplantation prac-
tices involving hatchery sh. Baird Station, first Pacific Coast salmon hatchery.
Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.
Members of the Wintu tribe drying salmon on the McCloud River, circa 1882.
Credit: Thomas Houseworth, U.S. Fish Commission. Photo courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 413
spawning predominately in the Sacramento River basin. Klamath Basin - The recovery and analysis of coded
Pacific Salmon
The run is heavily supplemented by production at ve wire tagged sh produced at the two hatcheries in the
hatcheries. The spawning populations of fall chinook in Klamath Basin allow estimates of ocean abundance. Pre-
the Sacramento and San Joaquin river drainages averaged shing season abundance of fall chinook during the 1980s
about 340,000 between 1953 and 1963; 209,300 from 1970 averaged 395,000 sh; during the 1990s, the average
to 1979; 249,800 from 1980 to 1989; 166,600 from 1990 to decreased to 164,000 and included very low abundance in
1995; and 365,700 from 1996 to 2000. The recent increases 1991 and 1992. In 2000-2001, the pre-shing season abun-
in spawning runs, as well as commercial and recreational dance of fall chinook averaged 400,000. Spring chinook in
harvests, suggest a reversal in the decline of fall chinook, the Trinity and Salmon rivers in the Klamath Basin have
which hopefully will be sustained through the various been at very low levels in recent years.
restoration efforts to rebuild salmon stocks in the Central Many salmon anglers are attracted to rivers north of Mon-
Valley. In addition, since fall chinook is one of the primary terey County. Historically, almost half of the effort was
stocks harvested by ocean sheries in California, the in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Most of this
more restrictive regulations applied on these sheries activity occurs upstream from the city of Sacramento. The
in recent years appears to have also improved their main stem of the Sacramento River is the most important
freshwater returns. Central Valley stream, followed by the Feather and Ameri-
Central Valley Spring Chinook - Spring chinook, which can rivers. Of the coastal streams, the Klamath system
were historically the second most abundant run, now receives by far the most effort, followed by the Smith and
spawn in relatively small numbers in streams in the Eel systems. Much of the shing in coastal river systems
northern Sacramento River basin. Spawning populations occurs in estuaries. The Klamath and Smith River mouths
increased during the late 1990s, particularly the Deer and draw large numbers of anglers from great distances and
Butte Creek stocks. Spring chinook are listed as threat- concentrate them in a small area. The term “madhouse”
ened under the ESA (1999) and CESA (1999). is appropriate during the peak of a good run. The catch in
both of these rivers consists of chinook salmon.
Central Valley Late-fall Chinook - Late-fall chinook spawn
primarily in the main stem of the Sacramento River. The Past over-harvest has undoubtedly contributed to the cur-
run, which was not identied until the construction of rent plight of salmon. However, harvest constraints, which
a dam and sh ladder at Red Bluff enabled monthly are easily and quickly implemented, have no effect on the
counts of spawners, averaged about 25,000 from 1967 to root causes of the decline of wild salmon. Reasons for the
1976, 9,500 from 1977 to 1986 and 10,400 from 1987 to decline in California’s salmon populations vary somewhat
1994. More recent estimates of run size have been made from river to river, but there are two major causes: (1)
difcult by changes in the operation of the Red Bluff destruction or loss of habitat, and (2) water diversion.
Diversion Dam. In the Central Valley, a multitude of factors has con-
Sacramento River Winter Chinook - Winter chinook was tributed to the decline. These include several hundred
the rst anadromous sh to receive protection under the unscreened irrigation diversions in the Sacramento Valley,
ESA (1989), following its listing under CESA (1989). Winter 1,800 unscreened diversions in the Delta and about 150
chinook no longer exist in any of its original spawning hab- unscreened diversions in the San Joaquin Valley; poor
itat above Shasta Dam and the run persists only because or lost gravel deposition in salmon spawning and rearing
of the new habitat created by cold water releases from areas; pollution; aberrant river ow uctuations caused
the dam into the mainstem Sacramento River. The spawn- by alternating water-release schedules from dams to meet
ing populations below Shasta declined from the 20,000 to downstream water-quality standards and water diversion
80,000 sh observed in the 1970s to a few hundred in the contracts; elevated water temperatures stemming from
early 1990s. Spawning populations between 1998 and 2000 power generation operations and reduction in cold water
numbered between 1,400 and 3,200 sh. storage as reservoirs are emptied to meet agricultural
contracts; and impediments to migration such as dams
Coastal Populations - Coastal California streams support
or diversions. The massive export of water from the south-
small populations of coho and chinook salmon. Habitat
ern Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta has probably been the
blockages, logging, agriculture, urbanization and water
greatest cause of decline in Central Valley salmon.
withdrawals have resulted in widespread declines of both
species. All coastal coho populations in California are Red Bluff Diversion Dam on the upper Sacramento River
listed as threatened under the ESA and coho south of San continues to be an impediment to adult upstream migra-
Francisco are listed as threatened under CESA. Coastal tion, a major point of diversion and loss of downstream
chinook south of the Klamath River are listed as threat- migrating juveniles, and a haven for predatory Sacramento
ened under the ESA (1999). pikeminnow. Lifting of the gates at this facility has been
implemented in the fall through spring to protect all races
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
414
of chinook; alternative diversion facilities are being evalu- any of them from reaching the ocean, even if adequate
Pacific Salmon
ated that would allow the dam to be removed. sh screens are in place to keep them from entering the
irrigation canals. Reducing stream ows or shade may
Declines in coastal river chinook and coho salmon popula-
result in a stream becoming too warm for salmon. Siltation
tions have been caused by many of the same factors. But,
from logging or road construction can smother salmon
in addition, these areas have been affected by past and, in
eggs and suppress production of aquatic invertebrates
some instances, present timber harvest practices. These
upon which the young sh depend for food.
practices have reduced stream shading, resulting in high
temperatures, and have accelerated erosion and lling Substantial efforts have been made during the past
of pools. decade to ensure that the ecological requirements of
anadromous sh receive equal consideration with all the
Although many of California’s naturally spawning popula-
other economic and social demands placed on the state’s
tions are listed as threatened or endangered, the produc-
water resources. The Central Valley Improvement Act of
tion of large numbers of salmon by state and federal
1992 required a program designed to double natural pro-
hatcheries has continued. The trucking of sh from state
duction of anadromous sh in Central Valley streams.
hatcheries in the Central Valley for release in the lower
In 1995, the federal government and California initiated
Delta began in the late 1970s. The program was started
the CALFED Bay-Delta program to address environmental
with the intent of bypassing the many hazards that were
and water management problems associated with the
known to exist for juvenile salmon in the lower river
Bay-Delta system. The primary mission is to develop a
and Delta areas. Tagging studies have shown that survival
long-term comprehensive plan that will restore ecological
of trucked sh is much higher than sh released at the
health and improve water management for the benecial
hatchery and the program has continued to this day. The
uses of the Bay-Delta system.
average annual escapement of fall chinook to the Central
Valley between 1995 and 2000 was almost 85 percent Although the listing of salmon populations under the ESA
greater than the average observed during the previous 25 has meant new restrictions on recreational and commer-
years (1970-1994) and was due primarily to the restrictive cial shing, it has also provided a mechanism for address-
regulations placed on ocean salmon sheries in recent ing the effects of dams, irrigation diversion, logging, road
years. When salmon return to the Central Valley in construction, etc. on aquatic environments. Species man-
near record numbers, the public understandably has dif- agement under provisions of the ESA requires that existing
culty appreciating the need for harvest constraints to and proposed federal actions and permitted activities
protect endangered salmon. Commercial and sport sher- be conducted in a manner that will not jeopardize the
men expect shing regulations that permit harvest of continued existence of the animal or result in the destruc-
the hatchery “surplus.” Full utilization of hatchery produc- tion or adverse modication of habitat essential to the
tion subjects naturally spawning sh, which cannot sustain continuation of the species. Federal agencies must consult
nearly as high a rate of harvest as hatchery stocks, to with NMFS when they propose to authorize, fund, or
over-harvest. Responsible hatchery management means carry out an action which could potentially adversely
not only producing a healthy and robust sh, but also edu- affect listed salmon or steelhead. Likewise, state-spon-
cating sport and commercial shermen on the importance sored activities that might affect state-listed species must
of managing the sheries for natural production while be reviewed under the provisions of CESA.
accepting a surplus of hatchery adults.
Salmon: Discussion
Challenges to Inland Salmon Management
Maintaining salmon runs in California depends on the res-
toration and preservation of the state’s rivers and streams
as living systems. A poor law or regulation affecting shing
can be changed long before the damage it causes becomes
permanent, but a stream that is blocked near its mouth by
an impassable dam will produce no more salmon. A stream
kept dry through the spawning season by diversion is no
better, but may prove salvageable if water can eventually
be provided. Diverting all the water from a stream during
Typical commercial salmon troller
the downstream migration period of juveniles will prevent Credit: Chris Dewees, CA Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 415
Hatchery sh have been important to maintaining ocean ter habitats, and changes in ocean productivity or precipi-
Pacific Salmon
and in-river sheries, but have incorrectly been perceived tation. An incremental approach to harvest reductions
as a viable alternative to maintenance of natural spawning seems to have produced encouraging results with respect
populations. Unfortunately, a successful hatchery program to winter chinook. At the time of listing, spawning popula-
can mask the decline in the natural run due to straying tions were estimated at less than 200 sh and by the end
of the returning adults, and this appears to be the case of the 1990s had increased to several thousand.
for chinook in many areas of the Central Valley and the In recent years, test sheries have been conducted off
Klamath River basin. Hatchery adults spawning in the California, which apply the methods of genetic stock iden-
wild can compete with naturally produced sh for adult tication (GSI) to estimate the contribution of various
spawning and juvenile sh rearing areas. Interaction of stocks of chinook to catches. GSI detects the presence of
hatchery and naturally produced salmon is most acute in certain proteins that are characteristic of various popula-
the close vicinity of the rearing facilities. Battle Creek tions, both hatchery and naturally produced. The tech-
below Coleman Hatchery and Bogus Creek adjacent to nique can be used to verify the coded wire tag data
Iron Gate Hatchery typically are overloaded with spawning associated with hatchery stocks as well as to estimate the
sh each fall due to straying of hatchery adults. Trucking catch of relatively small numbers of naturally produced
operations in the Central Valley have greatly increased sh, which would not normally be available for marking
hatchery sh survival by reducing in-stream losses of sh with coded wire tags. The test sheries were initially
to diversions and predators but have also increased the undertaken with the hope of identifying previously unrec-
rate of straying of returning adults, possibly to the detri- ognized distributional differences between Central Valley
ment of the naturally produced sh. fall chinook and Klamath River fall chinook. As more popu-
lations of salmon have been listed under the ESA and
Challenges to Ocean Management
included in the GSI baseline, the search for times and
Ocean salmon sheries harvest a mixture of stocks that areas in which contact with stocks of concern is minimal
can differ greatly in their respective abundance and pro- has been made increasingly difcult. Listed species are
ductivity. It has long been recognized that the manage- at extremely low abundance and comprise a very small
ment of mixed stock salmon sheries is difcult and com- fraction of ocean catches; even GSI methods are unlikely
plex; sheries supported by hatcheries can deplete less to produce accurate estimates of ocean impacts on threat-
productive, naturally produced stocks unless programs are ened and listed populations. When faced with the difcul-
in place to monitor and evaluate their status and make ties of estimating ocean distribution and the presence of
necessary adjustments in harvest. Ideally, some differ- salmon from such populations, it seems safest to reduce
ences in distribution of “strong” and “weak” stocks exist ocean harvest rates to levels sufciently low that ocean
that allow managers to develop measures that selectively impacts are unlikely to extinguish these weak ESA popula-
protect stocks of concern. tions of salmon.
NMFS has concluded that the harvest of the relatively Ocean salmon managers must continually be prepared to
abundant Central Valley fall chinook stocks may continue respond to changes in the sheries. The advent of mooch-
at reduced levels without jeopardizing the recovery of ing in central California led to different resource impacts.
listed California chinook populations. The California Fish Likewise, the ocean environment continues to change,
and Game Commission, PFMC and NMFS have implemented physically as well as biologically. Relative to the salmon
various protective regulations to reduce shery impacts resource, coastal water quality needs to be monitored and
on California populations of Central Valley winter and protected. There also appear to be increasing conicts
spring chinook, and coastal chinook and coho, all of which between ocean shermen, both recreational and com-
are listed. In 1992, the PFMC began to severely curtail mercial, and marine mammals, in particular harbor seals
the ocean harvest of coho salmon in California due to the and sea lions. Federal legislation aimed at protecting
depressed condition of most coastal stocks. Following the these animals has been very effective in increasing
federal listing of California coho stocks in 1996 and 1997, their numbers and has led to increased depredation on
NMFS extended the protective measures to a complete sport and commercially hooked salmon. Most of the prob-
prohibition of coho retention off California. lems have been in the marine area, particularly in the
Monterey-San Francisco region, but problems have also
Ocean abundance estimates are not available for any of
occurred in some lower river areas, such as the Klamath
California’s listed salmon and harvest rates are subject to
River estuary where American Indian and sport anglers
speculation. Determining levels of harvest that are appro-
annually seek to harvest salmon.
priate for recovery is challenging. Without age-specic
mortality estimates it is difcult to assess the relative
effects of reductions in harvest, improvements in freshwa-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
416
Management Considerations Kope, R.G. 1987. Separable virtual population analysis
Pacific Salmon
of Pacic salmon with application to marked chinook
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, from California’s Cen-
further information. tral Valley. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 44(6):1213-1220.
Lufkin, A. 1991. California’s Salmon and Steelhead: The
Struggle to Restore an Imperiled Resource. University of
LB Boydstun
California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles. 305 p.
Department of Fish and Game
Nehlsen, W., J.E. Williams, and J.A. Lichatowich. 1991.
Melodie Palmer-Zwahlen
Pacic salmon at the crossroads: stocks at risk from
Department of Fish and Game
California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington. Fisheries,
Dan Viele
16(2):4-21.
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pacic Marine Fisheries Commission. 1948. Coordinated
Plans for the Management of the Fisheries of the Pacic
References Coast. Bulletin 1, Portland, OR. 64 p.
Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC). 1984. Final
framework amendment for managing the ocean salmon
Bartley, D., B. Bentley, P. G. Olin, and G.A.E. Gall. 1992. sheries off the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and Cali-
Population genetic structure of coho salmon (Oncorhyn- fornia commencing in 1985. Pacic. Fish. Mgmt. Council,
chus kisutch) in California. Calif. Fish and Game. Vol 78. Portland. Eight sections plus appendices.
No.3 p.88-100.
PFMC. 1999. Review of 1999 Ocean Salmon Fisheries.
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead Pacic. Fish. Mgmt. Council, Portland. Four sections plus
Trout. 1988. Restoring the balance. 1988 annual report. appendices.
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Sacramento. 84 p.
_____ . 1999. Preseason report I, stock abundance
California Department of Fish and Game. 1998. A status analysis for 2000 ocean salmon sheries. Pacic Fish.
review of the spring-run chinook (Oncorhynchus Tshawyts- Mgmt. Council, Portland. Three sections plus appendices.
cha) in the Sacramento river drainage. Report to the Fish
Pierce, Ronnie M. 1998. Klamath Salmon: Understanding
and Game Commission. Candidate Species Status Report
Allocation. Klamath Riv. Basin Fish. Task Force, Yreka CA.
98-01. June 1998.
32 p.
Campbell, E.A. and P.B. Moyle. 1990. Historical and
Yoshiyama, R.M., Fisher, F.W., and Moyle, P.B. 1998 His-
recent population sizes of spring-run chinook salmon in
torical abundance and decline of chinook salmon in the
California. Pages 155-216. In Proceedings, 1990 Northeast
central valley region of California. N. Am. J. Fisheries
Pacic Chinook and Coho Salmon Workshop. Humboldt
Management. 18:487-521.
Chapter, American Fisheries Society.
Feinberg, L. and M. Morgan. 1979. California’s Salmon
Resource: Its Biology, Use and Management. Sea Grant
Report Series No. 3, California Sea Grant College Program,
CSGCP No. 72. 37p.
Gall, G.A.E., B. Bentley, C. Panattoni, E. Childs, C. Qi, S.
Fox, M. Mangel, J. Brodziak, and R. Gomulkiewicz. 1989.
Chinook mixed shery project, 1986-89. Prepared under
contract for the Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Sacramento.
192 p.
Hankin, D.G., and M.C. Healey. 1986. Dependence of
exploitation rate for maximum yield and stock collapse on
age and sex structure of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha) stocks. Canadian J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.,
43(9):1746-1759.
King, D. 1986. The economic issues associated with com-
mercial salmon shing and limited entry in California.
Prepared under contract for the California Commercial
Fishing Review Board, Sacramento. 106 p. plus appendix.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 417
Steelhead
Rainbow Trout card data was 168,000 sh (but only 40,000 were kept).
In 1994, estimated catch was 178,000, with 53,000 sh
retained. These gures have not been corrected for
History of the Fishery non-response bias, however, so are likely overestimated.
Even prior to the implementation of catch-and-release
S teelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss formerly Salmo gaird- requirement for wild steelhead (see below), California
neri) were once abundant in California coastal and steelhead anglers released approximately 70 percent of all
Central Valley rivers and streams. American Indians uti- steelhead caught.
lized this resource for subsistence, trade, and ceremonial Steelhead sport shing is important not only for the recre-
purposes. Salmon and steelhead were harvested year- ation that it provides, but also for its economic benets.
round by central coast and Central Valley tribes, and pri- A 1985 economic analysis of the anadromous sport
marily during late summer and fall months by north coast shery of the Sacramento-San Joaquin river system esti-
tribes. Nets, spears, traps, and weirs were utilized to mated that sales revenue generated from steelhead sport
capture the sh. Today, American Indians employ gillnets shing in the Sacramento River and tributaries was
to capture salmon and are limited to the Klamath River over 7.2 million dollars. When non-shing activities were
system. These gillnet sheries target chinook salmon, but included, Sacramento River steelhead generated over $9
an unknown number of adult steelhead is also taken. million annually.
There is no commercial steelhead shery in California.
Commercial salmon trollers cannot legally possess steel-
Status of Biological Knowledge
head, and very few are taken incidentally in the commer-
cial salmon catch. However, there is a well-established,
S teelhead are the anadromous form of rainbow trout,
popular steelhead sport shery in California. The majority
a salmonid native to western North America and the
of angler effort is expended in river systems and coastal
Pacic coast of Asia. In North America, steelhead are
streams of the north coast, the central coast north of San
found in Pacic Ocean drainages from southern California
Francisco Bay, and the Sacramento River system. Some
to Alaska, and in Asia in coastal streams of the Kamchatka
rivers and streams of the central coast south of San
Peninsula. Spawning populations in California are known
Francisco still support a steelhead sport shery, but these
to have occurred in coastal streams from Malibu Creek
have become limited in recent years due to a decline
(Los Angeles County) to the Smith River near the Oregon
in their populations. The steelhead shery in southern
border, and in the Sacramento and San Joaquin river sys-
California (south of San Luis Obispo) has been closed due
tems. Southern California streams south of Malibu Creek
to severe declines and extirpation of many of the runs
appear to support at least occasional spawning and pro-
and a listing of others under the federal Endangered
duction, but it is unknown if these coastal streams cur-
Species Act (ESA). The San Joaquin River system
rently support steelhead populations. The present distri-
presently supports a very limited shery. The rest of
bution and abundance of steelhead in California has been
California’s steelhead sportshery has instituted catch
greatly reduced from historical levels.
and release regulations since the ESA listing of naturally
Steelhead are similar to Pacic salmon in their ecological
produced steelhead.
requirements. They spend most of their lives in the ocean
In 1993, California implemented the Steelhead Trout Catch
where they grow to relatively large size, and then return
Report-Restoration Card Program, which required that all
to fresh water to spawn. Unlike Pacic salmon, steelhead
steelhead anglers purchase a steelhead catch report card
do not necessarily die after spawning. Repeat spawning is
and record their catch. These data are used by the
common; however post-spawning survival rates are gener-
Department of Fish and Game (DFG) to generate catch
ally quite low (10 to 20 percent). Steelhead do not neces-
statistics, including the number of steelhead caught and
sarily migrate to sea at a specic age. Some individuals
released. The report card has provided angler harvest
remain in a stream, mature, and even spawn without ever
information and funding for management, research,
going to sea; others migrate to sea at less than a year
and habitat restoration projects. Current information indi-
old. Although most spend two to six years at sea, some
cates that approximately 69 percent of angler effort is
return to freshwater after spending less than a year in
expended on the north coast (north of the Mattole River),
the ocean. The well-known Klamath River “half-pounders”
15 percent on the north-central coast (between the Mat-
are sexually immature steelhead that return to fresh water
tole River and the Golden Gate), four percent on the
after spending only a few months at sea. These sh do
south-central coast (from the Golden Gate to Pt. Concep-
not spawn, but return to the ocean and eventually ascend
tion) and 12 percent in the Central Valley. In 1993, the
the river in a second upstream migration as a larger,
total statewide steelhead catch estimated from report
mature steelhead.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
418
In California, peak spawning in most runs occurs from The second principal difference between salmon and
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
December through April. Steelhead generally spawn in steelhead is the amount of time steelhead spend in fresh
small tributaries where cool, well-oxygenated water is and salt water, which is much more variable. In a study
available year-round. Like salmon, the female steelhead of steelhead life history in central coast streams, it was
digs a nest, or “redd,” deposits eggs while an attendant found that the majority of adults returning to spawn had
male fertilizes them, then covers the eggs with gravel. spent two years in fresh water and one or two years in
The length of time it takes for eggs to hatch largely the ocean. However, steelhead showing other life history
depends on water temperature. Steelhead eggs hatch in patterns were not uncommon. Scale analysis of adults
about 30 days at 51o F. Fry usually emerge from the gravel indicated that they typically spent from one to four
four to six weeks after hatching, but factors such as redd years in fresh water and from one to three years in the
depth, gravel size, siltation, and temperature all inuence ocean. Studies on Sacramento River steelhead also show
the timing of emergence. this variability.
The newly emerged fry move to shallow, protected areas Steelhead have traditionally been grouped into seasonal
associated with stream margins where they establish feed- runs according to their peak migration period. In Cal-
ing stations that they defend. Juveniles mainly inhabit ifornia, there are well-dened winter, spring, and fall
rifes, but they can utilize a variety of other habitat runs. This classication is useful in describing actual run
types. Relatively high ngerling densities occur in associa- timing, but is misleading when it is used to further catego-
tion with structural complexity, such as that provided by rize steelhead. Run-timing may be a characteristic of a
large woody debris. Juveniles also exhibit a preference for particular stock, but by itself, does not constitute race
sites with overhead cover and appear to select positions in or ecotype.
streams in response to low light levels. There are two principal steelhead ecotypes: 1) stream-
The preferred depth for steelhead spawning is approxi- maturing steelhead, which enter fresh water with imma-
mately 14 inches and ranges from six to 24 inches. In ture gonads and consequently must spend several months
natural channels, water depth usually does not hinder in the stream before they are ready to spawn; and
adult migration because adult steelhead normally migrate 2) ocean-maturing steelhead, which mature in the ocean
during high ows. Depth can become a signicant barrier and spawn relatively soon after reentry into fresh water.
or impedance in streams that have been altered for ood This corresponds to the accepted classication that groups
control purposes. It has been reported that seven inches steelhead into two seasonal “races” — summer and winter
is the minimum depth required for successful migration steelhead. Stream-maturing steelhead (summer steelhead)
of adult steelhead, although the distance sh must travel typically enter fresh water in spring, early summer, and
through shallow water areas is also a critical factor. fall. They ascend to headwater tributaries, hold over in
deep pools until mature, and spawn in winter. Ocean-
Water temperature requirements for various life stages
maturing steelhead (winter steelhead) typically begin
of steelhead have been well studied, although there are
their spawning migration in late fall, winter, and spring
relatively few data specic to California. Egg mortality
and spawn relatively soon after freshwater entry. Ocean-
begins to occur at 56o F. Thermal stress has been reported
maturing steelhead generally spawn from January through
at temperatures beginning at 66o F, and temperatures
April, but some spawning can extend into May and June.
demonstrated to be lethal to adults have been reported at
70o F. In California, low temperatures are not as much of Prior to the intensive water development of this century
a concern as high temperatures, particularly during adult and the resultant loss of a considerable amount of holding
migration, egg incubation, and juvenile rearing. The abil- habitat, stream-maturing (summer) steelhead were prob-
ity of steelhead to tolerate adverse temperatures varies ably more common in California than they are today.
depending on stock characteristics, ecological conditions, There is some evidence that they were present in the
and physiological conditions such as life stage. Central Valley drainages, but were most likely extirpated
with the construction of large dams that blocked access
The life history of steelhead differs from that of Pacic
to the upper reaches on many of the major spawning
salmon in two principal aspects. First, juvenile steelhead
tributaries. At present, summer steelhead are known
rear in fresh water for longer periods of time (usually
to occur only in north coast drainages, mostly in tribu-
from one to three years). Because of this multi-year rear-
taries of the Eel, Klamath, and Trinity river systems.
ing requirement, water temperatures and other water
Ocean-maturing (winter) steelhead are also present in
quality parameters must remain suitable year-round. That
north coast drainages, and are also found in the Sacra-
is why steelhead typically migrate higher into watersheds
mento and San Joaquin river systems and central/south
to spawn than salmon. It is mostly in these upper tributar-
coast drainages.
ies that water quality - most importantly water tempera-
ture - remains suitable year-round.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 419
The above classication scheme is based on behavioral to persist in this marginal, frequently suboptimal
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
and physiological differences and may not reect genetic environment. Having several different life-history strat-
or taxonomic relationships. Genetic similarity appears to egies among a single population effects “bet-hedging”
be a reection of geographical relationships. For example, against extinction.
summer steelhead occupying a particular river system
are more genetically similar to winter steelhead of that
Status of the Populations
system than they are to summer steelhead in other sys-
tems. Similarly, little or no morphological or genetic dif-
B ecause of the difculty in assessing steelhead popula-
ferentiation has been found between steelhead and res-
tions, we have limited estimates of adult numbers and
ident rainbow trout forms inhabiting the same stream
a statewide population estimate is not available. Carcass
system. Taxonomists conclude that O. mykiss cannot be
surveys, a dependable method to estimate salmon spawn-
separated taxonomically by immigration timing (fall-, win-
ing populations, are not useful for assessing steelhead
ter-, spring-runs), ecotype (stream-maturing vs. ocean-
spawning populations, because steelhead do not always
maturing), or their migratory behavior (steelhead vs. res-
die immediately after spawning. Counts made at weirs
ident forms). Rather, rainbow trout are taxonomically
and shways can be difcult because adult steelhead tend
structured on a geographic basis. All steelhead in Cali-
to migrate on high, turbid winter ows. Despite the lack
fornia belong to the coastal rainbow trout subspecies,
of accurate numbers, other reliable indicators show that
O. m. irideus.
steelhead, like most other anadromous salmonid stocks in
This taxonomic classication recognizes the extreme vari- California, have declined signicantly.
ability that occurs within rainbow trout populations.
In October 1997, the federal government listed southern
Rather than the different life-history forms comprising
California steelhead as endangered and central and south
distinct populations, studies and observations provide evi-
Central Coast steelhead as threatened under the ESA. In
dence that coastal rainbow trout can form a single, inter-
May 1998, Central Valley steelhead were listed as threat-
breeding population in stream systems where there is
ened, and in August 2000, Northern California steelhead
access to the ocean. These populations are comprised
were listed as threatened. Consequently, all California
of individuals with different life-history traits and a con-
steelhead populations south of the Klamath-Trinity River
tinuum of migratory behaviors, the two extremes being
system are now listed under the ESA.
anadromy (strongly migratory) and residency (non-migra-
South Coast. The precipitous decline of steelhead on the
tory). Recent research demonstrating that juvenile rain-
south coast is well documented. Of 122 streams south
bow trout can adopt a life-history strategy that is
of San Francisco Bay that were known to have contained
different from their parents (i.e., a steelhead can
a steelhead population, 47 percent had populations with
produce non-anadromous progeny and non-anadromous
reduced production from historical levels, 33 percent no
rainbow trout can produce steelhead progeny) provides
longer supported steelhead populations, and only 20 per-
further evidence.
cent had populations that had not declined signicantly
This type of population structure and resultant exibility
from historical levels. The percentage of streams with
in reproductive strategies allows a population to persist in
extinct populations ranged from zero percent in San Mateo
the face of unstable and variable climatic, hydrographic,
and Santa Cruz counties in the north to 92 percent in
and limnological conditions that frequently exist at the
Orange and San Diego counties.
margins of a species’ range. For coastal rainbow trout, this
Water development appears to be the primary cause of
includes stream systems in the Central Valley and those
localized extinctions and decline in numbers. A recent
south of San Francisco Bay. Stream systems in California
study found that 35 percent of the southern steelhead
are subject to extreme variations in rainfall which can
populations reviewed were negatively impacted by water
result in high volume, ash ood runoff, or droughts last-
diversions, 24 percent by dams lacking functional sh-
ing several years. Natural stream ow in these streams
ways; 18 percent by articial barriers other than dams
can vary greatly, both seasonally and annually. It is not
(such as impassable culverts and bridge supports) and
uncommon, even under unimpaired conditions, for the
ve percent from stream channelization. Overall, 21 per-
lower reaches of many streams to become interrupted
cent of the 165 populations reviewed were impacted by
during the dry season, restricting the population to the
blocked access to spawning and rearing tributaries due
perennial headwaters, with these conditions persisting for to main stem impediments. Other major impacts include
years. The exibility inherent in this type of population urbanization and other land-use activities.
structure allows sh to complete their life cycles entirely
Southern steelhead stocks (those occurring south of Point
in freshwater until conditions once again allow migration
Conception) are the most imperiled of all of California’s
to the ocean, and this exibility has allowed populations
steelhead populations, and are the only California steel-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
420
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
The historical range of steelhead in California. The present range of steelhead in California.
Only major streams within the range are depicted. Only major streams within the range are depicted.
head that are listed under the ESA as endangered. The steelhead will now have access to some of their former
southernmost range of steelhead formerly extended to spawning and rearing habitat.
northern Baja California and they were present in streams The Santa Ynez River is reported to have had an annual
and rivers of Los Angeles, Orange, and San Diego counties. run size from 12,995 to 25,032 adults in the 1940s.
At present, Malibu Creek in Los Angeles County is the Although this was a cursory estimate, it does attest to the
designated southern extent of the steelhead range (in large size of this run, which was already reduced from
terms of the ESA listing). However, the recent discovery former times because of forest res and construction of
of a spawning population in San Mateo Creek in San Diego dams in the upper watershed. The large size of this run
County has conrmed that steelhead are still present in is also indicated by a DFG rescue of 1,036,980 juvenile
streams south of Malibu Creek, and the federal govern- steelhead from the partially dry bed of the Santa Ynez
ment has recently proposed to extend the designated River in 1944. Since the mid-1990s, a few adult steelhead
southern extent to include San Mateo Creek. It is not have been observed every year, and juvenile steelhead
known if steelhead still occur in streams south of San have been observed in several tributaries.
Mateo Creek.
In the mid-1940s, DFG biologists reported that a minimum
The historical run-size of the Santa Clara River is esti- of 2,000 to 2,500 adults spawned in Matilija Creek, a
mated to have been about 9,000 adults annually. In the tributary of the Ventura River, and they believed that
past ve years, several hundred steelhead smolts have this represented 50 percent of the total number of adults
been observed at sh screens at a diversion on the main- entering the Ventura River. There are recent anecdotal
stem so it appears this population may be recovering, reports of adult steelhead in the lower Ventura River, and
although only a few adult steelhead have been observed juvenile steelhead have been observed.
in the shway in the diversion dam. A shway on a small
Much of the coastline of southern Monterey and San
diversion dam on Santa Paula Creek, a major tributary
Luis Obispo counties is relatively undeveloped; hence,
to the Santa Clara River, was recently completed, so
many of these small coastal streams still contain steel-
head populations. Status of populations in these streams
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 421
range from healthy in the relatively undisturbed streams Creek (a tributary to the Russian River). All of these
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
in southern Monterey and northern San Luis Obispo coun- dams except the latter two are at elevations greater than
ties, to severely depressed or extirpated in the Morro 1,500 feet, so a considerable amount of habitat is still
Bay/San Luis Obispo urban area. The largest populations available downstream. The Russian River is the notable
of steelhead (on the order of hundreds of adults) in the exception - dams block access to the headwaters and a
south-central coast region are probably in the Little Sur major tributary.
and Big Sur rivers.
In the Carmel River from 1964 to 1975, the average annual
run-size of steelhead was estimated to be 3,177 sh, about
25 percent of historical levels. The mean number of adults
counted at the San Clemente Dam sh ladder during
this 12-year period was 821 sh per year. During a
three-year period from 1988 to 1990, the river never
breached its sand bar at the mouth making the river inac-
cessible to upstream migrant adult steelhead. One adult
was observed in the ladder in 1991, 14 adults in 1992, and
285 adults in 1993. In 1993, the Fish and Game Commission
closed the lower Carmel River to all angling to protect the
remnant steelhead run. With the cessation of the recent
six-year drought, the Carmel River steelhead population Adult Steelhead Counts at San Celmente Dam on the Carmel River
appears to be recovering. The average annual run size for Data show steelhead counted at the San Clemente Dam on the Carmel River between
1964 and 1999. Data not available for 1978-1983 and 1985-1987; no steelhead were
the ve-year period beginning in 1995 was 590 adults. In
counted at the San Celmente Dam during the years 1976-1977, 1989, and 1990.
recognition of the increasing health of the population, the
river was opened to a limited catch-and-release shery for The north coast rivers and streams have the largest area
steelhead in 1998. of steelhead habitat in the state and the most abundant
populations of steelhead. The California Fish and Wildlife
With the recent occurrence of several years of ample
Plan of 1965 estimated an annual spawning escapement
precipitation, it appears that steelhead in this region
of 513,500 steelhead for this region. Because many of the
may be starting to recover from the six-year drought of
spawning and rearing tributaries are largely undeveloped
the late 1980s through early 1990s. Opportunistic observa-
and fairly remote, the north coast runs are in better
tions conrmed the presence of steelhead in many small
condition than other areas of the state. However, these
southern California streams that were not known to have
populations have also had some declines.
contained steelhead populations for many years. Steel-
head have been observed in Carpenteria, Maria Ygnacio, In the 1960s, the Smith River was estimated to have a
Gaviota, Mission, and Arroyo Hondo creeks in Santa Bar- spawning escapement of 30,000 adult steelhead. There
bara County; Arroyo Sequit and Topanga creeks in Los have been no recent spawning surveys done for steelhead
Angeles County; and San Mateo Creek in San Diego County. and the population size is unknown at present. The Smith
Since the ESA listing, habitat restoration projects have River is presently protected by federal Wild and Scenic
increased in the past ve years and include modication River designation and has one of the most undisturbed
of grade stabilization structures to facilitate passage on watersheds in California. Steelhead populations appear to
Gaviota Creek, development and design of a shway and be healthy in this system and the habitat is relatively
screens on the Robles Diversion on the Ventura River, pristine. The Smith River is well known among anglers for
initial discussions on removal of Matilija Dam on Matilija producing trophy-size steelhead.
Creek, construction of a new shway at Harvey Dam on The largest population of steelhead in California inhabits
Santa Paula Creek, and various restoration projects in the Klamath River system. The California Fish and Wildlife
Topanga and San Mateo creek watersheds. Plan estimated an annual run size of 283,000 adult steel-
North Coast. The historical range of steelhead on the head for the entire Klamath River system. The size of
north coast (north of San Francisco Bay) has not been the fall-run from the 1977-1978 to the 1982-1983 seasons
reduced to the extent it has in other areas of the state. ranged from 87,000 to 181,410 adults annually. The size
Major dams that have blocked access to historical spawn- of the winter steelhead population in this system in the
ing and rearing areas are Iron Gate Dam on the Klamath early 1980s was probably about 10,000 to 30,000 adults
River, Lewiston Dam on the Trinity River, Ruth Dam on annually, based on limited sport angler and Native Ameri-
the Mad River, Scott Dam on the Eel River, Coyote Dam can gillnet harvest data. The steelhead population of the
on the Russian River, and Warm Springs Dam on Dry Klamath River excluding the Trinity River has declined
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
422
dramatically, most likely due to high summer water tem- smolts released, steelhead runs in north coast drainages
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
peratures in the mainstem. are comprised mostly of naturally produced sh.
The most reliable population estimates for steelhead on Since the early 1970s, systematic surveys have been
the north coast are for the Trinity River, a major tributary undertaken on summer steelhead holding habitat to
of the Klamath River. DFG has operated several weirs census adult summer steelhead. The most abundant popu-
in the system since 1977 to obtain steelhead run size, lations are in the Middle Fork Eel and the North Fork
sport harvest, and spawning escapement estimates. Esti- Trinity rivers. The Middle Fork Eel River population has
mates for some years during this period are not available not fully recovered from the devastating 1964 ood which
because of the difculty in maintaining weirs in high
water. Eight years of run size estimates for the Trinity
River upstream of Willow Creek range from 7,833 to 37,276
and average 15,185 adults. The 1991-92 estimated run size
for the Trinity River above Willow Creek was 11,417.
Steelhead runs in the Eel River system have declined
signicantly. Annual counts made at Benbow Dam on the
South Fork Eel River show a decline from an average of
18,784 during the 1940s to 3,355 during the 1970s (counts
were discontinued after 1975). Annual counts of adults
at Cape Horn Dam in the upper watershed of the main
stem Eel River declined from an average of 4,063 during
the 1930s to 540 during the 1990s. Annual counts of
Eel River Steelhead Population Trends
wild steelhead at this location show an even greater
Data shows steelhead population trends between 1971 and 1998 as counted for the
decline: from an average of 893 in the 1980s to 82 in the Upper Eel River wild steelhead population and the summertime steelhead population
(wild and hatchery) of the Middle Fork of the Eel River.
1990s. Recent anecdotal information indicates that steel-
head populations also appear to have declined signicantly
aggraded the river bed, lled-in holding pools, and smoth-
in the South Fork Eel River, partly due to predation or
ered spawning gravels. The adult population has declined
competition from introduced Sacramento squawsh, which
steadily since 1987 and is now about 500. The present esti-
are now widespread throughout the system.
mated annual statewide abundance of summer steelhead
The California Fish and Wildlife Plan estimated an annual is about 2,000 adults.
spawning escapement of 50,000 steelhead in the Russian
Major factors impacting north coast steelhead stocks are
River. Presently, escapement of naturally produced steel-
watershed disturbances due to logging, grazing, and road
head in this system probably ranges from about 1,750 to
building, water diversions, and other agricultural impacts.
7,000 adults. Historically, steelhead spawned throughout
Poaching is a problem, especially for summer steelhead,
the Russian River system, but today many of the tributar-
which must over-summer in fresh water, often concen-
ies, including the East Fork, are now inaccessible due to
trated in a few pools. This renders them susceptible to
dam construction.
snagging and netting, especially if the pools are located
Marin County tributaries to San Pablo and San Francisco in accessible areas. Urbanization of the watershed and
bays have all sustained intensive urban development and gravel mining operations have caused serious problems on
anadromous runs in many streams have been extirpated. central coast streams.
West Marin County tributaries to Tomales Bay and the
Central Valley. Steelhead were historically well-distrib-
Pacic Ocean still have steelhead with small population
uted throughout the Sacramento and San Joaquin river
estimates. Steelhead escapement in Lagunitas Creek is
systems, from the upper Sacramento/Pit river systems
probably about 400 to 500 adults annually.
south to the Kings River (and possibly Kern river systems
There are four DFG hatcheries in the north coast area: in wet years) and in both east- and west-side tributaries
Iron Gate Hatchery on the Klamath River, Trinity River of the Sacramento River. Present distribution of steelhead
Hatchery, Mad River Hatchery, and Warm Springs Hatchery in the Central Valley has been greatly reduced, mainly
on Dry Creek (tributary to the Russian River). Average from construction of impassable dams that block access to
annual production for these four hatcheries totals about essential spawning and rearing habitat. It is estimated that
1,750,000 steelhead yearlings per year. The private, non- 82 to 95 percent of the historical steelhead spawning and
prot Rowdy Creek enhancement hatchery on the Smith rearing habitat in the Central Valley has been lost to dam
River releases approximately 125,000 steelhead smolts construction/passage problems.
annually. Despite the signicant number of hatchery
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 423
and in some cases, is greater. It is estimated that chinook
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
salmon escapement was one to two million spawners
annually in the Central Valley prior to large-scale habitat
changes, so a cursory estimate of the annual steelhead
run size is one to two million adults
A cursory estimate of current steelhead abundance in
the Central Valley, based on Red Bluff Diversion Dam
(RBDD) counts, hatchery counts, and past natural spawn-
ing escapement estimates for some tributaries, is no
greater than 10,000 adult sh. A more reliable indicator
of the magnitude of the decline of Central Valley hatchery
and wild stocks is the trend in the RBDD adult steelhead
counts, which have declined from an average annual count
Adjusted Counts of Upper Sacramento River Steelhead at
Red Bluff Diversion Dam of 11,187 adults for the ten-year period beginning in 1967,
Data shows steelhead counted at the Red Bluff Diversion Dam between 1967 and 1993.
to 2,202 adults annually in the early 1990s. Natural spawn-
ing escapement estimates above RBDD for the period 1967
to 1993 averaged 3,465 and ranged from zero (1989 and
Naturally-spawning steelhead stocks are known to occur
1991) to 13,248 (1968). Natural escapement has shown
in the upper Sacramento River and tributaries, Mill, Deer,
a more substantial decline than hatchery escapement.
and Butte creeks, and the Feather, Yuba, American, Moke-
There are four steelhead hatcheries in the Central Valley:
lumne, Calaveras, Stanislaus, and Tuolumne rivers. Natu-
Coleman National Fish Hatchery on Battle Creek, Feather
rally spawning populations could be more widespread,
River Hatchery, Nimbus Hatchery on the American River,
however, as indicated by recent implementation of mon-
and the Mokelumne River Hatchery. Together, these
itoring programs that have found steelhead smolts in
hatcheries produce about 1.5 million yearlings annually.
streams previously thought not to contain populations,
such as Auburn Ravine, Dry Creek and the Stanislaus River. Factors affecting abundance, persistence, and recovery
It is possible that naturally spawning populations exist in have been identied for anadromous shes in the Sacra-
many other streams but are undetected due to lack of mento and San Joaquin River systems and these apply
monitoring or research programs. A genetic evaluation by reasonably well to Central Valley steelhead. These factors
the National Marine Fisheries Service provides evidence include: water diversions and water management, entrain-
that a native Central Valley steelhead stock still exists. ment, dams and other structures, bank protection proj-
ects, dredging and sediment disposal, and gravel mining.
Until very recently, steelhead were considered to be
The primary impact to Central Valley steelhead is the sub-
extinct in the San Joaquin River system. However, this
stantial loss of spawning and rearing habitat due to dam
conclusion was based on little information and no eld
construction at low elevations on all the major tributaries.
studies. The presence of steelhead in the San Joaquin
River system has been conrmed by observations of steel-
head smolts in the Stanislaus River and observations
Dennis R. McEwan
of steelhead adults and smolts in the Calaveras and
California Department of Fish and Game
Tuolumne rivers. Adult steelhead have also been observed
in the Stanislaus River and in the San Joaquin River at its
conuence with the Merced River.
The California Fish and Wildlife Plan estimated that there
were 40,000 adult steelhead in the Central Valley drain-
ages in the early 1960s. In the 1950s, the DFG estimated
the average annual steelhead run size in the Sacramento
River system above the mouth of the Feather River was
20,540 adults. Estimating steelhead abundance before
extensive water development and habitat modication
occurred is difcult given the paucity of historical infor-
mation. However, an estimate can be made by comparing
the relative abundance of chinook salmon and steelhead
in other, relatively unimpaired river systems. These esti-
mates show that steelhead abundance in these river sys-
tems is at least as great as chinook salmon abundance,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
424
References
Steelhead Rainbow Trout
Barnhart, R.A. 1986. Species proles: life histories and
environmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
brates (Pacic Southwest) - steelhead. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.60). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
TR EL-82-4. 21 p.
Behnke, R.J. 1992. Native trout of western North America.
American Fisheries Society Monograph no. 6. 275 p.
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead
Trout (CACSST). 1988. Restoring the balance. 1988 ann.
rpt. 84 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game. 1965. California
Fish and Wildlife Plan.
Interagency Ecological Program (IEP) Steelhead Project
Work Team. 1999. Monitoring, Assessment, and Research
on Central Valley Steelhead: Status of Knowledge, Review
of Existing Programs, and Assessment of Needs. In Com-
prehensive Monitoring, Assessment, and Research Program
Plan, Tech. App. VII-A-11.
McEwan, D.R. Central Valley steelhead. In proceedings of
the Central Valley Salmonid Symposium, 1997, R. Brown
ed. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Fish Bull. No. 179. (in
press).
McEwan, D. and T.A. Jackson. 1996. Steelhead Restoration
and Management Plan for California. Calif. Dept. of Fish
and Game.
Titus, R.G., D.C. Erman, and W.M. Snider. (in prep.) His-
tory and status of steelhead in California coastal drainages
south of San Francisco Bay.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 425
Commercial Landings -
Salmonids
Commercial Landings - Salmonids
Total Salmon 1
Chinook Coho
Total Salmon 1
Chinook Coho
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
Year Pounds Pounds Pounds
1916 ---- ---- 5,592,216 1980 5,715,203 301,566 6,017,193
1917 ---- ---- 6,085,997 1981 5,534,833 477,237 6,040,353
1918 ---- ---- 5,933,346 1982 7,448,614 551,939 8,000,561
1919 ---- ---- 7,208,382 1983 2,144,365 266,412 2,410,783
1920 ---- ---- 6,066,190 1984 2,621,248 348,417 2,969,665
1921 ---- ---- 4,483,105 1985 4,519,174 80,396 4,639,296
1922 ---- ---- 4,338,317 1986 7,396,751 201,563 7,598,314
1923 ---- ---- 3,736,924 1987 9,047,150 245,608 9,296,162
1924 ---- ---- 6,374,573 1988 14,430,810 319,489 14,750,299
1925 ---- ---- 5,481,536 1989 5,489,796 230,581 5,724,836
1926 ---- ---- 3,863,677 1990 4,122,351 313,731 4,436,082
1927 ---- ---- 4,921,600 1991 3,238,000 459,000 3,697,000
1928 ---- ---- 3,444,306 1992 1,632,000 11,000 1,643,000
1929 ---- ---- 4,033,660 1993 2,536,884 ---- 2,536,884
1930 ---- ---- 4,085,650 1994 3,103,104 ---- 3,103,104
1931 ---- ---- 3,666,841 1995 6,633,463 ---- 6,633,463
1932 ---- ---- 2,649,204 1996 4,113,403 ---- 4,113,403
1933 ---- ---- 3,657,661 1997 5,247,792 ---- 5,247,792
1934 ---- ---- 3,921,530 1998 1,847,102 ---- 1,847,102
1935 ---- ---- 4,773,112 1999 3,845,762 ---- 3,845,762
1936 ---- ---- 4,093,475
1937 ---- ---- 5,934,996 - - - - Landings data not available.
1938 ---- ---- 2,170,921
1
1939 ---- ---- 2,238,755 Prior to 1958, a commercial salmon fishery in rivers and bays existed. This data
1940 ---- ---- 5,160,393 is not shown.
1941 ---- ---- 2,946,030
1942 ---- ---- 4,063,306
1943 ---- ---- 5,285,527
1944 ---- ---- 7,021,848
1945 ---- ---- 7,912,754
1946 ---- ---- 7,196,527
1947 ---- ---- 8,104,297
1948 ---- ---- 5,860,915
1949 ---- ---- 5,531,021
1950 ---- ---- 5,867,346
1951 ---- ---- 5,849,530
1952 5,785,214 751,677 6,536,891
1953 6,335,634 800,589 7,136,223
1954 8,167,724 431,855 8,599,579
1955 9,245,882 411,114 9,656,996
1956 9,814,366 460,536 10,274,902
1957 4,640,709 536,200 5,176,909
1958 3,576,385 80,456 3,656,841
1959 6,543,223 225,476 6,768,699
1960 6,096,384 125,061 6,221,445
1961 8,100,964 536,943 8,637,907
1962 6,301,520 371,341 6,672,861
1963 6,829,048 1,019,642 7,848,690
1964 7,562,445 1,918,770 9,481,215
1965 8,102,205 1,571,469 9,737,674
1966 5,979,027 3,467,427 9,446,995
1967 3,866,374 3,375,944 7,401,729
1968 4,612,488 2,337,629 6,951,931
1969 4,895,322 1,234,529 6,150,906
1970 5,269,494 1,341,820 6,611,522
1971 4,925,826 3,183,830 8,116,878
1972 5,372,779 1,050,355 6,423,289
1973 7,586,832 1,993,863 9,668,984
1974 5,048,456 3,700,084 8,749,414
1975 5,781,321 1,128,304 6,925,172
1976 4,943,891 2,843,849 7,787,787
1977 5,637,016 283,222 5,929,542
1978 5,492,397 1,295,073 6,787,474
1979 7,547,752 1,197,983 8,749,498
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
428
Recreational Catch -
Salmonids
Recreational Catch - Salmonids
Chinook Chinook Coho Coho Total
Salmon CPFV 2; 3 Salmon Skiff 2; 3 Salmon 4
Salmon CPFV Salmon Skiff
No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1 No. of Fish1
Year
1947 ---- ---- ---- ---- 5,000
1948 ---- ---- ---- ---- 11,200
1949 ---- ---- ---- ---- 23,100
1950 ---- ---- ---- ---- 56,300
1951 ---- ---- ---- ---- 72,000
1952 ---- ---- ---- ---- 86,500
1953 ---- ---- ---- ---- 98,700
1954 ---- ---- ---- ---- 119,900
1955 ---- ---- ---- ---- 129,000
1956 ---- ---- ---- ---- 114,500
1957 ---- ---- ---- ---- 44,700
1958 ---- ---- ---- ---- 52,700
1959 ---- ---- ---- ---- 55,900
1960 ---- ---- ---- ---- 37,900
1961 ---- ---- ---- ---- 43,000
1962 85,700 33,900 1,900 11 121,511
1963 66,200 17,600 6,300 26 90,126
1964 77,300 24,600 14,700 25 116,625
1965 46,000 14,200 5,700 15 65,915
1966 62,700 10,900 7,500 25 81,125
1967 60,900 11,700 24,000 26 96,626
1968 113,600 40,600 14,000 26 168,226
1969 100,000 55,800 11,400 17 167,217
1970 93,000 54,800 5,300 9 153,109
1971 108,400 79,900 22,400 45 210,745
1972 139,800 60,700 11,800 33 212,333
1973 119,500 78,500 5,200 27 203,227
1974 91,700 65,800 16,200 60 173,760
1975 68,300 35,400 5,500 15,800 125,000
1976 50,600 30,400 15,300 42,600 138,900
1977 54,700 49,600 2,400 11,800 118,500
1978 42,000 34,100 3,600 41,000 120,700
1979 71,800 40,600 2,000 14,500 128,900
1980 62,900 22,500 1,700 20,400 107,500
1981 59,800 24,200 1,100 9,500 94,600
1982 91,500 47,200 3,900 22,800 165,400
1983 46,500 17,300 500 26,700 91,000
1984 68,200 19,600 800 18,200 106,800
1985 107,300 63,800 1,400 14,400 186,900
1986 86,500 55,100 2,200 16,500 160,300
1987 121,800 70,700 4,300 43,000 239,800
1988 109,100 62,300 3,500 31,200 206,100
1989 105,000 81,700 6,200 43,400 236,300
1990 78,300 61,600 10,200 41,500 191,600
1991 39,900 40,600 13,500 55,800 149,800
1992 42,400 31,100 1,000 10,500 85,000
1993 66,000 44,000 4,200 25,600 139,800
1994 99,100 84,100 (closed 5/1/94) 500 183,700
1995 182,000 215,200 (closed 5/1/95) 900 398,100
1996 72,900 91,200 closed 600 164,700
1997 122,400 106,600 closed 500 229,500
1998 59,700 62,300 closed 100 122,100
1999 40,000 47,700 closed 600 88,300
- - - - Landings data not available.
1
All data presented in number of fish.
2
Recreational fishing for Coho was allowed before May 1 between 1994 and 1995.
3
Recreational fishing for Coho was prohibited after 1996.
4
Total recreational salmon catch between 1947 and 1961 is derived from CPFV logbook data only.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 429
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
430
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 431
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
432
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 433
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
434
Bay and Estuary
Ecosystems Besides serving as critical habitat for wildlife, the wet-
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems
lands that fringe many of the state’s bays and estuaries
T
also provide other important ecological and human ben-
he bays and estuaries dotting California’s coastline are
ets. Wetland plants and soils act as natural buffers
truly the jewels in the crown of the state’s marine
between land and ocean, absorbing ood waters, dissipat-
environment. These partially enclosed bodies of water are
ing storm surge, and ltering sediments, nutrients, and
protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and
other pollutants. The state’s bays and estuaries are also
storms. Bays are wide inlets or indentations of the ocean,
cultural centers of coastal communities, serving as the
whereas estuaries are inlets containing the terminus of
focal point for local commerce, recreation, and cultural
a river or stream. Many of the organisms described in
activities. The protected waters of California’s bays and
this report spend part of their life in bays or estuaries.
estuaries support important public infrastructure uses,
However, this section of the report focuses primarily
serving as harbors and ports vital for the state’s shipping,
on the plant and animal species that utilize the state’s
maritime, and industrial related economy.
estuarine areas as their principal habitat.
Because of the complexity and fragility of estuarine eco-
California estuaries vary widely in shape and size, and
systems, they are imperiled by their proximity to inten-
are often referred to as lagoons, harbors, inlets, esteros,
sive human activity and development. Sewage, industrial
and sounds. The dening feature of an estuary is the
waste, dredging, lling of marshes and tidal ats, and oil
mixing of fresh water from upland and riverine sources
development and spills typify the long-term degradation
with oceanic salt water. The estuary ecosystem forms a
of many of California estuaries. As a result, 40 animal
zone of transition from land to sea and from fresh to salt
and 10 plant species that occur in or depend on the
water. The sheltered waters of California’s estuaries sup-
state’s estuarine ecosystems, currently are listed by the
port unique assemblages of plant and animal communi-
federal government as threatened, endangered, or pro-
ties, varying by environmental conditions and location.
tected status. Additionally, environmental harm from non-
Estuarine habitat types include shallow open waters,
indigenous, or invasive, species has increased exponen-
fresh and saltwater marshes, sandy beaches, tidal mud
tially in recent years. San Francisco Bay is considered by
and sand ats, rocky shorelines, oyster-shell beds, river
experts to be “the most invaded estuary in the world.”
deltas, eelgrass meadows, and kelp beds.
Notable examples of deleterious nonindigenous species
California’s estuarine environment sustains remarkably
are the Chinese mitten crab, the Asian clam, and the
high levels of productivity. Often referred to as the
European green crab. Such invaders are capable of wreak-
“ocean’s nursery,” these waters support early life-history
ing extensive ecological and economic harm. As Califor-
stages of such important organisms as California halibut,
nia’s population grows, these impacts can be expected
Dungeness crab, Pacic herring, starry ounder, and
to increase. So too does the importance of protecting
numerous surfperch species. Representative organisms
the state’s estuarine resources for all of their natural,
typifying California estuaries include rails and stilts,
economic, and aesthetic values.
harbor seal, Dungeness crab, surfperches, leopard shark,
starry ounder, and clams and oysters. These animals are
linked to one another and to an assortment of specialized Eric J. Larson
plants and microscopic organisms through a complex food California Department of Fish and Game
web, unique to estuarine environments. Tens of thousands
of birds, mammals, sh, and other wildlife depend on
estuarine habitats as places to live, feed, and reproduce.
Additionally, the state’s estuaries provide ideal locations
for migratory birds in the Pacic Flyway to rest and forage
during their journey. Due to their critical importance, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Estuary
Project has identied San Francisco Bay, Morro Bay, and
Santa Monica Bay as nationally signicant estuaries, thus
affording federal funding for research, management, and
restoration efforts. This designation of three of the state’s
estuaries in no way diminishes the ecological importance
of the other bay and estuarine ecosystems that dot the
California coastline.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 435
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
436
Bay and Estuarine
Invertebrate face in protecting our resources. Increasingly, as pop-
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview
ulation pressures continue pressing on estuaries, espe-
Resources: Overview cially near the large metropolitan areas in southern and
central California, only remnant populations of harvest-
able bivalve mollusks will remain.
C alifornia’s bay and estuarine invertebrate resources
The law of unintended consequences and the complexity
are myriad, and when most of us think of these
of human interaction within the natural world can work
resources, extensive mudats come to mind, exposed
together in interesting and often unpredictable ways. The
at low tides and teeming with shorebirds and skittering
extirpation of the sea otter from most of California in the
crabs. The chapters in this section feature the molluscan
nineteenth century allowed populations of geoduck and
bivalves we know as clams and the caridean shrimps
pismo clams to ourish in the absence of this major preda-
known collectively as the bay shrimps. The latter are
tor. Under the protection of the federal endangered spe-
the object of targeted commercial trawl sheries in San
cies act, sea otter populations have reoccupied their his-
Francisco Bay for use mostly as live bait in the sport
torical range in central California and as a consequence,
sturgeon and striped bass sheries, while the edible
have reduced geoduck and pismo clam populations in the
clams have traditionally been largely the domain of
Morro Bay and Monterey Bay regions to a point below the
recreational shermen.
level of harvestable surplus.
In recent decades, California’s bays and estuaries have
The multiple threats of habitat destruction, pollution,
been under increasing assault from the introduction of
exotic invasions, and the re-establishment of sea otter
exotic species, many of which are invertebrates. Some of
populations could mean the end of California’s bay and
these like the Asian clam have signicantly altered the
estuarine resources as we have known them unless Califor-
ecology of San Francisco Bay and can be found in densities
nia’s shery managers, resource scientists and political
as high as several thousand per square meter. The exotic
leaders can work together to nd timely solutions to these
green crab and Chinese mitten crab have also adversely
problems.
impacted native species and their habitats. Green crabs
can outcompete juvenile Dungeness crab in mudat habi-
tats while the mitten crab can burrow into and weaken
Peter Kalvass
levees along the San Francisco Bay Delta waterways. The
California Department of Fish and Game
problems caused by such alien species are discussed in
another section of this publication.
California’s coastal clam resources have been under attack
from numerous other sources as well – from industrial
waste and municipal sewage, to habitat loss and degrada-
tion, to exotic viruses hitchhiking on imported aquaculture
seed stock, to over-harvesting and poaching. Bivalve mol-
lusks dwelling in our embayments and estuaries by the
luck of the evolutionary draw just happen to occupy those
habitats most likely to be near high concentrations of
human populations. In this respect, they have been our
“canary in the coal mine” warning us when the conse-
quences of under-regulated industrialization and human
overpopulation have exceeded the carrying capacities of
our bays and estuaries. Although wastewater treatment
standards have signicantly reduced the concentrations
of some pollutants entering California’s waters in recent
decades, bioaccumulation processes still result in certain
bivalve populations being unsafe to eat. For example, a
potentially signicant resource of Manila clams exists in
San Francisco Bay, but water quality problems discourage
public use in many clam beds. The accelerated silting-in
of Morro Bay and Bolinas Bay and the deleterious effects
of septic and agricultural runoff in Tomales Bay are just a
few more examples of the challenges resource managers
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 437
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrate Resources: Overview
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
438
Bay Shrimp
History of Fishery truck in either live tanks or iced-down wooden trays with
Bay Shrimp
burlap linings.
T he commercial shery for bay shrimp in San Francisco Since 1985, annual landings of bay shrimp have averaged
Bay began in the early 1860s, with some accounts indi- 120,000 pounds and have ranged from 75,000 to 150,000
cating that the earliest participants used small-meshed pounds. In 1999, 11 boats participated in the bay shrimp
bag seines. By 1871, Chinese immigrants established sh- shery. Eight of these boats shed exclusively in north San
ing camps along the shores of the bay and exported large Francisco Bay and three shed exclusively in south San
quantities of dried shrimp meal (dried heads and shells) Francisco Bay. However, the total weight of bay shrimp
to China. These shermen introduced what is now known landed was almost twice as high in the south San Francisco
as the Chinese shrimp net, a funnel-shaped net that is Bay versus north San Francisco Bay due to higher catch per
anchored in place and relies upon the tide to carry shrimp boat, and higher catch per hour trawled. Primary shing
into the net. Fishing camps also existed in Tomales Bay locations are Alviso Slough and Redwood Creek in south
between 1890 and 1895. At the height of the shery in San Francisco Bay, north San Francisco Bay, northern San
the 1890s, as many as 26 shing camps operated up to 50 Pablo Bay, Petaluma Creek, and Carquinez Strait. Fishing
nets each in San Francisco Bay with daily landings of 400 generally occurs in waters less than 20 feet deep in chan-
to 8,000 pounds of shrimp, and annual landings exceeding nels of the estuary’s shallow reaches.
ve million pounds. Studies were required by the Califor-
The bay shrimp shery exhibits a distinct seasonal pattern
nia Fish and Game Commission between 1897 and 1911
both in pounds landed, and catch-per-unit (CPUE) of effort
to address concerns that many young sh, particularly
as measured in pounds caught per hour trawled, with
striped bass, were killed in the shrimp nets. The results
uctuations typically on the order of ve to eight-fold for
of these studies prompted a May to August season closure
both variables. Since 1996, March and April have had the
and a prohibition of Chinese shrimp nets in 1911. The
lowest average monthly landings at 3,000 pounds as well
legislature modied this decision in 1915 allowing Chinese
as the lowest CPUE. Peak CPUE and total catch typically
shrimp nets to be used in south San Francisco Bay. About
occurs in the months of June through November. Peak
this time, beam trawl nets began to be used by com-
monthly catch for the past four years ranged from 10,000
mercial shrimp harvesters in northern San Francisco Bay
to 12,000 pounds. Such seasonal variations in CPUE are
and San Pablo Bay. Annual landings gradually increased
most likely a result of uctuations in salinity. However,
over the next two decades and peaked at 3.4 million
seasonal variations in total pounds landed may reect
pounds in 1935. Following this period, landings steadily
corresponding uctuations in demand for bay shrimp by
declined in response to a decline in demand for fresh and
sport anglers.
dried shrimp as food. By the early 1960s, average annual
The current value of bay shrimp landed each year is
landings declined to 1,500 pounds, and in 1964 no shrimp
approximately $350,000, with the average pound of bay
were landed.
shrimp selling for $3.50 ex-vessel price. Additionally,
The current commercial shery for bay shrimp developed
over the past decade the bay shrimp shery has caught
in 1965 to supply live bait for sturgeon and striped bass
between 9,000 and 2,000 pounds of staghorn sculpin and
sport shing with a small percentage of the catch reserved
yellown goby per year at a total value ranging between
for human consumption. Regulation changes in the 1980s
$4,000 and $25,000.
eliminated shing in most of Suisun Bay due to high inci-
dental catch and associated mortality of small striped bass
in shrimp trawls. Currently, neither a quota nor season
closure is in effect for the commercial shery, and land-
ings are inuenced primarily by demand. Regulations also
allow for the catch of yellown (Oriental) goby, long jaw
mudsucker, and staghorn sculpin with a commercial bay
shrimp permit. Sport regulations allow the use of hand-
powered shrimp trawls no greater than 18 by 24 inches at
the mouth and a daily bag limit of ve pounds. Any nsh
caught in the sport shery must be returned to the water.
From 1965 to the present, the commercial shery for bay
shrimp has exclusively used beam trawls. These trawls
are spread by either a wooden or galvanized steel pole,
are 20 to 25 feet wide, and use a mesh of 7/8 inch to
one inch in the cod end. Live tanks are used on all California Bay Shrimp, Crangon franciscorum
vessels, and shrimp are transported to local bait shops by Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 439
Bay Shrimp
4
millions of pounds landed
3
Bay Shrimp
2
Commercial Landings
1
1916-1999, Bay Shrimp
Data Source: DFG Catch
Bulletins, log books,
0 1916
and commercial
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
landing receipts.
Status of Biological Knowledge place in nearshore areas outside of the estuary. During
fertilization, female California bay shrimp, and other cran-
T he bay shrimp (grass shrimp) shery is composed of gonid shrimp, extrude their eggs into their brood pouch
four species: the California bay shrimp (Crangon fran- (on their abdominal region). The fertilized eggs are held in
ciscorum), the blacktail bay shrimp (Crangon nigricauda), the brood pouch throughout development (approximately
the blackspotted bay shrimp (Crangon nigromaculata) and 8 to 12 weeks) until they hatch.
the oriental shrimp (Palaemon macrodactylus). The cran- California bay shrimp tolerate a wide range of salinity and
gonid shrimp (“crangonid” is a taxonomic family) are temperature. During a 17-year interagency study in the
easily distinguished from other shrimp by a very short ros- San Francisco estuary, 90 percent of collected specimens
trum that usually does not extend beyond the eyestalks, were found in waters with salinity ranging from 2.8 to 25.9
a dorsally attened body, and poorly developed chelipeds. parts per thousand (ppt) (mean 13.9 ppt). In the same
All four species prefer a soft substrate such as mud or area, mean temperature was 64.8˚F with 90 percent col-
sand, but can occasionally be found over rocky substrates lected between 55.8 and 70.3˚F. Juveniles may be found
and in the rocky intertidal. throughout the estuary where salinity is greater than one
The California bay shrimp, is the primary component of part per thousand, although they prefer shallow (less than
commercial shrimp landings. It is the dominant caridean 16 feet), low salinity waters and migrate to deeper, higher
shrimp (“caridean” is a taxonomic group between order salinity waters as they grow. The annual abundance of
and family) in most Pacic Coast estuaries, and the most juveniles is strongly correlated with fresh water outow in
common species in the San Francisco estuary. The Califor- the winter and spring; lowest abundance occurs in years
nia bay shrimp ranges from Alaska to San Diego to a depth with low outow.
of at least 180 feet. It is the largest of the bay shrimp Like other members of the genus, they are considered
species. Adult females and males may reach total lengths opportunistic feeders, and primary prey items may change
of 3.2 inches and 2.4 inches, respectively, in California, with size of the shrimp. Smaller California bay shrimp
while a maximum size of 4.3 inches has been reported (< 1.2 inches total length, TL) consume mostly foraminifer-
in the Columbia River. Life span varies by estuary. In the ans, ostracods, and copepods; intermediate size shrimp
San Francisco estuary, males are estimated to attain a prey upon amphipods and bivalves, and larger shrimp (>
maximum age of 1.5 years and females may live up to 2.5 2.4 inches TL) consume mostly bivalves, caridean shrimp,
years. This species has been reported to be a protandrous and polychaetes. Myoid shrimp are some common prey
hermophodite, with males changing to females. items in parts of the San Francisco estuary. Little is known
Their larvae develop into the post-larvae stage in about 30 about the ecology of larval and postlarval crangonids.
to 40 days. Both sexes reach maturity in about nine to 12 However, diatoms and small zooplankton such as copepods
months. Males mature at approximately 1.3 to 1.5 inches, are probably an important part of the larval diet.
while females mature at about 1.9 to 2.1 inches. Though The blacktail bay shrimp, ranges from Alaska to Baja
gravid females have been observed in all months of the California and is found in estuaries and nearshore ocean
year, they are most abundant in December through June. areas to a depth of at least 190 feet. This species is
Spawning occurs near the mouth of the estuary in the less tolerant of low salinities than California bay shrimp.
summer months. During winter and spring, spawning takes In the San Francisco estuary, 80 percent of collected
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
440
specimens were found in waters with salinity ranging from A sixth species of bay shrimp, Exopalaemon carinicauda,
Bay Shrimp
18.0 to 31.7 ppt (mean 25.9 ppt). In the same area, was reported from San Francisco Bay in 1993. This species
mean temperature was 60.6˚F with 80 percent collected seems to have been introduced accidentally from Korea.
between 51.3˚ and 66.7˚F. Juveniles tolerate lower salini- It is distinguished from other shrimp by its long, toothed
ties and higher temperatures than adults. Adult females rostrum, large chelae, and dorsal ridges. Its abundance
and males may reach total lengths of 2.5 and 2.4 inches, and distribution in the estuary, and the impact of this
respectively. Males may live up to one year and females species on the ecosystem are unknown.
may live up to 1.5 years. Both sexes are reported to Bay shrimp are an important component in the diets
mature by the end of the rst year; males are thought of nearshore and estuarine shes. Twenty-four predator
to spawn once and die. Male blacktails mature at approxi- species have been identied in the estuary and 20 in
mately 1.1 inches, while females mature at about 1.5 to the adjacent ocean environment. Major predators include
1.6 inches. Juvenile shrimp usually peak in abundance green and white sturgeon, striped bass, leopard shark,
from May through August, but in some years there is a brown smoothhound shark, big skate, white croaker, stag-
second fall-winter peak. Blacktail bay shrimp feed mostly horn sculpin, starry ounder, English sole, pile and rub-
on amphipods. berlip surfperch, Pacic tomcod and brown rocksh.
The blackspotted bay shrimp is a very minor component
of the catch. It ranges from the Gulf of the Farallones
Status of the Populations
to Baja California, and is more common in the nearshore
ocean area than in estuaries. It is found on sandy bottoms
T he absolute abundance of bay shrimp has not been
at depths ranging from 15 to 575 feet and reaches a maxi-
estimated nor has the impact of commercial shing on
mum size of 2.8 inches TL. Females mature at about 1.7
these populations. However, annual abundance indices of
inches and males mature at about 1.1 inches. Blackspotted
bay shrimp indicate that abundance can vary widely
bay shrimp tolerate a smaller salinity range and lower
from year to year. For example, annual abundance indices
temperatures than the other two common crangonids.
of adult California and blacktail bay shrimp varied by
They are generally limited to areas with high salinity
more than a factor of 10 from 1980 to 1996. Studies
and cool temperatures, with 80 percent of the specimens
indicate that the abundance of California bay shrimp
collected at salinities ranging from 25.9 to 31.9 ppt and
increases with increased river inow to the estuary, prob-
temperatures ranging from 51.6˚ to 64.0˚ F in the long-
ably because of the increased low-salinity habitat which
term interagency study. Abundance increased during the
is favorable for the rearing of juveniles. In contrast, abun-
1987-1992 drought. The Oriental shrimp, was introduced
dance of blacktail bay shrimp increased during years of
to the San Francisco estuary from Asia in the 1950s and
low river inow, although not to levels capable of replac-
is now a signicant component of the commercial catch.
ing California bay shrimp in abundance.
This species reaches a total length of about 3.0 inches
and appears to complete its entire life-cycle in estuarine
waters. It is common in lower salinity areas, including
Management Considerations
south San Francisco Bay and areas upstream from San
Pablo Bay. The center of its distribution is either Suisun See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Bay or the west delta. It is more tolerant of lower salinity further information.
than the crangonid shrimp and is abundant over a broad
range of salinities. In San Francisco Bay, 80 percent of
Paul Reilly, Kevin Walters, and David Richardson
collected specimens have been found in waters with salin-
California Department of Fish and Game
ity ranging from 1.9 to 28.1 ppt (mean 13.5 ppt) and
temperatures ranging from 54.1˚ to 71.˚ F (mean 64.4˚
F). Abundance of oriental shrimp did not appear to be
affected by the 1987-1992 drought. Gravid female oriental
shrimp occur most frequently from May to August, with
larvae hatching during summer and early fall.
An additional species of Crangon, C. munitella, has been
collected on rare occasions within the estuary. For exam-
ple, from 1980 to 1996 the DFG’s Bay-Delta Project caught
more than 2.2 million California bay shrimp in otter trawls,
while observing only 26 C. munitella.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 441
References
Bay Shrimp
Baxter, R., K. Hieb, S. DeLeon, K. Fleming, and J. Orsi.
1999. Report on the 1980-1995 sh, shrimp, and crab
sampling in the San Francisco Estuary, California. Calif.
Dept. Fish and Game Tech. Rep. 63. 503 p.
Bonnot, P. 1932. The California shrimp industry. Calif. Div.
Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 38. 20 p.
Brienes, M. 1983. China Camp and the San Francisco Bay
shrimp shery. Calif. Dept. Parks and Recreation, Sacra-
mento. 154 p.
Israel, H.R. 1936. A contribution toward the life history of
two California shrimps, Crago franciscorum (Stimpson) and
Crago nigricauda (Stimpson). Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
Fish Bull. 46. 28 p.
Jensen, G.C. 1995. Pacic coast crabs and shrimps. Sea
Challengers, Monterey, California.
Siegfried, C.A. 1989. Species proles. Life histories and
environmental requirements of coastal shes and inverte-
brates (Pacic Southwest). Crangonid Shrimp. Fish and
Wildlife Service Biol. Rep. 82(11.125). 18 p.
Skinner, J.E. 1962. Historical review of the resources of
the San Francisco Bay area. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Water Proj. Br. Rept. (1):1-225.
Wahle, R.A. 1985. The feeding ecology of Crangon fran-
ciscorum and Crangon nigricauda in San Francisco Bay,
California. Jour. Crustacean Biol 5:311-326.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
442
Pacific Razor Clam
History of Fishery in less than seven seconds. A digger must work quickly
Pacific Razor Clam
to capture a clam before it burrows to depths that are
T he Pacic razor clam (Siliqua patula) is one of the difcult to reach. At the surface of the sand, the clam
tastiest food clams in California and is diligently pur- assumes an almost vertical position with only siphons
sued by sportsmen on the beaches where it is abundant. exposed. Water is drawn into the inhalant siphon by a
The best California beaches for razor clams are in Del current set up by the action of cilia lining the mantle
Norte and Humboldt counties. Before 1949, a small com- cavity. As water is passed across the gills, planktonic food
mercial shery existed, but only a few pounds of clams organisms are guided by cilia and a pair of palps to the
were ever sold. Commercial shing for razor clams is mouth. Respiratory exchange takes place as the water
presently prohibited. passes over the gills, and waste products are passed out in
the water through the smaller exhalant siphon.
There were no seasonal restrictions on razor clamming
until 1953. Due to a decline in the numbers of larger clams The life-cycle of the razor clam is typical of most clams.
at that time, Clam Beach in Humboldt County was divided Sexes are separate, fertilization is external, and free-
into a north (Mad River to Strawberry Creek) and south swimming larvae develop three or four days after fertiliza-
beach (Strawberry Creek to Little River) to limit shing tion. Approximately eight weeks later, the larvae settle
effort seasonally. The south beach was open to clamming into the sand and the juvenile phase of life begins. Sexual
only in odd-numbered years, while the north beach was maturity in razor clams may be related to size as well
open during even-numbered years. A similar restriction as age. While maturity is commonly achieved at a length
went into effect for the razor clam bed at Crescent City in of about four inches, the age at maturity varies with
Del Norte County in 1955. geographic location; usually at the age of two years in
California. Razor clams usually spawn in May and June
A 1960 study on Clam Beach concluded that the alternate-
in California, mid-May to July in Washington, and as late
year closures were responsible for a decline in older and
as August in Alaska. The optimum temperature for razor
larger clams on the south beach due to of the concentra-
clam spawning is around 55° F.
tion of clammers there. As a result, all of Clam Beach was
opened to clamming from 1971 to 1973. During that three- Razor clams attain their maximum rate of growth during
year period, catch and effort were monitored, and public their rst year of life. The growth rate remains high
reaction noted. It was found that instead of being evenly through the second or third year, after which it slows
distributed, 86 percent of the clamming effort took place markedly. The largest razor clam on record in California
on the north beach. The high pressure on the north beach was a seven-inch specimen taken from Clam Beach
resulted from a combination of easier access to the north in 1979.
beach, and the much greater clamming success there. The mortality rate of razor clams on Clam Beach increases
There was also a strong sentiment among clam diggers to rapidly after the third year of life, with few clams living to
return to alternate year closures because of the declining be seven years old. In the northern part of the range, the
average size of clams. In 1974, the alternate year shing maximum age is greater. Razor clams in Alaska live 18 or
pattern was reinstated with the north beach open during 19 years, but the typical life-span is shorter.
odd-numbered years and the south beach open during
even-numbered years. In the years immediately following
the reinstatement, the catch-per-digger and the average
clam size increased signicantly.
A daily bag limit of 30 razor clams was changed to 20 in
1963. In addition, all clams dug were required to be kept
regardless of size or broken condition.
Status of Biological Knowledge
T he Pacic razor clam ranges from western Alaska to
Pismo Beach, California, and is generally found on
at or gently sloping sandy beaches with a moderate to
heavy surf. Razor clam shells are long and thin, with
fragile, shiny valves – not what one would expect in a
surf-loving animal. An excellent burrower, it depends on
digging speed for protection from wave shock. Individuals Pacific Razor Clam, Siliqua patula
Credit: DFG
laid on top of the sand have buried themselves completely
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 443
Status of the Population respectively. Catch, effort and catch-per-digger exhibited
Pacific Razor Clam
no particular trends but uctuated over time.
T here are only three areas along the coast of California
that have had signicant populations of Pacic razor
Management Considerations
clams. The Pismo Beach-Morro Bay area supported a very
small sport shery, which has diminished over the years.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Currently, this population is quite small and seems to
further information.
consist mostly of individuals ranging from one to two
inches in size. The Clam Beach and Crescent City sheries
are similar to each other in several respects. Both beds Thomas O. Moore
are divided into north and south beaches with alternate- California Department of Fish and Game
year closures in effect. In both areas, the northern beach
was more heavily shed and more productive than the
References
southern beach for many years. However, the southern
beach in Crescent City saw an increase in effort and in
Amos, M.H. 1966. Commercial clams of the North Ameri-
catch-per-digger during the early 1980s. A decline in razor
can Pacic coast. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of
clam abundance was seen in the coastal states of Wash-
Comm. Fish. Circular 237. 18 p.
ington, Oregon, and California following the 1982-1983
El Niño. A previously unknown disease, nuclear inclusion Collier, P.C. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
X (NIX), caused the closure of the razor clam shery razor clam populations on coastal beaches in Humboldt
in Washington in 1984 and 1985. Mortality appeares to County, California. Unpublished.
depend on the intensity and prevalence of infection. The
McMillin, H.C. 1924. The life-history and growth of the
prevalence and intensity of NIX decreased both north and
razor clam. Wash. Dept. of Fisheries. Olympia, Wash. 52
south of central Washington beaches. In Oregon, preva-
p.
lence was high, but intensities were low enough that little
Sims, C.W. 1960. A study of the shery and the population
mortality was seen. Little information exists for NIX in
of the Pacic razor clam, Siliqua patula, of Clam Beach,
California, but large declines in razor clam abundance
California. Thesis, Humboldt State University. 81 p.
were noted in the late 1980s and into the mid-1990s for
beaches in northern California. A major source of mortal- Tegelberg, H.C. 1964. Growth and ring formation of Wash-
ity, especially for young razor clams, is the scouring effect ington razor clams. Wash. Dep. Fish. Fish. Res. Pap.
of winter storms. The El Niño events of the past two 2(3):69-103.
decades have had large storms associated with them and Wolotira, R.J., Jr., M.J. Allen, T.M. Sample, C.R. Iten, S.F.
this may have had some impact on northern California Noel, and R.L. Henry. 1989. Pacic razor clam, Siliqua
razor clam populations. The razor clam population in the patula (Dixon, 1789). Pages 73-79 in Life history and har-
Crescent City area is recovering, but the Clam Beach vest summaries for selected invertebrate species occur-
population is still much diminished from former levels. ring off the west coast of North America. Vol. 1: Shelled
No current population estimates are available for any Molluscs. NOAA Tech. Memorandum NMFS F/NWC-160,
of California’s razor clam beds. Beginning in 1974, a sam- 7600 Sand Pt. Way N.E., Seattle, WA 98115.
pling program was initiated to provide estimates of total
catch and effort for Clam Beach. Estimates of annual
catch, number of diggers, and annual catch-per-digger
were made for the years 1974 through 1989 for North and
South Clam Beach and for the years 1980 through 1989
for Moonstone Beach (Little River to bluffs). Estimates of
annual clam catch for North Clam Beach ranged from 1,100
to 116,400; for South Clam Beach the range was from zero
to 45,500; and for Moonstone Beach the range was from
zero to 74,800. The annual estimated number of diggers
ranged from 880 to 12,670 on North Clam Beach, from
220 to 6,900 on South Clam Beach, and from 50 to 5,510
on Moonstone Beach. Annual catch-per-digger for North
Clam Beach, South Clam Beach and Moonstone Beach
ranged from 1.3 to 9.5, 0.0 to 6.6 and 0.0 to 13.9 clams,
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
444
Gaper Clams
History of the Fishery relatively thin shells, which do not close tightly enough to
Gaper Clams
maintain their moisture, restricts the commercial use of
T he shery for the gaper clams, the Pacic gaper these clams to a fairly local market.
(Tresus nuttalli) and the fat gaper (Tresus capax), is Diggers generally use skiffs to get to the better clam dig-
almost exclusively sport, however, the Fish and Game ging areas. Shovels are used to dig the clams, which may
Code allows these clams to be harvested commercially in be as deep as four feet in sand or mud. In muddy areas,
Humboldt Bay for daily restaurant or market orders. For three-foot lengths of PVC pipes about 12 to 15 inches in
the 20-year period from 1950 to 1970, annual commercial diameter are often used to prevent the hole from caving
landings for Humboldt Bay averaged 1,000 pounds with a in, enabling clammers to reach deeply buried clams.
maximum annual landing of 6,000 pounds and a minimum
Gaper clams generally are used in clam chowder or fried
of 200 pounds. More stringent public health regulations
and served as a main dish.
concerning the marketing of shellsh and the retirement
of a long-time commercial clammer essentially eliminated
the commercial clam shery in the early 1980s.
Status of Biological Knowledge
The Pacic and fat gaper are the object of a heavy
G aper clams are found from Alaska to Scammon’s
sport shery that takes place in intertidal areas of bays
Lagoon, Baja California. Both the Pacic and fat gaper
with sand and mud bottoms. Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay,
live in ne sand or rm sandy-mud bottoms in bays,
Tomales Bay, Drakes Estero, Elkhorn Slough and Morro Bay
estuaries, and more sheltered outer coast areas. They are
are popular digging areas. At Tomales Bay, which is one of
found from the intertidal zone to depths of at least 150
the major producing areas, as many as 1,200 people have
feet. The Pacic gaper is the most commonly taken gaper
been counted during one low tide on the two emergent
clam in California. A closely related species, the fat gaper,
sand bars. These popular areas, Clam Bar and Seal Bar,
is the predominant gaper clam taken in Humboldt Bay,
can be reached only by boat. In the past, a commercial
where it is very common in the intertidal zone. Further
ferry provided transportation to the two sandbars allow-
south, the fat gaper occurs mostly subtidally but can make
ing as many as 11,000 people to dig there each year.
up to ve percent of the catch taken in the intertidal zone
With a legal limit of 10 gaper clams per day, clammers
at Tomales Bay.
were taking about 55,000 clams per year. However, the
commercial ferry service has recently been permanently Reproduction occurs year around in central California but
discontinued and the annual sport take of clams has fallen is predominant during spring and peaks in the months of
by almost 75 percent. February and April. Upon completion of a free-swimming
larval stage, the young gaper clam settles down to a
Sport take of gaper clams is also quite popular in Hum-
xed position and comparatively inactive existence. The
boldt Bay. A survey in 1992 estimated an average of 4,300
only movement is downward as the clam grows older and
sport clammers per year for the previous 10-year period
increases in size. After reaching a size of about three
with an estimated annual take of 56,000 gaper clams.
inches, little downward movement occurs.
Current effort by clammers is estimated to be about the
same or slightly higher. Since the discontinuance of the Age and growth studies reveal that most gaper clams
Tomales Bay clam ferry, Humboldt Bay is the largest gaper taken in central California range from about three to eight
clam shery in the state. years old. For the rst four years, the clams average about
one inch of growth in length per year. The growth rate
In the past, Morro Bay had been considered a good loca-
tion for sport take of gaper clams. However, settlement of
small gaper clams has been poor since the early-1990s for
unknown reasons and that factor coupled with foraging by
sea otters has reduced abundance of gaper clams, result-
ing in greatly reduced effort by clammers in the 1990s.
Utilization of gaper clams has increased through the years,
and it appears that it will continue to increase in propor-
tion to population growth in the coastal counties where
these clams occur. There is no season or size limit, but
there are bag limits set for sport and commercial harvest-
ing. An angler may take 10 clams per day throughout
the state, except in Elkhorn Slough where the limit is 12
clams per day and in Humboldt Bay where a take of 25
Pacific Gaper Clam, Tresus nuttalli
clams per day is allowed. The fact that gaper clams have Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 445
Management Considerations
appears to slow down after this period. Gaper clams live
Gaper Clams
to a maximum age of 17 years and can attain a length of
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
10 inches with a weight of approximately ve pounds.
further information.
The gaper clams reach sexual maturity and spawns at
about two to three years of age. At this time, they are two
to 2.75 inches in size. Spawning appears to begin in the Thomas O. Moore
spring, coinciding with the seasonal water temperature California Department of Fish and Game
minimum.
Gaper clams are suspension feeders, feeding on sus-
References
pended particles, which include phytoplankton and detri-
tus. In intertidal beds, feeding occurs during the high
Campbell, A., N. Bourne., and W. Carolsfeld. 1990. Growth
tide period.
and maturity of the Pacic gaper Tresus nuttallii (Conrad
1837) in southern British Columbia. J. Shellsh Res.
Status of the Population 9(2):273-278.
Collier, P., and R. Warnerl 1992. Distribution, abundance
A lthough densities of gaper clams in areas of certain and use of clam populations in Humboldt Bay, Del Norte
bays have been determined, complete statewide inter- County, California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpub-
tidal and subtidal population estimates have not been lished report.
made. However, both the intertidal and subtidal resource
Hardy, R.Al 2000. Distribution, abundance and use of clam
appears to be in a healthy state where most clamming
populations in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, Califor-
effort is located. Subtidal populations are relatively
nia. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
unavailable and unused by sport clammers and provide
Machell, J.R., and J.D. DeMartini. 1971. An annual repro-
a spawning refuge. In general, spawning stock reserves
ductive cycle of the gaper clam, Tresus capax (Gould),
seem adequate to sustain the population. Gaper clams
in south Humboldt Bay, California. Calif. Fish Game.
occur in densities of up to 20 clams per square foot,
57:274-282.
with a density of two clams per square foot considered
commercially viable. Intertidal siphon counts by biologists Wendell, F., J.D. DeMartini, P. Dinnel, and J. Sieke. 1976.
using a stratied random sampling design on Clam Bar in The ecology of the gaper or horse clam, Tresus capax
Tomales Bay supplied data for estimating intertidal popu- (Gould 1850) (Bivalvia: Mactridae), in Humboldt Bay, Cali-
lation sizes of 540,000 gaper clams in 1968 and 430,000 fornia. Calif. Fish and Game. 62:41-64.
in 1969.
DFG biologists showing off gaper clam catch from Tomales Bay
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
446
Washington Clams
History of the Fishery Status of Biological Knowledge
Washington Clams
T T
he Washington clam shery is almost exclusively a he range of the Washington clam is from Humboldt
sport shery. The Fish and Game Code allows commer- Bay, California, to San Quentin Bay, Baja California.
cial shing in Humboldt Bay by daily market or restaurant This species lives at depths of 12 to 18 inches in mud,
order and by special bag limits. These clams are highly sandy mud or sand of bays, lagoons and estuaries. Its
perishable and are dug as required and consumed locally. shell is thick and rm, oval in outline, and roughened on
From 1954 to 1963, commercial landings averaged 5,000 the outer surfaces by numerous concentric ridges. Inside,
pounds per year, with a high of 11,000 pounds in the shells are shiny white with dark purple markings at
1956 and a low of 2,000 pounds in 1960. Landings the posterior end. Though the harvest is from bottoms
decreased following this period due to more stringent exposed at low tide, this clam also occurs subtidally in the
public health regulations pertaining to the marketing of same general area.
shellsh. By the early 1980s, commercial landings of Wash- The butter clam ranges from Sitka, Alaska, to San Fran-
ington clams ceased with the retirement of a longtime cisco Bay, California, but is infrequently taken south of
commercial clammer. Humboldt Bay. Its shell is thick and rm, oval in outline,
Two principal species of Washington clam are harvested but more rounded than that of the Washington clam. The
in California. The Washington clam (Saxidomus nuttalli) is interior of the shell is entirely white with no purple mark-
the principal species sought, and the best yielding locali- ings. This clam lives at depths of 10 to 14 inches in mud or
ties are Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay, Tomales Bay, Drakes sandy mud of bays, lagoons and estuaries in areas that are
Estero, and Elkhorn Slough. Bolinas Lagoon and Morro Bay usually exposed at low tide.
have historically been good yielding localities. However, Spawning occurs during a period from spring to fall, pre-
in the past decade clam populations in these two areas sumably as a result of warmer water temperature. A study
have declined signicantly. The second popular Washing- of the Washington clam in British Columbia revealed that
ton clam, the butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus), formerly about half of these clams spawned at the end of their
known as the smooth Washington clam, is seldom taken third year. The larvae appeared as bivalve veligers in two
south of Humboldt Bay. In only one California locality, weeks and, at the end of four weeks, when less that 0.2
near Fields Landing in Humboldt Bay, is this clam common inches long, settled to the bottom. Tidal currents play an
enough to support a minor shery. Results of a sport important role in the distribution of these animals due
clamming survey of Humboldt Bay, from 1975 through to their pelagic larvae life-stage. Successful spawning and
1989, produced a mean estimated total take of both clam settlement may be somewhat sporadic, with a period of
species of 42,000 per year. years between settlements of consequence. Upon comple-
The Washington clam catch is considerably less than that tion of a free-swimming larval period, both species settle
of gaper clams, primarily because the latter are more pre- down to a xed position and a comparatively inactive
dominant in most bays, and the Washington clam siphon existence. About the only movement is downward as the
holes are more difcult to locate. The recent Humboldt clams grow older and increase in size. Age studies reveal
Bay survey found that the Washington clam and the butter that most Washington clams harvested in central Califor-
clam comprised 20 percent and 13 percent, respectively, nia are from four to eight years old. Occasional individuals
of the total estimated harvest of all species taken in that of both species up to 10 years old are found in California,
bay. In Bodega Bay, Washington clams are the predomi- while some butter clams over 20 years old have been
nant take, comprising an estimated 30 to 40 percent of
the total clam harvest, with an occasional butter clam
also taken.
Sport clammers may take 10 Washington clams per day
throughout the state except in Elkhorn Slough, where
the limit is 12 in combination with gaper clams, and in
Humboldt Bay, where the limit is 50 in combination with
no more than 25 gaper clams.
Skiffs are used to transport diggers to intertidal areas
where these clams occur, but some locations have popula-
tions accessible by foot. The clams are dug by shovels to a
depth of 12 to 18 inches near the low tide line. Washington
clams have excellent avor and texture and may be used
Washington Clam, Saxidomus nuttalli
in clam chowder, or fried and served as a main dish. Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 447
References
found in British Columbia. The Washington clam grows to
Washington Clams
a length of nearly seven inches and attains a weight of
Collier, P.C. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
about two pounds. The butter clam may attain a length
clam populations in Humboldt Bay, Humboldt County, Cali-
of ve inches.
fornia. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
Paralytic shellsh poisoning (PSP) is of widespread concern
Collier, P.C., and R. Warner. 1992. Sport clamming survey
to consumers of shellsh. Both the Washington clam and
of Humboldt Bay from 1975 through 1989. Calif. Dept. Fish
the butter clam have been shown to retain high levels
and Game, unpublished Report. 15 p.
of paralytic shellsh toxin in the viscera and in the dark
colored tips of the siphons for long periods of time after a Fitch, J.E. 1961. Common marine bivalves of California.
PSP event. California clammers can call a toll-free biotoxin Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 90. 102 p.
hotline at 1-800-553-4133 to obtain recorded information
Hardy, R.A. 2000. Distribution, abundance, and use of
on PSP events and areas with posted biotoxin warnings.
clam populations in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County,
California. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, unpublished.
Status of the Population Mello, J.J. 1981. A one year survey of recreational clam-
ming on the Morro Bay mudats for the period of April,
D ensities and distributions of these clams have been 1979 to March, 1980. Calif. Polytech. State Univ., Dept.
determined for some of the more frequently used Bio. Sci., San Luis Obispo, Calif. 18 p.
bay and estuarine intertidal areas, but knowledge is lack-
Spratt, J.D. 1982. Results of sampling clammers in Elkhorn
ing about subtidal densities and distribution. Estimates
Slough during 1978 and 1979. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
have not been made of the total population size of the
Mar. Resour. Admin. Rep. 82-11. 12 p.
Washington clam resource in California, however, the pres-
ent level of harvest can be easily sustained.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Thomas O. Moore
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
448
Geoduck
History of the Fishery ies, and sloughs, in bottom types ranging from mud to
Geoduck
pea-sized gravel, but mostly in unshifting mud or sand.
T he geoduck clam (Panope generosa) shery is entirely Shells are whitish and covered with a dull, yellowish-
a sport shery in California. Geoduck clams are the brown periostracum, which is often badly eroded in large
largest burrowing clam in the world and also the deepest- clams. Shells are sculptured with a number of unevenly
dwelling clam in California. The geoduck is an important spaced, concentric growth lines. Siphons are united to
sport and commercial species in Washington state and form a tube, extremely long and impossible to withdraw
British Columbia. It is considered uncommon throughout into the shells. Valves gap widely on all sides except on
California but is found in Humboldt Bay, Bodega Bay, the hinge area. Flesh exposed between the gaping valves
Tomales Bay, and Drakes Estero. In the past, Bolinas is covered with a heavy reddish-brown epidermis or skin.
Lagoon and Morro Bay had beds of geoducks which sup-
Geoducks are long-lived and slow growing. Growth is rapid
ported a sport shery; however, geoduck and other clam
for the rst four years then greatly decreases. In prime
species have declined signicantly in abundance in these
habitat in Washington state, geoducks can reach an aver-
locations over the past decade.
age weight of 1.9 pounds in ve years. Both male and
Very few clammers in California take a sport limit of female geoducks are usually sexually mature by age ve.
geoducks. Their rarity in most California bays and estuar- Maximum shell size is over nine inches, with a total body
ies usually causes them to be taken incidently when clam- length (from foot to extended siphon) of 59 inches, and a
ming for gaper clams. As with gaper clams, they are weight of over 20 pounds.
often located on the mudats by the streams of water
The sexes are separate and spawning takes place in late
they shoot several feet into the air. They differ from the
spring to early summer. Fertilization is external and takes
gaper clams by not having chitinous aps or pads at the
place in the water column. Larvae remain in the water
siphon tip, no fringing tentacles on the inner edge of
column for several weeks before metamorphosing into
each siphon, and are a light brown in color. Clammers can
juveniles and settling to the bottom. Larval clams eat
check undisturbed clams by their siphons at the surface
phytoplankton while juveniles and adults lter-feed on
for this feature. The bulk of the geoduck population
plankton and detritus.
is subtidal which makes it harder to locate a geoduck.
Predators include moon snails and spiny dogsh, which
Only the lowest tides provide the chance of encountering
prey on small individuals. Juveniles and adults are eaten
many geoducks. In Tomales Bay, less than one percent of
by pink seastars , sunstars, and various crab species. Sea
the catch consists of geoducks; about one out of three
otters are a major predator on geoduck clams within their
hundred clammers takes a geoduck while clamming in
range in California. Siphon tips are eaten by cabezon and
this location.
starry ounder.
Geoducks can reach a weight of 10 pounds or more.
Because of their size, a limit of three clams is considered
an adequate bag limit throughout the state. Geoducks
Status of the Population
are one of the nest food clams in California. They are
W
highly esteemed for their ne avor and large size and are hile larvae of geoduck clams experience extremely
considered a trophy clam to sport diggers. high mortality, resulting in a low recruitment rate,
the natural mortality rate of adults is low. Information on
Skiffs are generally used to transport clammers to inter-
distribution and density of these clams comes from stud-
tidal areas where these clams live buried in sandy mud
ies in Washington state and British Columbia, where com-
at depths of four feet or greater. Lengths of PVC pipe or
metal tubes, approximately 12 to 15 inches in diameter
and about three feet in length, are needed to shore up the
sides of the deep holes required to take these clams.
Geoduck clams may be ground for use in fritters or clam
chowder, or pounded and fried and served as a main dish.
Status of Biological Knowledge
G eoduck clams are distributed from Forrester Island,
Alaska to Scammon’s Lagoon, Baja California and in
the northern Gulf of California. They are found from the Geoduck Clam, Panope generosa
Credit: Windy Montgomery, University of California
lower intertidal zone to depths of 360 feet in bays, estuar-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 449
References
mercial and sport sheries exist; very little is known about
Geoduck
geoduck beds in California. These studies showed that
Brean, P.A. and T.L. Shields. 1983. Age and size structure
geoduck clams are contagiously distributed or clumped.
in ve populations of geoduc clams (Panope generosa) in
In a Washington state study, the average geoduck density
British Columbia. Canadian Technical Report of Fish and
was 1.4 clams per square yard with a range of zero to 18
Aquat. Sci. No. 1169. 62 p.
clams per square yard. In British Columbia, clam densities
as high as 31 clams per square yard were found. Intertidal Goodwin, C.L. and B. Pease. 1987. The distribution of
clam densities in California would be expected to be geoduck (Panope abrupta) size, density, and quality in
considerably less than one clam per square yard. Fluctua- relation to habitat characteristics such as geographic area,
tions in population size result from natural mortality and water depth, sediment type, and associated ora and
appears not to be inuenced by sport clammers, whose fauna in Puget Sound, Washington. Technical Report 102,
take is very low. Geoduck populations in California will be State of Washington Dept. Fisheries. 44 p.
impacted by the expansion of the southern sea otter over
Spratt, J.D. 1982. Results of sampling clammers in Elkhorn
its historic range.
Slough during 1978 and 1979. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game,
Mar. Resour. Admin. Rep. 82-11. 12 p.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
further information.
Thomas O. Moore
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
450
Littleneck Clams
History of the Fishery occurs within six inches of the surface and deep digging is
Littleneck Clams
not required for harvesting. Clam beds known to resident
T here are seven species commonly known as “littleneck sport diggers receive relatively heavy exploitation during
clams” or “chiones”: banded chione (Chione californi- minus tides. Other clam beds remain underutilized due
ensis), smooth chione (Chione uctifraga), wavy chione to difculty of access or lack of public awareness. This is
(Chione undatella), rough-sided littleneck (Protothaca one of the most abundant clams on the West Coast and is
laciniata), common littleneck (Protothaca staminea), thin- highly esteemed for food.
shelled littleneck (Protothaca tenerrima) and Manila clam The Manila clam continues to expand its range on the
or Japanese littleneck (Tapes philippinarum). They are West Coast and now occurs from southern California to
grouped here because they are regulated by an aggregate British Columbia. It is particularly abundant in San Fran-
bag and size limit. All are members of the family Veneri- cisco Bay and other estuaries to the north in the intertidal
dae (Venus clams) and all but the Manila clam are native zone. It is easily dug, as it generally occurs within two
to California. The Manila clam is a native of the Orient inches of the surface. It prefers a substrate of coarse,
and was introduced unintentionally into California waters sandy mud with a mixture of larger gravel and cobbles and
in the 1930s. may attach itself with byssal threads to any suitable sub-
Although seven species have been aggregated for regulat- strate, including broken glass or ceramics. It also occurs
ing molluscan resources, only four (smooth chione, wavy sub-tidally in the extensive oyster shell beds of south San
chione, common littleneck and Manila clam) are of major Francisco Bay.
importance; they comprise more than 95 percent of the Maximum length of the three species of chiones is approx-
littleneck clam harvest in California. Since commercial imately 2.5 inches. Of the four types of littlenecks, the
clammers are restricted to the same daily bag and size thin-shelled is the largest, attaining a length of 4.3 inches.
limits as sport shers (50 clams, all species combined; The other three species reach approximately three inches
minimum length 1.5 inches), it is not feasible for them in length.
to make a living harvesting these bivalves. Thus, most
Of the seven species, life history information is best
exploitation is by sport diggers.
known for the Manila clam population in San Francisco
All digging is by hand (with rake, shovel, garden hand fork, Bay. By examining the length-frequency distribution of
or trowel) and is carried out in intertidal areas during a strong year class over time, minimum legal size was
daylight hours, generally at low tides of 0.0 feet or less. estimated to be reached in two and a half to three
years. This was veried by examining internal and external
growth rings on the shells formed each year in the fall as
Status of Biological Knowledge growth slows down or ceases. Maximum age is estimated
T
to be eight or nine years.
he three species of chiones occur south of Point Con-
ception on mud and sand ats of sloughs and bays, Manila clams have a three-week planktonic larval period.
primarily in the intertidal zone. Banded and wavy chiones They are rst recognizable in the substrate at about 0.04
may, however, occur subtidally to a depth of 165 feet. inch. At 0.75 to 1.0 inch, they are capable of reproducing
and are repeat spawners. The primary spawning period
Thin-shelled and rough-sided littlenecks are both uncom-
is late spring to early summer, and they are known as
mon in California except in Alamitos Bay (Los Angeles
dribble spawners, releasing eggs and milt over a prolonged
County) where the latter species is abundant. Thin-shelled
time period. A secondary spawning period is thought to
littlenecks occur throughout the state in rm, sandy mud
of bays, in the low intertidal zone, and offshore to a depth
of 165 feet. They occupy burrows up to 16 inches deep.
Rough-sided littlenecks occur in California from Monterey
Bay south to the Mexican border in sand or muddy sand
in bays, the low intertidal zone, and in adjacent shallow
subtidal areas. Larger individuals may burrow up to 12
inches below the surface. The locally abundant population
in southern California is in water too deep for stand-up
diggers, and the underwater visibility is too poor for skin
divers to harvest them.
The common littleneck occurs throughout California in
bays, coves and cobble patches along the outer coast in
Common Littleneck Clam, Protothaca staminea
the middle and low intertidal zones. This species generally
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 451
occur in the winter. Sexes are separate, as they are in all Small beds of common littleneck clams are generally the
Littleneck Clams
littleneck clams. rule in northern California. One bed in San Mateo county
has sustained an annual harvest estimated to exceed
Natural mortality of sublegal Manila clams may be as
10,000 clams. San Onofre, in southern California, contains
high as 50 percent per year. Known predators include bat
an intertidal cobble bed over one mile in length and at
rays, mud crabs, lined shore crabs, Cancer crabs, chan-
least 115 feet wide. A 1967 population estimate yielded
neled whelks and scoter ducks. Large clams are capable
4.5 million legal-size clams; however, the bed had never
of movements of up to three feet during a single tidal
been open to the public before the survey. In terms of
cycle, although marking studies have shown virtually no
legal limits, this bed could have furnished 90,000 user days
net movement over a several-month period.
of recreation.
Common littleneck clams have a similar early life history
The cobble beach at San Onofre probably is the most pro-
and are capable of reproducing at about one inch in
ductive bed of littleneck clams in the state. However, the
length. In southern California, they may reach the mini-
population is unstable and uctuates greatly even when
mum legal size in one to 1.5 years. External growth checks
unexploited. Heavy runoff from a nearby creek in 1969
are prominent on the shell, but these are not annual rings.
caused expansive sanding-in of the cobbles and destroyed
The spawning season in southern California is generally
much of the bed. Recovery time was estimated at
from March through July.
ve years.
Meat yield from harvested littleneck clams has been esti-
Little is known about the populations of the other lit-
mated. A limit of 50, 1.7-inch common littlenecks yields
tleneck species. The smooth chione is in danger of extinc-
9.5 ounces of meat, while a limit of 2.5-inch clams would
tion in areas where harbors are being developed. Habitat
provide 24.5 ounces. In contrast, a limit of 50 Manila clams
loss or degradation, particularly by man-induced or natu-
from San Francisco Bay with a typical mean length of 1.6
ral siltation, can cause permanent population reductions.
inches would yield 6.4 ounces of meat.
Extreme variations in physical conditions, such as rainfall,
In the past, littleneck clams have been cultivated and
can depress populations dramatically.
transplanted. Aquaculturists have reared the Manila clam
from 0.25 inches to 1.5 inches in 10 months with 64
percent survival. Manila clams were transplanted in 1953 Paul N. Reilly
from San Francisco Bay to several southern California bays California Department of Fish and Game
and sloughs. Many of the transplants survived for more
than a year, but there was no natural reproduction.
References
Status of Population McAllister, R.D. and T.O. Moore Jr. 1982. Selected shellsh
resources of San Francisco Bay: their distribution, abun-
I n 1981, population estimates of Manila clams were dance, use, public access, and recommended management
derived for beds in San Francisco Bay. In the 10 most alternatives. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Prepared for
important beds, the peak estimate in the summer was San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board,
19.3 million clams with 3.4 million of legal size. One bed Oakland, 168 p.
in south San Francisco Bay, covering approximately 75,000 Tasto, R.N. 1974. Marine bivalves of the California coast.
square feet, was surveyed annually for several years in Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources Leaet No.
the 1980s; population estimates have ranged from 80,000 6. 23 p.
to 1,525,000. For the highest estimate, only two percent
of the population was of legal size. Maximum density of
legal-sized clams in this bed was 2.5 per square foot.
Densities of juvenile Manila clams may exceed 100 per
square foot in the most productive intertidal beds. Typi-
cally, intertidal densities in San Francisco Bay range from
20 to 40 per square foot during years of good recruitment.
In the subtidal shell beds, density averages one-tenth of
that in the intertidal zone.
Surveys of clammers in San Francisco Bay in 1981 resulted
in an estimated annual total effort of 900 user days.
However, water quality problems have limited and still
limit recreational harvest opportunities.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
452
Commercial Landings -
Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
Bay
Bay
Shrimp1
Shrimp1
Year Pounds
Year Pounds
1980 127,968
1916 411,847
1981 178,363
1917 605,004
1982 211,697
1918 722,178
1983 148,115
1919 747,023
1984 142,012
1920 817,091
1985 132,578
1921 907,467
1986 107,304
1922 990,349
1987 103,088
1923 1,113,358
1988 132,951
1924 1,551,086
1989 122,599
1925 1,460,234
1990 151,382
1926 1,431,511
1991 140,725
1927 1,697,365
1992 114,923
1928 2,280,871
1993 155,891
1929 3,054,748
1994 95,328
1930 2,687,831
1995 98,053
1931 1,684,763
1996 113,398
1932 2,681,807
1997 69,231
1933 2,087,952
1998 89,348
1934 1,783,663
1999 98,086
1935 3,445,091
1936 2,240,849
- - - - No landings data available.
1937 1,108,761
1938 1,847,926
1
Presented data represents the commercial landings from
1939 1,175,979
San Francisco Bay
1940 1,080,190
1941 952,152
1942 800,958
1943 253,215
1944 291,974
1945 382,147
1946 432,145
1947 841,086
1948 926,707
1949 800,441
1950 913,181
1951 931,323
1952 913,908
1953 732,308
1954 744,768
1955 682,731
1956 718,968
1957 192,814
1958 45,955
1959 35,011
1960 1,580
1961 2,050
1962 1,075
1963 1,225
1964 ----
1965 10,765
1966 4,165
1967 19,771
1968 10,465
1969 8,041
1970 65,761
1971 59,721
1972 73,067
1973 62,308
1974 79,797
1975 99,708
1976 98,789
1977 82,797
1978 81,715
1979 92,213
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 453
Commercial Landings - Bay and Estuarine Invertebrates
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
454
Bay and Estuarine
Finfish Resources: The nsh species found in the state’s bays and estuaries
Bay and Estuarine Finfish Resources: Overview
serve as an index of the overall health of these important
Overview ecosystems. California’s estuaries are heavily inuenced
by urbanization. While the more severe human impacts
of such urbanization (lling of wetlands, for example) can
F insh species utilizing California’s bays and estuaries
be seen throughout the bay and estuarine ecosystems,
include the sturgeons, gobies, cow sharks, smelts,
the more subtle impacts tend to be chronic. Some of the
striped bass, Pacic herring, and California halibut. Many
chronic impacts are identied though long-term studies
of these sh move between bays and estuaries and open
of specic indicator species. For example, while some
Pacic waters. Several are dependent on bay and estua-
impacts of increased diversions of water from the San
rine systems for their entire life histories. While numerous
Francisco Bay Delta to the state and federal water proj-
shery resources, such as salmonids, Dungeness crab, and
ects during the 1970s, could be determined through a
many of the marine mammals also occur in or utilize the
decrease in freshwater outow through the estuary, the
state’s bay and estuarine habitats, only the species that
impacts on sh were not immediately known. However,
are principally dependant on this ecosystem for reproduc-
studies by the California Department of Fish and Game
tion, or life stage development are discussed in this chap-
noted a decline in annual striped bass sports catch
ter. Surf and night smelts, which are not dependent on
rates from over 750,000 in the early 1960s to approxi-
bay and estuarine habitats are included in this chapter
mately 52,000 sh in 1994. The DFG determined that the
due to the layout of the document which combined true
reduction in adult striped bass population was due to
smelts into a single paper. Coastal nsh species which
reduced recruitment of young sh and a decline in adult
utilize bays and estuaries as nursery grounds or for other
survival rates. This decline also correlated directly with
purposes, but are discussed elsewhere in this document,
the increase in Delta pumping. By 1998, catch rates had
include the salmonids, leopard shark, bat rays, some of
rebounded to approximately 295,000 sh, most likely as a
the croakers, many of the surfperches, brown rocksh,
result of increased sh abundance and renewed interest in
and several atshes.
the shery. In recent years, recruitment has continued to
Bay and estuarine species support important commercial increase as a result of improved survival of striped bass
and/or sport sheries. It is estimated that California’s between the ages of zero and three.
striped bass sport shery has an annual economic value
Other measures of bay and estuarine health can be
of more than $45 million. Add to this, the commercial
inferred through analysis of bioaccumulation of chemicals
value of sheries for Pacic herring and the commercial
in sh species such as white sturgeon. Although this chap-
passenger shing vessel eet targeting shark and other
ter does not directly address contaminant concerns, it
bay and estuarine species, and the overall annual value of
remains that the overall health and abundance of bay and
sheries specic to California’s bays and estuaries range
estuarine nsh species can serve as a looking glass into
into the hundreds of millions of dollars. On the basis
this often troubled environment.
of economics alone, California’s bay and estuary nsh
species are very important resources.
Eric J. Larson
In addition to being a food source and nancial resource
California Department of Fish and Game
for human populations, many of the nsh species
included here are an important food source for a diverse
group of foraging marine sh, birds and mammals. Herring
spawning, in particular, provides a highly utilized opportu-
nity for feeding by other marine organisms. As herring
move into shallow bay waters to spawn, a feeding frenzy
often occurs which can last for several days. Gulls, cormo-
rants, pelicans and other marine birds, California sea lions
and harbor seals, a variety of sh, including sturgeon, and
invertebrates feast on the adult herring and the develop-
ing embryos. Fish species such as Pacic herring and many
of the smelt are a principal food source for marine organ-
isms at the higher trophic levels. Fluctuation in the health
and abundance of these higher trophic level species often
can be traced to the population uctuations of plankton
feeders such as herring and smelt.
Sportfishing at Golden Gate Bridge for striped bass.
Credit: Chris Dewees, California Sea Grant Extension Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 455
Pacific Herring
History of the Fishery California sac-roe herring landings peaked in the 1996-1997
season at 23.6 million pounds, and then fell to a record
P acic herring (Clupea pallasi) landings peaked three low harvest of four million pounds the following season.
times during the past century in response to market Ocean conditions due to the 1997-1998 El Niño produced
demands for shmeal, canned sh, and sac-roe. During the herring in poor condition which were less susceptible to
intervening years, herring catches were low, when most of gillnet gear resulting in reduced landings. In addition,
the herring catch was used as pet food, bait, or animal herring may have been displaced by changes in ocean
food at zoos. The herring reduction shery peaked in 1918 currents, which are also attributed to El Niño, resulting
at eight million pounds, but this shery ended in 1919 in downswings of stock size. Stocks showed signs of
when reduction of whole sh into shmeal was prohibited. rebuilding in the 1998-1999 season but declined again
From 1947 to 1954 herring were canned to supplement in 1999-2000 in spite of favorable La Niña conditions.
the declining supply of Pacic sardines; landings peaked Landings increased, however, to 6.8 million pounds in
in 1952 at 9.5 million pounds. Canned herring, however, 1999-2000 season due to much improved physical condi-
proved to be a poor substitute for sardines and limited tion of sh from the previous season.
demand led to the demise of this shery by 1954. The sac-roe shery is limited to California’s four largest
In 1973, sac-roe sheries along the West Coast of North herring spawning areas: San Francisco Bay, Tomales Bay,
America from Alaska to California developed to supply Humboldt Bay, and Crescent City Harbor. San Francisco
the demands of the Japanese market. This occurred after Bay has the largest spawning population of herring and
domestic Japanese stocks crashed and Japan and the produces more than 90 percent of the state’s herring
Soviet Union agreed to ban the harvest of sac-roe herring catch. The four spawning areas are managed separately by
in the Sea of Okhotsk. The ban was enacted after these the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG); catch
stocks were depleted by overshing. The Japanese gov- quotas are based on the latest population estimates from
ernment also liberalized import quotas, which opened the acoustic surveys and spawning-ground surveys. Quotas are
sac-roe market to United States and Canadian exporters. adjusted annually and are generally set at about 15 per-
Since then, herring in California have been harvested cent of the amount of herring expected to return to
primarily for their roe, with small amounts of whole her- spawn at each spawning area. Since quotas are set before
ring marketed for human consumption, aquarium food, the start of the spawning season, they are conservative
and bait. and allow for potential declines in herring biomass. If
the herring biomass declines, and spawning escapement
Herring ovaries (commonly referred to as “skeins” by
is less than expected, the landings may approach the
those in the shing indusrty) are brined and prepared as
department’s recommended maximum harvest rate of
a traditional Japanese New Year’s delicacy called “kazu-
20 percent.
noko.” Brined skeins are leached in freshwater overnight
and served with condiments or as sushi. Most herring The sac-roe shery is managed through a limited-entry
taken in California are trucked from the port of landing system, which was implemented in the 1973-1974 season
to a processing plant for removal of skeins and brining with 17 permits issued. Since 1983, only ve new permits
and grading. Skeins are graded by size, color and shape, have been issued, and the number of annual herring per-
packed in plastic pails, exported for sale, and auctioned. mits has stabilized at just over 450. Approximately 400
Some herring are frozen and exported to China for pro- of the permits are for the San Francisco Bay shery in
cessing where labor costs are low. Herring skeins from which an estimated 120 vessels participate. During the
San Francisco Bay are typically smaller in size than those 1979-1980 season, the Fish and Game Commission decided
produced in British Columbia and Alaska but are highly not to issue any new round haul permits for the San
valued for their unique golden coloration. Francisco Bay shery with the intent of converting the sac-
roe shery to gillnet only by attrition. When it was clear
that the number of round haul permits would not decline
further due to the transferability of permits in 1988,
the DFG developed a ve-year conversion plan, which
was implemented in the 1993-1994 season. The 1997-1998
season marked the completion of the San Francisco Bay
sac-roe shery conversion to a gillnet only shery.
The sac-roe shery, like many quota sheries, is extremely
competitive among shermen and buyers for a share of
the catch. Competition tends to breed innovation, espe-
Pacific Herring, Clupea pallasi
cially with respect to gear, boats, and shing practices
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
456
Pacific Herring
30
millions of pounds landed
25
Pacific Herring
20
15
10 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Pacific Herring
5
Data Source: DFG Catch
0 1916 Bulletins and commercial
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 landing receipts.
in this potentially lucrative and high-pressure shery. One permittee received a permit on an experimental basis to
of the more noticeable changes has occurred in boat harvest roe-on-kelp using unenclosed oating rafts from
design. The composition of the San Francisco eet slowly which fronds of giant kelp are suspended. This product
evolved from converted wooden and berglass stern pick- known as “komochi kombu” or “kazunoko kombu” is
ing salmon trollers to fast state-of-the-art welded alumi- also a Japanese delicacy and prepared similarly to kazu-
num bow pickers, many outtted with multiple jet drives noko. There are 11 roe-on-kelp permits for the 2000-2001
and the latest in sh nding electronics. One piece of shery in San Francisco Bay. Permits are available to
equipment that increased the efciency of the gillnet permittees willing to trade their sac-roe permits for
eet was the net shaker, a hydraulically driven drum with roe-on-kelp permits.
ns, working in concert with the net drum. This device Currently, giant kelp is harvested from the Channel Islands
shakes the net free of sh, eliminating the need to shake off southern California or Monterey Bay, brought to San
the net by hand. As a result of these and other changes, Francisco Bay, suspended from oating rafts or longlines
the sac-roe eet has become very efcient. hung beneath piers. Rafts are positioned in locations
Herring buyers pay shermen based on the percentage of where herring spawning is expected to occur and then
ripe skeins in the catch. This is calculated from several anchored. Once spawning has commenced, suspended
random 10-kilogram samples per landing taken by roe kelp is left in the water until egg coverage is sufcient,
technicians. Each sh sampled is sexed and ripe skeins or spawning has ended. In some instances, suspended
are extracted, placed on a scale and weighed. The total kelp is harvested prematurely with less than optimum
weight of the ripe skeins is then divided by 10 kilograms, coverage because freshwater surface runoff may cause
resulting in the “roe count” or roe percentage. A typical product deterioration.
“roe count” for the San Francisco shery in January is 13 Preliminary roe-on-kelp product grading is conducted by
to 14 percent. The ex-vessel price paid is based on 10 the permittee prior to harvest to determine if coverage
percent yield, and is adjusted for percentage points above is ample enough to warrant harvesting. Once the product
or below. A yield of 10 percent or higher is considered the is harvested, grading criteria such as the dimensions of
minimum acceptable by the sac-roe buyers. In the year the kelp blade, uniformity of egg coverage, thickness or
2000, the base price for California herring with 10 percent number of egg layers, kelp condition, presence of eyed
roe yield was an estimated $500 per ton of whole sh. embryos, and the presence of silt are all used to deter-
The base price for 10 percent roe count sh peaked at mine the price paid to the sherman. Roe-on-kelp has a
an estimated $2,000 per ton in 1979, when landing values per pound value much higher than herring roe. Ex-vessel
reached as high as $4,000 per ton when adjusted for roe prices range from $4 to $20 per pound.
percentage. In recent years, the base price has ranged
Herring regulations changed yearly as the shery
between $500 and $2,000 per ton. Since 1980, the ex-
expanded and new conicts or issues were addressed.
vessel seasonal value of the sac-roe catch in California has
Management concepts new to commercial shing in Cali-
ranged from two million to 19.5 million dollars.
fornia were introduced as the herring shery developed,
Another aspect of California’s herring industry is the roe- such as limited entry, permits issued by lottery, individual
on-kelp shery. Beginning in 1965, scuba divers harvested vessel quotas, quota allocation by gear, the platoon
species of algae with herring eggs attached from Tomales system used to divide gillnet vessels into groups, the
and San Francisco Bays. In the 1984-1985 season, a sac-roe transferability of sac-roe shery permits, and the conver-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 457
sion of round haul permits to gillnet permits. Many of During the incubation period (about 10 days) embryos are
Pacific Herring
these were controversial management decisions, but they vulnerable to predation by marine birds, sh, and inverte-
have proven to be effective solutions to socioeconomic brates. They may also die from desiccation or freezing
conicts in a congested shery. if exposed during low tidal cycles. Normally, between 50
and 99 percent of herring embryos die before hatching.
Human induced causes of mortality at this stage include
Status of Biological Knowledge smothering caused by suspended sediments from dredg-
ing, and anti-fouling agents such as creosote.
P acic herring occur within the coastal zone (waters of
Herring embryos hatch into larvae, which eventually
the Continental Shelf) from Baja California to Alaska
metamorphose into juvenile herring. The distribution of
and across the Pacic rim to Japan and China. Known
larval herring in bays and estuaries is not well known,
spawning areas in California include San Diego Bay, San
but juvenile herring from San Francisco Bay have been
Luis River, Morro Bay, Elkhorn Slough, San Francisco Bay,
found as far inland as the Delta Pumping Plant at Tracy.
Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, Russian River, Noyo River, Shel-
Juveniles may remain in the bay until summer or early fall,
ter Cove, Humboldt Bay, and Crescent City Harbor. Califor-
when they migrate to the open ocean.
nia’s largest spawning population of herring utilizes San
Francisco Bay. Most spawning areas are characterized as Some herring reach sexual maturity at age two when they
having reduced salinity, calm and protected waters, and are about seven inches in length; all are sexually mature
spawning-substrate such as marine vegetation or rocky at age three. California herring may live to be nine or
intertidal areas; however, man-made structures such as 10 years old and reach a maximum length of about 11
pier pilings and riprap are also frequently used spawning inches, although sh older than seven are rare. Adult her-
substrates in San Francisco Bay. ring leave the bay immediately after spawning, and their
distribution while in the ocean is not well known. Herring
Results of tag and recovery studies from Canada indicate
are sometimes caught in Monterey Bay in the summer,
that 25 percent of the herring may stray between adjacent
and are also caught by groundsh trawlers off Davenport
spawning areas in British Columbia. The problem of stock
(north of Santa Cruz) just prior to the spawning season.
identication has not been resolved in California, and it
is not known whether adjacent spawning areas contain While in the ocean, adult herring feed on macroplankton
genetically distinct stocks. However, each spawning area such as copepods and euphausiids. Larval and juvenile
in California where herring shing is allowed is managed herring are believed to feed on molluscan larvae and
on the assumption that its spawning population is a sepa- other zooplankton while in bays and estuaries. Herring
rate stock. are a forage species for a diverse group of marine shes,
birds, and mammals. Spawning events in particular pro-
During the spawning season (November through March),
vide an opportunity for feeding. As herring move into
schools of herring enter bays and estuaries, where they
shallow water to spawn, a feeding frenzy may commence
may remain up to three weeks before spawning. School
which can last for several days. Gulls, cormorants, peli-
size varies but can be as large as tens of thousands of
cans and other marine birds, California sea lions and
tons and miles in length in San Francisco Bay. Salinity
harbor seals, a variety of shes (including sturgeon in San
is an important factor in the success of fertilization and
Francisco Bay) and invertebrates feast on adult herring
embryonic development, and reduced salinity may act as a
and embryos.
cue for spawning. When a school is ready to spawn, male
herring initiate spawning by releasing milt. A pheromone
in the milt triggers spawning by females which lay their
Status of the Population
adhesive eggs on suitable substrate. Fecundity is 220 eggs
T
per gram of body weight, and a large female herring may he size of herring spawning populations in Tomales
lay 40,000-50,000 eggs. Female herring come in contact and San Francisco Bays is estimated annually from
with the substrate while spawning, extruding a strip of hydroacoustic and spawning-ground surveys. Abundance
adhesive eggs that is two to three eggs wide. Repeated uctuates widely due to variations in recruitment (the
passes by thousands upon thousands of females can build rst appearance of young sh, primarily two-year-olds,
the eggs up to a thickness of four to ve layers. Spawn in the spawning population) caused by environmental fac-
depth distribution generally is shallower than 30 feet tors that affect primary productivity, especially El Niño
deep, but has been found to a depth of 60 feet in San events. Since 1979, the San Francisco Bay herring biomass
Francisco Bay. A large spawning run may last a week and has ranged from a high of 99,050 tons to a low of 20,000
can result in 20 miles or more of the shoreline being tons, with peaks occurring in 1982 (99,600 tons), 1988
covered by a 30-foot-wide band of herring eggs. (68,900 tons), and 1996 (99,050 tons). The lowest biomass
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
458
estimates have occurred during or just after El Niño events that appear. Because of the shing methods used and
Pacific Herring
– 40,800 tons in 1984, 21,000 tons in 1993, and 20,000 large local populations of harbor seals and sea lions, it
tons in 1998. The lack of upwelling and associated warm is very difcult for shermen to catch sh from small
water conditions that occur during El Niño events reduces schools.
the production of food for herring, which can affect their
condition and survival. It also may displace herring to
Management Considerations
areas of colder water. San Francisco Bay’s population has
not yet recovered from the affects of the 1997-1978 El
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Niño; spawning biomass was estimated at 27,400 tons
further information.
in 2000.
The Tomales Bay spawning biomass estimates have ranged
Diana L. Watters, Kenneth T. Oda and John Mello
from a high of 22,163 tons in 1978 to a low of 345 tons
California Department of Fish and Game
in 1990 with a 26-year average of 4,671 tons per season.
The season following the 1983 El Niño spawning biomass
declined about 90 percent suggesting the herring popula-
References
tion had not escaped the effects of that strong oceanic
event. The next four years the population remained unsta-
Grifn, Frederick J., M.C. Pillai, C.A. Vines, J. Kaaria, T.
ble with spawning escapement in Tomales Bay alternating
Hibbard-Robbins, R. Yanagimachi, and G.N. Cherr. 1998.
between average and very poor. During the California
Effects of Salinity on Sperm Motility, Fertilization, and
drought, which lasted from 1987 to 1992, the herring
Development in the Pacic Herring, Clupea pallasi. Biol.
spawning population severely declined in Tomales Bay.
Bull. 194:25-35.
Consequently, the department closed the Tomales Bay
Miller, D.J. and J. Schmidkte. 1956. Report on the distribu-
commercial herring shery from 1990 through 1992 to
tion and abundance of Pacic herring, Clupea pallasi,
hasten the recovery of the stock. Spawning biomass in
along the coast of central and southern California. Calif.
Tomales Bay averaged approximately 2,817 tons per season
Fish and Game. 42:163-187.
from 1993 through 1997; however, during the intense
1997-1998 El Niño, spawning biomass dropped to 586 tons. Reilly, P.N. 1988. Growth of young-of-the-year and juvenile
Although the Tomales Bay population rebounded to near Pacic herring from San Francisco Bay, California. Calif.
normal levels the following season, the spawning biomass Fish and Game. 74:38-48.
fell to 2,011 tons in 2000. Preliminary aging of Tomales
Spratt, J.D. 1992. The evolution of California’s herring
Bay herring, caught during the 1999 and 2000 seasons,
roe shery: catch allocation, limited entry, and conict
shows ve- and six-year-old herring under represented
resolution. Calif. Fish and Game. (78)1:20-44.
in the spawning population. Because the Tomales Bay
Spratt, J.D. 1981. The status of the Pacic Herring, Clupea
herring eet has had a very low exploitation rate since
harengus pallasii, resource in California 1972 to 1980.
the 1997-1998 season, the scarcity of older sh in the
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 171. 107 p.
population is most likely related to oceanic conditions –
not overshing. Trumble, R.J. and R.D. Humphries. 1985. Management
of Pacic herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) in the
Humboldt Bay’s spawning population has not been
eastern Pacic Ocean. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42(Suppl.
assessed since the 1990-1991 season, when 400 tons was
1):230-244.
estimated to have spawned. This population supported a
small, but successful shery with a 60-ton quota for many Ware, D. M. 1985. Life history characteristics, reproduc-
years. However, over the last 12 years shermen have tive value and resilience of Pacic herring (Clupea haren-
observed a decline in the spawning population, and in the gus pallasi). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42 (Suppl. 1):127-137.
last ve years shing effort has also declined. Only one of
the four permits issued for Humboldt Bay has been used to
sh in the last three seasons. It has been suggested that
aquaculture impacts to eelgrass, the primary spawning
habitat for herring in Humboldt Bay, may have contributed
to the observed decline.
Individual spawning runs have been estimated in Crescent
City Harbor, but no seasonal population estimates have
ever been made for the area. The success of the small
shery that occurs there depends on the size of schools
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 459
Striped Bass
History of the Fishery Bay, and the Pacic Ocean in the summer. The proportion
entering the ocean varies from year to year. These sh
I n 1879, 132 young striped bass (Morone saxatilis) from begin returning to the delta in the fall.
the Navesink River, New Jersey were released into the The distribution of shing effort and catch has changed
San Francisco Bay estuary at Carquinez Strait. A second substantially over the years. Before the late 1950s, little
plant of 300 sh from the Shrewsbury River, New Jersey shing occurred in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
followed in 1882. Shortly after these introductions, striped Ocean. Most of the catch came from San Pablo and Suisun
bass experienced a population explosion in the estuary. bays, the delta, and rivers upstream. From the late 1950s
Commercial harvesting started in the early 1880s, and to early 1980s, however, post-spawning striped bass gener-
by the turn of the century, exceeded one million pounds ally migrated farther downstream and stayed there longer.
annually. The greatest recorded commercial catch, over Thus, shing improved in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
two million pounds, occurred in 1903. Subsequently, Ocean and declined in the delta. Also, the use of the
annual catches declined due to increased restrictions on Sacramento River as a spawning area appeared to have
the shery. increased, improving shing there in the spring. In the
In 1935, the commercial shery for striped bass was 1980s and much of the 1990s, the migrations shifted
closed, although the stock was not depleted. The closure upstream again with Suisun Bay and the delta providing
stemmed largely from a social conict between sport the bulk of the catch. However, in 1998 and 1999, shing
and commercial shing interests which culminated in the once again improved substantially in San Francisco Bay
closure of the commercial gillnet sheries for chinook and the ocean. While signicant environmental changes
salmon and American shad in 1957. Thousands of striped have occurred, data are insufcient to develop con-
bass that could not be legally marketed were killed annu- clusions regarding causes of these changes in striped
ally in nets shed for these two species. Closure of the bass migrations.
salmon and shad sheries reduced shing mortality for Based on tag returns, in the 1970s private boat anglers
striped bass, but the magnitude of the reduction cannot accounted for about 63 percent, shore anglers for 19 per-
be estimated because the precise extent of the incidental cent, and commercial passenger shing vessels for 18 per-
harvest is unknown. Some illegal netting continues today. cent of the annual striped bass catch. By the 1990s, the
The striped bass sport shery has become the most impor- private boat portion of the catch changed little (64 per-
tant shery in the San Francisco Bay estuary and one cent), but the commercial passenger shing vessel portion
of the most important sheries on the Pacic Coast. decreased to nine percent and the shore catch increased
From 1969 to 1996, a general decline in catch was associ- to 27 percent of the total.
ated with a decline in striped bass abundance. Over this Striped bass are generally caught by bait shing or troll-
period, the annual catch varied from about 444,000 sh ing, although under some conditions y-shing or casting
in 1975 to 52,000 sh in 1994. During the early 1960s, plugs or jigs is effective. Common dead baits include
the annual catch of striped bass was even larger, probably threadn shad, anchovies, cut sardines, staghorn sculpins
around 750,000 sh. In 1985, an economist estimated the (bullheads), gobies (mudsuckers), shrimp, blood worms,
annual value of the striped bass shery to exceed 47 and pile worms. Drift shing with live anchovies or shiner
million dollars. perch is popular in San Francisco Bay and the Pacic
Striped bass angling occurs year-round, but shing locali- Ocean, and live golden shiner minnows or theadn shad
ties vary seasonally in accordance with the striped bass are sometimes are used in the delta. Trolling methods are
migratory pattern. Tag recoveries indicate that many specialized. Many types of plugs, jigs, and spoons are used
adults inhabit salt water San Pablo Bay, San Francisco in trolling, frequently in double combinations.
Present shing regulations include an 18-inch minimum
length and a daily bag limit of two sh. From 1956 to 1981,
the minimum length was 16 inches and the bag limit was
three sh. Prior to 1956, regulations were more liberal.
A 12-inch minimum length and ve-sh bag limit generally
was in effect.
Exploitation rates have been estimated almost annually
since 1958. They have varied from nine percent (1989,
1992, and 1994) to 28 percent (1963) except for an unusu-
ally high 37 percent in 1958. Exploitation in the San Fran-
cisco Bay estuary is lower than for historic exploitation
Striped Bass, Morone saxatilis
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
460
on commercially shed Atlantic Coast stocks, which were On one occasion, DFG biologists observed several thou-
Striped Bass
exploited at rates as high as 50 to 70 percent annually sand striped bass at the surface along the bank of the
before a severe population decline in the 1980s led to very Sacramento River above Knights Landing. Small groups
restrictive regulations, included shing moratoriums. of from three to six bass were observed splashing and
churning in the main current of the river in the act of
While the primary California population of striped bass is
spawning. At times, ve or more groups of bass were
located in the San Francisco Bay estuary, striped bass also
observed spawning at one time. Usually a large female
have been introduced into many other areas including the
was accompanied by several smaller males.
lower Colorado River, several reservoirs, and the Pacic
Ocean in southern California. Conditions are generally not During the spawning act, eggs and milt are released into
suitable for striped bass spawning in the reservoirs or in the water. The milt contains microscopic sperm cells
marine waters off southern California, so those sheries that penetrate the eggs and cause them to begin to
usually depend on maintenance stocking from hatcheries. develop. While the eggs are still in the female they are
However, at least two reservoir populations, Millerton and only about 0.04 inch in diameter, but upon their release
New Hogan, do reproduce successfully. A striped bass sh- they absorb water and increase to about 0.13 inch in diam-
ery also has developed in reservoirs which are part of the eter. At this time, they are so transparent that they are
State Water Project (SWP) and the federal Central Valley virtually invisible.
Project (CVP), such as San Luis Reservoir, O’Neill Forebay, Striped bass eggs are only slightly heavier than water; so
and Pyramid and Silverwood lakes. These reservoirs are a moderate current will suspend them while they develop.
unintentionally stocked by young bass contained in water Without any water movement they sink to the bottom and
diverted from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, and their die. The larval bass hatch in about two days, although the
sheries have also declined in response to the decline of the length of time depends upon the temperature. Develop-
“source” San Francisco Bay estuary population. ment is faster when the water is warmer.
The newly hatched bass continue their development while
Status of Biological Knowledge being carried along in the water. At rst, the larval bass
subsist on their yolk, but in about a week they start feed-
Spawning and Early Nursery Period. Striped bass begin ing on tiny crustaceans, which are just visible to the naked
spawning in the spring when the water temperature eye. After several weeks, they begin feeding on larger
reaches 60˚ F. Most spawning occurs between 61˚ and 69˚ invertebrates, such as opossum shrimp and amphipods.
F, and the spawning period usually extends from April At this time, they generally inhabit the delta and Suisun
to mid-June. They spawn in fresh water where there is Bay. By late July or August, the young bass are about two
moderate to swift current. The section of the San Joaquin inches long.
River between the Antioch bridge and the mouth of the
Middle River, together with the other channels in the
Status of the Population
area, is one very important spawning ground. Another is
the Sacramento River from Sacramento to Colusa. About
one-half to two-thirds of the eggs are spawned in the Young Striped Bass Abundance
Sacramento River and the remainder in the San Joaquin
Reduced juvenile production was the principal cause of
River system. Female striped bass usually spawn for the
the adult striped bass population decline between the
rst time in their fth year when they are 22 to 25 inches
early 1970s and the early 1990s. Since 1959, the DFG
long. Many males mature when two years old and only
has sampled young-of-the-year striped bass each summer
about 11 inches long. Most males are mature at age three.
(except 1966). An extensive survey is conducted every
Stripers are very prolic. A ve-pound, ve-year-old second week from late June to late July or early August
female may spawn as many as 250,000 eggs in one season, throughout the nursery habitat. The sh are measured,
and a 12-pound, eight-year-old sh is capable of producing and when their mean fork length reaches 1.5 inches,
over a million eggs. Some striped bass live for more than a young-of-the-year index is calculated on the basis of
20 years; these sh may exceed 50 pounds in weight catch-per-net-tow and the volume of water in the areas
and spawn several million eggs. Because of this great where the sh are caught.
reproductive potential, striped bass were able to establish
Young-of-the-year striped bass abundance has suffered
a large population within a few years after their introduc-
an erratic but persistent decline from high index levels
tion in California.
sometimes exceeding 100 in the mid-1960s to the all time
Striped bass typically spawn in schools at night during low of only 1.4 in 1998. From 1959 to 1976, average
periods of warm weather when water temperatures rise.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 461
abundance of young striped bass was more than three
Striped Bass
60
times the subsequent average abundance.
thousands of fish landed
50
Substantial effort has gone into evaluating factors control- 40
Striped Bass
ling young striped bass production. Initially (1959-1970), 30
annual uctuations in young bass abundance could be
20
explained by a simple model based on delta freshwater
10
outow which indicated that young bass production was
0 1947
much greater in years with high spring-early summer ows 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999
than in years with low ows. The mechanism causing Recreational Catch 1947-1999 , Striped Bass
the most abundant year classes to occur under high ow CPFV = commercial passanger fishing vessel (Party Boat); Recreational catch from CPFV
conditions was unknown. However, one potential explana- Logs for Ocean and San Francisco Bay (Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta catches are not
tion was that when ows were high, a lower percentage included until 1964), CPFV catch was not reported prior to 1960.
of the ow to the delta was diverted by the combination
of major water projects (CVP and SWP) and local delta importance of various factors that may be at the root of
agriculture. Hence, under those conditions, fewer young the problem. These factors include losses of young sh
bass would be entrained in diverted water and removed to water exports, shortages of important food organisms
from the estuary. Other potential explanations for the possibly limiting survival of young bass, toxic chemicals
greater abundance in high ow years included: 1) expan- and trace metals inhibiting reproduction and reducing
sion of the nursery area resulting in greater habitat avail- survival, and a shift in global climate possibly resulting
ability and less competition; 2) higher food production; in adults straying from the estuary. It has also
3) dilution of toxicity; and 4) reduction in predation losses been suggested that the effect of water exports and
due to more turbid conditions. adverse factors associated with salinity encroachment
may be reduced by density-dependent mortality after the
In the early 1970s, production of young bass began to fall
rst summer.
below the levels expected based on the initial models,
and this decline was most acute in the delta portion
Adult Striped Bass Abundance
of their nursery. During this period the SWP and CVP
The decline of the striped bass shery in the San Francisco
substantially increased their water export from the delta,
Bay estuary between the early 1960s and the present
resulting in greater diversion rates being associated with
is a direct result of a substantial decline in the striped
any particular ow. Minimum estimates of losses, which
bass population. The California Department of Fish and
do not include sh smaller than 0.8 inches, in these
Game (DFG) has measured adult (larger than 18 inches,
water exports were approximately 10 to 30 million young
about three years old) striped bass abundance with mark-
striped bass annually. Maximum loss estimates approached
recapture (tagging) population estimates since 1969.
or exceeded 100 million young bass in some years. Con-
trasting these losses with estimates of abundance at the According to the estimates, the striped bass population
1.5-inch stage of about 15 to 30 million sh indicates averaged about 1.7 million adults between 1969, when the
that signicant population impacts could be expected. estimates began, and 1976. Abundance declined to as little
Potential effects were taken into account by developing as 600,000 adults in the early 1990s, but had increased to
a new model which considered the delta and Suisun Bay about 1.3 million in 1998. A combination of much greater
separately and included both outow and diversion terms catches by the shery and tag returns suggest that the
in the delta portion of the model. This model yielded striped bass population had about three million adults in
reasonable predictions of young bass abundance from 1959 the early 1960s. The reduction in the adult stock through
to 1976 and provided additional evidence that losses of the early 1990s was principally due to reduced recruit-
young sh to diversions were an important factor regulat- ment of young sh. Increased abundance in the late 1990s
ing striped bass abundance. is unexplained, but may be due to factors allowing greater
survival of young sh until they are recruited to the shery.
However, since 1977, abundance of young striped bass has
been considerably lower than predicted by the 1959-1976
Fishery Restoration
model. Scientists representing various interests, including
the DFG, water user groups, universities, and the Oak As a result of the initial decline in estimated legal-sized
Ridge National Laboratory, have extensively evaluated striped bass abundance in the late 1970s, and also in
potential causes of this decline in abundance, and gener- response to public pressure for supplementation stocking,
ally agree that reduced egg production by the smaller the DFG began a hatchery program starting with the 1980
population of adults likely is part of the explanation. year class that were stocked as yearlings in 1981. The
However, consensus has not been reached on the relative number of sh stocked increased from about 63,000 for
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
462
the 1980 year class to almost 3.4 million for the 1990 ence suggests that in spite of efforts to ensure a sufcient
Striped Bass
year class. supply of sh, stocking goals will not always be met.
The hatchery program changed substantially in 1992 as Sufcient quantities of these stocked striped bass will
the result of concern over potential predation by striped be marked to allow evaluation of their contribution to
bass on threatened and endangered species, such as subsequent adult populations and the relative benets
Sacramento River winter-run chinook salmon and delta of: 1) conventional aquaculture and pen rearing; and
smelt, and all stocking of hatchery-reared striped bass 2) stocking age-one and age-two sh.
was suspended (age-one sh from the 1991 year class Other actions by the DFG include: 1) working through the
were not stocked in the estuary). Instead, 22,000-284,000 CALFED Bay-Delta program to plan and implement ecosys-
sh obtained from sh screens in the southern Sacra- tem restoration measures that will benet a spectrum of
mento-San Joaquin Delta and reared in oating pens have species, including striped bass; 2) negotiating for mitiga-
been stocked annually, beginning with the 1992 year class tion from owners of power plants in the estuary for losses
released as yearlings in 1993. Most years, a fraction of caused by power plant operations and for mitigation from
the stocked sh have been externally marked or coded- the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) and
wire tagged to allow estimation of their contribution to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) for losses at their
the population. pumping plants; and 3) increasing study effort to improve
Hatchery sh have contributed measurably to the popula- understanding of processes controlling striped bass abun-
tion of each year class in the estuary, especially at the dance, with study funding coming from several sources
higher stocking levels. Estimated percentage of hatchery- including the DWR, USBR, State Water Resources Control
reared striped bass in each year class increased from Board, Federal Aid to Sport Fish Restoration funds, and sales
about one percent for the 1981 year class to about 31 of striped bass stamps required of all striped bass anglers.
percent for the 1989 year class. More recently, sh reared
in oating pens have contributed about four percent of
Management Considerations
the 1994 year class and about 13 percent of the 1996
year class.
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
Greater stocking of age-one and age-two striped bass (up further information.
to 1.275 million age-one equivalents) reared in hatcheries
and pens began in summer 2000. This stocking is the
Donald E. Stevens and David W. Kohlhorst
focus of a Striped Bass Management Conservation Plan
California Department of Fish and Game
prepared according the federal Endangered Species Act
requirements. It is designed to maintain the striped bass
population and sport shery at the present level and to be
References
consistent with recovery of listed species.
Due to the greater genetic diversity of naturally produced Arnold, J. and T. Heyne. 1994. Seasonality and quality of
sh, the DFG’s priority is to stock sh salvaged at the eggs produced by female striped bass (Morone saxatilis)
SWP and CVP sh screens in the southern delta and reared in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Interagency
for one or two years in net pens oating in the estuary. Ecological Program Technical Report 39. 13 p.
However, it is unlikely that numbers of salvaged sh will
Bennett, W. A. and E. Howard. 1997. El Niños and the
consistently be sufcient to fully support the program, so
decline of striped bass. Interagency Ecological Program
in most years, net-pen-reared sh will be supplemented
Newsletter 10(4):17-21.
with sh produced by aquaculture.
Bennett, W. A. and E. Howard. 1999. Climate change
Striped bass spawn primarily during May, but salvaged sh
and the decline of striped bass. Interagency Ecological
are not available until late May through July. Thus, each
Program Newsletter 12(2):53-56.
year, the number of salvaged sh available for pen rearing
California Department of Fish and Game. 1987. Factors
will not be known until after articial spawning would
affecting striped bass abundance in the Sacramento-San
have to occur. The DFG will attempt to ensure sufcient
Joaquin River system. Interagency Ecological Study Pro-
availability of sh each year by contracting with private
gram Technical Report 20. 147 p.
aquaculturists to begin raising sufcient sh for most
of the allotment. After the number of salvaged sh is California Department of Fish and Game. 1989. Striped
known, excess aquaculture sh would be disposed of, or bass restoration and management plan for the Sacra-
perhaps used elsewhere by the DFG or aquaculturists (e.g., mento-San Joaquin Estuary Phase I. 39 p.
reservoir stocking or food market). However, past experi-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 463
Chadwick, H.K. 1967. Recent migrations of the Sacra-
Striped Bass
mento-San Joaquin River striped bass population. Trans-
actions of the American Fisheries Society 96:327-342.
Chadwick, H.K. 1977. Effects of water development
on striped bass. Pages 123-130 in: H. Clepper, editor.
Marine Recreation Fisheries 2. Sport Fishing Institute,
Washington, D.C., USA.
Collins, B.W. 1982. Growth of adult striped bass in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and Game
68:146-159.
Orsi, J.J. 1971. The 1965-1967 migrations of the Sacra-
mento-San Joaquin Estuary striped bass population. Cali-
fornia Fish and Game 57:257-267.
Raquel, P. 1988. Estimated entrainment of striped bass
eggs and larvae at State Water Project and Central Valley
Project facilities in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
1987. Interagency Ecological Program Technical Report 15.
11 p.
Scoeld, E.C. 1931. The striped bass of California (Roccus
lineatus). California Department of Fish and Game, Fish
Bulletin 29.
Stevens, D.E. 1977. Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) moni-
toring techniques in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary.
Pages 91-109 in W. Van Winkle, editor. Proceedings of
the conference on assessing the effects of power-plant-
induced mortality on sh populations. Pergamon Press,
New York, NY.
Stevens, D.E., D. W. Kohlhorst, L.W. Miller, and D.W. Kelley
1985. The decline of striped bass in the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary, California. Transactions of the American
Fisheries Society 114:12-30.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
464
Green Sturgeon
History of the Fishery California green sturgeon grow rapidly when young, prob-
Green Sturgeon
ably reaching 12 inches fork length in one year. Juvenile
H istorically, the green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris) green sturgeon raised in captivity grow substantially faster
resource has been of minor importance to Califor- than white sturgeon raised under similar conditions. Rela-
nians, although they may have been more important to tively rapid grow continues until they reach 51-55 inches
American Indians in the north coast area. An early com- in about 15-20 years. Maximum size in the Klamath River
mercial shery developed for sturgeon in the San Fran- in recent years has been about 90 inches and about
cisco Bay estuary between the 1860s and 1901, stimulated 180 pounds, but historical accounts report sh up to
by a growing acceptance of smoked sturgeon and caviar on 350 pounds. Like white sturgeon, their growth is likely
the East Coast of North America. However, green sturgeon affected by water temperature and dissolved oxygen con-
probably were a minor component of that shery, as they centration. The largest recently captured sh from the
were considered to be of inferior quality and were actually Klamath River were estimated to be about 40 years old.
claimed by some people to be poisonous. The commercial Compared with most freshwater or anadromous shes,
shery was closed in 1901, then reopened from 1909 green sturgeon are quite old (15-20 years) when they
to 1917. Commercial sturgeon shing in California ceased become sexually mature. Fecundity varies with female
in 1917. size, ranging from 60,000-140,000 eggs per female. These
Sport shing for green sturgeon was legalized in 1954, values are lower than for white sturgeon, both because
with a 40-inch total length minimum size limit and a one green sturgeon are smaller than white sturgeon and
sh per day per person creel limit. In 1956, snagging for because green sturgeon eggs are larger than white stur-
sturgeon was outlawed and the minimum size limit was geon eggs.
raised to 50 inches through 1963. The sport shery for Spawning occurs in the Sacramento River between March
green sturgeon in California is small, being overshadowed and June; it may extend slightly longer, into July, in
by the sport shery for white sturgeon in the San Fran- the Klamath River. Water temperature during spawning is
cisco Bay estuary and its tributaries and by the tribal likely 50° to 70°F. Little is known about spawning behav-
green sturgeon shery in the Klamath River. Exact sport ior. Spawning occurs in deep, fast water. The fertilized
catch data are not available. However, concern about eggs are slightly adhesive and hatch after four to 12
potential over-harvest of white sturgeon in the late 1980s days. Larvae stay close to the bottom and appear to
led to angling regulation changes starting in 1990 that rear primarily in rivers well upstream of estuaries. Under
instituted a 72-inch maximum size limit and increased the hatchery conditions, larval green sturgeon remain near the
minimum size limit by two inches per year until a new bottom and do not move up into the water column where
minimum size of 46 inches was reached in 1992. These they could be transported downstream. Most young green
regulation changes have also benetted green sturgeon. sturgeon migrate from river to ocean when they are one
to four years old, which may partly explain their relative
scarcity in the San Francisco Bay estuary.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Green sturgeon feed on a variety of bottom-dwelling ani-
G reen sturgeon are generally found in marine waters mals. Sturgeon feed by suction with their ventral, pro-
from the Bering Sea to Ensenada, Mexico. However, trusible mouths. Dense aggregations of taste buds on their
spawning populations have been found only in medium- four barbels presumably assist in identication of food
sized rivers from the Sacramento-San Joaquin system on the bottom. Young sturgeon (eight inches) feed pri-
north; spawning has not been documented in either the
Columbia or Fraser rivers. Green sturgeon apparently
spend much less time in the San Francisco Bay estuary
than white sturgeon, either as young or adults. Adult
green sturgeon probably enter the estuary and move up
the Sacramento River in early spring. Spawning occurs as
far upstream as the area above Red Bluff Diversion Dam,
which is now open to allow sh passage during part of
the green sturgeon spawning period. Anecdotal evidence
suggests that spawning may also occur in the Feather
River but has not yet been documented there. Almost all
recoveries from a tagging program in the San Francisco
Bay estuary have come from outside the estuary, primarily
Green Sturgeon, Acipenser medirostris
from rivers and coastal areas in Oregon and Washington.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 465
References
marily on small crustaceans such as amphipods and opos-
Green Sturgeon
sum shrimp. As they develop, they take a wider variety
Chadwick, H.K. 1959. California sturgeon tagging studies.
of benthic invertebrates, including various species of
California Fish and Game 45:297-301.
clams, crabs, and shrimp. Larger green sturgeon diet
includes shes. Emmett, R.L., S.L. Stone, S.A. Hinton, and M.E. Monaco.
1991. Distribution and abundances of shes and inverte-
Little is known about predators on green sturgeon. Smaller
brates in west coast estuaries, volume 2: Species life
sh are undoubtedly taken by various sh and bird preda-
histories summaries. ELMR Report No. 8, NOS/NOAA Stra-
tors, although the ve lines of sharp, bony scutes along
tegic Environmental Assessment Division, Rockville, Mary-
their bodies probably make them less desirable prey than
land.
most other species. Information from the Columbia River
suggests that total mortality of green sturgeon is less than Miller, L.W. 1972a. Migrations of sturgeon tagged in the
for white sturgeon. Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and Game
58:102-106.
Status of the Population Moyle, P.B., R.M. Yoshiyama, J.E. Williams, and E. Wikra-
manayake. 1993. Fish species of special concern of Califor-
B nia. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento,
ecause green sturgeon spend most of their lives in
California.
the ocean and are not readily available to the sport
shery or sampling programs in estuaries or rivers, their U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Green sturgeon.
population status is difcult to determine. Although green Pages 83-95 in: Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta native
sturgeon have never been abundant, limited evidence sug- shes recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
gests that the overall population may have declined in Portland, Oregon.
California. This is supported by the apparent extirpation
of the species from some rivers, such as the Eel and
South Fork Trinity, leaving the Sacramento, Klamath, and
mainstem Trinity rivers as the only documented spawning
streams in California, along with the Rogue and Umpqua
rivers in Oregon. However, abundance estimates in the
San Francisco Bay estuary, based on mark-recapture esti-
mates of white sturgeon abundance and the ratio of white
to green sturgeon in tagging catches, do not suggest that
the population has declined in that system. Additionally,
the recent opening of the Red Bluff Diversion Dam gates
during much of the spawning period has provided green
sturgeon with access to additional spawning area upstream
of Red Bluff. Catches of juvenile green sturgeon during
sampling for downstream-migrant chinook salmon smolts
at the dam in midsummer indicates that they have taken
advantage of this additional spawning habitat. The
number and size distribution of green sturgeon caught
incidental to a commercial salmon shery in the lower
Columbia River leads Oregon biologists to suggest that
“tens of thousands” of green sturgeon inhabit the
ocean offshore of Oregon
and Washington.
David W. Kohlhorst
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
466
White Sturgeon
History of the Fishery Spawning may also occur in the Feather River, but has not
White Sturgeon
yet been documented there. A small number move up the
H istorically, the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmon- San Joaquin River. The Klamath River supports the other
tanus) resource has been very important to Califor- California subpopulation of white sturgeon. Although most
nians. Sturgeon scutes and skull plates are found in Native recoveries from a tagging program in the San Francisco
American middens in the San Francisco Bay, Sacramento- Bay estuary have come from the estuary and its tributar-
San Joaquin delta, and Elkhorn Slough areas, indicating ies, a few sh (less than one percent of total recoveries)
that these large sh were important sources of tribal have moved along the Pacic Coast and been recovered in
nutrition. An early commercial shery developed for white Oregon and Washington.
sturgeon between the 1860s and 1901, stimulated by a California white sturgeon grow rapidly when young, reach-
growing acceptance of smoked sturgeon and caviar on ing 12 inches fork length in one year. This rapid growth
the East Coast of North America. The California harvest slows thereafter and they reach the present minimum
was concentrated in the San Francisco Bay and delta. legal size of 46 inches after nine to sixteen years. Subse-
Fishing gear included gillnets, longlines, and multiple quently, they grow one to 2.5 inches per year. Ages and
unbaited hooks for snagging sturgeon. The commercial growth rates of eld-caught sh have been determined
catch peaked at 1.65 million pounds in 1887, declined from the number and spacing of annular rings, visible in
to 0.3 million pounds in 1895, and to 0.2 million pounds sections of rst pectoral n rays. Laboratory experiments
in 1901, when the commercial shery was closed. Small have shown that young-of-the-year white sturgeon growth
commercial catches in a reopened shery from 1909 to is affected by water temperature and dissolved oxygen
1917 indicated that white sturgeon populations were still concentration. They grow signicantly faster at 68°F than
low, and commercial shing ceased in 1917. at 59°F, but an increase to 77°F does not signicantly
Sport shing for white sturgeon was legalized in 1954, increase growth rate. When dissolved oxygen concentra-
with a 40-inch total length minimum size limit and a one tions drop to 56 percent of air saturation at any of
sh per day per person creel limit. In 1956, snagging for these three temperatures, juvenile sh show a signicant
sturgeon was outlawed and the minimum size limit was decrease in growth rate, presumably due to reduced
raised to 50 inches through 1963. The small sport shing food consumption. The white sturgeon’s rapid growth rate
catch increased dramatically in 1964 when the minimum has attracted the interest of some California aquacultur-
size reverted to 40 inches and bay shrimp were discovered ists, who grow sturgeon in freshwater tanks which have
to be effective bait. By 1967, 2,258 sturgeon were landed consistently moderate temperatures and high dissolved
by party boat anglers. Possibly due to reduced stocks of oxygen concentrations.
other estuarine and coastal marine species such as striped The largest sturgeon were caught before 1900 when size
bass, angling for white sturgeon has become very popular. records were vague. However, the largest of these sh
Although exact sport catch data are not available, the was probably more than 13 feet long and weighed more
California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) estimates than 1,300 pounds, making white sturgeon the largest
that the harvest rate during the 1980s was 40 percent freshwater-inhabiting sh in North America. This sh may
greater than it was during the previous two decades. have been 100 years old. The largest white sturgeon cap-
In 1990, a 72-inch maximum size limit became law and tured in California waters during the past 40 years was
the minimum size limit was increased by two inches per a 468-pound sh caught by a sport angler in Carquinez
year until a new minimum size of 46 inches was reached Strait in 1983. This sh is the present world record sport-
in 1992. caught white sturgeon. In a University of California, Davis
(UCD) study of white sturgeon during the 1980s, many sh
were caught, measured, examined for sex and stage of
Status of Biological Knowledge maturity, and released. Median male size was 3.6 feet and
W
median female size was 4.6 feet in San Francisco Bay.
hite sturgeon are generally found in estuaries, and
their range extends along the Pacic Coast of North
America from Ensenada, Mexico, to the Gulf of Alaska.
However, spawning populations have been found only
in large rivers from the Sacramento-San Joaquin system
north. Indeed, most California white sturgeon are found in
the San Francisco Bay estuary. Some white sturgeon move
into the delta and lower Sacramento River during late-fall
and winter. Some of these sh move up the Sacramento
White Sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus
River to the Knights Landing-Hamilton City area to spawn.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 467
Status of the Population
Compared with most freshwater or anadromous shes,
White Sturgeon
white sturgeon are quite old when they become sexually
T he 19th century history of white sturgeon shing
mature, but they evidence impressive fecundity at this
in California waters shows this species’ vulnerability
large size. In the UCD study during the 1980s, sexually
to overshing. Delayed sexual maturity and infrequent
mature males were 3.6 to 6.0 feet long (nine to 25
spawning by the females exacerbates this vulnerability
years old), whereas mature females were generally 4.6 to
compared to many other shes. DFG tagging studies indi-
6.6 feet (14 to 30 years old). However, high natural vari-
cated that angler harvest was high during the 1980s and
ability in the size at sexual maturity was noted, especially
new size limits (including initiation of a rst-ever maxi-
among females. For example, the smallest pre-spawning
mum size limit in 1990) reect DFG’s management con-
female white sturgeon weighed only 25 pounds, whereas a
cerns. Annual harvest rate estimates indicate that the
120-pound female was caught which, from gonadal analy-
angling regulation changes begun in 1990 have had the
sis, was determined to have not yet spawned. Studies sug-
desired effect: harvest rates have been reduced by at
gest that white sturgeon females do not spawn every year.
least half from the levels of the mid- to late 1980s
Several years may lapse between successive spawnings
in an individual female. In the study on San Francisco Adult (at least 40 inches total length) white sturgeon
Bay sh, approximately 50 percent of the males captured abundance, as estimated from tagging studies, varied
were approaching spawning condition for that year, com- greatly between 1967 and 1998. The abundance estimate
pared with only about 15 percent of the captured females. reached its highest level (142,000) in 1997. This abundance
Fecundity varies with female size. Smaller females (under pattern is largely the result of irregular recruitment to the
ve feet) contain about 100,000 eggs, whereas a 9.2-foot, adult population by highly variable year classes. Strong
460-pound female contained 4.7 million eggs. year classes are produced in years with high spring fresh-
water outows from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
Spawning occurs in the Sacramento River between mid-
so much of the present high white sturgeon abundance is
February and late May when water temperatures are 46°
attributable to the very wet 1982-1983 period.
to 72°F. Little is known about spawning behavior. White
sturgeon spawn their eggs onto deep gravel rifes or rocky Unfortunately, the severe drought that gripped California
holes in the Sacramento River. The fertilized eggs are very from 1987 to 1992 will soon begin to affect the adult
adhesive and hatch after four to 12 days on the bottom. white sturgeon population, because reproductive success
Larvae stay close to the bottom and rear in both the river was low in most of those years. The strong year classes
and the estuary downstream. Rearing location is at least from the early 1980s were recruited starting in about 1994
partly determined by river ow; more larvae are washed and, by 1997 and 1998, few sh smaller than the minimum
into the estuary when freshwater ows are high. Young size limit of 46 inches were caught. Thus, the population
juvenile sturgeon become increasingly tolerant of brackish should decline substantially as recruitment almost ceases
water as they grow and develop. and growth and mortality reduce the abundance of sh
now in the shable population. However, another cycle
White sturgeon feed on a wide variety of bottom-dwelling
of strong recruitment can be expected when sh from a
animals. Sturgeon feed by suction with their ventral, pro-
series of wet years starting in 1993 begin to enter the
trusible mouths. Dense aggregations of taste buds on their
shery late in the next decade.
four barbels presumably assist in identication of food
on the bottom. When their mouths are blocked by food, The present low exploitation rates, past rapid recoveries
white sturgeon can ventilate their gills by ushing water from population lows in the mid-1970s and early 1990s,
in via the dorsal part of the gill slit and out via the and current protection of the most fecund females by the
ventral part. Young sturgeon (eight inches) feed primarily 72-inch maximum size limit suggest that no further angling
on small crustaceans such as amphipods and opossum restrictions are needed at this time.
shrimp. As they develop, they take a wider variety of
benthic invertebrates, including various species of clams,
David W. Kohlhorst
crabs, and shrimp. Larger white sturgeon diet includes
California Department of Fish and Game
shes and, during winter in San Francisco Bay, herring roe.
Joseph J. Cech, Jr.
Little is known about predators on white sturgeon. Smaller
University of California, Davis
sh are undoubtedly taken by various sh and bird preda-
tors, although the ve lines of bony scutes along their
bodies probably make them less desirable prey than other
estuarine species. Anglers undoubtedly mount the largest
predatory effort on adult sh.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
468
References
White Sturgeon
Cech, J.J. Jr., S.J. Mitchell, and T.E. Wragg. 1984. Com-
parative growth of juvenile white sturgeon and striped
bass: Effects of temperature and hypoxia. Estuaries
7:12-18.
Chapman, F.A. 1989. Sexual maturation and reproductive
parameters of wild and domestic stocks of white sturgeon,
Acipenser transmontanus. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
California, Davis.
Chapman, F.A., J.P. Van Eenennaam, and S.I. Doroshov.
1996. The reproductive condition of white sturgeon,
Acipenser transmontanus, in San Francisco Bay, California.
Fishery Bulletin 94:628-634.
Kohlhorst, D.W. 1980. Recent trends in the white stur-
geon population in California’s Sacramento-San Joaquin
Estuary. California Fish and Game 66:210-219.
Kohlhorst, D.W., L.W. Botsford, J.S. Brennan, and G.M.
Cailliet. 1991. Aspects of the structure and dynamics
of an exploited central California population of white
sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). Pages 277-293 in:
P. Williot, editor. Acipenser. Actes du premier colloque
international sur l’esturgeon, Bordeaux, France.
Kohlhorst, D.W., L.W. Miller, and J.J. Orsi. 1980. Age and
growth of white sturgeon collected in the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Estuary, California: 1965-1970 and 1973-1976. Cal-
ifornia Fish and Game 66:83-95.
Miller, L.W. 1972a. Migrations of sturgeon tagged in
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. California Fish and
Game 58:102-106.
Miller, L.W. 1972b. White sturgeon population character-
istics in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary as measured
by tagging. California Fish and Game 58:94-101.
Schaffter, R.G. 1997. White sturgeon spawning migrations
and location of spawning habitat in the Sacramento River,
California. California Fish and Game 83:1-20.
Schaffter, R.G. and D.W. Kohlhorst. 1999. Status of
white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary.
Angler holding a white sturgeon
California Fish and Game 85:37-41.
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 469
Cow Sharks
History of the Fishery Bay. The sevengill shark has a worldwide distribution in
most temperate seas, the only notable exception being its
T wo species of cow sharks (Family Hexanchidae) occur absence from the temperate waters of the North Atlantic.
along the California coast, the sixgill shark (Hexanchus Sevengill sharks are ovoviviparous, with 80 to 100 young
griseus) and sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus). being born per pregnancy. The young are born during the
Sevengill sharks were among the most common species spring following a two-year reproductive cycle. Humboldt
taken during shark sheries of the 1930s and 1940s. Even Bay and San Francisco Bay serve as important pupping and
after this shery collapsed, these sharks were taken in nursery grounds. The young remain within the vicinity of
considerable numbers during shing competitions in San these nursery grounds for the rst few years of life, before
Francisco Bay in the 1950s and 1960s. The popularity of ranging aeld upon entering adolescence. Males mature
Jaws movies in the mid-1970s brought renewed interest between ve and six feet, and grow to a maximum size
in shark shing. Several operators in the San Francisco of 8.25 feet. Females mature between 7.25 and 8.25 feet
Bay area targeted their charters on sevengill sharks, and and grow to at about 10 feet. The size at birth is between
as recently as the mid-1980s, these sharks were still 14 and 18 inches.
the object of a popular sport shery in San Francisco
Juvenile sevengills grow quite rapidly during the rst two
Bay. This shery declined in the late 1980s and early
years of life, more than doubling their length. This rapid
1990s, as charter boats began to target other species.
growth rate by juveniles in the nursery ground enhances
Although caught primarily by recreational anglers, seven-
their chance of survival since a sevengill over 28 inches
gills are caught incidentally in commercial sheries for
has fewer predators than a newborn half its size. In con-
other species.
trast to the rapid growth of juveniles, once maturation
The sixgill shark is also an incidental catch, especially in begins their growth rate slows down considerably.
trawl and gillnet sheries. It frequently appears in sh
The sevengill shark is an active predator that feeds at
markets and at dining establishments, but exact data on
or near the top of the food chain. The main prey items
the extent of this shery is lacking. Both species are
include other sharks, skates, rays, bony shes, and marine
typically either discarded or sold as “shark, unidentied,”
mammals. Sevengills have been observed to employ a
making it difcult to quantify landings.
variety of foraging strategies when hunting for food. As
a solitary hunter, they will use stealth to ambush smaller
Status of Biological Knowledge prey items, but while hunting larger prey, these sharks
will hunt cooperatively in packs to subdue seals, dolphins,
T he sevengill shark is a fairly common coastal species other large sharks and rays. White sharks are one of the
that frequently enters bays and, although rarely occur- few known predators on adult sevengill sharks and have
ring below depths of 330 feet, is found occasionally to been observed to attack them on occasion. In most areas
depths of over 660 feet. It seems to be most abundant where it occurs, the sevengill shark is displaced only by
where the water temperature lies between 54˚ and 64˚F. the white shark and killer whale as the top nearshore
It tends to prefer rocky reef habitats where kelp beds marine predator.
thrive, though it is commonly caught over sandy and mud The sixgill shark is one of the widest ranging of all shark
bottoms. Although relatively common at times of the year species, with a circumglobal distribution from northern
in Humboldt and San Francisco bays, very little is known and temperate areas to the tropics. In the eastern North
about movement patterns along the open coast. Pacic, this species occurs from the Aleutian Islands to
In the eastern North Pacic, sevengill sharks range from southern Baja California. This is a deepwater shark; adults
southeast Alaska to the Gulf of California, with their are found along the continental shelf and upper slopes
distribution becoming sporadic south of San Francisco down to at least 8,250 feet deep. They are known to
move up to a thousand feet off the bottom, occasionally
coming to the surface. Juveniles are often caught close
inshore, including enclosed bays such as Humboldt and
San Francisco, while adults are normally taken in deeper
water. These sharks seem to associate themselves with
areas of upwelling and high biological productivity.
Sixgill sharks are ovoviviparous with observed litters of
47 to 108. Adult females move onto the continental shelf
during the spring to drop their litter following a two-year
reproductive cycle. Young sixgills usually remain on the
Sixgill Cow Shark, Hexanchus griseus
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
470
References
shelf and uppermost slopes until they reach adolescence,
Cow Sharks
at which time they move further down the slope and into
Ebert, D.A. 1986. Biological aspects of the sixgill shark,
deeper water. It is the newborns and juveniles that typi-
Hexanchus griseus. Copeia, 1986(1): 131-135.
cally seem to stray close inshore and occasionally occur in
bays and harbors. Adult males typically remain in deeper Ebert, D.A. 1986. Aspects on the biology of hexanchid
water, where mating and courtship takes place. Males sharks along the California coast. In: Indo-Pacic sh biol-
mature at about 10 feet, while females mature at about ogy: Proceedings of the second international conference
14 feet. This is a large shark with males reaching at least on Indo-Pacic shes (T. Uyeno, R. Arai, T. Taniuchi, and
11.5 feet and females at least 15.8 feet. The size at birth K. Matsuura, eds.), p. 437-449. Ichthyol. Soc. Jpn., Tokyo.
is between 24 and 29 inches. Little is known about their
Ebert, D.A. 1989. Life history of the sevengill shark,
growth rate, although juveniles held in captivity will grow
Notorynchus cepedianus Peron, in two northern California
quite rapidly, nearly doubling their size in the rst year
bays. Calif. Fish Game, 75(2): 102-112.
of life.
Ebert, D.A. 1991. Observations on the predatory behaviour
The sixgill shark is a large, active, powerful predator
of the sevengill shark, Notorynchus cepedianus. S. Afr. J.
that feeds on a wide variety of prey species including
mar. Sci. 11: 455-465.
other sharks, rays, chimaeras, bony shes, and marine
mammals. Larger sixgills will actively forage on quite
large prey items including swordsh, marlin, dolphinsh,
seals, and dolphins. They have also been observed to con-
sume whales as carrion. Juveniles held in captivity have a
voracious appetite.
Status of the Population
T he main concentrations of sevengill shark populations
in California appear to be in Humboldt and San Fran-
cisco Bays, both of which serve as nursery grounds for
newborns and juveniles. Damage to either of these areas
could have an adverse effect on the population. Outside
these bays there is very little reliable information regard-
ing the status of sevengill shark populations.
There is no information on the population status of the
sixgill shark.
David Ebert
U.S. Abalone
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 471
True Smelts
General whitebait and night smelt were lumped into the category
“true smelt.” However, it is unlikely that whitebait smelt
T he true smelts of the family Osmeridae are small were ever harvested in very large numbers. Furthermore,
shes found in cold coastal, estuarine, and freshwater “whitebait smelt” was the only smelt category available to
habitats in the Northern Hemisphere. The term “true sh processors who lled out the required DFG pink slips
smelt” identies these shes from similar-looking species on which catch is recorded. Therefore, it is quite likely
of the silverside family (Atherinopsidae, recently changed that “whitebait smelt” in the historical sheries statistics
from Atherinidae) whose common names often include the includes all species of smelt harvested (but mainly surf
word “smelt” (such as jacksmelt, or topsmelt). Smelt life and night smelt).
history strategies range from completing all life stages in Since 1977, landings of smelts have been recorded in
freshwater, migrating from marine or estuarine habitats to their own species categories; however up to one third of
freshwater to spawn (anadromous), or living entirely in the the landings were still reported as “true smelt” and not
marine environment and spawning in the surf or subtidal identied to species. After 1989, the percentage of land-
zone. Like salmonids, the true smelts have an adipose n ings reported in the “true smelt” category has averaged
and some have a curious cucumber odor. less than 0.5 percent of the total landings. Therefore,
Most of the 12 species in the family support either sport while the total smelt catch can be estimated for the
or commercial sheries due to their highly prized delicate past several decades, landings by species can only be
avor. They are also a major forage sh for marine mam- determined since 1990.
mals, birds, and predatory shes such as salmon and In addition to commercial landings, there is a large, but
cod. Seven of the 12 species occur in California: delta largely unreported, sport shery for surf smelt and night
smelt, found only in the upper portions of the Sacra- smelt. The Marine Recreational Fishery Statistical Survey
mento-San Joaquin estuary; surf smelt, commonly known (MRFSS), established by the National Marine Fisheries Ser-
as day smelt, found along most of California’s coast but vice (NMFS) in 1979, estimates the impact of recreational
spawning only from Santa Cruz northward; wakasagi, a shing on marine resources. Estimates of annual recre-
Japanese freshwater species introduced into California ational smelt catches (1980 to 1998), based on phone and
reservoirs which has also taken up residence in the Sac- intercept surveys, range from nearly 200,000 pounds in
ramento-San Joaquin estuary; night smelt, found from 1998 to less than 5,000 pounds in 1983. Nearly all of these
Pt. Arguello, northward; longn smelt, an estuarine spe- recreational catches are reported as surf smelt.
cies found mainly in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary;
eulachon, an anadromous species found mainly in the
Delta Smelt
Klamath River; and whitebait smelt, a rather uncommon
marine species ranging from San Francisco Bay northward,
about which little is known.
History of the Fishery
The six native smelts have all supported commercial sh-
In the 19th century, delta smelt (Hypomesus transpaci-
eries in the past, but only surf and night smelts contribute
cus) and longn smelt were the object of a commercial
signicantly to the sheries today. The combined sheries
shery that supplied markets in San Francisco. Much of the
vary from year to year, with catch ranging from 0.5 to
market seems to have been for dried sh for the Chinese
2.1 million pounds per year (1970 to 1999). In 1995, for
community. In the 20th century, delta smelt have not been
example, over 2.0 million pounds of smelt were landed,
the target of a shery, however other bait sheries in the
with a wholesale value of over $600,000. The average
Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (e.g., shrimp, threadn
wholesale price per pound ranges from $0.20 to $0.30.
shad) often collect delta smelt as bycatch.
Smelts are sought commercially not only for human con-
sumption but also as feed for marine mammals, birds and
Status of Biological Knowledge
shes in aquariums, and as bait for shing.
Our understanding of delta smelt life history has increased
Unfortunately, most of the historical commercial landing
dramatically just prior to and since the delta smelt was
records for smelt, gathered by the California Department
listed as a threatened species in 1993 by both the federal
of Fish and Game (DFG), were lumped together, so the
government and the state of California. Since then, it
relative importance of each species in the past sheries
has been the target of focused research to determine
cannot be determined. The catch records for 1916 through
the factors affecting its abundance and to develop water
1969 are for “smelt” and “whitebait smelt.” The term,
management strategies to protect it. It is endemic only
“smelt” included not only surf smelt but jacksmelt, top-
to the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, which also serves
smelt, and grunion. After 1969, the silverside catch was
as the major water conduit for two-thirds of the state’s
removed from the “smelt” statistics and all smelts except
human population. Hence, under protections set forth
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
472
in both the federal and state endangered species acts, Since the wakasagi has become established in more brack-
True Smelts
the condition of the delta smelt population can play a ish portions of the estuary, the potential for interbreeding
major role in how water is managed throughout the state. as well as for increased competition for food, spawning
The delta smelt is considered environmentally sensitive areas, etc., has increased and may pose a signicant
because it resides mainly in the brackish water portion of threat to delta smelt recovery.
the estuary, is primarily an annual sh (i.e., completes its Unlike many shes with similar life histories in the estu-
life cycle, for the most part, in one year), is exclusively ary, delta smelt abundance is not strongly affected by
planktivorous and dependent on a zooplankton community freshwater outow or by the position of the low salinity
that has been greatly altered by exotic species, has a very zone; however, population levels are only high in years
low fecundity for a sh with planktonic larvae, is fragile with moderate to high outows. Distribution, however,
and easily stressed, and is a very poor swimmer. is strongly related to freshwater outow. In low outow
The delta smelt is one of the smaller smelts. It reaches years, the population is concentrated above the conu-
adult sizes at two to three inches and rarely lives more ence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers in the
than one year. It is translucent with a silvery steel-blue narrow channels of the delta where it becomes more
streak along its sides and it exudes a strong odor of vulnerable to entrainment in water diversions, predation,
cucumbers. Most of the year, it resides in the open surface pollutant exposure, and competition with wakasagi and
waters of the low salinity portions of the estuary where other planktivorous shes. Delta smelt do not exhibit
fresh and salt water mix. They are usually found at salini- a strong stock-recruitment relationship that would be
ties between two and seven parts per thousand (ppt) expected for a near annual sh, therefore, environmental
although are not uncommon in salinities between zero and factors may strongly contribute to population success
18 ppt. Delta smelt migrate to freshwater areas of the
Status of the Population
estuary that are under tidal inuence to spawn from late
winter to early summer. Spawning usually takes place in Delta smelt were once one of the most common shes
shallow water where the eggs are demersal and attach to in the estuary. Historically, delta smelt abundance uctu-
the substrate. Females produce between 1,200 and 2,600 ated from year to year, but from the early 1980s to the
eggs depending on size. Most adults die after spawning, mid-1990s, the population was consistently low. In recent
however a few survive to a second year. In recent years, years, abundance has varied dramatically even though
fewer smelt have survived to a second year and the aver- stringent measures are now in place to provide better
age size of the rst-year sh has signicantly decreased. habitat conditions for delta smelt. The causes of the delta
Larger sh may contribute signicantly more to the egg smelt decline are multiple and synergistic and vary from
supply and may be responsible for better success of the year to year. These include: reductions in freshwater out-
population when environmental conditions are favorable. ow caused by drought and by the diversion and upstream
storage of large amounts of water by the state and
Delta smelt feed primarily on planktonic copepods, cla-
federal water projects, entrainment losses to water diver-
docerans, and amphipods. Recent dramatic shifts in the
sions, high outows in extremely wet years, exposure to
zooplankton community, both in terms of species inva-
toxicants, disease, competition, predation, and loss of
sions and total abundance, may affect delta smelt sur-
genetic integrity.
vival. Historically, the most common food item was the
euryhaline copepod, Eurytemora afnis; however, this
copepod has since been replaced by Pseudodiaptomus
forbesi, as the primary prey item, although E. afnis
is still strongly preferred. In recent years, the exotic
Asian clam, Potamocorbula amurensis, has greatly reduced 2.0
zooplankton densities in the estuary.
Delta Smelt Abundance
1.6
thousands of fish
Genetic studies indicate that delta smelt are more closely
1.2
related to surf smelt than to wakasagi even though they
0.8
look more like the latter. Many of the traditional external
characteristics used to identify different species (e.g., n 0.4
ray counts) overlap between delta smelt and wakasagi;
0.0
however, the number of melanophores on the mandible 1967 1970 1980 1990 1999
(delta smelt has zero or one, wakasagi usually has ve
Fall Midwater Trawl Abundance Indicies
to many) is often used to separate the species. Hybrids
1967-1999, Delta Smelt
between delta smelt and wakasagi, as well as delta and
Data Source: DFG Central Valley Bay-Delta Branch. Indices for 1974 and 1979 were
longn smelt hybrids, have been observed in the estuary.
not available.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 473
Surf Smelt Status of Biological Knowledge
True Smelts
Surf smelt are the most widely distributed smelt in Cali-
fornia but are only common north of San Francisco Bay.
History of the Fishery
They are schooling, plankton feeding sh that can reach
The fact that surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) spawn on
10 inches in length. Females typically grow the largest and
selected beaches at predictable times of the day and year
live the longest (up to ve years), while males rarely live
has made them a favorite sport sh. The standard A-frame
longer than three years. Females are mature, however, in
dip net used to catch this smelt is based on one used by
one to two years, producing 1,300 to 37,000 eggs. In Cali-
American Indians in the aboriginal shery. It consists of a
fornia, most spawning occurs in June through September,
three- to four-foot long triangle of netting with poles on
in the surf zone of beaches, especially during high tides.
two sides and bag at the apex, into which, sh can be
The spawning smelt congregate in the surf during the day,
ipped by tilting the net upwards. About 95 percent of all
usually while the tide is falling. The biggest congregations
commercial landings are taken with this gear. The other
occur when high tide is in the late afternoon. The fertil-
ve percent are captured using purse seines, trawls, or
ized eggs adhere to sand and pebbles. The most favored
beach seines. This species was thought to be the dominant
spawning beaches are those made up largely of coarse
species in the commercial smelt catch; however, since
sand and pea-sized gravel, with some freshwater seepage.
all species categories have been reported, surf smelt
During periods of heavy spawning, some beaches are liter-
average only one third (33.0 percent) of the smelt catch
ally coated with eggs. The eggs hatch in two to three
(1990 through 1999). Landings averaged 478,000 pounds
weeks. Little is known about their larval life or of the
between 1990 and 1999 with 70 percent being reported
habits of juvenile and adults in the ocean environment.
from Eureka and Arcata. Another 25 percent of the land-
They presumably spend their lives in waters close to
ings were reported in the Crescent City area. Surf smelt
shore, however, as smelt are a common bycatch in the
(and night smelt) are sold fresh in the coastal markets or
shrimp shery.
sold to aquariums as feed for sh and marine mammals.
The sport shery primarily uses techniques and A-frame Status of the Population
nets similar to the commercial shery. Beach seines
The shery for surf smelt may be decreasing while
(“jump nets”) up to 20 feet long (with mesh sizes of at
landings for night smelt have increased. Landings have
least 7/8 inch) are also legal in the sport shery, as are
dropped from over 800,000 pounds (1995 to 1997), to
cast nets (Hawaiian throw nets). The sport catch limit for
100,000 pounds in 1998, to just over 12,000 pounds in
smelt is 25 pounds per day, a regulation that has been in
1999. Environmental factors such as seawater temperature
place for many years.
changes (e.g., El Niño) may dramatically affect population
Unfortunately, we have no historical records of the recre- levels. However, given their short life-cycle, excessive
ational catch, although it was estimated to be 400,000 shing could cause smelt populations to plummet in just
pounds, roughly four million smelt, in 1958. Since 1980, two or three years. Heavy recreational use of the beaches
the MRFSS estimate of recreational surf smelt landings in may also compact gravels and crush recently spawned
California averages 86,000 pounds and ranges from 4,500 eggs. It is also possible that the developing eggs may
pounds in 1982 to 197,000 pounds in 1998. These recent depend on water percolating through the gravels from
estimates are less than half the 1958 estimate, perhaps above, so alterations of inowing streams or lagoons may
suggesting that either changes in recreational effort or affect the suitability of the spawning habitat for egg
changes in surf smelt abundance has occurred. It should survival.
be noted that surf smelt was the only smelt to be reported
in any numbers and very few night smelt landings were
Wakasagi
reported. This is unusual since night smelt currently make
up over 50 percent of the commercial shery.
History of the Fishery
In Japan, wakasagi (Hypomesus nipponensis), are a
favored food sh, supporting a highly specialized shery.
Intensive commercial shing and reduced catches stimu-
lated the development of articial propagation techniques
that led to large-scale aquaculture facilities producing mil-
lions of wakasagi annually. This long history of articial
propagation of wakasagi is what made it so easy to trans-
Surf Smelt, Hypomesus pretiosus
port them to California.
Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
474
True Smelts
3.0
millions of pounds landed
2.5 Commercial Landings
1916-1999, Smelts
2.0 Commercial landings include the
Smelts
combined landings of smelts
1.5 and white bait smelts for 1916
through 1969 and the combined
1.0 landings of true smelts, surf
smelts, white bait smelts, and
0.5 night smelts for 1970-1999.
Data Source: DFG Catch Bulletins
0.0 1916 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 and commercial landing receipts.
Status of Biological Knowledge limited food supply. In Japan, most individuals from anad-
romous stocks apparently live one year, spawn, and die,
The wakasagi was imported from Japan to California in
while some freshwater populations may live up to four
1959 by the Department of Fish and Game as a forage
years. In California, wakasagi can live at least two years
sh for salmonids in lakes and reservoirs. At the time, it
and may reach lengths of up to ve inches. They usually
was believed to be the same species as delta smelt. It
spawn from February to May. The presence of hybrids in
was apparently easier to ship wakasagi eggs from Japan
the estuary indicates that wakasagi can interbreed with
than it was to collect and transport live delta smelt from
delta smelt; however, no backcrossed individuals have
the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Its current range in
been observed. The high degree of genetic divergence
California is from Shastina Reservoir, Siskiyou County, in
between the two species suggests that the hybrids may
the northern part of the state to San Luis Reservoir and
be infertile.
parts of the California Aqueduct in the central part of
the state. An initial introduction in southern California
Status of the Population
at Big Bear Lake, San Bernardino County, apparently did
The wakasagi is still expanding its range in central Califor-
not survive. It is common in Lake Oroville on the Feather
nia and the consequences of this introduction may not yet
River and Folsom Lake on the American River, two large
be fully realized. It is a threat to delta smelt not only
water storage facilities in which water is released in
because it can interbreed; it may also compete for the
large amounts for transport down the Sacramento River
same food items and spawning locations, and possibly prey
to the water diversions in the southern delta. Since 1995,
on its larvae. The rst known observation of a wakasagi
wakasagi, in small numbers, have been widely distributed
in the estuary was in 1974. Since then, the number of
throughout the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary.
observations of individuals has increased although large
The wakasagi has been well studied in Japan due to its
densities of wakasagi are still rare.
demand as a favored food item, but little was known
Now that wakasagi are rmly established in the estuary,
about it in California until recently. Once the wakasagi
protective measures for delta smelt have become much
became established in the estuary and its potential as a
more difcult to manage due to the physical similarity
threat to delta smelt realized, research on the species
of the two species, particularly at small sizes. Regular
increased dramatically. In Japan, it can be either anad-
accounting of delta smelt catch is required of projects
romous or resident in fresh water. In California, it has
that export water out of the delta so they do not exceed
been well established in cold-water reservoirs and now
a “take limit” (i.e., allowable number of delta smelt
appears to survive in estuarine conditions as well
that can be killed which is established to limit project
as in the warm-water reservoirs of the California Aque-
impacts). At the state and federal water diversions, which
duct. Wakasagi are able to tolerate a wider range of
may draw in and kill tens of thousands of young-of-
salinities and temperatures than delta smelt. They are
the-year smelts (delta smelt, wakasagi, longn smelt)
also faster swimmers and are much more tolerant of
daily in the spring, “real time” identication of small
stressful conditions.
smelt becomes nearly impossible. Regulated water diver-
Wakasagi are opportunistic planktivores, feeding mainly
sions are allowed until the established take limit is
on planktonic copepods. In the Sacramento-San Joaquin
exceeded. Then diversions are further restricted reducing
estuary, they feed on the same food items as delta smelt
the amount of water that is exported. Thus, timely identi-
and represent a competitive threat to the delta smelt’s
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 475
cation of delta smelt is a necessity since reductions in apparently spawn repeatedly during the season, dashing
True Smelts
exports may be very costly. in to release their eggs among crowds of eager males.
The fertilized eggs stick to the gravel and hatch in about
two weeks.
Night Smelt
Status of the Population
History of the Fishery While night smelt has become the predominant smelt
in the commercial landings in the 1990s, averaging over
Night smelt (Spirinchus starksi) are also taken in large
800,000 pounds per year, we know very little about the
numbers, both in the commercial and sport sheries, in
status of the population. Given the short life-cycle, exces-
much the same ways as surf smelt. Although night smelt
sive shing could cause smelt populations to plummet in
are smaller in size and spawn only at night, they represent
just two or three years. Heavy recreational use of the
over 50 percent of the total commercial smelt landings
beaches may also compact gravels and crush recently
valued at over two million dollars in the 1990s. Landings
spawned eggs. It is also possible that the developing eggs
averaged over 1.2 million pounds annually from 1994 to
may depend on water percolating through the gravels
1996. Like surf smelt, night smelt are caught mainly with
from above, so alterations of inowing streams or lagoons
A-frame dip nets. Most are caught in the area around
may affect the suitability of the spawning habitat for
Eureka, which accounts for about 60 percent of all com-
egg survival.
mercial smelt landings. Crescent City landings make up
an additional 33 percent. Night smelt are either sold for
consumption as fresh sh or shipped to aquariums for
Longfin Smelt
consumption by sh, birds, and mammals.
Catches of night smelt in the sport shery, as reported
History of the Fishery
in the MRFSS data, are surprisingly small since they now
Longn smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys) were once har-
make up the bulk of the commercial smelt catch. This may
vested along with delta smelt in the Sacramento-San Joa-
be due to limited angler contact at night when the major-
quin estuary for Chinese markets in San Francisco. There
ity of landings takes place. The largest catch estimate was
is currently no longn smelt shery in California, however
131 pounds in 1986, less than one-tenth of one percent of
it is often bycatch in the bay shrimp shery.
the total sport smelt catch for that year.
Status of Biological Knowledge
Status of Biological Knowledge
The longn smelt is a pelagic, estuarine sh, which ranges
Night smelt range in distribution from Point Arguello in
from Monterey Bay to Alaska. In California, it has histori-
central California to Alaska. Like surf smelt, night smelt
cally been collected in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estu-
are schooling, plankton-feeding sh that are important
ary, Russian River estuary, Humboldt Bay, and the Eel,
prey for other shes as well as marine mammals and birds.
Klamath, and Smith rivers. It is also often collected in the
They rarely exceed six inches in length or three years
coastal waters of the Gulf of the Farallones particularly
in age.
during late summer and fall.
Spawning has been recorded from January through Sep-
tember on the same beaches as those used by surf smelt.
Much of the spawning takes place earlier in the season
than the spawning of surf smelt; so it is likely that most of
the smelt catch before June is night smelt, with surf smelt
90
the predominant species in the summer. However, both
Longfin Smelt Abundance Indicies
80
species have been observed using the same beaches on 70
thousands of fish
the same day, with night smelt spawning at night and surf 60
50
smelt spawning during the day. Peaks of spawning occur
40
between dusk and midnight on outgoing tides, although 30
night smelt spawning seems much less tied to tidal height 20
10
than is the spawning of surf smelt. A distinguishing feature
0
of night smelt spawning aggregations is the prevalence of 1967 1970 1980 1990 1999
males close to shore (and in the shore shery). The male Fall Midwater Trawl Abundance Indicies
to female ratio early in the season is eight-to-one, but by 1967-1999, Longfin Smelt
the end of the season it is nearly 100-to-one. The ratio is Data Source: DFG Central Valley Bay-Delta Branch. Indices for 1974 and 1979 were
close to one to one in offshore catches of smelt. Females not available.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
476
In the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, longn smelt are increases in predation, reductions in food availability sub-
True Smelts
widely distributed in the brackish parts of the estuary sequent to invasions by exotic species.
ranging in salinities from 14 to 28 ppt. Adults feed mainly Resident populations in coastal estuaries along the north-
on the opossum shrimp, while juveniles prefer copepods. ern coast of California have declined dramatically or all
Longn smelt live up to three years and reach lengths of but disappeared since the 1970s. Once common in Hum-
six inches, but most spawning adults are two years old and boldt Bay, longn smelt have only been observed in very
about four inches in length. Longn smelt are anadromous small numbers in the mid-1990s. In addition, sporadic col-
and spawning takes place in the freshwater or slightly lections of longn smelt from the Eel River estuary and
brackish portions of the estuary from December through the Klamath River occurred in the mid-1990s. There have
April. Females produce between 5,000 and 24,000 eggs, been no recent observations in the Smith River. Although
which are adhesive and attach to the substrate. Hatching the causes of these declines in these northern estuaries
takes place in up to 40 days depending on the water are not known, they may be similar to the causes of the
temperature. This winter to early spring spawning period decline in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary.
results in larvae hatching at times when freshwater out-
Because of the severe decline in abundance of longn
ows out of the estuary are highest. Early-stage larvae
smelt in California in the early 1990s, the USFWS was
are surface oriented and are transported long distances
petitioned to list the longn smelt as a threatened spe-
by surface currents generated as these high freshwater
cies. The petition was denied in 1993, largely on the
ows mix with more saline water. As larvae mature, they
basis that the California populations were not genetically
move to lower portions of the water column at salinities
distinct from abundant and stable populations found
of about 15 ppt where they can maintain their position in
in Washington.
the estuary. Potential predators of longn smelt include
striped bass and inland silversides (eggs and larvae).
Eulachon
The annual abundance of longn smelt in the Sacramento-
San Joaquin estuary is signicantly and positively cor-
related with the amount of freshwater outow during
History of the Fishery
spawning and larval periods. Potential mechanisms for this
The eulachon (Thaleichthys pacicus) is the largest of
strong relationship include a reduction in predation during
smelts found in California. It is also known as candlesh,
periods of high ows, increased habitat availability which
because they are so oily that American Indians once dried
may increase survival by reducing interspecic competi-
them to burn like candles. They are highly prized as a
tion, and increases in nutrient levels which are transferred
food sh, being considered one of the tastiest of the
up the food chain.
smelts. Until the mid-1970s or so, eulachon supported a
Hybrids between longn and delta smelt have been col-
fairly consistent river sport dipnet shery, as well as a
lected in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. However, it
dipnet shery by American Indians. The commercial catch
is unlikely that offspring are fertile since these species are
in California has apparently never been large (maximum
not closely related and no genetic introgression has been
reported landings are 3,000 pounds in 1987), but eulachon
observed. Under certain hydrologic conditions longn and
are important commercially in British Columbia.
delta smelt apparently overlap in their spawn times and
locations. However, it appears that these circumstances
Status of Biological Knowledge
are rare since only a few of these hybrids have been
Eulachon range from central California to Alaska. In Cali-
observed.
fornia, they are found along the coast as far south as
Monterey Bay and seem to prefer the outer continental
Status of the Population
shelf, where they school at depths of 150 to 750 feet.
Longn smelt was once one of the most common shes
They reach a length of up to twelve inches and may live to
in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary; however, abun-
be ve years old. They feed mainly on euphausid shrimps,
dance reached an all time low in 1992, following seven
copepods, and other crustaceans and can reach maturity
years of drought. In the late 1990s, population levels have
in two to three years. They are a very important food for
increased as hydrologic conditions have become wetter
predatory marine animals, including salmon, halibut, cod,
and freshwater outows have increased, however popula-
and sturgeon.
tion levels have not fully recovered to expected levels
Eulachon are anadromous, spending most of their life in
based on the abundance-outow relationship. Additional
the open ocean then migrating to lower reaches of coastal
factors potentially affecting abundance include reductions
streams to spawn in fresh water. The principal spawning
in outows through water exports, entrainment losses
run in California is in the Klamath River, but runs have also
to water diversions, climatic variations, toxic substances,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 477
Status of Population
been recorded in the Mad and Smith Rivers and Redwood
True Smelts
Creek. They spawn in gravelly rifes close to the stream This species seems to be locally abundant and rarely
mouths, rarely ascending more than six or seven miles. enters the shery. However, we have no idea if it was
Most eulachon die after spawning, but a few apparently more abundant in the past or whether current populations
live to spawn a second time. Each female lays about are stable or not.
25,000 eggs which stick to the gravel and hatch in two
to three weeks.
Discussion
Status of Population
C alifornia smelts provide examples at two ends of the
In recent years, eulachon numbers seem to have declined
spectrum of California sheries. At one end are the
drastically; so they are now rare or absent from the Mad
surf smelt and night smelt, which together support a fairly
River and Redwood Creek and scarce in the Klamath River.
large commercial and sport shery. Although the shery is
However, the eulachon and its shery have been largely
one of the largest in California in terms of numbers and
ignored in the past, and so we do not known if the sh are
pounds of sh caught, its value is relatively low. It is
at a low point in a natural population cycle or if they have
also a shery about which surprisingly little is known and
been reduced by human related factors.
could conceivably decline or collapse from a combination
of overexploitation and alterations to the 19 or 20 princi-
Whitebait Smelt pal spawning beaches, which are receiving increasingly
heavy recreational use. At the other end of the sheries
spectrum are delta smelt, longn smelt, eulachon, and
History of the Fishery
whitebait smelt, all species, which once supported sher-
Although about half the commercial smelt catch was ies but that are now in relatively low numbers. One of
called “whitebait smelt,” the species itself (Allosmerus these species has been listed as a threatened species,
elongates) is apparently uncommon throughout its range another was petitioned to be listed, and the other two
or only locally abundant and so it probably infrequently we know so little about that we do not know if these
taken in the shery. populations are in trouble. Three of these species require
fresh water for spawning and their declines are probably
Status of Biological Knowledge all related to alterations of the spawning and rearing
One indication of the scarcity of whitebait smelt is that habitats. It is clear that we need to know much more
comparatively little is known about its biology. Like other about all of California’s smelt, so that they can be man-
smelt, they live in large schools and are voracious feeders aged for sheries of the future and to maintain their
on zooplankton. They tend to favor productive inshore important roles in coastal and estuarine food webs.
areas and bays; however they are only rarely caught in
estuaries or coastal waters. They are collected sporadi-
Management Considerations
cally in San Francisco and San Pablo bays primarily during
winter and spring. Spawning is thought to take place in
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for
sandy, subtidal areas. The Sacramento-San Joaquin estu-
further information on all the true smelts.
ary does not appear to be a spawning area since only
post-larval to adult individuals have been collected there.
Young-of-the-year remain translucent and are considered Dale A. Sweetnam and Randall D. Baxter
“post-larval” until they are almost three inches in length. California Department of Fish and Game
They live one to three years and reach lengths of seven
Peter B. Moyle
inches. The succession of even year classes in San Fran-
University of California, Davis
cisco Bay may suggest a two-year maturity schedule.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
478
References Moyle. P.B., B. Herbold, D.E. Stevens, and L. Miller.
True Smelts
1991. Life history and status of the Delta smelt in the
Aasen, G.A., D.A. Sweetnam, and L.M. Lynch. 1998. Estab- Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc
lishment of the wakasagi, Hypomesus nipponensis, in the 121:67-77.
Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. California Fish and Game
Stanely, S.E., P.B. Moyle, and H.B. Schaffer. 1995. Allozime
84:31-35.
analysis of delta smelt, Hypomesus transpacicus, and
Baxter, R.D. 1999. Osmeridae. Pages 179-215 in James longn smelt, Spirinchus thaleichthys in the Sacramento-
Orsi, editor. Report on the 1980-1995 sh, shrimp, and San Joaquin estuary. Copeia. 1995: 390-396.
crab sampling in the San Francisco estuary, California.
Sweetnam, D.A. 1999. Status of delta smelt in the Sacra-
Interagency Ecological Program Technical Report 63.
mento-San Joaquin estuary. California Fish and Game 85
Bennett, W.A. and P.B. Moyle. 1995. Where have all the 22-27.
shes gone? Interactive factors producing sh declines in
Trenham, P.C., H.B. Shaffer and P.B. Moyle. 1998. Bio-
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. In, San Francisco Bay
chemical identication and population subdivision in mor-
the urbanized ecosystem. J.T. Hollibaugh, editor. AAAS
phologically similar native and invading species (Hypome-
Symposium volume. 519-542.
seus) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary, California.
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1971. Marine food and Transaction of the American Fisheries Society 27:417-424.
game shes of California. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press. 177
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Sacramento-San Joa-
pp.
quin Delta Native Fishes Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and
Moyle, P.B. in PRESS. Inland shes of California, 2nd edi- Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon. 195 pp.
tion. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 479
Bay and Estuarine Finfish
Commercial Landings Recreational Catch
Bay and Estuarine Finfish
Pacific True Pacific True Striped
Smelts1 Smelts1
Herring Herring Bass
No. of Fish1,2
Year Pounds Pounds Year Pounds Pounds Year
1916 2,928,591 1,153,306 1980 17,447,200 560,437 1960 30,856
1917 7,435,997 1,107,349 1981 13,442,600 425,506 1961 42,357
1918 7,938,280 932,841 1982 23,433,040 698,396 1962 39,682
1919 4,289,899 762,895 1983 17,825,400 310,726 1963 58,551
1920 274,364 744,865 1984 8,973,600 482,563 1964 34,163
1921 542,124 770,302 1985 16,943,800 1,075,513 1965 16,488
1922 341,621 914,147 1986 16,816,400 633,716 1966 44,869
1923 383,950 874,198 1987 18,569,200 928,798 1967 23,794
1924 435,620 844,395 1988 19,369,600 867,271 1968 23,058
1925 862,974 822,637 1989 20,339,200 745,147 1969 20,091
1926 453,607 968,680 1990 17,944,200 900,527 1970 15,269
1927 1,168,321 1,100,070 1991 15,942,800 1,345,154 1971 13,381
1928 1,139,682 1,061,302 1992 13,476,400 903,908 1972 31,690
1929 957,563 1,176,214 1993 9,552,200 1,112,876 1973 21,120
1930 717,634 1,229,582 1994 6,496,600 1,912,447 1974 41,561
1931 685,759 1,216,305 1995 10,256,600 2,032,352 1975 17,561
1932 765,724 1,032,756 1996 14,551,200 2,075,415 1976 10,677
1933 601,445 825,453 1997 20,117,400 1,741,649 1977 8,263
1934 801,601 838,173 1998 5,347,200 503,118 1978 2,609
1935 933,285 1,039,825 1999 4,834,400 563,369 1979 7,370
1936 840,530 1,038,969 1980 1,391
1937 631,330 768,247 1981 2,985
1938 504,884 674,585 1982 3,646
1
1939 302,242 641,819 True smelts includes the combined commercial land- 1983 14,206
1940 453,193 576,809 ing categories of smelt and white bait smelt for 1984 13,524
1941 789,753 583,841 1916 through 1969 and the combined commercial 1985 9,686
1942 190,815 603,197 landing categories of true smelts, surf smelts, white 1986 8,572
1943 630,358 1,707,640 bait smelt, and night smelt for 1970 through 1999. 1987 8,858
1944 422,255 1,810,469 1988 10,415
1945 460,465 2,660,732 1989 2,167
1946 481,776 1,137,813 1990 2,356
1947 1,654,850 1,039,926 1991 4,427
1948 8,002,692 1,004,595 1992 5,274
1949 379,311 957,380 1993 1,687
1950 1,425,351 798,575 1994 2,247
1951 4,923,655 1,257,719 1995 3,102
1952 9,495,386 798,794 1996 6,096
1953 7,801,928 849,408 1997 7,368
1954 911,906 876,508 1998 19,720
1955 1,946,521 994,730 1999 10,774
1956 1,735,776 615,153
1957 1,188,080 615,072
1
1958 1,726,966 856,669 All data presented in number of fish caught.
2
1959 1,727,013 826,353 Ocean and San Francisco Bay recreational catch;
1960 1,800,672 597,757 Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta receational catches
1961 1,401,248 827,117 are not included until 1964.
1962 1,305,569 527,855
1963 630,087 506,536
1964 349,270 605,254
1965 516,319 517,547
1966 241,973 684,716
1967 271,902 791,669
1968 357,869 681,123
1969 170,532 574,910
1970 315,968 811,364
1971 240,936 495,153
1972 115,748 703,656
1973 2,813,267 1,307,180
1974 5,252,676 768,844
1975 2,433,676 648,325
1976 4,858,113 627,416
1977 9,301,000 878,206
1978 11,387,000 372,317
1979 9,373,600 546,843
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
480
Bay and Estuarine
Plants: Overview The economic value of bay and estuarine wetlands and
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview
subtidal habitats is considered to be among the highest
of all natural resources. Such habitats support commercial
F rom a biological perspective, no other complex is more
harvests of sh and shellsh and provide millions of days
important to bay and estuary ecosystems than their
of recreational shing and waterfowl hunting each year.
plant communities. Whether discussing tidal wetlands,
On a global level, such plant communities help stabilize
shallow subtidal habitat, or marine algae, plant communi-
available nitrogen, atmospheric sulfur, carbon dioxide, and
ties and the habitats they form are vital to the function
methane. In the crowded urban environment, where many
and health of bays and estuaries. Two important plant
remnant populations of bay and estuary plant communities
components within the bay and estuary setting are the
exist, such habitats contribute to open space and are a
tidal wetland, and the subtidal eelgrass (Zostera marina)
valuable aesthetic asset. A recent economic assessment of
and Gracilaria spp. communities. While these two plant
California’s wetlands conducted by the California Coastal
groupings are small fractions of the bay and estuarine
Commission established annual benets valued at between
plant assemblage and do not occur in all bays and estu-
$6.3 billion and $22.9 billion.
aries of the state, they are signicant contributors to
the overall productivity and species diversity of these
ecosystems. Other commonly occurring bay and estuarine Eric J. Larson
plant communities, such as phytoplankton, algal mats, California Department of Fish and Game
and sea lettuce are not addressed by this report, but are
important food contributors and principal components of
these ecosystem carbon budgets.
Bay and estuary ecosystems are the probably the most
impacted and altered environments of the California
coastline. Most of the state’s bay and estuary ecosystems
are intensively urbanized, serving as centers for industry,
agriculture, and commerce. The impacts of such anthropo-
genic activities are acutely evident within the bay and
estuarine plant communities. The loss of tidal and sub-
tidal wetland habitats on a statewide level is substantial.
Where once vast mosaics of tidal wetlands predominated,
agriculture, housing, or other developments have been
formed from lands diked from the bay or lled. Similarly,
losses of subtidal plant communities are accelerating
worldwide. In southern California, it has been estimated
that as little as ten percent of the historical distribution
of eelgrass remains. In the majority of cases, once bay
and estuary plant communities are destroyed they are lost
forever. Some restoration has occurred throughout the
coastal region of California with signicant efforts focused
on southern California, particularly within Mission and San
Diego bays and the reopening of Bataquitos Lagoon to
tidal ow. However, in most cases, the goal remains one
of preservation.
Bay and estuary plant communities provide critical habi-
tats, which support a diverse array of sh and wildlife
including species that are in danger of extinction. The
diverse structure of bay and estuarine plants also helps
to improve water quality, protect lands from ooding,
provide energy to the marine and estuarine food web,
and stabilize shorelines against erosion. Studies have
found that subtidal plant communities are also principal
contributors to primary productivity within bay and
estuary ecosystems.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 481
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
482
Coastal Wetlands -
Emergent Marshes the lowest zone of a salt marsh. This lower marsh zone
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
occurs from approximately mean sea level to the line of
mean high tide.
General Description
The middle zone of a tidal marsh occurs from approxi-
Wetlands are broadly dened as the transitional lands mately the line of mean high tide to the mean higher high
that occur between the terrestrial and aquatic systems tide line and is characterized by the occurrence of pickle-
where the water table is usually at or near the surface, weed (Salcornia sp.). Pickleweed is less tolerant of tidal
or the land is covered by shallow water. There are ve inundation than cordgrass, but is the most dominant plant
major systems of wetlands — marine, estuarine, riverine, of California tidal wetlands. Jaumea (Jaumea carnosa) also
lacustrine (lake), and palustrine (freshwater marsh). This occurs, but to a lesser extent within the middle zone of
paper discusses California’s marine and estuarine wetland California’s coastal marshes.
systems. However, it should be noted that all ve systems
The upper zone of a tidal marsh is dened by the line of
occur in the state, all of which serve important roles as
mean higher high tide to extreme high tide. This upper
sh and wildlife habitat and in many ways are ecologically
zone of a salt marsh may only be inundated infrequently,
tied to one another.
in some locations as little as once or twice annually. Such
One of the most widely used and comprehensive wetland innundation usually occurs during the spring tide cycle
classication system was developed for the U.S. Fish and (highest annual tides) and during severe storm events.
Wildlife Service and is referred to as the Cowardin deni- The upper zone of the tidal marsh is characterized by
tion. This classication system denes wetlands as having the dominance of salt grass (Distichlis spicata) which toler-
one or more of the following three attributes: 1) at ates only occasional tidal inundation. This upper area
least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydro- of marshes contains the largest plant species diversity
phytes; 2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric of the three zones. Species such as fat hen (Atriplex
soil; and 3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with patula), sand spurrey (Spergularia marina), marsh rose-
water or covered by shallow water at some time during mary (Limonium californicum), brass buttons (Cotula cor-
the growing season of each year. Although this system nopifolia), can be found within the upper zone of salt
is commonly used to classify wetlands, regulatory agen- marshes throughout California. In the southern portion of
cies such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the the state, species such as Australian salt bush (Atriplex
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and other public semibaccata), sea-bite (Suaeda californica and Suaeda fru-
agencies use varying denition when regulating the dis- ticosa), shoregrass (Monanthochloe littoralis), and salt
charge of dredged or ll material or other alterations to marsh bird’s beak (Cordylanthus sp.) can be found within
wetland areas. the upper salt marsh zone.
The term “tidal wetland” refers to areas that are covered The zonation of marshes in southern California is some-
with shallow intermittent tidal waters. Coastal tidal wet- what more complex than that described above. Southern
lands in the California include a number of natural com- California salt marshes lack expansive stands of cordgrass;
munities that share the unique combination of aquatic, instead they are dominated by succulents. Within the
semi-aquatic, and terrestrial habitats that result from Mugu Lagoon, Anaheim Bay, Newport Bay, Mission Bay,
periodic ooding by tidal waters, rainfall, and runoff. San Diego Bay, and the Tijuna River estuary, zones of
These coastal wetlands, also referred to as salt marshes, saltwort (Batis maritima) and annual pickleweed (Salcor-
provide a vital link between land and open sea, exporting
nutrients and organic material to ocean waters. Wetlands
also help to improve water quality, protect lands from
ooding, provide energy to the estuarine and marine food
webs, and help stabilize shorelines against erosion.
Tidal wetlands are dominated by a community of plants
that are tolerant of wet, saline soils, and are generally
found in low-lying coastal habitats which are periodically
wet and usually saline to hypersaline. In fact, no other
feature denes a salt marsh better than the plant com-
munities that form there. The location of plant species
within a salt marsh is dened by zone, with cordgrass
(Spartina foliosa) forming the most seaward edge of the
emergent marsh plant community. Of the thousands of Carpinteria Salt Marsh, Santa Barbara Co.
plant species in North America, only cordgrass thrives in Credit: USEPA, 1995
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 483
Status of Biological Knowledge
nia bigelovii) integrate with cordgrass in the lower zone
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
and perennial pickleweed (Salcornia virginica) and other
Literature on wetland science addresses a broad range
middle zone plant species occur at higher than normal
of topic and setting, and much has also been written
elevations in these and other southern California marshes.
specic to California’s estuarine and coastal wetlands.
In addition to the plant communities, other dening char-
Programs such as the San Francisco Bay National Estuary
acteristics often associated with California’s tidal wet-
Project, San Francisco Bay Baylands Ecosystem Habitat
lands include mudats, tidal creeks, intertidal channels
Goals Project, and organizations such as the Pacic Estua-
and sloughs, salt ats, and shallow pannes. Fresh water
rine Research Laboratory, state and private universities,
inows are also often found in many of the state’s coastal
and numerous state and federal resource agencies have
wetland areas, adding to the diversity of habitat types and
contributed extensively to the knowledge base of Califor-
associated species use.
nia’s coastal wetland ecosystems. This is not to say that
Many of California’s coastal wetlands are estuarine salt
questions do not remain about the functions and science
marshes. These salt marshes, associated mudats, and
of the state’s coastal wetlands.
eelgrass beds develop along the shores of protected estua-
Scientic study in the eld of wetland science is ongoing.
rine bays and river mouths, as well as in more marine-
The role that the state’s coastal wetland habitats play
dominated bays and lagoons. Overall, the state’s tidal
in the support of sh and wildlife resources is an area
and estuarine wetland ecosystems provide some form of
of extensive research, particularly in the effects of, and
food, shelter, or other benets to nearly a thousand spe-
techniques for enhancement and restoration. Many of the
cies of sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and a
coastal wetland restoration projects undertaken within
multitude of invertebrates. During peak annual migration
the state include research and monitoring aspects within
periods, hundreds of thousands of birds migrating along
the project designs. Such analyses are vital to the overall
the Pacic Flyway descend upon the state’s estuarine
knowledge base of wetland science and are critical to the
wetlands in search of refuge and food.
improvement of subsequent wetland restoration activities.
California’s tidal wetlands also provide habitat for an array
of endangered species, including the salt marsh harvest
Status of the Habitat
mouse, California clapper rail, certain runs of salmon, and
wetlands plants such as a species of salt marsh birds peak.
Human inuence along California’s coastline has a long
Wetlands produce an abundant yield of vegetation, which
history. The effect of this history is evidenced by the
in turn provides the basis for a complex food chain nour-
profound alteration of the natural environment, most pro-
ishing a rich assortment of living organisms. The diversity
nounced of which are the modication of the shallow-
and abundance of organisms in coastal wetlands is remark-
water habitats within the state’s bays and estuaries and
able, given the often extreme and variable conditions
the staggering loss of coastal wetlands. The total loss
that can occur. Bacteria, protozoa, algae, vascular plants,
of California coastal wetlands is estimated at ve million
invertebrates, amphibians, sh, birds, and mammals can
acres. This represents some 91 percent of the historic
all be found within the state’s coastal wetland ecosys-
wetland acreage present before 1850. Although the entire
tems, and together comprise the biotic community of the
coastline of the state has experienced losses of coastal
wetland. Many of these organisms are dependent on the
wetland habitat, the largest losses are believed to have
wetland for their existence, either spending their entire
occurred in the San Francisco Bay estuary and along the
lives in the wetland, or spending a critical portion of their
southern coast of the state.
life cycle in the wetland.
A variety of activities have contributed to the dramatic
loss of California’s wetlands. These include diking, lling,
draining, and vegetation removal for agricultural uses;
Estimated Estimated Estimated
Original Remaining Percent
diking and lling for residential, commercial, and indus-
Acreage Acreage Reduction
Region
trial development; placement of ll material for road and
Northern Coast unknown 31,300 unknown
pad construction associated with oil and gas exploration
Central Coast unknown 3,800 unknown
and development; lling and other associated construction
San Francisco Bay 93,000 54%
for roads, highways, and railways; dredging and lling
(tidal and mudflat)
200,000
for port and marina development; and channelization and
Southern Coast 53,000 13,100 75%
lling for ood control purposes. Coastal wetland losses,
Statewide 5,000,000 450,000 91%
including those historically occurring within bays and estu-
Historic Losses of California Coastal Wetlands
aries, throughout the state are primarily attributed to
Historic Losses of California Coastal Wetlands
Source: Procedural Guidance for the Review of Wetland Projects in California’s
Wetland Projects in California’s Coastal urban development. Although state and federal regula-
Source: Procedural Guidance for the Review of Zone, California Coastal Commision.
Coastal
Zone, California Coastal Commission.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
484
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
Principle Coastal Wetlands of California
tions, as well as social pressures have reduced activities alteration of natural fresh and salt water inows to the
that cause wetland losses, many are still occurring. Much state’s estuaries and wetland areas.
of the current loss of wetlands is attributed to a lingering The Bolsa Chica wetlands in the Huntington Beach commu-
legacy of past development, such as continued use of nity is a site of recent controversy over wetland develop-
wetland areas for agriculture, or expansion of existing ment and is an example of one of southern California’s
urban and industrial complexes within wetland habitats. continuing struggles with the preservation of remnant
Secondary or indirect impacts also have contributed to coastal wetlands. The Bolsa Chica wetlands are the largest
the continued loss of coastal wetlands, including point and stretch of unprotected coastal marshland south of San
non-point source storm and wastewater discharges, and Francisco, and provide 1,100 acres of wetland habitat, sup-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 485
porting many species of plants, sh, and wildlife, includ- them, and as aesthetic, functional, environmentally nec-
Coastal Wetlands - Emergent Marshes
ing several endangered species of birds, such as the Cali- essary elements. In fact, tidal wetland protection and res-
fornia least tern, light-footed clapper rail, Belding’s Savan- toration activities have become front-page news in many
nah sparrow, and peregrine falcon. Southern California areas of the state and funding sources, once unobtainable,
once had over 53,000 acres of coastal wetland areas. are now becoming increasingly available. Even with such
This number is now down to approximately 13,000 acres. changes in the political, economical, and environmental
Such wetland losses have contributed to a decline in settings, much work needs to be done to recapture
California’s wintering bird population. Once estimated to and protect California’s tidal wetland habitats. Additional
be about 60 million, yway populations now uctuates research and continued monitoring of existing wetland
between two and four million waterfowl, one and two restoration projects are needed to build and contribute to
million shorebirds. For the Pacic Flyway as a whole, the database on how best to address and undertake these
there has been some improvement in recent years, partly activities. Additionally, methods need to be developed to
because of the end of a multi-year drought in the northern address problems which could lead to the further loss of
breading areas, but also because of the efforts made at coastal wetland areas due to the anticipated rising sea-
restoring California’s coastal and inland wetlands. level, and other factors such as invasive species. Further
public education, community involvement, and political
In many ways, the degree and type of tidal wetland
action are needed.
habitat losses within the San Francisco Bay estuary reect
what has occurred in the state. Early reclamation activi-
ties resulted in the draining and diking of tidal, freshwa- Eric J. Larson
ter, and brackish marshes in the San Francisco Delta, as California Department of Fish and Game
well as around Suisun Bay and San Pablo Bay. Much of this
reclaimed land was cultivated for agricultural purposes.
References
Additionally, the construction of salt production facilities
resulted in the conversion of thousands of acres of tidal
California Coastal Commission. 1987. California coastal
marsh to permanent salt pond operations. At the end of
resources guide. 384 pp.
World War II, urbanization of the San Francisco Bay Area
resulted in the conversion of intertidal and subtidal habi- Faber, P.M. 1990. Common wetland plants of California: a
tats to urbanized uplands. As a result of these wetland eld guide for the layman. Pickleweed Press. 110 pp.
conversion activities, it is estimated that 95 percent of
Goals Project. 1999. Baylands ecosystem habitat goals. A
the estuary’s tidal marshes have been leveed or lled.
report of habitat recommendations prepared by the San
Some of the converted wetland areas, such as salt ponds
Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project.
and diked lowlands, remain as wetland habitat, but of
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, CA.
a different type, offering substantially altered functions
and San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
than that which existed before conversion. At present,
Board, Oakland, CA.
it is estimated that less than 38,000 acres of tidal wet-
Josselyn, M. 1983. The ecology of San Francisco Bay tidal
lands remain in the San Francisco Bay estuary, with an
marshes: a community prole. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
additional mudat habitat of approximately 65,000 acres,
vice, Biological Services Program. Washington D.C. FWS/
diked seasonal wetland habitat of approximately 58,000
OBS-82/23.
acres, and salt ponds and salt crystallization facilities of
approximately 36,500 acres of non-tidal wetland habitat. Josselyn, M., L. Handley, M. Quammen, and D. Peters.
1994. The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitat
Losses and alteration impacts of tidal wetland habitat
in San Francisco Bay Region. NWRC Open File 94-04. U.S.
associated with coastal inlets and riverine estuaries along
Department of Interior National Biological Survey, Wash-
the California coast have also been great. Many of the
ington D.C.
state’s historical wetland areas of this type have been lost
or reduced in size due to direct impacts such as channel- Resources Agency of California. 1997. California’s ocean
ization, dredging and continued breaching of outer sand- resources: an agenda for the future. State of California,
bars for ood control, and marina and harbor construc- Resources Agency, Sacramento.
tion. However, off-site activities including water diversion
Zedler, J.B. 1982. The ecology of southern California
and sediment inputs associated with watershed alterations
coastal salt marshes: a community prole. U.S. Fish and
including logging and agricultural cultivation also have
Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program. Washington
signicantly impacted California’s coastal tidal wetlands.
D.C. FWS/OBS-81/54.
California’s remaining coastal wetlands are highly valued
as habitat for the multitude of species that depend on
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
486
Submerged
Aquatic Plants nutrients. Organic material from natural decomposition
Submerged Aquatic Plants
processes or human inuences are ltered and collected
by eelgrass leaves and turions, providing a nutrient source
Eelgrass for the eelgrass bed community. Nutrients that otherwise
would accumulate in the sediments or be ushed out
to sea may thereby be retained and recycled within the
Introduction estuarine ecosystem.
Worldwide there are more than 50 species of vascular
The decline in eelgrass communities during the 1930s
plants capable of inhabiting the shallow saline waters of
and 1940s encouraged the initiation of studies to gain a
the estuarine environment. The most common of these
better understanding of this vital estuarine habitat. In
species, occurring in full-strength seawater, are the sea-
recent years, the importance of eelgrass communities has
grasses. One of the most studied seagrasses in temperate
resurfaced as a signicant measure of the health of bays
and tropical regions is eelgrass (Zostera spp.). The eel-
and estuaries. Some protection of this ecosystem has been
grass commonly found in North America, Z. marina, is
afforded over the years through management practices
widely distributed in the temperate zones of both coasts.
that protect it through disturbance avoidance or in-kind
Along the U.S. Pacic Coast, Z. marina occurs from Alaska
replacement mitigation. In southern California further pro-
to Baja California. Another species, Z. asiatica, is also
tection as also been provided by the implementation of
found in a number of locations on the west coast of North
the multi-agency Southern California Eelgrass Mitigation
America including offshore of the Santa Barbara area in
Policy of 1991 which is routinely included within permit
California at depths up to 45 feet.
conditions of both the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
Eelgrass beds are generally regarded as highly productive California Coastal Commission. While this policy was spe-
habitats that support a rich assemblage of sh species cically designed to address eelgrass impacting projects
and provide a refuge area for larval and juvenile shes. in southern California, its principals have, at times, also
Eelgrass habitat is also a very important resource for been applied permit conditions for projects occurring in
a variety of birds. It is associated with rich bottom
fauna important to waterbirds, especially diving birds
and mollusc-eaters. In California’s bays and estuaries
north of Monterey Bay, eelgrass provides spawning habi-
tat for Pacic herring. Large numbers of waterbirds
such as scoters, bufehead, scaup, goldeneyes, Ameri-
can coots, eat eggs deposited onto eelgrass by Pacic
herring during the mid-winter spawn. In addition, many
birds such as surface-feeding ducks and other waterfowl,
including the black brant, feed directly on eelgrass.
The location, abundance and health of eelgrass appear
to be highly sensitive to changes in environmental condi-
tions. For example, in the decade of 1935 to 1945,
eelgrass beds on the north coasts of America and Europe
suffered a substantial decline in abundance. The cause
of this decline remains unknown but has been ascribed
to a variety of causes ranging from parasitic infection by
slime mold and fungus to greater than normal changes in
rainfall or seawater temperature. A population decline
in a wide variety of marine organisms dependent on
eelgrass habitat was also seen during this period. Addi-
tionally, changes in bottom topography occurred in the
affected eelgrass bed areas as currents and wave action
reworked formerly stable bottom sediments. Recovery
occurred slowly, due to the diminished and scattered
distribution of individual plants resulting in reduced
vegetative propagation and seed production.
Aside from its interaction in the marine and estuarine
Eelgrass, Zostera marina
food webs, eelgrass assumes an important role in cycling
Credit: DFG
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 487
northern California. The continued decline of important in Agua Hedionda Lagoon in southern California has
Submerged Aquatic Plants
sh species may serve to offer additional protection for also demonstrated the ability of an invasive species to
the state’s eelgrass communities by designation of this displace eelgrass.
habitat type as critical habitat under federal laws, admin- Once disturbed, eelgrass bed recovery or recolonization is
istered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the slow and may not be possible without reestablishment
National Marine Fisheries Service. of favorable growth conditions. The decline of seagrass
and related aquatic vegetation has reached and alarming
Status of Biological Knowledge state worldwide. Studies show documented plant losses
in the United States that have approached or exceeded
The recognition of the importance of eelgrass within the
three-quarters of the historic distribution. Further, the
bay and estuarine ecosystem has provided a focus of
importance of genetic distribution in the population
scientic research and resource management for several
dynamics of aquatic plants has in the past largely been
decades. Early last century researchers on both coasts col-
ignored in restoration and conservation efforts. Studies
lected an array of information on water and air tempera-
in southern California found signicantly reduced genetic
tures along with plant data over a several year period.
diversity in eelgrass beds that were reestablished through
Additionally, measurements of eelgrass standing stock
transplants or that otherwise became established in previ-
have been conducted throughout the Northern Hemi-
ously disturbed locations. Reduced genetic diversity in the
sphere including the West Coast of North America.
transplanted sites corresponded in general to a smaller
The distribution of eelgrasses within bay and estuarine size and younger plant age than in undisturbed sites,
ecosystems is dependent on a variety of parameters, although this characteristic effect on the eelgrass com-
including light, temperature, salinity, substrate, waves and munity is not fully understood. However, there was no
currents, nutrients, and availability of seed. Most com- evidence that genetic diversity increased in transplanted
monly, estuarine seagrasses are found in soft sediments sites over time. It is likely that this genetic diversity
of semi-sheltered areas where depth and turbidity condi- problem occurs in many areas of the state where eelgrass
tions allow sufcient light. The typical depth distribution bed disturbances commonly take place.
of eelgrass is throughout the inter- and subtidal-zones.
The maximum standing crop occurs just below mean low
Status of the Beds
water. Maximum biomass occurs at depths corresponding
to 20 to 30 percent surface-light intensity. Distribution Along the Pacic coastline of California, eelgrass is found
and abundance of eelgrass also appear to be inuenced to some degree in all of the larger bays and estuaries,
along the land-sea axis of estuaries by the relative abun- from the Oregon border to San Diego, including Humboldt
dance of nutrients. Nutrient availability is higher at the Bay, Tomales Bay, San Francisco Bay, Monterey Bay, Morro
riverine end of an estuary. However, the mixing zone Bay, and San Diego/Mission Bay. Additionally, eelgrass is
within estuaries also tends to be more turbid. Thus, well established in several of the smaller open estuarine
the relationship between light penetration and nutrient embayments along the state’s coastline. The historical
availability acts with other factors to dene the areas presence of eelgrass along the California coast was much
within estuaries where eelgrass beds become established greater than it is today. Although few records exist that
and thrive. measure the areal extent of eelgrass within the state’s
small coastal estuaries, the condition that existed prior to
Eelgrass is a owering marine plant that grows from rhi-
human disturbances in many of these locations were no
zomes in soft sediment. The establishment and expansion
doubt favorable to eelgrass bed communities.
of eelgrass beds occur through seed production and asex-
ual rhizome propagation. Although their roots and rhi-
Humboldt Bay
zomes help to stabilize sediments where they are estab-
lished, eelgrass beds are highly susceptible to anthro-
Measurements of eelgrass standing stock in Humboldt Bay
pogenic disturbances, particularly substrate disturbances
were conducted in 1972. Distribution was determined
and reduced light penetration. Eelgrass beds are also
by mapping the eelgrass beds through eld surveys and
susceptible to adverse impacts from non-native invasive
light aircraft. Eelgrass standing stock values determined
species. Studies looking at the response of eelgrass to a
through density analyses ranged from 3.1 million pounds
non-indigenous mussel (Musculista senhousia) found that
dry weight in April 1972, to 15.2 million pounds dry weight
eelgrass beds showed a negative response to colonization
in July 1972, with South Humboldt Bay accounting for 78
of this invasive bivalve, particularly where the eelgrass
to 95 percent of the total eelgrass stock. These results
bed was sparse or fragmented, or in beds that
were similar to an earlier assessment in 1962.
had been reestablished. The recent discovery of the
invasive algae Caulerpa taxifolia (Mediterranean strain)
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
488
The differences in densities between the north and south The general locations of the Tomales Bay eelgrass beds
Submerged Aquatic Plants
bays appear to be persistent. A wet-weight density range appear to have been consistent since the early 1970s,
(depending on location) of 0.06 to 0.43 pounds per square although there is some annual uctuation. The density
foot for Humboldt Bay winter eelgrass was estimated in of eelgrass during the winter of 1987-1988 was 0.04 0.55
1979. The study attributed eelgrass density differences pounds per square foot. Similar densities were observed
between the two regions of the bay to variations in sedi- 1973 and 1976. Such densities represent between 70 and
ment composition, and dredging activities in North Hum- 100 percent bottom-coverage. The long-term evaluation of
boldt Bay associated with the commercial cultivation and Tomales Bay eelgrass beds indicates that one bed near the
harvest of oysters, rather than light availability or tidal mouth of the estuary is more ephemeral than any other.
ushing. Localized eelgrass bed density surveys conducted
San Francisco Bay
by the Department of Fish and Game in an effort to
evaluate the biomass of Pacic herring utilizing Humboldt
San Francisco Bay, the largest of California’s estuaries,
Bay eelgrass beds for spawning substrate also noted sig-
is also the most impacted by human development. An
nicantly lower eelgrass densities in North Humboldt Bay
estimated one third of the historic extent of the bay
compared to South Bay during the 2000-2001 commercial
has been lost to ll and development. While estuarine sys-
herring season. Total eelgrass coverage within Humboldt
tems are by nature highly turbid, poor water clarity within
Bay was determined to be 3,053 acres in 1984. Since that
San Francisco Bay is further exacerbated by human activi-
time, a detailed bay-wide eelgrass survey has not been
ties including direct treated industrial and wastewater dis-
conducted. However, the California Department of Fish
charges, non-point source runoff, urban-associated atmo-
and Game, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Humboldt State
spheric deposition, and riverine inow containing urban
University, and others have proposed initiating biannual bay-
and agricultural discharges. Data on the historic areal
wide eelgrass surveys to begin during the summer of 2001.
extent of eelgrass within San Francisco Bay are limited,
although it is believed that it supported extensive eelgrass
Small North Coast Estuaries meadows in the past. Reduced light penetration due to
It is likely that at one time eelgrass predominated along extremely high bay turbidity has been found to limit the
the seaward edge of many of the small estuaries at development of eelgrass and may be the principal cause
the mouth the north coast river systems. Today, due to of its decline in San Francisco Bay. Eelgrass beds in the
human alterations, such as channelization, dredging, and bay today are limited to relatively small patches located in
upstream disturbances that cause increase turbidity and the central bay, Richardson Bay, and the eastern northern-
siltation, eelgrass is limited to but a few such ecosystems. most portions of the south bay. In 1989, the areal extent
Remnant populations are documented within the North of eelgrass beds in San Francisco Bay was estimated to
Coast estuaries that remain open to seawater inuence be 316 acres. Since that time, some eelgrass beds have
year-round, such as the Big River estuary where eelgrass increased in size and new patches have been sited.
forms large beds along muddy banks within the rst three Eelgrass densities are far lower than those of the larger,
miles of the estuary, and the Albion River Estuary, which healthier beds found in Tomales and Humboldt Bays.
also has a well-established eelgrass community. Although the eelgrass beds appear to be stressed, they
have remained persistent in the bay and are heavily uti-
Tomales Bay lized by estuarine organisms.
Eelgrass is the most abundant marine ora in Tomales Bay.
Southern California
Surveys conducted by the California Department of Fish
and Game in 1985, determined the areal extent to be 965 The eelgrass communities found south of San Francisco
acres. Although eelgrass distribution is relatively stable are more heavily impacted by human alteration than those
from year to year in Tomales Bay, densities of eelgrass in northern California. Historical records suggest that eel-
beds are highly variable within and between individual grass was a predominant plant species in the state’s south
beds seasonally. The density and distribution of eelgrass coast estuaries. However, the majority of southern Cali-
within Tomales Bay are determined annually by the Cali- fornia’s remaining eelgrass habitat exists primarily due
fornia Department of Fish and Game as part of the sea- to replanting or recolonization of eelgrass beds in new
sonal herring spawning-ground surveys. Extensive eelgrass or historic locations. Patchy eelgrass communities found
beds are located within Tomales Bay throughout the inter- within the Monterey Bay Area and Morro Bay are two
tidal and subtidal areas, generally in waters less than 12 exceptions. The eelgrass beds within the Monterey Bay
feet mean lower low water between Sand Point and Nicks Area are limited to the estuarine environment of Elkhorn
Cove, and around the immediate bay perimeter on both
shorelines to the vicinity of Millerton Point.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 489
References
Slough and its entrance to the bay. These areas make up a
Submerged Aquatic Plants
total of approximately 50 to 75 acres of eelgrass habitat.
Harding, L.W. and J.H. Butler. 1979. The standing stock
Eelgrass remains the dominant plant in the beds of Morro
and production of eelgrass, Zostera marina, in Humboldt
Bay. The beds there are the largest and least impacted
Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 65(3): 151-158.
of any in the southern portion of the state. Nevertheless,
Hoffman, Robert F. 1986. Fishery utilization of eelgrass
there are wide uctuations in areal extent. By 1997, eel-
(Zostera marina) beds and non-vegetated shallow water
grass distribution reached a historic low of 50 total acres.
areas in San Diego Bay. National Marine Fishery Service,
Further studies in 1998 showed an improvement in eel-
Southwest Region. Administrative Report SWR-86-4.
grass distribution ranging from 81 to 120 acres, depending
Merkel, K.W. and R. S. Hoffman. eds. 1990. Proceedings of
on the season of survey.
the California eelgrass symposium: May 27 and 28, 1988,
Eelgrass bed communities also exist in Los Angeles Harbor,
Chula Vista, California. Sweetwater River Press. 78pp.
Huntington Harbor, and in adjacent coastal areas. Many of
Thayer, G. W, D.A. Wolfe, and R.B. Williams. 1975. The
these have been established through transplant activities
impact of man on seagrass systems. Am. Sci. 63: 288-296.
associated with specic development mitigation require-
ments. Due primarily to suitable light conditions, many Williams, S.L., and C.A. Davis. 1996. Population genetics
of the reestablished areas have met their intended miti- analyses of transplanted eelgrass (Zostera marina) beds
gation goals. However, some reestablishment attempts reveal reduced genetic diversity in southern California.
have been unsuccessful. A complete survey of the areal Restoration Ecology. 4 (2), pp. 163-180.
extent of eelgrass and associated density assessments
Wyllie-Echeverria, S., A.M. Olson, and M.J. Hershman
within this location of the state has not been conducted.
(eds). 1994. Seagrass science and policy in the Pacic
The National Marine Fishery Service and other state and
Northwest: proceedings of a seminar (SMA 94-1). U.S. EPA,
federal resource agencies have conducted cursory surveys
Water Division, Wetlands Section. EPA 910/R-94-004. 63 pp.
of eelgrass in these locations. While formal surveys and
Zimmerman, R. C., J. L. Reguzzoni, S. Wyllie-Echeverria,
reports have not been completed, areas that support
M. Josselyn, and R. S. Alberte. 1991. Assesment of envi-
eelgrass have been identied.
ronmental suitability for growth of Zostera marina L. (eel-
The eelgrass bed communities within San Diego County
grass) in San Francisco Bay. Aquatic Botany. 39: 353-366.
coastal areas have been heavily impacted by urbanization.
All of the bays in this area of the state have been inten-
sively modied. Attendant stresses are evidenced by very
low eelgrass densities. Additionally, many of the eelgrass
communities in San Diego County coastal areas have been
derived through reestablishment efforts or, as in Mission
Bay, through natural colonization of dredged sediments.
The most comprehensive survey conducted for eelgrass in
the San Diego Bay was completed in 2000. This survey fol-
lowed an early bay-wide survey conducted in 1994. Similar
surveys have been completed for Mission Bay, Batiquitos
Lagoon, and Agua Hedionda. The location of eelgrass pres-
ent within Oceanside Harbor has also been documented by
the National Marine Fishery Service.
Management Considerations
See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
ther information.
Eric J. Larson
California Department of Fish and Game
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
490
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis appear to be among the preferred spawning substrates for
Submerged Aquatic Plants
Pacic herring in California waters and may be essential
to herring when other aquatic vegetation is not available.
History of Harvest These beds with herring eggs are an important feeding
area for a variety of marine animals.
Although species in the red algal genera Gracilaria and
Gracilariopsis have been harvested throughout the world
Management Considerations
for agar production and as a food source for humans
and cultured shellsh, only small amounts have been har- See the Management Considerations Appendix A for fur-
vested from the wild in California during the last few ther information.
decades. Between 1965 and 1970, several applications
were made to the Fish and Game Commission for permis-
John Mello
sion to harvest Pacic herring eggs deposited on edible
California Department of Fish and Game
seaweeds for export to Japan, where it is considered a
luxury food item. In 1970, Department of Fish and Game
References
divers conducted a survey to determine the quantity and
composition of the aquatic vegetation in Tomales Bay.
Abbott, I.A. and G.J. Hollenberg. 1976. Marine Algae of
The commission decided to establish one ve-ton harvest
California. Stanford University Press. Stanford.
permit each for Tomales and San Francisco bays. However,
Hardwick, J.E. 1973 Biomass estimates of spawning her-
siltation, which occurs in both bays during the winter
ring. Clupea harrengus pallasii, herring eggs, and associ-
months, lowered the market quality of a large portion
ated vegetation in Tomales Bay. Calif. Fish Game, 59(1)
of the eggs-on-seaweed harvest; as a result, the ve-ton
:36-61
quota was never reached in either bay. The harvest of
herring eggs on wild edible seaweed in Tomales and San Langtry, S.K. and C.A. Jacoby. 1996. Fish and decapod
Francsico bays is now prohibited. crustaceans inhabiting drifting algae in Jervis Bay, New
South Wales. Aust. J. Ecology, v. 21,( n. 3),: 264-271.
Status of Biological Knowledge Spratt, J.D. 1981. The status of the Pacic herring, Clupea
harrengus pallasii, resource in California 1972 to 1980.
Gracilaria pacica and Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis are
Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull.171. 107 p.
commonly found in California’s bays and estuaries. Both
species have numerous brownish-red thin branches loosely
connected to the substrate by a small holdfast and grow
to a maximum height around three feet. Because they
are so similar in appearance and frequently found growing
in the same area, they are often difcult to distinguish.
Gracilaria pacica is commonly found in sheltered inter-
tidal to subtidal locations from Alaska to the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, Mexico. Gracilaria lemaneiformis occurs in areas
exposed to ocean currents as well as protected intertidal
and subtidal areas from Vancouver Island, British Colum-
bia, Canada, to Santa Catalina Island in the Southern
California Bight. Both species are fast growing and, when
detached from the substrate, often form large dense
mats in estuarine areas protected from strong currents. In
Tomales and San Francisco bays, where annual vegetation
density studies are conducted in conjunction with Pacic
herring spawning surveys, Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis
densities uctuate considerably from year to year.
Little is known about the signicance of these species
in bay and estuary ecosystems. One study conducted in
Jarvis Bay, Australia, found relatively low numbers of sh
and decapod species inhabiting drifting Gracilaria spp.
beds when compared to adjacent seagrass beds, suggest-
ing that these beds may not be a critical habitat for estua-
rine macrofauna. However, Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 491
Submerged Aquatic Plants
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
492
Aquaculture:
Overview by a signicant summer-time mortality of unknown cause.
Aquaculture: Overview
Abalone production has been inuenced by mortality
T
from withering syndrome and hampered by regulatory
he commercial culturing of marine species in Califor-
requirements intended to prevent the spread of an exotic
nia is limited primarily to the production of shellsh
parasitic worm. Large numbers of juvenile white seabass
such as oysters, mussels, and abalone. While the culturing
have been destroyed to address disease concerns. In
of nsh for enhancement purposes is well established
each instance, the industry made positive contributions
in California, commercial culturing has been limited in
to cooperative efforts among resource agency disease-
scale and remains focused on solving technical questions
management researchers.
through research. The commercial production of most
cultured shellsh has declined from recent peaks. Oyster Taken as a whole, the industry has ardent entrepreneurial
production is down from a peak in 1994; abalone produc- support, has great economic potential, and has been
tion is down from a peak in 1996; and mussel production a source of signicant positive societal benet. If not
is down from a recent peak in 1997. In several instances, conducted in a resource-sensitive manner, aquaculture
demand exceeded production and the declines reected can also cause negative environmental impacts, by intro-
several ongoing challenges faced by these industries in ducing exotic species, by introducing or contributing to
their efforts to maintain production. More information on the spread of disease, or by altering the natural systems
production levels can be found in the specic sections within which production facilities are located. The key
that follow. to achieving the positive aspects of aquaculture while
minimizing negative ones rests in how effectively the
Developing and maintaining production of cultured marine
industry, the research community, and regulatory agen-
species is still inuenced by technical problems, in some
cies can work together. Industry leaders are now focusing
cases in spite of a well-established production history.
on developing best management practices to ensure that
Fledgling industries, such as those engaged in scallop
shellsh culture does not impact the health of ecosystems
and nsh production, face technical challenges in devel-
upon which they depend. A common goal will be to ensure
oping breeding and rearing techniques. The well-estab-
that the industry achieves its successes in resource sensi-
lished industries, such as oyster and abalone culture, face
tive ways without having to do so under an undue regula-
technical challenges in maintaining production when faced
tory burden. Our ability to achieve that goal may hinge on
with environmental change or disease impact. Human-
developing trust through effective communication.
caused changes in water quality, for example, present
signicant challenges to culture facilities that are sited
in bays and estuaries. In order to address product safety Fred Wendell
concerns in these areas, the production of mussels, oys- California Department of Fish and Game
ters, and clams are often subject to closures or depura-
tion requirements. The presence of a shellsh aquaculture
facility in an area can, as a consequence, provide a con-
tamination early-warning system for sport-harvest of shell-
sh and an assessment of the biological conditions in the
general area. With the exception of concerns related to
the accumulation of biotoxins, changes in water quality do
not present signicant technical challenges in the cultur-
ing of scallops because of the tendency in that industry
to site in offshore areas. Natural changes in water quality
have also hampered shellsh production. Much of the
recent decline in production can be attributed to El Niño-
related impacts, particularly in the culturing of mussels
and abalone. A broader discussion of these technical chal-
lenges can be found in the specic sections that follow
this overview.
Development of a technical response to disease, and con-
forming to regulatory requirements related to disease
control have both inuenced production in the oyster
and abalone industry and have inuenced the success of
white sea bass enhancement efforts. Oyster production
in Tomales Bay, for example, continues to be inuenced
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 493
Culture of Abalone
History production then declined slightly through 1998 when 22
aquaculturists produced 162,000 pounds of product valued
P ioneering efforts to mass cultivate abalone in Califor- at $2.4 million. Only 13 of the 22 abalone aquaculturists
nia began about 35 years ago. Three abalone species, registered in 1998 were actively producing abalone and
the red (Haliotis rufescens), the green (H. fulgens), and most of the production came from four or ve growers.
the pink (H. corrugata) have been farmed, and research The decline in participation and production since 1996
into cultivation techniques has been conducted on the is attributable, at least in part, to disease impacts exac-
black (H. cracherodii) and white abalone (H. sorenseni). erbated to some extent by a signicant El Niño event.
The red abalone, however, is the mainstay of the industry Until recently, cultivated abalone had been considered
and comprises more than 95 percent of total production. relatively disease-free. The bacterium Vibrio sp. infected
Abalone are grown in either land-based tanks or in cages larval cultures, but it was typically suppressed by using
suspended in the water column. The cages are typically ltered, ultraviolet treated seawater. That perspective
tethered from a raft but have also been suspended changed with the introduction of a parasitic sabellid poly-
beneath a wharf. Aquaculturists that operate these in- chaete worm from South Africa. By the mid-1990s, the
water systems typically obtain small seed abalone from parasite had spread to virtually every abalone aquaculture
land-based hatcheries for grow-out. facility in the state. The worm induces the infested aba-
In a typical hatchery operation, ripe brood stock abalone lone to form a tube for it out of nacreous material. With
are induced to spawn using hydrogen peroxide or ultravio- heavy infestations, the abalone shell is brittle and very
let light treated seawater. Fertilized eggs that successfully deformed and abalone growth is stunted. Impacts to the
develop to the veliger swimming stage are transferred to industry included loss from voluntary stock destruction
through-owing larval rearing tanks. In about six days at and reduced income from marketing deformed product.
59° F, larvae are ready to settle from the planktonic to Cooperative efforts by the industry, the Department of
the benthic stage. They are transferred to nursery tanks, Fish and Game (DFG), and Sea Grant sponsored university
and commence to feed on diatoms. After six months of researchers have almost completely eradicated the worm
growth, half-inch abalone are then transferred to plastic from California.
mesh baskets suspended in larger tanks. At this point, the Unfortunately, the industry also started experiencing ele-
abalone begin feeding on macroalgae. An additional six vated losses of cultured product from withering syndrome
to eight months are required before they reach the size (WS) during this same time frame. This disease, caused
where they are transferred to grow-out tanks or in-water by a rickettsia-like prokaryote, is characterized by a dras-
systems. After growing in these tanks or in-water systems tic shrinkage of the abalones’ foot and is always fatal.
for 20 months or longer, they attain the typical three- to However, red abalone can be infected by the bacterium
four-inch shell length preferred by the market. without showing clinical signs of disease. Research sug-
The number of participants in this industry and their total gests that a stress trigger is necessary to induce clinical
production have increased through time, peaking in 1996. signs of the disease in this specie. The only recognized
In 1991, 15 registered abalone aquaculturists in California stress trigger is elevated water temperature. With the El
produced an estimated 175,000 pounds of abalone in the Niño event, many facilities experienced elevated water
shell. By 1996, 27 registered abalone aquaculturists pro- temperatures that triggered WS, resulting in elevated
duced over 292,000 pounds of product. Participation and mortality in their cultured stock.
The dedicated entrepreneurs at the core of this industry
have achieved their successes despite these challenges
and interest in abalone aquaculture remains high,
prompted in part by the closure of the commercial aba-
lone shery in 1997. Presently, abalone are available to
meet market demands only through importation or the
purchase of cultured abalone. Consequently, there is a
high market demand and a good price to growers for the
farmed product.
A more recent positive development in abalone aquacul-
ture is the production of cultured abalone pearls. The
product is produced by inserting a nucleus into the aba-
lone. Given time, nacre is laid over the nucleus to form
a semi-spherical pearl that has all the lustrous hues of
the shell interior. Once extracted, these pearls are set in
Red abalone being grown out on plastic substrate.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
494
References
jewelry and the meat is processed for sale to restaurant
Culture of Abalone
trade as either a fresh or frozen product.
Ebert, E.E. and J.L. Houk. 1984. Elements and innova-
tions in the cultivation of red abalone Haliotis rufescens .
Status of Biological Knowledge Aquaculture 39:375-392.
Ebert, E.E. 1992. Abalone aquaculture: a North Amercial
A considerable amount of research on abalone aquacul-
regional review. In, Abalone of the World: Biology, Fish-
ture has been accomplished by the private sector,
ereis, and Culture. S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner, and S.A.
particularly with respect to systems design and overall
Guzman del Proo (eds.) Pp. 571-582. Fishing News Books,
technology. University and DFG scientists have also
Oxford, United Kingdom.
made major contributions. Sea Grant-funded research has
Hahn, K.O. (Editor). 1989. Handbook of culture of aba-
greatly increased our understanding of abalone develop-
lone and other marine gastropods. CRC press, Inc., Boca
mental biology. Spawning induction procedures, larval set-
Raton, FL.
tlement inducers, and larval rearing systems were devel-
oped by researchers funded through this program. Sea Leighton, D.L. 1989. Abalone (genus Haliotis) mariculture
Grant-funded research has also contributed signicantly to on the North American Pacic coast. Fish. Bull., U.S.
our understanding of abalone diseases. 87:689-702.
The DFG began abalone culture investigations in 1971 McBride, Susan C. 1998. Current status of abalone
at its Granite Canyon Laboratory near Monterey. That aquaculture in the Californias. Jour. Of Shellsh
effort led to the development of a through-owing larval Research, Vol. 17, No. 3, 593-600.
rearing system and the development of a ush-ll tank
system that have been adopted by the industry. The DFG
subsequently developed a pilot production hatchery at
Granite Canyon that provided training opportunities and
resulted in the production of seed abalone for enhance-
ment research.
The DFG’s Marine Region shellsh pathology laboratory in
Bodega Bay has expanded our knowledge of the biology
of the parasitic sabellid worm that has contributed signi-
cantly to the success that has been achieved in the coop-
erative eradication efforts. That laboratory also identied
the causative agent for WS and has conducted extensive
research into questions related to transmission and control
of this pathogen.
Two principle areas for research, nutrition and genetics,
may provide signicant benets to the industry in the
future. Prepared diets have been developed and are being
used widely for juvenile stages. However, most prepared
feeds are expensive and not readily accepted by adult
abalone in comparison to giant kelp. Less progress has
been made in genetics research. Most growers use a
selection process where brood stock is selected based on
growth rates. Wild broodstock is also used to maintain
genetic diversity in cultured stocks. Some research has
been done with triploidy as a means of enhancing abalone
growth rates. While encouraging, the results have not
been applied broadly within the industry.
Earl Ebert
US Abalone
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 495
Culture of Mussels
History lagoon and relatively fast growth of juveniles, the shellsh
rm began to culture mussels in 1985. It obtained a
M ussels of the genus Mytilus have uctuated in ve-acre lease for use of the lagoon and began a com-
importance in California’s commercial and sport mercial operation following modied Italian longline tech-
shellsh sheries for food and bait since the early niques. Mussel seed was placed in a tubular net “stock-
1900s. Experiments in culturing wild seed stock and ing” designed specically for mussel growing. The stock-
in developing hatchery and grow-out methods in the ing or “reste” was originally imported from Italy, but is
1980s have increased the economic potential of mussels, now available to growers from U.S. suppliers. The stock-
particularly Mytilus galloprovincialis (the Mediterranean ings were suspended from longlines fty yards long and
mussel), which occurs primarily in southern and south- supported by small buoys to keep the stockings off the
central California. bottom. Mussel production at the Carlsbad farm peaked
in 1989, second only to the offshore platform harvest in
A related species, Mytilus trossulus (the “foolish mussel”)
the Santa Barbara Channel. However, the following year
is sport-harvested in northern California and hybrids of
the State Department of Health decertied the shellsh
M. trossulus and galloprovinciallis are commonly found
growing area due to rising coliform counts in the lagoon.
between Cape Mendocino and Monterey Bay.
Production ceased in 1990 and remained static until a
The sea mussel, Mytilus californianus, is of minor eco-
certied depuration system, required by the state, was
nomic importance in California at present, though it is
put into operation in 1992.
taken by sport harvesters and it is periodically sold by a
In 1985, approximately 104,000 pounds of mussels were
southern California harvester to restaurants. It is primarily
harvested, primarily from offshore platforms, but by this
used as bait along the West Coast, but in the 1980s, wild
time a farm in Tomales Bay also had begun to utilize
harvested sea mussels, highly esteemed by gourmet chefs
European longline methods to grow mussels. Over the
in Oregon, were sold to ne restaurants in Portland and
next seven years, three to ve other Tomales Bay oyster
still may have a future in California.
growers diversied into mussel production. These growers
Between 1916 and 1927, a total of over 470,000 pounds
utilized wild-caught and hatchery reared seed, with the
of mussels, ranging from 9,000 to 69,000 pounds per
latter being relied upon more in the late 1980s, as natural
year, were landed in California. After 1927, most areas
recruitment during this period was often erratic and unre-
were closed to harvest by the California Department of
liable. After a brief period of expansion, several Tomales
Health Services due to a major outbreak that year of
Bay growers ceased all but minimal production in the mid-
paralytic shellsh poisoning. Mussel landings declined to
1990s to concentrate on oyster culture. By the fall of
1,610 pounds in 1928 and stayed depressed until 1972,
2000, only one company was producing commercial quan-
when a record 111,000 pounds were landed, primarily
tities of mussels. These are sold exclusively to local
for bait. Bait sales continued to be the most signicant
restaurants around Tomales Bay. At least three other
commercial activity for California mussels until improved
growers have the capability to produce commercial quan-
methods of harvesting wild stocks were developed, new
tities and may scale up their operations again if market
culture methods were adopted, and West Coast markets
conditions improve.
began developing for this tasty shellsh in the early 1980s.
On the north coast, an oyster grower operating in Mad
Research on harvesting wild-set Mediterranean mussels
River Slough, Humboldt County, began farming mussels in
from offshore oil-production platforms for food was initi-
1992 using the oating raft culture method. Seed mussels,
ated in the Santa Barbara Channel in 1979. Divers rou-
attached to a line inside exible plastic mesh netting, are
tinely removed fouling organisms from the submerged
suspended from the raft during grow-out. Cultured mus-
support structures of offshore platforms at considerable
sels from Humboldt Bay were initially used, but since the
expense to oil companies. An ecological consulting rm,
mid-1990s, wild juvenile mussels collected from the bay
hired to suggest ways to control the biofouling, found that
have been the primary source of seed. The mature
various stages of the succession of organisms included
mussels are sold locally at farmers’ markets and restau-
settlement and growth of edible mussels, both M. gal-
rants. One other Humboldt Bay operation began experi-
loprovincialis and M. californianus. Recognizing the poten-
menting with mussel grow-out in 2001, using wild seed
tial for food production and increasing market demand for
stock and following the raft culture method used in Mad
high quality shellsh, the owners of the rm contracted
River Slough.
with various offshore oil companies to test the feasibility
The total state mussel production tripled in 1986, reach-
of harvesting and marketing the mussels.
ing more than 334,000 pounds, with over 90 percent
Experimental mussel, oyster, and clam culture also began
harvested from platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel
in 1983 in Aqua Hedionda Lagoon near Carlsbad. Taking
and the remainder from Tomales Bay. Statewide produc-
advantage of excellent natural mussel spatfalls in the
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
496
tion dropped slightly in 1987 to approximately 286,000 a cooperative effort was initiated by a Humboldt County
Culture of Mussels
pounds and decreased further in 1988 to 151,000 pounds, shellsh nurseryman to produce the rst commercial
due to major winter storms, which dislodged market-ready quantities of hatchery-reared mussel seed on the West
mussels from platform structures. Production jumped to Coast. Growers utilized a variety of substrates and set
over 300,000 pounds in 1989 but dropped to 130,000 the spat at different densities. A wide range of results,
pounds in 1990 when the Carlsbad rm ceased production, from zero survival to excellent survival and growth were
continuing a slide in 1991 to a low of only 47,000 pounds. reported. The methods of growing out seed evolved and
During the next six years (1992 through 1997), with the matured in Tomales Bay and in the Puget Sound area of
Carlsbad rm back in production, increasing harvest from Washington state but were not proven on a commercial
offshore platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel, and scale in south-central and southern California as growers
steady production in Tomales Bay, the statewide total rose continued to utilize natural seed.
from 187,000 pounds to 471,000 pounds. Strong winter The ve participating growers in Tomales Bay purchased
storms following warm El Niño seawater conditions in the larger (0.5-1.0 inch) seed, which could be grown to market
fall of 1997 caused havoc to mussel production throughout size in six to nine months. Excessive predation on matur-
the state the following year. An economically devastating ing mussels by scoter ducks and on small natural-set seed
drop in production of nearly 50 percent, to 256,000 by schools of perch over time proved burdensome to
pounds, occurred in 1998. One of the large southern Cali- most of the shellsh growers who were concentrating on
fornia growers stated that spawning and recruitment were oysters as their primary product. All but one company in
both affected by these events. A colder water regime in Tomales Bay ceased or minimized their mussel operations,
1999 - 2000 improved the recruitment situation and has citing competition from low-cost imported mussels as
been encouraging to growers. the reason.
Mussels harvested during the ve years between 1986 Southern California mussel companies also face stiff com-
and 1990 provided a return of $1.17 million to California petition from imports, and also must cope with water
growers. Steady expansion of production during the fol- quality uctuations, especially in nearshore areas or
lowing ve years between 1991 to 1995 increased state- embayments. One south-coast aquaculturist has built a
wide returns to $2.06 million. Return to growers dipped depuration system for bivalve shellsh, one of the rst in
in 1996 and 1997 to about $500 thousand per year with a California. The grower has been able to use a protected
critical drop in 1998 to $280 thousand. lagoon to grow mussels, which are relayed to the onshore
The wholesale price has not changed signicantly over the depuration system prior to sale. By utilizing seawater
past 15 years still ranging from $1.10 to $1.25 per pound. treated with ultraviolet violet light to eliminate harmful
Retail/restaurant prices have increased slightly from $2.00 bacteria, he can produce wholesome, high quality mussels.
in 1990 to $2.25 in 2000. Direct sale prices to the public at
farmers markets and retail shellsh farms has increased,
Status of Biological Knowledge
varying between $2.50 per pound in southern California
and $4 per pound in the Tomales and San Francisco Bay
G enetic studies utilizing protein electrophoresis in the
area. The retail/restaurant price in Humboldt County is
late 1980s showed that there were two distinct forms
slightly higher at $2.50 per pound and direct sales at
of edulis-like mussels on the West Coast that are mor-
farmers’ markets are intermediate at $3.00 per pound.
phometrically similar. One of these forms is electropho-
California growers continue to face stiff competition from retically indistinguishable from M. galloprovincialis, the
mussels imported from eastern Canada, New Zealand, Mediterranean mussel, which is known to have recently
Maine, and Washington due to the advent of low cost air colonized many disparate shores around the world. The
transport of fresh shellsh and individual ash freezing other form is also distinct from the Atlantic M. edulis
methods. Competing on the world market is a challenge and was designated M. trossulus, the Pacic Northwest
to California producers, because of massive production mussel. It was found from Alaska to central California.
of mussels in China, Korea, New Zealand, Australia, and The two forms occur together and are reported to hybrid-
other Pacic Rim countries. Expansion of the industry is ize with one another. Several genetic studies in the late
dependent on the maintenance of clean growing areas, 1990s have conrmed that M. galloprovincialis is found
a supportive regulatory environment, aggressive market- principally south of the Monterey Peninsula and M. tros-
ing, and dependable sources of seed. Climatic and oceano- sulus is found primarily north of Cape Mendocino. A zone
graphic events have also had signicant impacts on the of hybridization has been documented between these two
economic health of this industry. distinct coastal features.
Until 1986, all mussels grown commercially in California
were set or collected as wild or natural seed. In 1985,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 497
The hybridization and geographic range issues regarding considered to be the main food item providing energy for
Culture of Mussels
M. trossulus in central and northern California confound rapid growth.
the interpretation of earlier life history studies of mussels Competition for space is an important factor inuencing
taxonomically classied as M. edulis, but, regardless of growth and survival of mussels, both in wild and cultured
the taxonomic issue, all mussels share many common bio- populations. Mytilids of the same and different species
logical traits as they are all members of the bivalve class compete for limited space in the rocky intertidal and
Pelecypoda (hatchet feet). Mussels have separate sexes, subtidal growing areas. Cultured mussels on articial sub-
though some hermaphrodism occurs. There is evidence strates also can become overcrowded if seed stocking den-
that changes in water temperatures, physical stimulation sities are too high. Crowding causes instability of mussel
(such as disturbance by winter storms), variation in light masses and, when coupled with high current speeds, tur-
levels, or phytoplankton blooms may stimulate spawning. bulence, and drifting materials, losses frequently occur.
Spawning in M. californianus occurs throughout the year Barnacles and sea anemones also compete for space
at a very low level, with peaks in July and December. with mussels.
The spawning and recruitment of M. galloprovincialis also Predators of California mussel species are abundant. They
occurs year round, although it is heaviest in February, include two sea stars, ve species of muricid gastropods,
March, and April and again in September and October in and three crabs. Scoter ducks, the black oyster- catcher,
southern California. Mussels reaching 1.6 inches are found shiner perch, and the sea otter are also important preda-
to have gonads in various stages of development and are tors in coastal waters.
able to spawn.
An invasive species of algae, Caulerpa taxifolia, recently
When spawning occurs in the natural environment, eggs found in a southern California lagoon is another concern of
and sperm are discharged through the excurrent chamber both mussel growers and resource managers. Known for its
and fertilization takes place in the open ocean or estuary. progressive smothering of the Mediterranean seaoor, the
Within 24 hours, the embryo develops into free-swimming alga is the focus of an intensive effort by state and federal
trochophore larva that grows into a more advanced veliger regulators to eradicate the species before it spreads.
stage, again, within 24 hours. The development of the
Mussels are used in California and other parts of the world
ciliated velum (approximately 48 hours after fertilization)
as sentinel species in “mussel watch” programs to monitor
gives the larvae more control in swimming and in gather-
various organic and inorganic pollutants. As lter feeders,
ing food. The veliger is also known as the “straight-hinge”
mussels also ingest and concentrate toxin-producing spe-
stage, denoting the appearance of the rst shell. In two
cies of phytoplankton that periodically bloom along
to three weeks, veligers begin metamorphosis, a stage
the Pacic coast. The California Department of Health
preceded by the development of an eyespot (a photo-
Services utilizes mussels as bio-toxin indicators in a state-
sensitive organ) and a foot. This is the pediveliger stage,
wide monitoring program staffed by volunteers. A quaran-
during which the veliger changes from a swimming larva to
tine on sport harvest is imposed between May 1 and
a bottom dwelling juvenile mussel or spat (seed).
October 1 when the probability of toxic phytoplankton
Newly settled mussels attach to substrates with protein- uptake in mussels is high. However, commercially grown
aceous threads (byssus or byssal threads) that are secreted mussels may continue to be harvested during this period
by the postlarvae. Young mussels have the unique ability as long as constant testing assures that only a safe, whole-
to detach their byssus, crawl to a different location, or some, and non-toxic product is available to the consumer.
drift away in a current to seek a more favorable substrate,
and reattach. This trait is considered to be a signicant
problem for growers, as postlarvae have disappeared from
various substrates soon after placement in open water.
Growth rates of both M. galloprovincialis and M. califor-
nianus have been reported to be at least 0.25 inch per
month and as high as 0.5 inch per month in the Santa
Barbara Channel. Growth rate is inuenced primarily by
the quantity and quality of food, rather than temperature,
and mussels achieved a two-inch shell length in six to
eight months.
Food consumed by mussels includes dinoagellates,
organic particles, small diatoms, zoospores, protozoa, uni-
cellular algae, bacteria, and detritus. Phytoplankton is
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
498
Culture of Mussels
500
thousands of pounds harvested
400 Commercial Harvest
Cultured Mussels
1986-1999, Cultured Mussels
Annual pounds of cultivated
300
mussels landed by State aquacul-
ture producers. Harvest data for
200 1997-1999 include only mussels
cultivated in Tomales Bay and
Drakes Estero. Data Source:
100
California State Tax records
(royalties reports) and DFG Aqua-
0 1986 1990 1999 culture Harvest Survey Database.
References
Management Considerations
Coan, E.V., P.V. Scott, and F.R. Bernard. 2000. Bivalve
See the Management Considerations Appendix for further
seashells of the western North America: marine bivalve
information.
mollusks from Arctic Alaska to Baja California. Santa Bar-
bara Museum of Natural History Monographs No 2; Studies
John B. Richards in Biodiversity No. 2 Santa Barbara, CA. 746 p.
University of California, Santa Barbara
McDonald, J.H. and R.K. Koehn. 1988. The mussels Mytilus
George A. Trevelyan galloprovincialis and M. trossulus on the Pacic coast of
Abalone Farms, Inc. North America. Mar. Biol. 79: 117-176.
Revised by: Price, R.J. 1989. Paralytic shellsh poisoning and red
John B. Richards tides. California Sea Grant Extension Program 89-1, Univer-
University of California, Santa Barbara sity of California, Davis. 2 pp.
Rawson, P.D., V. Agrawal, T.J. Hilbish. 1999. Hybridization
between Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus along
the Pacic coast: evidence for limited introgression. Mar.
Biol. 134(1):201-211.
Suchanek, T.H.; J.B. Geller, B.R. Kreiser, and J.B. Mitton.
1997. Zoogeographic distributions of the sibling species
Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. trossulus (Bivalvia: Mytili-
dae) and their hybrids in the North Pacic. Biol. Bull.
193(2): 187-194.
Trevelyan, G.A. 1991. Aquacultural ecology of hatchery-
produced juvenile mussels, Mytilus edulis L. Ph.D. Dis-
sertation, University of California, Davis.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 499
Culture of Oysters
History California by sailing ships. Successful transport of oysters
was achieved only after the completion of the trans-
C alifornia’s oyster shery and oyster aquaculture indus- continental railroad in 1869. Shipments of juvenile and
try have had a rich and colorful tradition. American market-sized oysters were transported by rail in barrels of
Indians harvested the oyster resource for thousands of sawdust and ice and transplanted into San Francisco Bay.
years before Spanish, Tsarist Russian, and European set- Cool summer water temperatures, however, prevented
tlers occupied the West Coast. A substantial commercial successful natural reproduction of the Eastern oyster.
oyster shery began in the 1850s, when settlers from Transcontinental trade for Eastern oyster seed was fully
the East Coast attracted to California by the prospect established by 1875. Small, one-inch seed was trans-
of gold and new opportunities created larger markets for planted in San Francisco Bay for further growth. The
oysters. The increased population and market pressure Shoalwater Bay trade for Olympia oysters was gradually
for oysters had an immediate impact on the state’s shell- terminated, and from 1872 until the early 1900s Califor-
sh resources. The only available oyster was the Native nia’s San Francisco Bay Eastern oyster industry was the
oyster (Ostreola conchaphila; previously O. lurida; also largest oyster industry on the West Coast. Maximum pro-
called Olympia oyster in the Pacic Northwest), which was duction was reached in 1899 with an estimated 2.5 million
intensively shed, causing a rapid decline in the natural pounds of oyster meat.
population. In response, Native oysters were transported
With California’s population and industrial growth came
from Shoalwater Bay, Washington (Willapa Bay), and later
a degradation of water quality in San Francisco Bay. By
from other bays in the Pacic Northwest and Mexico,
1908, Eastern oyster production had fallen by 50 percent.
representing the initial attempts at oyster culture on the
By 1921, oyster meat quality declined to the extent that
West Coast. Oysters were transplanted into San Francisco
shipments of seed from the East Coast were terminated,
Bay, where they were maintained on oyster beds and then
and by 1939 the last of the San Francisco Bay oysters were
marketed throughout central California. The Shoalwater
commercially harvested. Oysters were still transported
Bay trade of Olympia oysters dominated the California
and held in Tomales Bay until they could be marketed
market from 1850 through 1869. Market demand for a
in San Francisco, but the industry based on the Eastern
larger, half-shell product stimulated experiments in trans-
oyster did not recover. The industry and state began re-
porting the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) from the
examining earlier experimental plantings using the Pacic
Atlantic states to the West Coast. Several failed attempts
oyster (Crassostrea gigas), which originated in Japan.
were made to establish transport of the Eastern oyster to
The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) and
commercial growers conducted experimental plantings of
Pacic oysters in Tomales Bay and Elkhorn Slough in 1929.
Experimental plantings continued in a number of bays,
including Drakes Estero, Bodega Lagoon, and Morro, New-
port, and San Francisco bays, throughout the 1930s. Hum-
boldt Bay was excluded from plantings while the DFG
tried to re-establish natural populations of Native oysters.
Several Pacic oyster plantings proved successful, dem-
onstrating that imported Pacic oyster seed could be
grown commercially in California. Shipments of seed from
Japan were made through the 1930s, suspended from 1940
through 1946, and increased signicantly in 1947. The
imported seed was inspected in Japan by both DFG per-
sonnel and commercial producers prior to shipment. DFG
personnel examined the shell for organisms considered
harmful if introduced into state waters.
Boxes containing oyster shell with attached young oysters
(spat) were transported by ship in wooden crates kept
moist with seawater. With the inux of seed oysters, the
industry began its recovery in California and on the West
Coast. The DFG lifted its restriction on Pacic oyster seed
in Humboldt Bay in 1953, and in the next 30 years, the
California industry showed rapid growth with production
Growing Oysters in Tomales Bay
Credit: Fred Conte
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
500
Commercial Harvest*
Culture of Oysters
2.00 1960-1999, Cultured Oysters
millions of pounds harvested
Annual pounds of cultivated
1.75
oysters harvested by State aqua-
1.50
Cultured Oysters
culture producers. Data Source:
California State Tax records
1.25
(royalties reports) and DFG Aqua-
1.00 culture Harvest Survey Database.
* Packed weight is estimated to
0.75
be 15.5 percent of live weight
0.50
for C. gigas and 10.9 percent for
C. virginica. Shucked gallons are
0.25
calculated as 8.6 pounds/gallon
0.00 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 for C. gigas and 8.5 pounds/gallon
for C. virginica. Cultchless oysters, C. sikamea and a large portion of C. gigas are sold as shellstock.
centered in Humboldt Bay, Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay, water. Other less prominent species produced by hatcher-
Elkhorn Slough, and Morro Bay. ies have included the European oyster (O. edulis) and
some Eastern oyster (C. virginica). The ability to ship
The West Coast oyster industry initiated other signicant
oyster larvae long distances and set the spat at the
changes in the early 1980s, which have had a signicant
growout areas has signicantly reduced the cost of seed.
impact on the industry nationally. These changes include
The last shipment of Japanese seed to California was
the development of U.S. based shellsh hatcheries for the
in 1989.
domestic production of Pacic oyster seed, and the ability
to ship advanced hatchery-produced oyster larvae (swim- The level of oyster production within the various bays
ming stage) to growout sites where the larvae are placed has uctuated throughout the years, primarily because of
in tanks containing cleaned shell and heated seawater for water quality, the bay’s ability to produce good standing
spat production. In this process called remote setting, crops of algae on which oysters feed, the adequacy of
the larvae settle on clean oyster or scallop shell, called selected sites, and the nancial viability of the various
mother shell or cultch, attach and metamorphose into the oyster operations. All growing areas are classied and
more familiar at young oyster called spat. Spatted cultch certied by the California Department of Health Services
ultimately results in about nine to 13 market-sized oysters (CDHS) based on health-related water quality standards
clustered on remnants of the old mother shell. established and regulated by the Interstate Shellsh Sani-
tation Conference (ISSC) and the National Shellsh Sanita-
Another hatchery product is cultchless oyster seed that
tion Program (NSSP). Water-bottom and offshore growout
are grown out as individual oysters exclusively for the half
areas are leased from the state through the Fish and Game
shell market. Cultchless seed are produced by setting the
Commission, harbor and recreation districts, or belong to
larvae on sand or nely crushed oyster shell, resulting
private corporations.
in unattached, individual oysters. Many California growers
purchase cultchless seed from California-based advanced The industry uses a variety of oyster culture methods
seed producers. These producers receive 3.0 to 5.0 depending on the targeted market, the physical character-
mm cultchless seed from a hatchery, then use oating istics of the production bay and the need to protect the
upweller systems (FUS) to hold the seed in ow-through younger oysters from predators such as bat rays, rock
containers receiving bay water containing algae. The crabs, and drills (snails). Culture methods are also inu-
oyster seed increases in size and is more easily handled in enced by factors such as substrate type, current velocity,
mesh bags used by the end producer. Individual growers tidal range, and phytoplankton productivity. California
are also adopting and expanding their own land-based FUS oysters are grown from spat to market size in about 13
and downwellers to cut the cost of seed and assume the to 18 months, depending on the bay and the culture
responsibility of early seed growth. All oysters grown in method used.
California currently are produced from hatcheries located California oyster production is currently centered in four
in Washington, Oregon and Hawaii. areas, Arcata Bay located in the North Humboldt Bay
The hatchery systems primarily produce two species of complex, Drakes Estero, Tomales Bay and Morro Bay. Morro
Pacic oysters; the Pacic oyster (C. gigas) and the Kuma- Bay oyster production has declined in recent years, but
moto oyster (C. sikamea) which also originated in Japan techniques have included bottom, rack-and-bag, and stake
and does not reproduce in California’s cooler summertime culture. Shellsh producers in the Santa Barbara Channel
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 501
have used a system of longlines with attached bags of to an anchored line which suspends the bags vertically in
Culture of Oysters
European oysters suspended from offshore rafts in the the water or secures the bags on a stable, hard bottom,
deep waters, but have discontinued production in recent intertidal area. Bags can also be maintained horizontally
years. Shellsh producers also cultured cultchless oysters at the surface using oats. To maintain the prime oyster
in Agua Hedionda Lagoon, located north of San Diego, but shape for the half shell market, the bags must be moved
have switched to mussel production which was considered frequently to prevent the individual oysters from growing
more suitable to the area. together and resulting in an irregular shape.
Humboldt Bay growers use a variety of oyster culture Total annual oyster production for California has uctu-
methods, but the predominate method has been bottom ated throughout the industry’s history, reecting cyclic
culture of Pacic oysters. In bottom culture, cultch with shellsh mortalities (“Summer Mortality Syndrome”, SMS),
attached spat is spread over leased areas in the bay, availability of seed oysters, economic conditions, and the
the oysters are grown to about four inches and are then nancial stability of individual companies. With the advent
harvested by hand picking and hydraulic dredge. Most of of hatchery technology and remote setting of oyster seed,
California’s shucked oyster product is from bottom culture the industry demonstrated signicant growth from the
in Humboldt Bay. Because of environmental concerns and mid-1980s to a second post-1960s peak in the mid-1990s.
the impact of hydraulic dredging on eelgrass, growers Reduced production after 1994 directly reects several
are currently changing about 85 percent of their bottom industry setbacks, which include nancial restructuring
culture production over a period of about three years after the 1990s recession, extended bay harvest closures
to off-bottom, longline culture of the Kumamoto oyster. due to sanitary degradation and oil spills, and recurrence
The Kumamoto oyster derives a higher market price as of cyclic SMS. Several of these factors have been resolved,
non-shucked shellstock, and the remaining bottom culture and production increases are expected. The data repre-
will be targeted for the peak shucked-oyster market in sents a conversion of all oyster products to a common
November and December. Environmental and economical denominator of shucked pounds of oysters expressed as
studies are being conducted to determine the impacts of packed weight. Total production in recent years is primar-
these changes on both the health of the bay and the ily Pacic and Kumamoto oysters. Annual Eastern oyster
economic health of the industry. production has been 20 pounds or less for the past
three years.
Longline culture primarily consists of a series of notched
PVC pipe set in the substrate with twisted line stretched Oyster products are marketed as shucked meat in gallons
over the apex of the poles. Spatted cultch is inserted and 10-oz jars, and as shellstock for the half-shell and bar-
at intervals between the strands of the line which hold becue markets. The shucked product is marketed as small
the growing oysters above the substrate. The lines con- (200/gallon), medium (140/gallon), and large (100/gallon).
taining the clustered oysters are harvested on a ood tide, Shellstock is marketed as small (2.5-3.5 inches), medium
thereby reducing disturbance to the substrate or associ- (3.5-4.5 inches), large (4.5+ inches) sold by the dozen,
ated eelgrass. Other forms of culture are off-bottom tech- and clusters (attached, mixed). The demand for oyster
niques, including bags of cultchless oysters supported by products far exceeds the state’s production level, and the
low racks and oating oyster bags attached to longlines. majority of shellsh products consumed in the state are
imported from the Pacic Northwest and the Atlantic and
Drakes Estero has one of the largest off-bottom, rack
Gulf states. California’s product is considered prime, and
culture systems in the west. Like all off-bottom culture,
its production areas are among the best in the country.
the method is used primarily to avoid predators, use more
of the water column, and avoid siltation that occurs when The CDHS has regulatory responsibility over shellsh prod-
the oysters rest on the substrate. The rack culture system uct safety and periodically conducts sanitary surveys with
uses spatted mother shells strung on short lines with a the Federal Food and Drug Administration under worst-
tube spacer separating each mother shell. The short lines case scenarios such as heavy rain to determine growing
are hung in an inverted u-shape over the horizontal rails of area water quality and sanitation conditions. Two essential
wooden racks set in the bay. programs are the monitoring of the bays for indications
of contamination, including human sewage, and for the
Tomales Bay growers also use a variety of off-bottom tech-
occurrence of natural biotoxins such as paralytic shellsh
niques including rack-and-bag, stick and bag, and bag and
poison produced by toxic phytoplankton. The programs
longline culture. Rack-and-bag culture uses cultchless seed
are designed to provide a safe product for the consumer
that is rst grown in trays, upwellers and downwellers, or
and an early warning system for people sport-harvesting
oating, rotating, mesh cylinders. After initial growth, the
shellsh in noncommercial areas. The water and meat
small oysters are transferred to a series of different sized
quality monitoring programs conducted by the CDHS also
mesh bags positioned on low racks in the bay. Bag and
provide an assessment of the biological condition of the
longline culture use cultchless seed in mesh bags attached
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
502
bays, which is essential information used by all agencies blades and incubate for about 10 days before release.
Culture of Oysters
to prevent a reoccurrence of events which led to the Once expelled, the advanced larvae swim freely and feed
contamination of San Francisco Bay. on phytoplankton before settlement and metamorphosis
(Native, 14-18 days; European, 10-14 days).
The Pacic, Kumamoto and Eastern oysters are alternative
Status of Biological Knowledge hermaphrodites; sex change occurs, but its timing is
O
erratic. They have a tendency for protandry in their
ysters are bivalve mollusks that exhibit a variety of
rst year, but the tendency is not as strong as that of
sizes, shapes, shell textures and colors, and vary in
Native and European oysters. They are oviparous (broad-
their mode of reproduction and sexual expression. These
cast spawners); the eggs are immediately released and
biological and physical features inuence where they grow
fertilization takes place in the environment. Mature, egg-
and how they reproduce, which in turn inuence com-
carrying females spawn at about 63-77˚ F, depending on
mercial aspects such as culture practices and marketing
the species, variety, and latitude. Water temperatures
strategy. The depth of the shell cup and the shape of
required to establish a natural population are higher
the oyster inuence market price of shellstock. Individual
than those consistently found in California. Since natural
oysters conform to the shape of the substrate to which
spawning and successful reproduction rarely take place in
they are attached and are therefore highly variable in
California, the oysters are spawned and reared in shellsh
shape. In addition, shell shape, texture, and color are all
hatcheries at about 77˚ F. The eggs hatch into free-swim-
inuenced by the oyster’s genetics and physical environ-
ming trochophores, then become veliger larvae. Within
ment such as salinity, attachment substrate, crowding
three to ve days these larvae settle, attach to a sub-
by other oysters and food. They feed on phytoplankton
strate, and metamorphose to spat.
and nutrient-bearing detritus by pumping water over
their gills, ltering the food material and passing it into The Native oyster is California’s only indigenous oyster
the mouth. species and occurs along the Pacic coast from Sitka,
Alaska to Cape San Lucas, Baja California. The largest con-
All oysters have a typical molluscan trochophore larva
centrations occur in the Pacic Northwest along the coast
that develops into a veliger larvae capable of ltering
of Washington’s Puget Sound and in Willapa Bay. Although
food, swimming, and selecting a suitable substrate for
still grown commercially in Washington in specially con-
attachment. The microscopic veliger settles, cements its
structed beds, natural concentrations are not abundant
left valve to the substrate, and undergoes metamorphosis
enough to support commercial endeavors. Populations of
into an oyster spat. For the rest of its life the attached
the Native oyster are still relatively low in California.
spat will compete for space and nutrients and, if it sur-
Some protection of existing populations is provided by
vives, will grow into the adult form. The ve oysters
sport shing regulations, which allow a daily harvest of 35
now found in California belong to the family Ostreidae.
native oysters under the general invertebrate bag limit.
They represent two groups characterized by biological
The adult is about one to three inches in length and more
variations, including different modes of sexual expression,
often irregular in shape. Shell textures vary from smooth
reproduction, and dispersal of young. The exact tempera-
to rough with concentric growth lines, and the exterior
ture at which the oysters will spawn and the rate of larval
has purple-brown to brown axial bands. The two shell
development and growth depend on a variety of factors,
valves are symmetrical; their interior is shades of olive-
including species, genetics and latitude of the breeding
green and can have a metallic sheen. The internal shell’s
population. Natural spawning is also inuenced by lunar
muscle scar in adults is usually centrally located and
periodicity and tides.
unpigmented.
The Native and European oysters are rhythmical consecu-
The Native oyster is found in many of California’s coastal
tive hermaphrodites; they can change sex either annually
inlets, especially mudats and gravel bars located near
or at closer intervals. In their rst year, they are strongly
the mouth of small rivers and streams. It cannot withstand
protandric; the rst expression of sex at maturity is male.
high temperatures or frost when exposed, and does not
They may become female in the same year or in the
survive low salinity or turbid water. The natural beds
following year if environmental conditions are good and
are invariably located in the low intertidal and subtidal
food is plentiful. They are also larviparous (brooders);
zone of bays, where the oyster is better protected from
fertilization of eggs is internal, and the larvae are held
both prolonged hot summer surface water temperatures
for a period of time before release. Mature, egg-carrying
and extreme cold winter water conditions. The oysters
females spawn at about 59-63˚ F. The eggs are released
are often found clinging to rocky outcroppings or other
into the female’s own mantle cavity and are fertilized as
structures that offer protection from rays and other
she takes in water containing the male’s sperm. When
predatory sh.
the eggs hatch, the veliger larvae are held by the gill-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 503
Adult European oysters are about three to four inches in ciated oyster diseases are usually conned within the
Culture of Oysters
length, with a poorly developed beak that gives the valves hatchery. When identied, the stocks are destroyed and
an oval to round shape. The left or attachment valve systems disinfected. This is a protective measure for the
is larger and more deeply cupped than the right valve, natural resource and considered the most economically
with 20 to 30 ribs and irregular, concentric lamellae. The practical approach by the industry.
upper, smaller valve is at, with numerous concentric Field-associated oyster diseases are not common, but they
lamellae but no ribs. The hinge ligament consists of three do occur. Two examples of the most signicant of these
parts: a middle, at part on the left valve and two projec- diseases for the West Coast are “Summer Mortality Syn-
tions on the right. The internal valves are white, and the drome” (SMS) of Pacic oysters, and “Bonamiasis” of Euro-
muscle scar is eccentrically positioned and unpigmented. pean oysters. Summer mortality of Pacic oysters was rst
Adult Eastern oysters may vary in length from two to six reported in the 1960s with mortality levels as high as 65
inches. The shells are asymmetrical, highly variable in percent of adult Pacic oysters. Oyster losses attributed
texture and shape, and greatly inuenced by environmen- to SMS have uctuated over the years, and studies have
tal conditions. The external shell is usually a shade of addressed the initiating agent as possible unknown patho-
gray, and the internal valves white with a variable-colored gens, environmental factors and impacts, and stressors
muscle scar, usually deep purple. The left valve is longer such as the combination of depleted energy reserves and
than the right, not deeply cupped, and the beak is usually attempted gonadal maturation. SMS was researched for
elongated and strongly curved. The shell margins are usu- decades without resolving the cause. In 1993 and 1994,
ally straight or only slightly undulating, and the inner summer mortalities of Pacic oyster seed in Tomales Bay
margins of the valves are smooth. reached 52 and 63 percent respectively, and were associ-
ated with elevated water temperatures above 20˚C and
The adult Pacic oyster ranges from about four to six
a dinoagellate bloom. Pathological examination and his-
inches in length. The shell is coarse, with widely spaced
tology suggested that these mortalities were related to
concentric lamella and ridges. The shell is thinner than
environmental causes and not an infectious agent. SMS
that of Eastern oysters yet more deeply cupped. The
appears to be cyclic, may be related to decadal cycles,
Kumamoto oyster is smaller but is prized for its deeper
and is the most signicant mortality-related event experi-
cup. It spawns in the fall in nature and grows more
enced on the West Coast of the United States. In addition,
slowly than the Pacic. The Miyagi is the principal variety
as the losses are a “syndrome” and are not caused by a
of Pacic oyster grown on the West Coast. The Pacic
specic pathogen, multiple etiologies may result in oyster
oyster’s shape may be highly variable and greatly inu-
deaths during the summer. The type of stress that results
enced by environmental conditions. The upper, at, right
in losses may also uctuate over time, making diagnosis of
valve is smaller than the left, and the inner surface of
the cause(s) and management of losses difcult. Growers
the valves is white with a faint purple hue over the
are attempting to circumvent the problem by not planting
muscle scar.
Pacic oyster seed during the warmer months from May
Oyster disease and shellsh pests are a major concern
to October. However, seed availability during the cooler
to the state resource agencies and the oyster industry.
months has been a problem. Growers report that cooler
Because the West Coast industry depends on the move-
bay water temperatures in 1999 appear to have moderated
ment of animals across state lines, the industry is subject
the mortality rate from that experienced previously.
to regulations established through cooperative agree-
Bonamiasis of the European oyster, caused by a parasite,
ments between resource agencies. All oyster seed and
has impacted the oyster industry to the same extent as
shellstock not destined for a terminal market that cross
SMS, as it has contributed to the inability to establish
state lines are examined for the presence of disease and
European oyster culture in California. The parasite infects
exotic “hitchhikers” (pests) which could be harmful to nat-
the oyster’s blood cells, destroys its immune system, and
ural resources and commercial interests. Seed and shell-
impacts other physiological processes.
stock that do not pass certication are destroyed through
cooperative agreements with the state and the industry. Of recent concern is the 1980s discovery in California
The various state natural resource agencies have a coop- of a haplosporidium similar to that which causes MSX
erative program which regulates the interstate movement or Delaware Bay Disease on the East Coast. West Coast
of shellsh seed and seedstock. producers have not experienced the cyclic, catastrophic
haplosporidia diseases that have occurred on the East
Oyster diseases on the West Coast most frequently occur
Coast, despite movement of Eastern oysters between the
in hatcheries, but a few signicant oyster diseases have
coasts. It has been conrmed that the organism is the
been reported from the eld. Hatchery conditions are
causative agent of MSX of Eastern oysters. The organism
articial environments which can stress oysters and render
is found among Pacic oysters in one bay in California
them susceptible to an array of infections. Hatchery-asso-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
504
Future Trends
but is not associated with signicant mortalities. Morpho-
Culture of Oysters
logically similar haplosporidians have also been reported
O yster hatchery and production seed technology has
from Washington state. Recent studies suggest a common
rapidly expanded in the past ten years. This has
ancestry for the organism on both coasts and that the
included application of remote setting of oyster seed as an
haplosporidian was not endemic to the East Coast but
industry standard, and the production and use of triploid
originated in Pacic oysters from Japan. Hypotheses for
(3n) oysters containing an extra set of chromosomes. The
the introduction of the disease to Eastern oysters include
3n condition prevents the onset of maturation and results
importation of infected Pacic oysters to the East Coast,
in oysters characterized by year-round production of high
ballast water containing the infective agent, or intro-
quality meat. Although triploid production was a positive
duction of an unknown intermediate host. In any event,
technical breakthrough, the sterile 3n oyster does not
the ultimate result has been catastrophic for the Eastern
reproduce and therefore can not be improved through
oyster and the East and Gulf coast industries. The result of
genetics. To overcome this, the industry now applies
these studies demonstrates the rst molecular conrma-
high pressure following fertilization to retard both polar
tion of the introduction of an exotic marine pathogen
bodies. The resultant tetraploids (4n) are then articially
and emphasizes the need to adhere to strict importation
crossed with diploids (2n), thereby producing sterile trip-
guidelines as established by the International Council for
loids (3n) that are used as production oysters while main-
the Exploration of the Seas (ICES).
taining a viable genetic line in the diploid broodstock.
This technology, coupled with the more recent establish-
Shellfish and the Environment ment of broodstock genetic programs, will be a major
industry thrust.
O ne of the more signicant challenges to aquaculture
Oyster genomic research is an industry priority and a
in the next decade will be the industry’s ability to
regional cooperative effort involving university and indus-
position itself within the environmental framework and
try geneticists and oyster hatchery managers.
philosophy of natural resource management. Environmen-
The establishment of a national Molluscan Broodstock Pro-
tal issues are a concern nationally and are paramount
gram (MBP) and the Molluscan Broodstock Center on the
in California.
West Coast mark the true beginning of an oyster genetics
Immediate environmental concerns relative to shellsh
program which fosters cutting edge genetics research.
culture are the potential biological and physical impacts of
Using a mix of regional and national grants, geneticists are
culture technology on sensitive components of the marine
utilizing cooperative regional research to develop geneti-
ecosystem. These sensitive components include eelgrass
cally marked family lines that are tested and selected for
as essential habitat for salmonid and other nsh, and
high yield and survival. Scientists are exploring the alter-
the invertebrate assemblage present on and within the
native strategy of crossbreeding and have demonstrated
substrate that is essential to the food web of birds and
at the larval and market sizes that hybrid Pacic oysters
other marine species. Also included are the impacts on
have dramatically higher yield and superior metabolic per-
the life habits of birds and marine mammals and on the
formance than their inbred parents. This striking hybrid
physical structure of the bay. It will be essential that
vigor or heterosis suggests that crossbreeding, in addition
shellsh technology not have signicant impact upon the
to traditional selection as practiced by the MBP, could
health of the ecosystem on which it also depends. Shell-
improve oyster yield dramatically and quickly. Technology
sh culture and our living marine resources depend upon
is also being developed to measure and more readily
excellent water quality and a healthy environment and,
dene “future performance” at the larval stage, thereby
therefore, these concepts are not mutually exclusive.
avoiding costly growout trials and stock maintenance.
In response to these concerns, long-term federal and state
Current and future trends of the oyster industry are
supported regional research has been initiated to study
reected throughout the West Coast and the Pacic Rim
shellsh culture impacts. This research is being conducted
because of the industry’s regional infrastructure and mar-
by university and state research agency personnel, focuses
kets. Industry shellsh hatcheries which were concen-
on the industry in California, Washington, and Oregon,
trated in the Pacic Northwest have opened in Hawaii,
and is monitored continuously to identify areas that
thereby taking advantage of stable water quality and con-
may need immediate alteration. In addition, federal and
sistent solar radiance used in energy-efcient algal cul-
state funding, coupled with industry resources, is being
ture. The primary markets for seed are West Coast pro-
directed toward the development of industry best man-
ducers who will expand into more international markets.
agement practices to guide the industry in its present and
The industry is rapidly expanding Kumamoto oyster pro-
future development.
duction because of its higher value and half-shell market
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 505
References
demand, and greater market attention will be given to
Culture of Oysters
value-added shellsh products such as ash-frozen half-
Barrett, E.M. 1963. The California Oyster Industry. Calif.
shell products for international Pacic Rim markets.
Dept. Fish and Game Bull. No. 123, 103 pp.
The oyster industry will concentrate on developing more
Bonnot, P. 1935. The California Oyster Industry. Calif.
efcient methods of off-bottom culture and culture tech-
Dept. Fish and Game. 21(1):65-80.
niques that are less intrusive and result in fewer environ-
mental impacts. The greater adaptation of off-bottom cul- Burreson. E.M., N.A. Stokes and C.S. Friedman, 2000.
ture, coupled with the higher valued half-shell Kumamoto Increased virulence in an introduced pathogen: Haplospo-
oyster, is a potential that may offset the loss of shucked ridium nelsoni (MSX) in the Eastern oyster Crassostrea
product produced in bottom culture. The development virginica. J. Aquatic Animal Health12:1-8.
and adaptation of more environmentally sound practices
Conte, F.S. and J.L. Dupuy. 1982. The California Oyster
will remain an industry priority.
Industry. Proc. North American Oyster Workshop, World
Mariculture Society, Special Publication No. 1: 43-63.
Fred S. Conte Conte, F.S., S.C. Harbell and R.L. RaLonde. 1994. Oyster
University of California, Davis Culture: Fundamentals and Technologies of the West Coast
Industry. WRAC Publication No. 94-101 Sectional: 1994 and
Tom Moore
1996.
California Department of Fish and Game
Elston, R.A. 1990. Mollusc Diseases: Guide for the shellsh
farmer. University of Washington Press. 73 pp.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
506
Culture of Salmon
History culturists, whereas coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Culture of Salmon
and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) eggs or ngerings were
D ifferent methods are used for aquaculture production imported from out of state to California farms. Salmon
of salmon. The three major techniques are salmon culture has not been a major component of the state’s
ranching, land-based tank operations, and net-pen rear- private aquaculture sectors and never contributed as
ing. At salmon ranch hatcheries, adult sh are spawned, much as ve percent to the total value of the
the eggs are hatched, and the young are reared in tanks to industry’s production.
increase their size and chances of survival in the wild. The Conversely, public salmon hatchery operations play a key
salmon smolts are then released and grow to market size role in the management of California’s natural resources.
while at liberty in the ocean. After maturing at sea, the Hatcheries are built and operated to supplement natural
salmon return to the hatchery, where they are harvested. salmon resources or to mitigate for the loss of natural
If at least three to ve percent of the released salmon production that occurs when water and power generation
return to be harvested, a private salmon ranch may be projects eliminate salmon spawning habitat. Thus, hatch-
protable. However, it is not uncommon for 98 to 99 eries help provide for the multiple benecial use of the
percent of the salmon to be lost to natural and shing state’s water resources. Public hatcheries produce approx-
mortality before they can return to the hatchery. imately 40 million sh each year and are critical to main-
Land-based tank operations maintain all of the sh at taining the state’s sport and commercial salmon sheries.
the facility until harvest. Fish are kept in tanks made of Over ninety percent of California’s salmon harvest comes
concrete, berglass, or other materials. Round tanks are from south of Point Arena, where hatchery-produced sh
often in the range of 30 to 40 feet in diameter. Water is generally make up over half of the catch.
pumped through the tanks to maintain good water quality, Public hatchery production of salmon in California dates
and growth comes from manufactured feed provided by back to 1872 with the establishment of Baird Hatchery
the aquaculturist. on the McCloud River in the upper Sacramento River
Net pen facilities use young sh produced in hatcheries, drainage. Several other salmon hatcheries and egg taking
which are then placed into pens where they are fed until stations also began operations in the late 1800s and
grown to market size. The pens are made from exible early 1900s. Baird originally operated as an independent
netting material suspended from oats and are generally hatchery, then as an egg collecting station for salmon
a few hundred square feet at the surface. Pens are often and trout reared at Mount Shasta Hatchery (then called
linked together to form large units of up to many acres. Sisson Hatchery). After the construction of Shasta Dam,
The net-pens are usually placed in sheltered salt-water Mount Shasta Hatchery and the upper Sacramento spawn-
areas where protection from ocean storms is provided and ing grounds were separated from the lower Sacramento
good water quality is maintained by natural currents. River and the Pacic Ocean. Coleman National Fish Hatch-
ery was built in 1942 to mitigate for those losses. It
Salmon have been produced in California by both private
replaced many of the early hatcheries, including most of
and public hatcheries. While the history of private trout
the salmon operations at Mount Shasta. Coleman Hatchery
production in California is strong and dates back to the
is on Battle Creek, a tributary of the Sacramento River
1800s, private commercial production of salmon in Cali-
at Anderson (south of Redding). It is the only federally
fornia has been intermittent and never very substantial.
operated sh hatchery in California.
The beginning of recent interest in commercial salmon
production was the authorization by the California Legis- Today there are seven California Department of Fish
lature in 1968 for the rst (and only) private salmon and Game-operated salmon mitigation hatcheries and
ranching operation. In 1979, the legislature authorized the two state-operated salmon restoration and enhancement
operation’s move to its current site on Davenport Landing hatcheries. All nine of these state-operated hatcheries
Creek (Santa Cruz County), where the operation has been have been built since 1955. The mitigation hatcheries
inactive for several years. are located on central valley and north coast rivers
downstream from dams constructed for water or
In California, land-based tank operations were tried in
power development.
the 1980s and 1990s, and accounted for some limited
private aquaculture production of salmon. Most commer-
cially produced salmon were from tank-rearing operations
located in northern California, where cold water suitable
for salmon culture is more readily found. Fish were grown
to market size in tanks using either fresh or salt water.
Steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were produced
from domestic brood stock maintained by California aqua-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 507
Hatchery Location not cause signicant negative impacts on adjacent native
Culture of Salmon
sh and wildlife. Private salmon culture may be permitted
Iron Gate ...............................On the Klamath River
throughout California where negative impacts will not
below Copco Lake
result, except that commercial salmon farming is prohib-
Trinity...................................On the Trinity River
ited from the Smith River watershed.
below Clair Engle Lake
The lone California commercial salmon ranching project
Feather River ..........................Below Lake Oroville
(Davenport Landing) is required to operate under an
Mokelumne River Fish Installation .Below Camanche annual permit from the Fish and Game Commission.
Reservoir Commission authority to issue the salmon ranching
permit is granted by the California Legislature. The legis-
Nimbus..................................On the American River
lature reviews the authorization periodically and in 1995
below Folsom Lake
extended authority to issue the permit to January 1, 2001.
Van Arsdale Fisheries Station .......On the Eel River below
While the project does not have a current permit, it
Van Arsdale Reservoir
historically has been authorized to ranch chinook salmon,
Warm Springs ..........................On a tributary to the coho, and steelhead.
Russian River below
State and federal hatcheries produce chinook and coho
Lake Sonoma
salmon and steelhead using the same production tech-
niques as other salmon ranching operations. Returning
adults are articially spawned and the offspring are reared
The DFG’s two restoration and enhancement hatcheries
to smolt or yearling size before they are released at the
are the Mad River Hatchery near Eureka and the Merced
hatchery (or at other freshwater sites) to migrate to the
River Fish Installation below Lake McClure. There is also
ocean where they grow to adults. Chinook salmon return
a non-prot salmon and steelhead enhancement hatchery
to be spawned, usually three or four years after release.
in California on the Smith River. The Rowdy Creek Fish
Coho generally spend one year in freshwater and return
Hatchery is located in the town of Smith River and began
from the ocean to spawn as three-year olds. Hatchery
in 1967 as a Kiwanis Club project. It operates under an
steelhead spend one or two seasons in fresh water and
individual category in the California Fish and Game Code.
one to three seasons in the ocean and can repeat spawn
In addition, public or privately funded nonprot salmon
after release.
restoration and enhancement projects use a variety of
Public hatchery production remains relatively constant;
habitat improvement, articial spawning, and rearing
therefore, years of low natural production result in
techniques to improve runs of wild sh or to contribute
harvests with a larger proportion of hatchery sh.
additional sh to the shery. Most are located on coastal
Depending upon the success of each year’s natural produc-
streams in northern and central California. Saltwater pen-
tion, Department of Fish and Game biologists estimate
rearing operations have been located at Tiburon, Port San
that hatchery-produced sh generally contribute from
Luis, and Ventura. In 1998-1999, a total of twelve projects
50 to 60 percent of California’s sport and commercial
planted an average of 30,000 sh per project.
salmon harvests.
Most of the public hatchery production of salmon in Cali-
Status fornia is intended to mitigate for the loss of habitat caused
by construction of dams for water and power develop-
C urrently, there is no private for-prot aquaculture pro-
ment. The concept of providing mitigation for losses to
duction of salmon in California. Nationally, and inter-
sh and wildlife caused by the building of a government
nationally, net pen rearing of salmon has proven to be the
project was originally established by the U.S. Congress
most successful method of private aquaculture production
when it enacted the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of
of salmon for the seafood market. The only net-pen rear-
1934. The need to replace the natural shery resources
ing of salmon in California has been some small sport
eliminated by these projects continues to have high prior-
shing salmon enhancement projects. Commercial net-pen
ity with the people of California.
rearing is not prohibited, in part because no suitable sites
have been identied or developed which do not conict
with other established uses. Bob Hulbrock
California Department of Fish and Game
Every private aquaculture operation in California is
required to register with the Department of Fish and
Game. Before approving an application for registration,
the department must determine that each facility will
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
508
References
Culture of Salmon
California Advisory Committee on Salmon and Steelhead
Trout. 1988. Restoring the balance: 1988 Annual Report.
84 pp.
Leitritz, E. 1970. A history of California’s sh hatcheries
1870-1960. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 150. 86
pp.
Leitritz, E. and R.C. Lewis. 1976. Trout and salmon cul-
ture-hatchery methods. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull.164. 197 pp.
Thorpe, J.E. (Editor). 1980. Salmon Ranching. Academic
Press, New York, New York. 441 pp.
Weighing and spawning of Chinook salmon at Rowdy Creek Hatchery, a community-run hatchery near Crescent City.
Credit: CA Sea Grant Extention Program
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 509
Culture of
Marine Finfish The species described in this chapter are native to Cali-
fornia and have historically represented important sher-
ies to the region. Detailed descriptions of the natural
History of Finfish Culture history and sheries for each are provided elsewhere in
this volume.
T he impetus to develop marine aquaculture in the U.S.
is strong. In 1998, the U.S. imported $8.2 billion in
edible shery products. During the past 15 years, produc-
Culture, Facilities and Systems
tion of food sh by capture sheries reached a plateau
I
of 66 million tons per year. Similarly, FAO statistics report n California, land-based research facilities (hatcheries)
that 60 percent of marine sheries are fully or over- are used for broodstock holding and maturation, and for
exploited. Under these conditions, and with a growing larval rearing of marine nsh. Juvenile culture has been
human population, it is estimated that aquaculture pro- conducted on a limited scale for white seabass in cages,
duction will have to increase by 140 percent from 1995 pools and raceways, and with California halibut in race-
levels by the year 2025. ways. Seawater is pumped into land-based facilities from
nearshore areas, (typically lagoons, harbors, or embay-
Marine nsh farming in California and the United States
ments) where water quality may be highly variable.
is in its infancy. In California, with the exception of anad-
romous species, no marine nsh are being produced Broodstock maturation systems are typically recirculated
on a commercial scale. In the United States, specically so that water temperature can be controlled and used
Texas, only red drum are cultured in large numbers. How- to induce spawning. Pool volumes range from 5,000 to
ever, the red drum ngerlings being produced are used 11,500 gallons. Egg hatching and early larval rearing sys-
primarily for stock enhancement and not grown out and tems require ne control over water quality parameters.
marketed for direct human consumption. Like the Texas Low ow requirements make ow-through systems practi-
stocking program for red drum, California has been evalu- cal, but recirculating systems are generally recommended.
ating the efcacy of marine stock enhancement since the Pool volumes for egg hatching and early larval rearing
early 1980s. This research has been conducted largely range from 80 to 450 gallons. Juvenile growout has been
under the auspices of the Ocean Resources Enhancement conducted in ow-through systems (pools and raceways)
and Hatchery Program (OREHP). In recent years, the stock up to 8,000 gallons in volume and nearshore cages up to
enhancement research has lead to projects designed to 145,000 gallons.
evaluate the feasibility of commercial growout in near-
California’s OREHP maintains one of the largest breeding
shore cages. The two primary species that have been
populations of a single species of marine nsh, white
investigated in California are the white seabass (Atrac-
seabass, in the world. More than 250 adult sh are main-
toscion nobilis) and the California halibut (Paralichthys
tained in captivity either in breeding pools or support
californicus). Giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) have also
facilities. The need for this large number of individuals
been studied but to a much lesser extent.
stems from the stock enhancement objectives of the
program and the desire to ensure genetic diversity of
released animals. However, the large broodstock popula-
History of the Ocean Resources Enhance- tion also results in a surplus of egg production that could
ment and Hatchery Program (OREHP) help support a developing commercial culture industry.
Spawning of marine nsh, including white seabass and
T he OREHP began in 1982 and has since been reautho-
California halibut is often allowed to occur naturally or is
rized with minor modications. This program funds
induced semi-naturally using photo-thermal manipulation.
research through the sale of recreational and commercial
That is, seasonal cycles are either natural (ambient water
marine enhancement stamps for all saltwater anglers
temperature and photoperiod) or controlled to promote
south of Point Arguello. The California Department of Fish
spawning out of season. Hormone-induced spawning has
and Game manages the OREHP with the assistance of an
not been investigated thoroughly and the few attempts
advisory panel that consists of academic and management
to induce spawning have been largely unsuccessful. The
agency scientists, representatives of both commercial and
disposition and general hardiness of California halibut and
recreational shing groups, and the aquaculture industry.
giant sea bass makes them potentially better suited to
Since 1995, OREHP has supported operation of the Leon
the extra handling required for hormone injections, while
Raymond Hubbard, Jr. Marine Fish Hatchery in Carlsbad,
white seabass are not.
California. This research facility is dedicated to improving
Female white seabass and California halibut are reported
our understanding of marine sh culture.
to mature in the wild at four to ve years. For white
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
510
seabass, this represents a size of 27 inches and for Califor- Cannibalism can be a signicant problem among younger
Culture of Marine Finfish
nia halibut, 18.5 inches. Eggs from each of these species life stages of marine sh before grading is practical. Can-
are pelagic. Females are batch-spawners, with each batch nibalism can be reduced by optimizing feeding and nutri-
typically yielding hundreds of thousands to more than a tion and by grading the sh. In outdoor rearing pools,
million eggs. birds such as herons are known to prey on cultured sh.
These predators can effectively be excluded using inex-
Growth of each of these species is highly dependent
pensive netting. In cages, marine mammals such as Cali-
on water temperature. White seabass and California hali-
fornia sea lions and harbor seals can be a problem if given
but are physiologically adapted to estuarine conditions
the opportunity. Birds, both diving and non-diving, can
as juveniles and therefore can tolerate (and may prefer)
also prey on caged sh. To prevent predation on caged
higher temperatures (71-81º F) associated with embay-
sh, extra netting (i.e., in addition to the sh containment
ments. Furthermore, the southern range for these species
net) should be employed above and below the water.
near Magdelena Bay in Baja California, Mexico where
water temperatures can be expected to be even warmer
than those in California.
Aquaculture Potential
White seabass have been cultured in raceways to a size
T
of 3.3 pounds in two years at temperatures of 56-79º F. A he aquaculture potential for white seabass and Califor-
similar growout period in cages yielded only a 1.75 pound nia halibut should be excellent. The potential for giant
white seabass, but water temperature was considerably sea bass culture appears to be less promising, although
lower (52-72º F). California halibut cultured in raceways further research is warranted for this species. White sea-
exhibited slow growth, reaching a maximum of 0.9 pound bass and California halibut are popular, high-value species.
in two years under conditions of 55-77º F. It should be Wild white seabass are available seasonally and at a large
noted that these data are preliminary and that growth size of more than six to seven pounds. Wild halibut are
will likely be improved as the nutritional requirements available year-round and there is a growing market for
and the potential for selective breeding are investigated live sh.
more fully. In other regions, species similar to white seabass and
White seabass begin feeding at an age of four to ve California halibut are being cultured successfully -- in
days (post hatch). Their relatively large size allows them some cases on a truly commercial scale. Among some of
to feed successfully on newly hatched Artemia. California the croaker species (related to white seabass), red drum,
halibut and giant sea bass both require smaller prey items and seatrout are being cultured in the United States.
such as rotifers for the rst week of feeding, before Totoaba, corvina, and maigre (all members of the croaker
transitioning to Artemia nauplii. Beginning at 20 days, dry family) are being evaluated for culture in Mexico, Argen-
feed is offered to the sh along with the Artemia. In order tina, and the Mediterranean, respectively. Several species
to help the sh wean from a live prey diet to dry feed, of atsh are also being cultured. On the East Coast
frozen zooplankton (adult Artemia, krill or mysids) is also of the United States, the summer ounder and southern
fed to the sh. The amount of live food (Artemia nauplii) ounder are being evaluated for culture. In Japan, a oun-
and frozen feed is slowly reduced as sh begin feeding on der has been cultured on a commercial scale for many
the dry feed. Once on dry feed, the feed size is increased years, and two species of ounders are being cultured in
as the sh grow. The feed type, characterized by the South America.
protein and fat content, may also be adjusted to reduce
costs and improve llet quality.
Conclusions
Among the more common infectious diseases affecting
A
white seabass and California halibut are: 1) protozoans; quaculture of marine nsh is in its infancy in the
2) bacteria; and 3) invertebrate parasites. Among these United States, and California has not contributed
pathogens, the bacterium Flexibacter maritimus is the signicantly to its development. With 1,200 miles of
most common and difcult to eradicate. Infections by this coastline, opportunities to farm the ocean should be
organism occur frequently after handling the sh and may readily available. Unlike the agriculture industry in Califor-
result in lesions and n rot. Among the non-infectious nia, which consistently ranks number one in the nation
diseases, gas bubble disease is often severe among white (greater than $26 billion in 1997), mariculture opportu-
seabass cultured in shallow water systems that are not nities in California are impeded by competing uses for
adequately degassed, including oating raceways in natu- coastal resources and a restrictive regulatory environ-
ral water bodies. Nutritional deciencies are also likely ment. In addition to the typical burdens associated with
in cultured marine sh, although the effects are not bureaucracies, California regulatory agencies often over-
well understood.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 511
References
lap in authority, lack a clearly dened process, and are
Culture of Marine Finfish
often poorly educated about the need for aquaculture and
Bartley, D. M., D. B. Kent, et al. 1995. Conservation
what is involved with mariculture activities.
of genetic diversity in a white seabass hatchery enhance-
There is a clear need for aquaculture development world-
ment program in southern California. Uses and effects
wide and California has access to the coastal resources
of cultured shes in aquatic ecosystems, Bethesda, MD,
and high value marine species necessary to compete
American Fisheries Society.
in the world seafood market. A proactive approach is
Drawbridge, M. A., D. B. Kent, et al. (in review). Commer-
required to make this a reality.
cialization of White Seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) Aqua-
culture in Southern California: Biological and Technical
Mark A. Drawbridge and Donald B. Kent
Feasibility of Cage Culture. Aquaculture.
Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute
Kent, D. B., M. A. Drawbridge, et al. 1995. Accomplish-
ments and roadblocks of a marine stock enhancement
program for white seabass in California. Uses and effects
of cultured shes in aquatic ecosystems, Bethesda, MD,
American Fisheries Society.
New, M. B. 1997. Aquaculture and the capture sheries -
balancing the scales. World Aquaculture: 11-30.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
512
Invasive Species
History Bay has increased from an average of one every 55 weeks
Invasive Species
before 1960, to one every 14 weeks between 1961 and
I nvasive species are the number two threat to rare, 1995. Invasive species that have been positively identied
threatened or endangered species nationwide, second as permanent residents of the Bay include Asian clam,
only to habitat destruction. Commercial shermen nation- the European green crab, the New Zealand sea slug, the
wide are seeing signicant impacts on local sh popula- Chinese mitten crab, and several species of sponges, jelly-
tions from invasive marine life. Indeed, coastal systems, sh, sh, anemones, snails, mussels, clams, and barnacles.
including tidal ats and salt marshes, have been particu- Indeed, San Francisco Bay is likely the most invaded estu-
larly susceptible, possibly because they are typically high- ary in the world.
stress, species-poor environments. California water agen- The discharge of ships’ ballast water from foreign ports
cies have expressed alarm at the “potentially devastating” is currently the single largest source of coastal, aquatic
impacts that invasive species can have on California’s invasive species. A recent survey found that 53-88 percent
waters. Unlike threats posed by most chemical or other of the aquatic invasive species introduced into San Fran-
types of pollution, biological pollution by invasive species cisco Bay in the last decade originated in ballast water
normally will have permanent impacts, as they are virtu- discharges, and there is evidence that the number of
ally impossible to eradicate once established. ballast-related introductions of aquatic invasive species
Specic environmental threats from invasive organisms is steadily growing. According to estimates by the San
include consumption of natives and their food sources, Francisco Estuary Institute, between half a billion and a
genetic dilution of native species through cross-breeding, billion gallons of ballast water are discharged into the San
alteration of the physical environment, introduction of Francisco Bay/Delta Estuary each year by ships arriving
non-native parasites and diseases, and poisoning of native from foreign ports. Aquaculture, unintentional introduc-
species through bioaccumulation of toxics that are passed tions via recreational vehicles, deliberate introductions
up the food chain. For example: (i.e., to establish a shery), and importation of live marine
organisms for human consumption, bait, pets or research
• In the former Soviet Union, a species of comb jelly
are other important vectors of aquatic invasive species.
was introduced into the Black and Azov Seas through
ships’ ballast and played a signicant role in virtually
destroying an entire shery. Since the introduction
Examples of Significant Invasive Species
of this species, shing harvest in those seas dropped
200,000 tons in a ve-year period.
N umerous invasive species threaten the health of
• Microscopic neurotoxin-producing organisms called marine life both directly and indirectly through altera-
dinoagellates have been transported in the sedi- tion of coastal ecosystems and habitats. This section
ments carried with ballast water and discharged into highlights three of the more signicant species, which
new regions of the world, where they have produced are a particular problem in the San Francisco Bay and
toxic red tides, including red tides in southern Austra- surrounding areas, and reviews the status of invasions
lia that probably originated in ballast water. elsewhere in the state.
• Scientists have warned that a non-native goby now
The European Green Crab
found in the Great Lakes raises toxin levels in indig-
enous sh and could pose a serious health risk to
(Carcinus maenas)
humans who eat game sh.
The green crab, native to the Atlantic coasts of Europe
• Microbial studies conducted in Canada on ships arriv-
and northern Africa, occupies protected rocky shores,
ing in winter from Europe found that more than 50
sandats and tidal marshes. In 1989-1990, it was dis-
percent of the ships carrying ballast water violated
covered in San Francisco Bay, and has since spread as
water discharge standards with fecal coliform bacte-
far north as Washington and southern British Columbia
ria. The authors surmised that ships arriving in the
and south to Morro Bay. It may have entered California
summer, or from Asian ports, would be likely to have
through the discharge of ballast water from trans-oceanic
substantially higher rates of contamination.
ships, although spread is also possible through discard of
Here in California, numerous studies indicate that San seaweed packing material used in shipping live shellsh
Francisco Bay is already severely impacted by harmful and the interstate transport of shellsh aquaculture prod-
non-native species. These studies have identied at least ucts and equipment.
234 nonindigenous plant and animal species that now live
The green crab is a voracious predator that feeds on
in San Francisco Bay. Moreover, the rate at which aquatic
many types of organisms, particularly bivalve mollusks,
invasive species are becoming established in San Francisco
polychaetes, and small crustaceans. The green crab is
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 513
A single female can carry 250,000 to a million eggs. After
Invasive Species
hatching, larvae are planktonic for one to two months.
The small juvenile crabs settle in salt or brackish water
in late spring and migrate to freshwater. Young juvenile
mitten crabs are found in tidal freshwater areas, and usu-
ally burrow in banks and levees between the high and low
tide marks. In China and Europe, older juveniles have been
reported several hundred miles from the sea. Maturing
crabs move from shallow areas to the channels in late
summer and early fall and migrate to salt water in late fall
and early winter to complete the life-cycle.
Mitten crabs are adept walkers and readily move across
banks or levees to bypass obstructions such as dams or
weirs. They are omnivores, with juveniles eating mostly
European Green Crab, Carcinus maenas
Credit: DFG vegetation, but preying upon animals, especially small
invertebrates, as they grow.
capable of learning and can improve its prey-handling
Mitten crabs pose several possible threats. Their bur-
skills while foraging. The crab is quicker, more dexterous
rowing activity may accelerate the erosion of banks and
and can open shells in more ways than other types of
levees, disturbing local habitat. In addition, the crab can
crabs. In its native range, the green crab feeds heavily on
disrupt needed water deliveries to estuarine habitats by
mussels. On the East Coast, the crab is believed to have
clogging the pumps that deliver the water. The mitten
played a role in the demise of Atlantic soft-shell clam sh-
crab also has become a nuisance for commercial bay
eries in the 1950s. In Bodega Harbor, California, records
shrimp trawlers in south bay, who have reported mitten
show a signicant reduction in clam and native shore crab
crabs damaging nets and killing shrimp. The crab may
population abundance since the arrival of green crabs in
also compete in the delta with an exotic craysh that is
1993. Furthermore, laboratory studies show that the green
the basis for a small commercial shery. The mitten crab
crab preys on Dungeness crab of equal or smaller size.
may also be the secondary intermediate host for the Ori-
Dungeness crab spend part of their juvenile life in the
ental lung uke, with mammals, including humans, as the
intertidal zone, and may therefore be at risk from green
nal host.
crab predation. Besides its threat as a predator, the green
crab may carry a parasite, the acanthocephalan worm, The ecological impact of a large mitten crab population
which can infect local shore birds. is the least understood of all the potential impacts. It
could reduce populations of native invertebrates through
The Chinese Mitten Crab predation and change the structure of the estuary’s fresh
and brackish water benthic invertebrate communities.
(Eriocheir sinensis)
The Chinese mitten crab is native to the coastal rivers
and estuaries of the Yellow Sea. It was rst collected in
the San Francisco estuary in 1992 by commercial shrimp
trawlers in South San Francisco Bay and has since spread
rapidly throughout the estuary. Mitten crabs were rst
collected in San Pablo Bay in fall 1994, Suisun Marsh in
February 1996, and the delta in September 1996. The
Chinese mitten crab now extends at least from north of
Colusa in the Sacramento River drainage, east to eastern
San Joaquin County near Calaveras County, and south in
the San Joaquin River near the San Luis National Wildlife
Refuge. The most probable mechanism of introduction to
the estuary was either deliberate release to establish a
shery or accidental release via ballast water. In Asia, the
mitten crab is a delicacy and crabs have been imported
live to markets in Los Angeles and San Francisco.
The mitten crab is catadromous - adults reproduce in salt
Chinese Mitten Crab, Eriocheir sinensis
water and the offspring migrate to fresh water to grow. Credit: DFG
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
514
An Asian Clam
Invasive Species
(Potamocorbula amurensis)
In October 1986, the rst Asian clams found in California
were collected in San Francisco Bay by a community col-
lege biology class. Just nine months later, the Asian clam
had become the most abundant clam in the northern part
of the bay, averaging over 2000 clams per square meter.
The clam is a highly efcient lter feeder, ingesting bacte-
ria and small zooplankton as well as phytoplankton. At
year 2000 densities in the bay, virtually the entire water
column may pass through the ltering apparatus of these
clams between once and twice a day. Since its arrival, Asian Clam, Potamocorbula amurensis
the clam has eliminated annual phytoplankton blooms that Credit: DFG
had previously characterized this ecosystem, disrupted
The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has
food webs, reduced the populations of native zooplankton
established inspection requirements for abalone stock
species, and possibly increased the vulnerability of the
transfers, required detailed clean-up plans from all
ecosystem to invasions by exotic zooplankton, many of
infested aquaculture facilities, prohibited out-planting,
which have since occurred. This clam is also thought
and added the sabellid to the Fish and Game Commission’s
responsible for a reduction in particulate organic carbon.
signicant disease list. Such controls appear to be having
With less food available for larval and other benthic
some effect, as most abalone culture facilities report
lter feeders, the relative populations of native species
some level of control and eradication of this worm. How-
could shift.
ever, there have been reports of re-infestation by abalone
The clam may also be acting as an accumulator of con-
shipments that had been inspected and certied by the
taminants, concentrating selenium in bottom-feeding sh
DFG. The inspection protocols used have been mathemati-
and birds at levels that are high enough to cause reproduc-
cally demonstrated to be unlikely to detect a low level
tive defects. This magnication of selenium concentra-
of infestation in transferred abalone, such as one to ve
tions in the food chain could also affect sh- and shellsh-
percent or lower. Moreover, the mesh on the screens of
eating marine mammals such as harbor seals, sea lions,
the discharge pipes of onshore culturing facilities are far
and the sea otters, which are returning to the bay.
too large to prevent the release of eggs or larvae, and
the openings in offshore barrel and cage culture are even
A South African Sabellid Worm larger. Subtidal inspection of possible release sites for the
(Terebrasabella heterouncinata) sabellid worm has been very limited, and the locations of
some of these possible release sites are simply unknown.
The South African sabellid worm is a parasitic polychaete
Further work is needed to ensure that all infestations are
worm that infests mollusks. It was introduced into Cali-
removed and effective controls are in place to prevent
fornia waters in the mid-1980s with abalone imported
reinfestation.
into a California aquaculture facility. The worm spread
rapidly among abalone facilities through the transfer of
A Tropical Seaweed
infested seed stock and proved difcult to control once
(Caulerpa taxifolia)
established. The worm infests only the abalone’s shell,
signicantly reducing the growth rates of cultured aba-
An invasive green algae dubbed the “killer algae,” was
lone. A heavy infestation can cause shell deformation,
discovered in the waters of southern California off Carls-
elevate mortality as the shell becomes brittle, and reduce
bad in early 2000. Native to tropical waters, it became
reproductive capacity as more energy is channeled into
popular in the aquarium trade in the late 1970s and either
shell production.
escaped or was released into the Mediterranean Sea in
Introduction in state waters is highly likely, given the spe-
the mid-1980s. It is now widespread throughout much of
cies’ broad host specicity. Sabellids have been detected
the northwestern Mediterranean. It appears that the algae
in a native gastropod mollusk, in the intertidal zone adja-
found off southern California is a clone of the released
cent to the discharge pipe from an abalone facility in
Mediterranean plant, and can grow in deeper and colder
central California. Attempts to eradicate this invasive spe-
waters than the tropical populations. Its impacts have
cies at this site and at culture facilities are ongoing.
been compared to unrolling a carpet of Astroturf across
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 515
the sea bed. In areas where it has become well-estab- years, there are currently no criteria in the statute or
Invasive Species
lished, it has caused economic and ecological devastation accompanying regulations to guide that decision. More-
by overgrowing and eliminating native seaweeds, seagrass over, it addresses only vessels entering the U.S. from
reefs, and other communities. outside the EEZ, and ignores, for example, coastwise traf-
c from areas contaminated with problematic invasive
In southern California, the algae poses a signicant threat
species (such as the San Francisco Bay area).
to eelgrass meadows and other benthic environments that
are essential to the survival of native invertebrates, sh NISA requires annual reporting to assess the ongoing effec-
and aquatic birds. If the algae spread from the coastal tiveness of the program. The rst interim report by
lagoons to the nearshore reefs, it could inhibit the estab- the National Ballast Information Clearinghouse, issued in
lishment of juveniles of many species, including kelp and October 2000, found that over the rst 12 months (July
the biota associated with kelp beds. Efforts to destroy 1999-2000) that the rule was in effect, only 20.8 percent
this patch of algae have involved tarping off the area and of the vessels that entered U. S. waters from outside the
injecting chlorine under the tarp. EEZ led the mandatory reports required under NISA and
pursuant to U.S. Coast Guard regulations. For the entire
Other Invasives U.S., compliance with reporting improved only slightly
over the 12-month period, remaining between 23 percent
Invasive species are present not only in San Francisco and 29 percent from October 1999 through June 2000.
Bay but are common as well in other harbors and bays Only for the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. did compli-
in California and along the Pacic Coast. For example, ance with the reporting requirement increase markedly
recent compilations list about 25 invasive species in Morro over time, primarily from an increase in California, which
Bay in central California, and about 80 invasive species receives the most ship arrivals. This increase coincided
in the bays and harbors of southern California. One such with implementation of a 1999 California state law that
organism is an Australasian isopod that signicantly erodes requires submission of copies of the federal ballast water
the banks of salt marsh channels and marsh edges in management reports to the State Lands Commission,
San Diego Bay, resulting in reduction of already-limited authorizes monetary and criminal penalties for noncompli-
coastal habitat. ance, and utilizes an active boarding program that targets
Once established in one area, exotic organisms may 20-30 percent of arrivals. As a result, compliance with
quickly spread to another through either natural or reporting in California increased over the past 12 months
anthropogenic transport. Invasive species initially estab- to approximately 75 percent.
lished in bays may subsequently invade the open coast. The report concluded that due to the poor nationwide
A predatory New Zealand sea slug that was collected reporting rate (20.8 percent), it is difcult to estimate
in San Francisco Bay in 1992 may have spread north to reliably (a) the patterns of ballast water delivery and
Bodega Bay and south to near San Diego, though further (b) the compliance with NISA’s voluntary guidelines for
taxonomic work is needed to identify which of the two ballast water management. Based on the information that
to four species of invasive sea slugs are involved and the was submitted, the report found that nationwide, approx-
locations of their spread. imately 42 percent (10.2 million metric tons) of the for-
eign water reported discharged into the U. S. had not
been exchanged completely as requested in the voluntary
Existing Regulatory Regime and guidelines. The report also noted that although it is clear
Regulatory Gaps that many vessels that discharge ballast water in the U.S.
are not in compliance with voluntary guidelines, based
upon their reports, the extent of non-compliance with
National Invasive Species Act of 1996 these guidelines simply cannot be estimated accurately
due to the very low rate of reporting.
Existing regulation of the major vector of invasive species
introduction - ballast water discharges - is generally lim-
Clean Water Act
ited in its reach. The primary federal law regulating
ballast water discharges, the National Invasive Species
The Clean Water Act prohibits the discharge of “any pol-
Act (NISA), calls primarily for voluntary ballast water
lutant by any person” into waters of the United States,
exchange by vessels entering the U.S. after operating
unless done in compliance with specied sections of the
outside of the EEZ (mandatory ballast water exchange
Act, including the permit requirements in Section 402.
requirements exist only in the Great Lakes). Some of
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
the limitations of NISA are that while it states that the
permits issued to discharges into the territorial sea also
voluntary program could become mandatory after several
must comply with “ocean discharge criteria” specically
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
516
Endangered Species Act
designed to prevent the degradation of those waters,
Invasive Species
pursuant to Clean Water Act Section 403.
Under Section 7 of the federal Endangered Species Act
Currently, an EPA regulation adopted in the 1970s speci-
(ESA), federal agencies must ensure that their actions
cally exempts ballast water from the NPDES permit pro-
are “not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
gram. In January 1999, a petition was made to the EPA
any endangered species or threatened species or result
by the Pacic Environmental Advocacy Center, on behalf
in the destruction or adverse modication of habitat of
of conservation groups, commercial and recreational sh-
such species…” In addition, federal agencies must consult
ing interests, American Indian tribes and California water
with the Secretary of the Interior and/or Commerce, as
agencies, to regulate ballast water discharges under the
appropriate, “on any agency action which is likely to jeop-
NPDES permit program in Section 402, arguing that the
ardize the continued existence of any species proposed to
regulatory exemption adopted by EPA exceeded their
be listed…or result in the destruction or adverse modica-
authority and violated the mandates of the Clean Water
tion of critical habitat proposed to be designated for
Act. Moreover, the assumption that ballast discharges are
such species.”
harmless is clearly no longer the view of the EPA or other
Section 7 of the ESA should be used to examine
federal agencies. After two years of waiting, the petition-
the impacts of a federal project that may result in
ers led suit against EPA in January 2001 to respond to
increased discharges of ballast containing invasive spe-
the 1999 petition.
cies, where such discharges may affect endangered or
If a pollutant is threatening or impairing use of a water
threatened species.
body, the water body violates water quality standards
and must be listed under Section 303(d) of the Clean
Presidential Executive Order 13112
Water Act as “water quality limited” for that pollutant.
EPA or the state then must establish the “total maximum On Feb. 3, 1999, President Clinton issued an Invasive
daily load” (TMDL) of the offending pollutant that can be Species Executive Order creating a Cabinet-level National
released into the water body and still ensure that the Invasive Species Council. The Council was charged with
water meets water quality standards, within a “margin of creating a National Invasive Species Management Plan that
safety.” A water body whose use is impaired by aquatic would address all types and sources of invasive species,
invasive species could be “listed” under Section 303(d); including aquatic invasive species in ballast water. An
if so, EPA or the state must identify the maximum load Invasive Species Advisory Committee made up of a range
of problem aquatic invasive species that can be safely of stakeholders has been working with the Council on a
discharged into that water body. Given the signicant and draft management plan. The draft management plan was
ongoing impacts associated with numerous aquatic inva- released for review in October 2000 and was nalized in
sive species, it may be difcult for the applicable agency early 2001.
to set a TMDL for aquatic invasive species other than
zero and still meet Section 303(d)’s “margin of safety”
California Environmental Quality Act
requirement. Currently, many reaches of the San Fran-
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires
cisco Bay are listed as impaired by invasive species under
appropriate mitigation of projects that contain signicant
Section 303(d).
environmental impacts. A “signicant” impact is a “sub-
stantial, or potentially substantial, adverse change in any
National Environmental Policy Act of the physical conditions within the area affected by the
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires Project including land, air, water, minerals, ora, [and]
that federal agencies prepare an Environmental Impact fauna…” The documented adverse impacts associated
Statement (EIS) for “major federal actions signicantly with invasive species appear to t this broad denition. In
affecting the quality of the human environment.” NEPA addition to meeting the general denition of “signicant
may be used to require further examination of federal effect,” the impacts associated with increased discharges
projects that may result in increased discharges of ballast of invasive species may require a mandatory nding of
water containing invasive species. At least one circuit signicance under CEQA, thus mandating feasible mitiga-
court has recognized that NEPA requires federal agencies tion of those impacts or an alternative project.
to evaluate a project’s indirect impacts on the spread and
introduction of aquatic invasive species.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 517
California Porter-Cologne Water Quality Public Resources Code
Invasive Species
Control Act In 1999, California became the rst state in the nation
to enact legislation mandating exchange of ships’ ballast
Under California’s Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
water in an effort to control the introduction of invasive
Act “any person discharging waste, or proposing to dis-
species. The Public Resources Code requires vessels carry-
charge waste, within any region that could affect the qual-
ing foreign ballast to exchange that ballast in open seas. It
ity of the waters of the state” must le with the appropri-
also requires specied state agencies to analyze the status
ate Regional Water Quality Control Board a report of the
of invasions, the effectiveness of the ballast exchange
discharge. Pursuant to the act, the regional board then
program, and alternatives for ballast treatment; sets pen-
prescribes “waste discharge requirements” related to con-
alties for noncompliance; and levies fees on regulated
trol of the discharge. The act denes “waste” broadly and
vessels to pay for the program. Washington state passed a
the term has been applied to a diverse array of materials.
mandatory ballast water exchange law modeled on Califor-
The San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
nia’s law in 2000. California’s mandatory law, clear penal-
Board has determined that “ballast water and hull fouling
ties, and an active ship boarding program has resulted in
discharges cause pollution as dened under the Por-
its taking the lead in the nation on the control of ballast
ter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act,” raising the pos-
water, as the Clearinghouse report conclusively found.
sibility that the act may be actively used to regulate
Controlling the introduction of invasive species is well
such discharges.
within the traditional police powers of the states. As
long as the proposed legislation does not dictate the
California Fish and Game Code specic type of ballast water treatment techniques that
State sh and wildlife laws contain provisions that relate vessels must use and does not favor “local” shipping
to the control of aquatic invasive species from a variety over “foreign,” then state ballast water management laws
of vectors. Some examples in the California Fish and Game do not appear to be preempted by constitutional law or
Code include the following: by NISA.
• Section 2271. “No live aquatic plant or animal may
Local Application of State and
be imported into this state without the prior written
approval of the department.”
Federal Laws
• Section 6603. “All sh, amphibia, or aquatic plants
Place-based management of invasive species introductions
which the department determines are merely delete-
can occur where agencies implement state and federal
rious to sh, amphibia, aquatic plants or aquatic
laws on a local level. For example, in response to a
animal life, shall be destroyed by the department,
petition from conservation groups, the San Francisco Bay
unless the owner or the person in charge . . . ships
Regional Water Quality Control Board identied invasive
them out of the state . . . .”
species as “pollutant stressors” subject to Clean Water
• Section 6400. “It is unlawful to place, plant, or cause
Act Section 303(d) in lower, south and central San Fran-
to be placed or planted, in any waters of this state,
cisco Bay, Richardson Bay, Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay,
any live sh, any fresh or salt water animal, or any
Carquinez Strait and the delta. The regional board ranked
aquatic plant, whether taken without or within the
invasive species as a high priority for action in all affected
state, without rst submitting it for inspection to,
water bodies. The listing was approved by the State Water
and securing the written permission of, the depart-
Resources Control Board and U.S. EPA (see above discus-
ment.”
sion of TMDL requirements).
• Section 15200. “The commission may regulate the
The regional board approved a resolution to transmit to
placing of aquatic plants and animals in waters of
U.S. EPA an Exotic Species TMDL Report on impairment of
the state.”
the San Francisco Bay estuary by invasive species. Among
• Section 15600. “No live aquatic plant or animal may other things, the regional board asserts in its report that
be imported into this state by a registered aqua- a water quality-based endpoint to achieve the estuary’s
culturist without the prior written approval of the water quality standards is no exotic species introductions.
department pursuant to the regulations adopted by In other words, an acceptable TMDL of exotic species or
the commission.” organisms is zero.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
518
Conclusions
Invasive Species
The legal frameworks that apply, and may apply, to con-
trol of aquatic invasive species introductions are broad
and varied. Many of these legal tools are just beginning
to be utilized. As the costs associated with aquatic inva-
sive species continue to mount, it appears likely that
additional research and regulatory actions will be taken to
reduce such discharges. To maximize the effectiveness of
regulatory regimes, stakeholder input - from the conser-
vation, shipping, port, shing, utility and other communi-
ties - should be encouraged and carefully considered.
In spite of the signicance of the impacts of invasive
species, relatively little research has been done to date
on the status of current invasions (particularly outside
of San Francisco Bay). Research is also needed on the
potential for new invasions and on methods for preventing
and addressing invasions. California’s 1999 ballast water
exchange law requires the state to complete, by 2002,
research and reports on existing coastal aquatic invasions,
the effectiveness of ballast water exchange in controlling
invasions, and the potential for other methods to control
the discharge of invasives in ballast water.
The San Francisco estuary Institute, under an array of
federal and state grants, is taking a lead on needed
research. They have received funding to investigate and
report on invasions in southern California marine waters
and to sample ballast water coming into the San Francisco
estuary for invasive species. They are examining ballast
water treatment through two projects: one with the city
and county of San Francisco and the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering to research treatment of ballast water in
municipal wastewater systems, and one to analyze more
generally the potential for onshore treatment of ballast
water in municipal and industrial treatment plants and
ballast-specic treatment plants.
Linda Sheenan
The Ocean Conservancy
Francis Henry
California Department of Fish and Game
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 519
Invasive Species
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
520
Marine Birds and
Mammals: Overview normally, such places provide easy access to the sea and
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview
have no naturally occurring land predators.
For as long as humans have lived along the California (or
U sing a loose denition of deriving some of their annual
any) coast, seabirds have been important and are part of
needs from the ocean, marine birds comprise an
the culture. Initially, they were used as sources of food
abundant and diverse group in California waters. Included
and clothing (feathers) during the short times annually
would be about 70 regularly-occurring species: divers
when thousands gather to breed and lay eggs. Nowadays,
(loons and grebes), albatrosses, shearwaters, fulmars,
most human uses are recreational although since seabirds
storm-petrels, certain waterfowl (scoters, brant), phala-
nd sh more quickly than humans do, their feeding con-
ropes, skuas, gulls, terns, and auks (murres, pufns, guil-
centrations serve as beacons to commercial shermen.
lemots, auklets, and murrelets). Infrequently occurring
The slow reproductive rates of seabirds make them vulner-
species would bring the total near 100. And that does
able to human factors that lead to mortality - especially
not include any estuarine species, which certainly feed on
of adults and subadults (pollution, entanglement in shing
“marine” sh and invertebrates (herons, egrets, curlews,
gear). The fact that they mostly eat the same sh prey
godwits, plovers, and sandpipers). Peregrine falcons, bald
as humans makes them vulnerable to over-exploitation of
eagles, and ospreys could also be considered as marine
sh populations, showing signs of prey depletion (reduced
species as their prey often are marine organisms.
growth of populations) before humans do.
A true seabird never comes to land except to raise its
The marine mammals of California include cetaceans
young (incubate eggs, bring food to chicks), and most
(whales, dolphins, and porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, fur
spend about 90 percent of their lives at sea. Using such
seals, and sea lions), and sea otters. Some are residents,
a denition reduces the California species list of marine
while others pass along the coast during great migrations.
birds to a few dozen. Notable examples are albatross,
Gray and humpback whales, for example, feed in Alaskan
storm-petrels, murres, and murrelets. Most divers, water-
waters and migrate along the coast on their way to Mexi-
fowl, and gulls would drop from the list. Unlike most
can waters to breed and calf. Blue whales visit during
marine sh and invertebrates, true seabirds are long lived
summer to feed on rich concentrations of krill.
and produce very few offspring. They lay but one or
Marine mammals have been an important part of the
two eggs each year or every other year, and guard them
coastal commerce off California for centuries. Native
closely. Their strategy, unlike sh and invertebrates, is
tribes used furs, teeth, and bones in different ways, and
to take care of a few young for a long time until they
ate the esh of various species of marine mammals. By
become independent and have a pretty good chance for
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the harvest
future survival. For many, care of young continues after
of seals, whales, and sea otters was such a protable
departure from the nest. The reason for being so careful
undertaking that many populations of marine mammals
of young is that it is difcult for air-breathing vertebrates
became depressed to levels from which some are still
(including humans) to derive food from the sea.
recovering. Off California, New England and Russian hunt-
Seabirds are highly evolved to exist at sea. They are
ers captured sea otters for their furs until, on the brink
among the most efcient yers of all birds, and derive
energy not just from food but also, in a way, from the
winds. In fact, many species prefer to sit on the water
if there is no wind. Using the wind, they can search huge
expanses of ocean for prey and consume very little energy
in the process. By and large, they take the most abundant
and energy rich prey available, including small sh (ancho-
vies, sardines, smelt, herring, and the juveniles of much
larger prey: salmon, rocksh), squid, and crustaceans.
For most species, the preferred prey are found in large
schools near the surface. Some marine birds, however, can
dive to depths greater than 300 feet (auks, loons). In their
ights, marine birds seek areas where ocean processes
concentrate their prey, for example where ocean waters
of differing properties (warm vs. cold) meet (fronts).
Another unusual characteristic of seabirds is that they
have almost no defense against land mammals. This is
California Sea Lions, Zalophus califonianus
because they evolved using offshore islands for nesting;
Credit: Lillian Smith
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 521
of extinction, the International Fur Seal Treaty protected Endangered Species Act. The Guadalupe fur seal, believed
Marine Birds and Mammals: Overview
them in 1911. Now they have repopulated most of the until 1926 to be extinct, is making a very gradual recov-
California coast north of Point Conception. For a number ery. Among baleen whales, the humpback, blue, and n
of years in the 1900s, whaling was a protable business whales have shown little recovery and are listed. On
in parts of California, but the loss of whales and, sub- the other hand, the gray whale was the rst marine
sequently, their protection made whaling unprotable. mammal species to be removed from the list of endan-
Nowadays, boat excursions carrying enthusiasts to view gered and threatened wildlife. The sperm whale, the only
whales are more protable than direct exploitation in past non-baleen great whale is still listed as endangered.
days. As examples of current use of marine mammals, Meanwhile, populations of some pinniped species have
the passage of gray whales by the Point Reyes Headlands ourished from their protection to the extent that their
during early winter requires shuttle buses by the National interactions with humans again have become controver-
Park Service to avoid the trafc jams that otherwise sial. The state depleted their populations signicantly
would ensue. The Año Nuevo State Reserve attracts many during the early 1900s through direct slaughter. Now, the
thousands of visitors annually to observe the elephant seal individual sea lion that feasts on the sherman’s catch
rookery there. Hundreds of tourists each weekend stop and/or destroys gear can be shot only when caught in
at turnouts along California Highway 1 to observe harbor the act. Unintended entrapment or hooking of pinnipeds,
seals hauled out nearby on Bolinas Lagoon mud ats, sea otters, and porpoises has become a problem in some
and other thousands observe sea lions at Pier 45 in San areas, where subsequently the use of gillnets has been
Francisco. Sea otter exhibits at such places as Monterey restricted or stopped. The population increase and spread
Bay Aquarium and displays of other marine mammals at of sea otters have impinged on the sheries for abalone
Sea World are major attractions. and sea urchins, which are commercially protable only
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 placed a mora- in the absence of the otters. Whether or not the otter
torium on taking marine mammals. The act has since been population will be allowed to recover further is a source of
amended several times to better dene how it should conict that needs continual attention.
function in concert with other legislation. The focus now
is to reduce the incidental take of some species. In
David Ainley
response to protection, many populations of marine mam-
Point Reyes Bird Observatory
mals have increased to levels that existed prior to their
William S. Leet
exploitation. Some populations, while expanding, are still
National Marine Fisheries Service (retired)
listed as endangered or threatened under the federal
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
522
Pinnipeds
History pinnipeds in spite of the damage and economic losses
Pinnipeds
they cause.
T here are six pinniped species inhabiting the California It is unclear whether foraging by pinnipeds is impacting
coast and offshore islands: the California sea lion the abundance of marine species harvested by man. Cur-
(Zalophus californianus californianus), Steller (or north- rent research data are insufcient to answer this ques-
ern) sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus), Pacic harbor seal tion. Ecological interactions between pinnipeds and sh-
(Phoca vitulina richardsi), northern elephant seal (Mir- ery resources are complex and poorly understood. Food
ounga angustirostris), northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursi- habits studies on California sea lions and Pacic harbor
nus) and Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus townsendi). seals indicate a broad range of prey species are consumed.
The ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata) and the hooded seal (Cys- The opportunistic feeding nature of pinnipeds means food
tophora cristata) have been reported in California waters, habits can change dramatically between areas and years
but these were extremely rare events and they are not in response to changes in the abundance of different prey
considered normal California visitors. species. Research in this area is difcult because of the
The California sea lion and Pacic harbor seal are prob- great complexities of interactions. Though we do know
ably the best known and most often seen pinnipeds in their diets often include sh such as anchovies, mackerel,
California waters. Californians and visitors from around herring, hake, rocksh, salmon, and cephalopods, such as
the world enjoy watching the playful behavior of these squid and octopus.
animals cavorting in the water near shore or hauled out In the 1860s and 1870s, many pinnipeds were killed for
to rest on buoys, rocks, and other solid objects. They also their oil or body parts and many females were captured
enjoy seeing them in public display aquaria or as perform- for displays or animal acts. Pinnipeds were hunted com-
ers in animal shows at zoos and parks. Pinnipeds are mercially until 1938, when California law gave them com-
amusing and intelligent entertainers, but there is another plete protection from hunting. Nevertheless, sport and
aspect of the pinniped story which is related to their diet commercial shermen were free to kill sea lions and
of sh and their expanding populations. harbor seals that were destroying gear or otherwise inter-
In recent years, California sea lions and, to a lesser fering with shing operations. In 1972, the Marine Mammal
degree, Pacic harbor seals have gained notoriety by Protection Act was passed by Congress prohibiting the
taking over portions of marinas, bathing beaches and by take (pursuit, harassment, capture, or kill) of marine
eating endangered or threatened salmon and steelhead mammals except under special permitted conditions. The
moving upstream to spawn. Marina operators and boat act was renewed and revised in 1994. From its inception,
owners consider them a major nuisance, and potentially the act specied that marine mammals should be pro-
dangerous. Some seals react aggressively when people tected as functioning elements of the ecosystem. The
approach. Some who sh commercially or for sport believe 1994 amendments to the act established a new system
that pinnipeds compete for sh and are costly pests con- to reduce the injuries and mortality of marine mammals
suming tons of valuable sh, destroying valuable shing involved incidentally in commercial shing operations to
gear and interfering with shing operations. They com- insignicant levels approaching zero.
plain that any sea lion is attracted to shing operations Research has been conducted in the past on methods of
and that the mere presence of a sea lion scares sh away reducing the impacts that pinnipeds have on certain sh-
from the shing area. Research biologists speculate that eries (e.g., various taste aversion substances and acoustic
most of those problems are caused by a relatively few harassment devices), but with little success. In most
“rogue” pinnipeds. The rogues have learned that a sh cases, the animals appeared to acclimate to the deter-
caught in a net or hooked on a line is an easier meal rents, and sometimes used the purported scare devices as
than a free-swimming sh, and some actually target these “dinner bells” signifying active shing boats and an easy
sheries on a regular basis. A major concern is that this food source. Long-term solutions remain illusive.
behavior will spread as the pinniped populations grow.
Resolving pinniped conicts with human activities is a con-
Status of Biological Knowledge
troversial issue. Faced with decreasing catches, increasing
marine mammal populations, and increasing shery inter-
actions, some sport and commercial shermen contend
California Sea Lion
that some pinniped populations have reached the point
where population control and management efforts should The California sea lion ranges from British Columbia south
be implemented. This would include the lethal removal to Tres Marias Islands off Mexico. Breeding grounds are
of nuisance animals. Others will argue for protection of mainly on offshore islands from the Channel Islands south
into Mexico. Breeding takes place in June and early July
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 523
from the Pribilof Islands to Año Nuevo Island. The largest
Pinnipeds
breeding colonies in California are at Point St. George, Año
Nuevo, and the Farallon Islands. Breeding is in late June,
after which the animals migrate northward. This species is
a tawny or yellowish-brown color in contrast to the darker
reddish color of the California sea lion. Grown males are
1,500 to 2,200 pounds and reach a length of 13 feet.
Females usually weigh between 600 and 900 pounds and
reach a length of nine feet. Food of the Steller sea lion
consists primarily of squid and sh.
Pacific Harbor Seal
The Pacic harbor seal ranges along the northwest coast
California Sea Lion, Zalophus californianus of America from the Gulf of Alaska to Cedros Island off
Credit: Phil Schuyler Baja California. In California, harbor seals are abundant
along the entire coast. Adult male Pacic harbor seals
within a few days after the females give birth. The pups
reach a length of six feet and weight of up to 240 pounds,
are weaned at six months to a year or more. Males
and females reach sexual maturity between four and ve
years, although males normally do not achieve territorial
status until age eight or nine. Males weigh between 500
and 1,000 pounds and reach seven to eight feet in length.
Females weigh between 200 and 600 pounds and reach
six feet. Adult males have a pronounced sagittal crest (a
ridge on top of the skull extending from the forehead to
the rear of the skull), a characteristic distinguishing this
species from the Steller sea lion. Food of the California
sea lion consists largely of squid, octopus, and a variety
of shes (anchovies, mackerel, herring, rocksh, hake,
and salmon).
Steller Sea Lion
The Steller sea lion’s distribution partially overlaps that
of the California sea lion. It ranges from the Bering Strait
Pacific Harbor Seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi
off Alaska to southern California. Breeding grounds extend
Credit: Phil Schuyler
while females reach 5.5 feet and 275 pounds (when preg-
nant). The coloration patterns of adults vary from black
with white spots to white with black spots. Breeding
season varies with latitude, starting in March to May on
the Channel Islands of southern California and continuing
later up the coast. Age at sexual maturity is three to
four years for females and ve years for males. Newborn
pups are approximately 32 inches long and weigh about
22 pounds. They are weaned at ve to six weeks at an
average weight of 50 pounds. Adult females ovulate and
mate at the end of weaning, with a two-month delayed
implantation of the developing embryo. Their diet consists
of sh such as ounders, herring, tomcod, hake, and
lampreys, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus.
Steller Sea Lion, Eumetopias jubatus
Credit: Phil Schuyler
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
524
Northern Fur Seal
Pinnipeds
The northern fur seal is one of the best-known seals in the
world because of its valuable fur, for which it was hunted
to near extinction. Historical populations, centered on
the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, are estimated at two million
animals, but in 1911, when international treaties were
established to protect and manage this species, there
were fewer than 125,000 animals. San Miguel Island, off
Santa Barbara, California, hosts a small breeding colony
and is the southernmost extent of its range. It is a rem-
nant of a much larger population that existed in California
in the early 1800s. The peak breeding and pupping period
is in July. After breeding, the males migrate out to sea
where they spend as many as 10 months. The pups are
weaned at four months of age and are left to travel
in the northward migrations on their own. Fur seals are
Guadalupe Fur Seal, Arctocephalus townsendi
distinguished from sea lions by their pelage, composed
Credit: Phil Schuyler
of a very dense undercoat and a thinner, coarser layer
only occasionally at islands in the Southern California Bight
and the Farallon Islands. They breed only on Guadalupe
Island. They are identied by a “collie-like,” long pointed
muzzle. Males reach up to six feet in length; females are
slightly smaller.
Northern Elephant Seal
The comeback of the northern elephant seal, the largest
of all the seals, is one of the great success stories for
an animal threatened with extinction. Male elephant seals
reach a length of 15 to 16 feet and weight of about 4,000
to 5,000 pounds. Females reach a length of 11 feet and
weigh about 1,700 pounds. The male develops a bulbous
enlargement of the snout from which, along with its size,
it gets its common name. Breeding colonies exist on San
Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Island, San Nicolas Island,
San Simeon Island, Año Nuevo Island, Southeast Farallon
Northern Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus
Island, and Point Reyes Peninsula. They have also begun
Credit: Phil Schuyler
hauling out at several other mainland sites where histori-
cally they did not haul out. The breeding season is from
of guard hairs, and by their relatively long ippers. The
December through March. Breeding groups, or “harems,”
northern fur seal is closely related to the Guadalupe fur
consist of one male and eight to 40 females. The gestation
seal and is distinguished from its close relative by its very
short muzzle. Males reach a length of eight feet and weigh
up to 700 pounds. Females are only four to ve feet long
and weigh about 130 pounds. Sexual maturity is attained
between three and seven years, with longevity reported
to be up to 26 years.
Guadalupe Fur Seal
The Guadalupe fur seal was presumed extinct until 1926,
when a group of 60 animals was discovered on Guadalupe
Island, Mexico. The population is recovering slowly from
near extinction brought about by sealers in the last cen-
Northern Elephant Seal, Mirounga angurstirostris
tury. This is a rare pinniped in California waters, seen
Credit: Phil Schuyler
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 525
period is about 11.5 months. Pups are weaned by four of Steller sea lions throughout most of its range has
Pinnepeds
weeks but remain on the rookery another eight to 10 prompted its listing as endangered under the Endangered
weeks, sleeping during the day and gradually starting to Species Act and depleted under the Marine Mammal Pro-
enter the water at night. Departure from the rookery tection Act.
occurs at an age of approximately three months. Females
Pacific Harbor Seal
begin breeding as young as two years of age. Males reach
sexual maturity at ve years; but older, larger males
From aerial census data, the harbor seal population along
prevent young and socially immature males from mating
the California coast appears to be increasing, and con-
until they are at least eight or nine years old. Males and
currently, the number of occupied sites has increased.
females both live about 14 years.
From the last aerial survey (1995), the population was
Elephant seals do most of their feeding at night and prob-
estimated at 30,293 animals after using correction factors.
ably in deep water as evidenced by the fact that they have
The population appears to be growing and shery mortal-
been caught in nets at 2,000-foot depths. Time-depth
ity is declining.
recorder experiments show that elephant seals can dive to
5,200 feet, and stay beneath the surface for up to an hour.
Northern Fur Seal
Stomach content analyses indicate that they feed on small
sharks, rays, ratsh, rocksh, and squid. The eastern North Pacic population of fur seals is esti-
mated at over one million animals. The population at San
Miguel Island was estimated in 1999 at 4,336 animals after
Status of the Populations correction factors. The San Miguel Island population has
increased steadily since the 1970s. An annual increase
The Marine Mammal Protection Act recognizes marine
of eight percent occurred from 1965 through 1996. How-
mammals as components of the marine ecosystem and
ever, the eastern North Pacic stock of fur seals is
requires maintenance of stocks above levels at which they
formally listed as depleted under the Marine Mammal
would lose their function in the ecosystem. In practice,
Protection Act.
marine mammal management is directed toward maintain-
ing the optimum sustainable population size (OSP) for
Guadalupe Fur Seal
each species within its geographical range. To be optimal,
the population size should be between the rate at which The historical distribution and abundance of the Guadal-
maximum growth occurs and the carrying capacity of the upe fur seal are unknown because commercial sealers
environment. A variety of procedures are used to assess and other observers failed to distinguish between it and
population status. the northern fur seal in their records. This species, once
thought to be extinct, has an estimated population of
California Sea Lion 7,408 animals. The population is growing at approximately
13.7 percent per year. Although the primary breeding
California sea lions breeding on U.S. rookeries are
colony is on Guadalupe Island, recent sightings of adult
assumed to comprise a single stock. The population of
and juvenile seals on some of the Channel Islands suggest
newborn pups is determined from an aerial census. The
that recolonization of that area may occur in the future.
size of the entire population is estimated from the number
The Guadalupe fur seal is listed as threatened under the
of new births and the proportion of pups in the popula-
Endangered Species Act and depleted under the Marine
tion. Their status was last assessed in 2000. At that time,
Mammal Protection Act.
the population size was estimated at 204,000 to 214,000
animals. Recent estimates place the population growth
Northern Elephant Seal
rate at 6.2 percent per year. Fishery mortality is increasing.
The exploitation and subsequent recovery of the northern
Steller Sea Lion elephant seal population is a remarkable story. Biologists
Population estimates for northern sea lions are based on estimate that only 100 to 500 animals were left on Gua-
counts of animals hauled-out during the breeding season. dalupe Island before protective legislation was passed.
A decline of this species is occurring throughout its range, They claim that the entire current population may have
including the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands, which originated from this small group of animals. Based on
support 75 percent of the world’s population. The current pup counts, the California breeding stock was estimated
West Coast population of northern sea lions is estimated at 84,000 animals in 1996. The apparent growth rate
at 39,031 animals, which is less than half of the population since 1980 has been about eight percent annually. Annual
level from 1956 to 1960. The dramatic decline in numbers surveys indicate that this species has reoccupied most or
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
526
all of its historical rookeries and hauling grounds. The Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the Pacic harbor seal popula-
Pinnipeds
population is continuing to grow and shery mortality is tion on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin.
relatively constant. Rep. LJ-88-06. 43 pp.
Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the California sea lion popula-
tion on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin.
Doyle Hanan
Rep. LJ-88-07. 26 pp.
California Department of Fish and Game
Hanan, D.A., L.M. Jones, and M.J. Beeson. 1992. Harbor
Joyce Sisson
seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi, census in California, May-
National Marine Fisheries Service
June 1991. NOAA/NMFS SWFC Admin. Rpt. LJ-92-03. 68
Revised by:
pp.
Robert Read and Carrie Wilson
Hanan, D.A. and S.L. Diamond. 1989. Estimates of sea lion,
California Department of Fish and Game
harbor seal, and harbor porpoise mortalities in California
set net sheries for the 1986-87 shing year. Final Rpt.
Cooperative agreement No. NA-86-ABH-00018. Submitted
References NOAA/NMFS SWR, January 1989. 10 pp.
Antonelis, G.A., S. Leatherwood, and D. K. Odell. 1981. Lowry, M.S., C.W. Oliver, C. Macky, and J.B. Wexler. 1990.
Population growth and censuses of the northern elephant Food habits of California sea lions Zalophus californinus at
seal, Mirounga angustirostris, on the California channel San Clemente Island, California, 1981-86. Fish. Bull., U. S.
islands, 1958-1978. Fish. Bull., U.S. 79:562-567. 88:509-521.
Anonymous. 1999. Report to Congress: Impacts of Califor- Miller, D., M. Herder, and J. Scholl. 1983. California marine
nia Sea Lions and Pacic Harbor Seals on Salmonids and mammal-shery interaction study, 1979-1981. NOAA/NMFS
West Coast Ecosystems. DOC/NOAA/NMFS. 18 pp. SWFC Admin. Rep. LJ-83-13C. 233 pp.
Barlow, J., et al. 1997. U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock
Assessments: 1996. NOAA/NMFS-SWFSC Tech. Mem. 248.
223 pp.
Boveng, P. 1988. Status of the northern elephant seal
population on the U.S. west coast. NOAA/NMFS SWFC
Admin. Rep. LJ-88-05. 35 pp.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 527
Pinnipeds
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
528
Whales, Dolphins,
Porpoises did not join. Several international agreements followed
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
which attempted to improve upon this initial document.
In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was
History established, both to ensure the development of the whal-
M
ing industry and to conserve the worlds whale stocks for
arine mammals played an important role in shaping
the interests of future generations. For many years, the
the early history of California. By the late 18th cen-
IWC concentrated its efforts on maximizing the level of
tury, English whale ships had voyaged to the waters of
removal of whales rather than on whale conservation.
California in search of sperm whales. Portuguese immi-
However, in recent years, the IWC has attempted to move
grants from the Azores and Cape Verde followed in the
towards whale conservation.
1840s, manning and operating the rst shore-based whal-
In 1972, the United States Congress enacted the Marine
ing industry. Shore whaling was distinct from nineteenth
Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), which established a com-
century Yankee pelagic whaling, because whales were
plex and comprehensive federal policy of marine mammal
pursued from a vessel launched from a nearby coastline.
management. The MMPA made it unlawful to take (dened
Deploying rowboats from shore and using harpoons, whal-
as kill, capture, pursue, or harass) marine mammals in the
ers typically pursued, captured, and towed whales back
waters of the United States and it also prohibited U. S.
to the whaling stations. At shore-based whaling stations,
citizens from taking marine mammals on the high seas.
workers extracted oil from the whale’s blubber. The
Under limited circumstances, exceptions may be autho-
lure of gold and quick prosperity brought numerous crew-
rized for the taking of some marine mammals, provided
men from New England’s whaling industry in the late
that the level of removal will not cause the population
1840s and early 1850s. After the gold rush abated, many
to decline below sustainable levels. For instance, marine
returned to their previous occupations on whaling ships.
mammals may be removed for public display and scientic
The early shore-based whaling industry in California pri-
research, or incidental to activities such as shipping and
marily caught gray and humpback whales, because trips by
commercial shing.
shore whalers were limited to within 10 miles of the coast-
line. However, whalers occasionally took the right, blue,
and n whales, more highly prized due to the greater oil
Current Management
content of their blubber. Until 1901, at least 15 stations
operated at various locations between Crescent City and
S ince the enactment of the MMPA in 1972, the focus of
San Diego.
concern has shifted to the incidental capture of marine
After more than 40 years of whaling along the California mammals during commercial shing operations. Due to the
coast, whale populations and the demand for expensive rapid expansion of several of California’s coastal sheries,
whale oil declined, and subsequently the whaling industry there has been an increase in the incidental capture of
became less protable in the late 1800s. Nevertheless, marine mammals in recent years. Nonetheless, in Califor-
modern whaling vessels caught some gray whales and nia, the level of take of cetaceans is lower than it is
many humpback whales in California waters after the for other marine mammals (e.g., pinnipeds). The National
turn of the century. Powered by engines, modern whaling Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is currently implementing
vessels hunted whales more efciently through the use a management regime to govern the incidental taking of
of explosives, mounted cannons, and grenades. Whalers marine mammals in commercial shing operations. Under
would deliver carcasses to oating processing plants this program, some marine mammal species may be inci-
where the oil was extracted. Modern catcher boats origi- dentally taken during commercial shing operations or
nating from shore stations also periodically took whales during other human-caused activities so long as the level
during this period. The last remaining whaling station of take will allow the stock to reach and maintain its
in the United States, near Richmond, California, closed optimum sustainable population. Moreover, the California
in 1971. Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has developed regula-
tions to help minimize the incidental take of marine mam-
In 1931, 50 nations, including the United States, agreed
mals in the coastal gillnet shery.
upon the International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling. This agreement was the rst international effort Due to the recovery of the gray whale population and
to control the decimation of the world’s whale popula- accessibility of migrating gray whales along the California
tions. The primary protection measures included full pro- coastline, a large and diverse whalewatching industry has
tection for right whales and, for all other species, a developed. Since the 1970s, commercial whalewatching
ban on the killing of calves, suckling whales, immature has become an important recreational, educational, and
whales, and females with calves. The agreement was economic activity. The 1983-1984 whalewatching season
ineffective, however, because the major whaling nations alone generated an estimated total gross income of
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 529
$2.6 million. This estimate did not include regional eco-
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
nomic benets from the sale of meals, fuel, lodging,
whale paraphernalia and other whale-related activities.
In 1985, the commercial whalewatching industry in Califor-
nia was the largest in the United States, with 74 boats
in operation.
The rapid growth of commercial whalewatching, and
increased interest by private boaters in observing
and approaching whales in the wild, have been accom-
panied by concerns that these activities could cause
adverse biological impacts to whales. In California, NMFS
Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae
adopted whalewatching guidelines that established mini-
Credit: Phil Schuyler
mum approach distances (100 yards) for vessels and air-
to its breeding grounds in Hawaii and offshore islands in
craft, as well as additional operational guidelines for ves-
Mexico. The California, Oregon, and Washington feeding
sels. Nevertheless, each year there are numerous reports
populations migrate to coastal Mexico and Central Amer-
of harassment of whales by commercial whalewatching
ica to breed. During their seasonal migrations, humpback
vessels and private boaters. NMFS is currently developing
whales may frequently be seen along the California coast
regulations that will provide mechanisms to enforce mini-
from April through November. Some individuals appear to
mum approach distances.
remain in California year-round. In the Gulf of the Faral-
Partly as a result of the protection and management
lones, humpbacks may be observed feeding during May
achieved from regulatory measures, and partly because
and November. Off southern California, humpbacks often
of increased public awareness and appreciation of marine
migrate along submarine ridges (e.g., Santa Rosa-Cortez
mammals, some populations have rebounded since the
Ridge) and occasionally enter the coastal waters of the
years of commercial exploitation. Marine mammals that
San Pedro and Santa Barbara Channels. They obtain their
inhabit the coastal waters of California now represent
food by straining krill (small shrimp-like crustaceans) and
resources that enhance both the wealth and recreational
schools of small sh with their baleen. Humpback whales
benets of the state. For many people, a commercial
are well known for their complex songs, thought to be
whalewatching cruise is their rst contact with the marine
used in courtship or competition between males, and their
environment. Thus, the value of observing marine mam-
leaping out of the water, or breaching behavior. The songs
mals in the wild not only increases public awareness of
on their breeding grounds can last up to several hours.
these animals but also contributes to increased public
Near the turn of the century, an estimated 15,000 hump-
appreciation of the diversity and abundance of other living
back whales inhabited the North Pacic Ocean. Com-
marine resources.
mercial whaling reduced this population to dangerously
The waters of California provide essential habitat to a
low levels, and in 1966 the IWC established a moratorium
large variety and abundance of whales, dolphins, por-
on harvesting them. With this protection, the population
poises, and other marine mammals. These animals play
has recovered to a size of 8,000 individuals. The California
an important role in maintaining the balance of marine
feeding population is thought to consist of about 1,000
ecosystems. Consequently, protecting California’s marine
animals. The California population appears to be growing
mammals is an integral part of the conservation of all
at about eight percent per year. The humpback whale has
living marine resources in California.
been listed as an endangered species under the United
States Endangered Species Act (ESA) since 1970.
Status of Biological Knowledge and
Blue Whale
Populations
Blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) are the largest ani-
mals in the world, sometimes attaining a size of over 90
Humpback Whale feet. An individual blue whale may consume up to eight
tons of krill in a single day. The majority of the eastern
Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are distin-
North Pacic population spends the summer on feeding
guished by their exceptionally long ippers up to 1/3 of
grounds between central California, the Gulf of Alaska
body length, and robust body that may reach a length
and the Aleutian Islands. Like all baleen whales, the blue
of over 45 feet and weigh up to 37.5 tons. There appear
whale seasonally migrates to lower latitudes in the winter
to be two distinct populations of humpback whales in
to calve and breed. Migratory routes generally follow the
the North Pacic. The Alaska feeding population migrates
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
530
month of the year in California. Approximately 1,000 n
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
whales are estimated to be off California. There is some
indication that n whales have increased in abundance
in California coastal waters. This species uses its baleen
to lter krill, capelin, sand lance, squid, herring, and
lantern sh from the water. They have been listed as an
endangered species under the ESA since 1970.
Minke Whale
Blue Whale, Balaenoptera musculus
Credit: Phil Schuyler Minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) inhabit both
continental shelf and slope, but blue whales are occasion- the high seas and nearshore waters where they are known
ally found in deep oceanic zones and shallow inshore to enter bays, inlets, and estuaries. This species is the
areas. Blue whales are usually seen off the California coast smallest of the baleen whales in California waters, attain-
traveling alone or in pairs, from May to January, although ing a size of up to 32 feet, and is distinguished by a
they have been observed in every month of the year. They transverse white band on its ippers and its relatively tall
frequently may be seen feeding in the Farallon Islands and falcate (hooked) dorsal n. In the summer months,
between July and October and occasionally are sighted in minke whales feed on krill, copepods, sand lance, and
Monterey Bay and over deep coastal submarine canyons herring in the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean. During the
off central and southern California. Historically, the North
Pacic population may have been comprised of over 5,000
individuals before its severe depletion by modern whaling
operations. An estimated 1,700 to 1,900 blue whales cur-
rently inhabit the eastern North Pacic Ocean. It is esti-
mated that the California feeding population is comprised
of at least 1,700 whales. No information exists on the
rate of growth of blue whale populations in the Pacic.
Minke Whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata
The blue whale has been listed as an endangered species
Credit: Phil Schuyler
under the ESA since 1970.
winter months, they migrate south along the North Amer-
Fin Whale ica coastline to Mexico. There are some year-round resi-
dents off California. An estimated 400 minke whales live
The n whale (Balaenoptera physalus) is a common, large
off California. Minke whales are occasionally seen from
cetacean occurring off the California coast. Fin whales
whalewatching and sport shing vessels and from shore in
can reach a size of up to 87 feet and weigh up to 76
California.
tons. These whales may be distinguished by the white
coloration of their lower right lip and V-shaped head.
Gray Whale
They are distributed throughout the world’s oceans, but
Gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) are distinguished by
their mottled gray body, narrow head and absence of a
dorsal n. They can reach a length of over 45 feet. The
gray whale undergoes one of the longest migrations in
the animal kingdom. Perhaps the best known of the great
Fin Whale, Balaenoptera physalus
Credit: Phil Schuyler
little is known of their seasonal movements in the North
Pacic. The North Pacic population reportedly winters
between central California southward to 20o N latitude and
summers from Baja California to the Chukchi Sea north of Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus
the Bering Strait. Fin whales have been observed in every Credit: Phil Schuyler
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 531
whales off California, the eastern North Pacic gray whale sperm whale has been listed as an endangered species
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
migrates from its feeding grounds in the Bering Sea and under the ESA since 1970.
Arctic Ocean to its calving and breeding areas in the sub-
Killer Whale
tropical lagoons along the west coast of Baja California.
This population generally migrates along the coastline,
Killer whales (Orcinus orca), actually the largest of the
often within a few miles of shore. The gray whale migra-
dolphins, are year-round residents in California. They have
tion can be observed from several locations in California
been seen entering kelp beds, bays, or inlets, but are
such as Point Loma, Point Vincente, Point Sur, and Point
more common offshore. The killer whale is widely known
Reyes. They begin to enter California waters in late
due to its popularity in oceanaria. It is recognized by its
November and December on their southward migration.
striking black and white color pattern and erect dorsal n,
In mid-February, gray whales begin their return migration
which can be up to six feet tall in adult males. This spe-
north, passing through southern California waters until
late May or early June. Some immature whales reportedly
remain in kelp beds to feed over the winter months
off California. The northbound cow/calf migration usually
occurs during April through June. Gray whales use their
baleen to sift out crustaceans, molluscs, and other inver-
tebrates, which they suck up from bottom sediments.
The most recent population estimate is approximately
23,000 animals. In 1994, the gray whale became the rst
marine mammal species to be removed from the List of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. The number of gray
whales is above its unexploited stock size prior to whaling
Killer Whale, Orcinus orca
and is increasing at a rate of 2.5 to 3.2 percent per year. Credit: Phil Schuyler
Sperm Whale cies may reach a length of nearly 30 feet. Killer whales are
top predators in the ocean, using their sharp conical teeth
Unlike the other great whales, the sperm whale does not for grasping and tearing prey. They have been observed
feed with baleen, but is a toothed whale. It is the largest attacking the largest animal on Earth, the blue whale,
of the toothed whales with males reaching a length of and there is one documented kill of a white shark by
a killer whale. Killer whales were so named for their
habit of attacking seals and whales; however, sh are
the most important component of their diet. Small groups
of sometimes-related individuals (pods) often hunt in a
coordinated and cooperative manner. Some killer whale
pods have strong social bonds, remaining in pods of ve
to 30 individuals for decades. There are 600 to 800 killer
whales along the coast of California, Oregon and Wash-
ington. No information is available regarding trends in
abundance of eastern North Pacic offshore killer whales.
Sperm Whale, Physeter catodon
Credit: Phil Schuyler
60 feet and females 40 feet. Sperm whales are noted for
their ability to make deep dives, which can last up to an
hour and a half and can be as deep as two miles below
the surface. They feed mainly on squid, including the
giant squid. Sperm whales are widely distributed across
the entire North Pacic and are found year-round in Cali-
fornia waters. They reach peak abundance from April
through mid-June and from the end of August through
mid-November. Sperm whale abundance appears to be
fairly stable with approximately 1,000 to 1,200 sperm
Shortfinned Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus
whales estimated to be off the coast of California. The
Credit: Phil Schuyler
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
532
Shortfinned Pilot Whale phins often form groups of over 100 animals, sometimes
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
numbering in the thousands. Population surveys estimate
The shortnned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) that over 350,000 common dolphins inhabit the waters
can reach a size in excess of 17 feet, and is distinguished off southern California between summer and autumn.
by its bulbous forehead and broad based slightly falcate Common dolphins frequently engage in bow-riding and
dorsal n. In California, these whales are commonly found aerial acrobatics.
south of Point Conception, but there have been sightings
as far north as the Gulf of the Farallones off San Fran-
Bottlenose Dolphin
cisco. Following movements of local squid populations,
shortnned pilot whales may move seasonally nearshore in Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are readily recog-
the winter and offshore during other times of the year. nizable by the public due to their antics on television,
Before the El Niño event in 1982 and 1983, the number their performances in oceanaria, and because the coastal
of shortnned pilot whales was near 2,000 during peak form is occasionally seen surng in the waves along popu-
periods off southern California. However their numbers lated southern California beaches. This species may reach
declined during that El Niño, presumably due to emi- a size of over 12 feet and is distinguished by its gray color-
gration, and the population has not returned to its previ- ation, lightly colored belly, and moderately tall and falcate
ous level. One hypothesis for the population’s failure to
rebound is that it was competitively excluded by the
Risso’s dolphin population in California. Currently, the
population size is estimated to be between 700 to
1,000 individuals present in the nearshore waters of Cali-
fornia. This species was the rst “whale” displayed in
captivity and is still seen occasionally in oceanaria around
the world.
Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus
Common Dolphin Credit: Phil Schuyler
There are two different species of common dolphin in
dorsal n. South of Point Conception, bottlenose dolphins
California waters. One is called the short-beaked common
are common, whereas few animals are encountered fur-
dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and the other is called the
ther north. In California, both coastal and offshore forms
long-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus capensis). The
are found. The coastal form inhabits shallow water just
long-beaked has a relatively longer beak and more muted
beyond the surf zone, and is known to frequent bays and
coloration. It occurs from offshore southern California
estuaries. Groups of 10 to 25 animals may travel together
waters south to Islas Tres Marias and along the entire
and make regular migrations along the coastline. There
coast in the Gulf of California. The short-beaked has
are reportedly seasonal shifts in their distribution north-
a relatively shorter beak, more contrasting coloration,
ward to San Francisco County. It is estimated that the
and is more common offshore from Isla Cedros north.
coastal form is comprised of approximately 160 animals.
The population estimate for the offshore form is about
3,000 animals. This species often rides the bow wave of
vessels, and swims in the wake of large whales.
Risso’s Dolphin
Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus) are known to reach a
size of over 13 feet, usually have extensive scarring over
their white to light-gray colored body, and lack a beak.
Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis
The population is estimated to be about 29,000 Risso’s
Credit: Phil Schuyler
dolphins residing off California. Since El Niño (1982-1983),
their numbers are believed to have increased. Risso’s dol-
The common dolphin is the most abundant cetacean in
phins normally appear in pods of 25 to 50 individuals and
California. Common dolphins can reach nearly eight feet in
do not usually bow ride but will perform some acrobatics
length and can be distinguished by the unique hourglass
such as spy hopping and breaching. They are distributed
coloration on their sides which appears as a V-shaped
widely, frequently being found in deep water areas with
black or dark gray saddle when they are observed at sea.
warm temperate to tropical water conditions. Risso’s dol-
Among the most gregarious of cetaceans, common dol-
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 533
may reach a size of at least seven feet. The species
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
is thought to be the second most abundant dolphin off
southern California, and the most common off northern
California. The Pacic white-sided dolphin is seen year-
round, frequenting the continental shelf and slope waters,
sometimes appearing in Monterey Bay. They may occur
in herds of over a few thousand individuals, but groups
Risso’s Dolphin, Grampus griseus
of several hundred are more common. Recent surveys
Credit: Phil Schuyler
indicate population sizes of 110,000 animals in California
phins are occasionally observed in central and northern waters. This species is known for its acrobatic behavior
California waters. and bow riding abilities. Pacic white-sided dolphins are
occasionally displayed in oceanaria.
Northern Right-Whale Dolphin
Harbor Porpoise
Northern right-whale dolphins (Lissodelphis borealis) have
no dorsal n and have a very slim and graceful black body The harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) is the smallest
that may attain a length of 10 feet. They appear to prefer cetacean found in California waters, rarely reaching a
offshore, cold temperate waters and only occur inshore length of over six feet. It may be distinguished by its lack
over deep submarine canyons. The northern right-whale of a beak and its triangular dorsal n. Harbor porpoises
dolphin is commonly found in the waters off central and frequent the cooler waters of central and northern Califor-
northern California, although they also appear in winter nia, seldom straying south of Point Conception. Locally
abundant concentrations exist between Cape Mendocino
and Point Reyes, and in Monterey Bay. They are not known
to migrate extensively, but may move between inshore
and offshore areas. The harbor porpoise occurs primarily
in relatively shallow nearshore water and, thus, is vulner-
able to human activities such as the coastal gillnet shery
in California. In response to the general increase in gillnet-
ting, DFG has implemented several management mecha-
Northern Right-Whale Dolphin, Lissodelphis borealis
Credit: Phil Schuyler
and spring off southern California. There appears to be
some seasonal north-south shift in their distribution as a
result of water temperature changes and prey availability.
Recent surveys indicate there are between 14,000 and
20,000 northern right-whale dolphins in California waters.
This gregarious species sometimes occurs in large herds
of up to several thousand and is noted for its eetness. Harbor Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena
Northern right-whale dolphins rarely approach vessels. Credit: Phil Schuyler
Pacific white-sided dolphin nisms to reduce the incidental take of harbor porpoises.
This species never approaches vessels or bow rides. The
The Pacic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliq- harbor porpoise population off California may consist of
uidens) has a short, thick beak, a falcate dorsal n and over 11,000 individuals.
Dall’s Porpoise
The Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) has a stocky
shape, and the striking white pattern on its belly, ank,
and tips of dorsal n and tail, contrasts with its generally
black body. This species may attain a size of over seven
feet. The Dall’s porpoise inhabits the cooler waters of
the continental shelf in central and northern California,
Pacific White-Sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens and also frequents a variety of other areas including near-
Credit: Phil Schuyler
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
534
shore deep-water canyons and the open sea. The Dall’s 1980-1983: Status, Abundance, and Distribution, Unpub-
Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises
porpoise can be found off northern California in autumn lished Report. MMS Contract #14-12-0001-29090. OCS
and winter, however individuals can also be found in Study MMS 84-0045. Pacic OCS Region MMS, Los Angeles,
southern California at this time. There appear to be near- California. 284 pp.
shore-offshore shifts in their distribution whereby they Forney, K.A., M.M. Muto, and J. Baker. U.S. Pacic Marine
remain inshore in autumn and move northward and off- Mammal Stock Assessments: 1999. U.S. Dept. of Com-
merce. NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-SWFSC-282.
Haley, D. 1978. Marine Mammals of Eastern North Pacic
and Arctic Waters. Pacic Search Press. 254 pp.
Jones, M. L., S. L. Swartz, and S. Leatherwood. 1984. The
Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus. Academic Press, Inc.,
Orlando. 600 pp.
Leatherwood, S., and R. R. Reeves. 1983. The Sierra Club
Handbook of Whales and Dolphins. Sierra Club Books, San
Francisco. 303 pp.
Dall’s Porpoise, Phocoenoides dalli
Leatherwood, S., B. S. Stewart, and P. A. Folkens. 1987.
Credit: Phil Schuyler
Cetaceans of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctu-
ary. National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic
shore in the late spring. Dall’s porpoises travel in small
Atmospheric Administration. 66 pp.
groups of 10 to 20 individuals and are known to bow ride
often creating a rooster tail wake when traveling at high Orr, R.T. and R.C. Helm. 1990. Marine Mammals of
speeds. Recent surveys indicate populations of between California. New and revised Edition. Calif. Natural History
82,000 to 118,000 individuals inhabit the eastern North Guides:29. U.C. Press, Berkeley. 93 p.
Pacic. Tilt, W. C. 1985. Whalewatching in California: An industry
prole. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies,
New Haven, CT. 17 pp.
Irma Lagomarsino and Tim Price
National Marine Fisheries Service
References
Barlow, J., K.A. Forney, P.S. Hill, R. L. Brownell, Jr., J.V.
Caretta, D.P. DeMaster, F. Julian, M.S. Lowry, T. Ragen,
and R.R. Reeves. 1997. U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock
Assessments: 1996. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Tech-
nical Memorandum. NMFS-SWFSC-282.
Barlow, J., P.S. Hill, K.A. Forney, and D.P. DeMaster. 1998.
U.S. Pacic Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 1998. U.S.
Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum. NMFS-
SWFSC-258.
Dohl, T. P., K. S. Norris, R. C. Guess, J. D. Bryant, and M.
W. Honig. 1980. Cetacea of the Southern California Bight,
In: Marine Mammal and Seabird Surveys of the Southern
California Bight Area, 1975-1978. Vol. 3 - Investigator’s
Reports, Part II. NTIS PB81-248-71. 414 pp.
Dohl, T. P., R. C. Guess, M. L. Dunman, and R. C.
Helm. 1983. Cetaceans of Central and Northern California,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 535
Sea Otter
History totaling perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 individuals, survived in
the North Pacic in 1911. Sea otters were widely regarded
S ea otters (Enhydra lutris) once ranged from extreme as extinct in California by 1900, but scientists and game
northern Japan through the Kuril Islands, southern wardens were aware of a surviving group near Point Sur
Sakhalin Island, southern Kamchatka Peninsula, Com- in Monterey County as early as 1914. Rough population
mander Islands, Aleutian Islands, southern Alaska, British estimates in the early 1900s ranged from less than 50 to
Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California, extending about 100 sea otters in California. Other remnant popula-
south to about the midpoint of the Pacic coast of Baja tions were known to exist in 1911 in Mexico, Canada,
California, Mexico. Prior to 1741, human contact with sea Alaska and Russia. The remnant populations in Mexico and
otters was limited to native cultures through much of the Canada were thought to be extinct by 1920.
range and to Spanish colonists in California and Mexico. The International Fur Seal Treaty was signed in 1911 by
Commercial utilization of sea otters followed the Bering Canada (for Great Britain), Japan, Russia and the United
Expedition of 1741 to the mainland of southern Alaska and States. The Treaty recognized the serious overexploitation
the Aleutian and Commander Islands. Reports of vast num- of northern fur seals and sea otters and provided full
bers of sea otters stimulated the fur trade and contributed protection for both species. State law has prohibited take
to the eventual settlement and economic development of or possession of sea otters or their pelts in California
the west coast of North America by non-native people. since 1913. With the termination of the trade in sea
Russian fur traders developed facilities at several loca- otter pelts, the California sea otter population began to
tions on the North American coast, most notably at grow in numbers and range. State Highway 1 was opened
Kodiak Island and Sitka. The southernmost outpost, at between Monterey and San Simeon in 1937, traversing a
Fort Ross, California, was established in 1812. Russian coastal segment previously not accessible by automobile.
hunters worked at least as far south as the islands off Highway access led to the much-publicized “rediscovery”
Santa Barbara, but the Russian presence in California was of California sea otters by the general public at Bixby
contested by Spanish colonists. Spanish trade in sea otter Creek in 1938. The sea otter population numbered roughly
pelts began in 1786 and was the most important industry 300 individuals at that time. The state of California pro-
in coastal California for several decades. vided additional protection for sea otters by creating the
Sea Otter Game Refuge, extending along 100 miles of
The early Russian otter traders utilized enslaved Aleut
coastline from the Carmel River, near Monterey, to Santa
natives as hunters. The Aleuts worked from native canoes,
Rosa Creek, near Cambria.
hunting with spears and clubs. Later, American and
European hunters entered the trade using rearms as Between the late 1930s and the late 1970s, the California
primary tools of capture. By the 1840s, the sea otter sea otter population grew at an average annual rate of
population in California was greatly reduced as a result about ve percent, extending its range to more than
of overexploitation. 200 miles of coastline from Santa Cruz to Pismo Beach.
Whether this growth occurred smoothly or in pulses is
Sea otters were approaching extinction at the beginning
not known. In the early 1980s, a cessation of population
of the twentieth century. Thirteen remnant populations,
growth was recognized, and some argued that the popula-
tion was declining in numbers. Studies by federal and state
agencies determined that the nearshore set-net shery for
halibut was causing signicant mortality of sea otters as a
result of incidental entanglement and drowning. Estimates
of annual mortality in nets ranged as high as 80-100 ani-
mals, a rate perhaps sufcient to account for the cessation
of population growth. Legislation by the state imposed
restrictions on set-net activity, greatly reducing incidental
take of sea otters in nets. By the middle 1980s, it was
apparent that population growth had returned to levels
previously observed. However, in the mid-1990s popu-
lation growth again ceased and by 1999 numbers had
declined by more than 10 percent over a four-year period.
The spring 2000 sea otter count erased most of the
decline of the previous four years and raised hopes that
the population had resumed expansion.
Sea otter pup
Credit: D. Varonjean
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
536
Status of Biological Knowledge come into estrus within a few days to a few weeks after
Sea Otter
weaning of pups. Gestation is four to six months and
T he subspecic status of various populations of the sea involves delayed implantation. After implantation, devel-
otter has been in dispute for many years. The most opment to birth normally requires about four months.
recent studies, based on skull morphology and DNA, sug- Virtually all births are single. Care of dependent pups
gest the California population is a separate subspecies. is entirely maternal. The period of pup dependency aver-
It is possible, if not likely, that subspecic differences ages six months in California, with a range of 4.5 to
have been magnied by separation of northern and south- 9.5 months. Studies suggest that pre-weaning mortality
ern populations brought about by near extermination. rate for rstborn pups may exceed 50 percent. Survival
Denition of the subspecies of sea otters will likely of dependent pups improves with the experience of the
remain controversial. mother. Most adult females produce one pup per year. In
cases of premature death of dependent pups, females may
While sea otters in California occur predominantly along
come back into estrus and be reimpregnated within a few
rocky shores supporting forests of the large kelps, in
weeks after loss of the pup.
the past decade it has become apparent that signicant
numbers can maintain themselves off sandy shores. Along In California, rates of pup birth apparently peak in late
the mainland coast, the kelps typically form extensive sur- winter, with a secondary peak in late summer or early
face canopies in waters less than 80 feet in depth where fall. Some pupping occurs year round. Sea otters typically
the substratum is rock. Sea otters commonly form resting weigh four to ve pounds at birth, and 20 to 30 pounds at
groups, known as rafts, particularly in kelp canopies. Rafts weaning. In most sea otter populations, maximum longev-
typically contain up to 10 individuals, but under certain ity probably is in the range of 11 to 15 years. Captive
circumstances may include more than 100 otters. Most sea animals are known to have lived as long as 28 years.
otters remain within one mile of shore, but in some situa- Known predators of sea otters include sharks, killer
tions, such as in Monterey Bay, Estero Bay and off Pismo whales, eagles, coyotes and bears. While attack by white
Beach, otters are regularly seen foraging and resting more sharks probably occurs at a low rate throughout the Cali-
than two miles offshore. Juvenile males tend to range fornia range, in areas north of Santa Cruz it accounts for a
farther offshore than other age/sex categories. Records signicant portion of the mortality. Predation generally is
from the fur trade suggest that sea otters once were regarded as less important than food limitation in control-
abundant in the soft-bottom habitats of San Francisco Bay. ling the size of sea otter populations. Patterns of activity
Adult male sea otters in California typically weigh 60 to vary widely among sea otter populations and among indi-
75 pounds, reaching a length of four to 4.5 feet. Adult viduals within sea otter populations. In California, most
females typically reach a weight of 40 to 55 pounds and otters forage during morning hours, rest from late morn-
a length of four feet. The largest sea otter recorded in ing through mid-afternoon and resume foraging in late
California was a male weighing 92 pounds. afternoon. Sometimes a third period of foraging occurs at
night, between about 11 p.m. and 2 a.m. Juvenile females
Sea otter pelage includes outer guard hairs and dense, ne
typically spend more time foraging than other age/sex
underfur. Density of sea otter fur is higher than that of
categories, often feeding during hours when other otters
any other mammal. Sea otter pelage provides the primary
are at rest.
thermoregulatory barrier between the animal and the
chilling effects of seawater. Most other marine mammals In California, home ranges of adult males during the prin-
rely on subcutaneous fat or blubber rather than pelage cipal breeding season (summer and fall) have a mean
for thermal protection. The effectiveness of the pelage as coastline length of about a half mile and an area of
a thermal barrier depends on frequent grooming and con- about 100 acres. During winter the range approximately
sequent cleanliness. Soiling of the fur largely eliminates doubles for those individuals that remain in breeding ter-
the insulative qualities, resulting in rapid heat loss. Food ritories. Long-distance movements among high-use areas
volume equivalent to 25 percent or more of individual range from 35 to 60 miles and often are seasonal. Males
body weight must be consumed daily to maintain the high may remain within a high-use area for months at a time,
metabolic rate typical of sea otters. but travel between such areas rarely requires more than
a few days. Females follow the same general pattern as
Male sea otters reach functional sexual maturity at ve to
males, but high-use areas are typically 1.5 to two times
six years. In California, adult males establish and defend
larger for females than for males. Females also travel
territories in areas of high female density, seasonally
long distances in short periods, but such travel is much
in some areas and year-round in others. Younger males
less frequent for females than for males. Substantial short-
typically are excluded from breeding areas by territorial
term movement of females among high-use areas often
males. Female sea otters become reproductively mature
occurs in association with pupping. Juvenile males tend
at three to ve years of age. Mature females typically
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 537
to utilize larger areas and travel greater distances than The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS) in Prince William
Sea Otter
other age/sex categories. Various studies have shown that Sound demonstrated the potential vulnerability of sea
sea otters are capable of homing from distances as great otter populations to catastrophic oil spills. As many as
as 300 miles. 781 spill related sea otter carcasses were recovered after
the spill. Total mortality of sea otters resulting from EVOS
Sea otters generally feed on large-bodied, bottom dwell-
was much higher. Over 350 sea otters, mostly oiled, were
ing invertebrates obtained during dives. They are able
captured alive after the spill, but survival was less than
to dive to at least 320 feet, but most foraging dives in
50 percent despite intensive efforts to treat and rehabili-
California are in waters less than 80 feet deep. Dive dura-
tate oiled animals. Oiled sea otters died primarily from
tion may be as long as four minutes, but more typically,
hypothermia resulting from matted pelage, toxic effects
is 50 to 80 seconds. Individual otters typically feed on
of oil fumes inhaled, oil ingested during futile grooming
a relatively few species of prey. At the population level,
efforts, and from stress.
however, sea otters are dietary generalists. More than 160
species have been reported as sea otter prey. Composition To deal with potentially catastrophic oil spills impacting
of sea otter diet relates to patterns of population growth. sea otters in California, the California Department of Fish
In California, diet is predominantly sea urchins, abalones, and Game’s (DFG) Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response
large crabs and large clams when otters have recently (OSPR) built and maintains the Marine Wildlife Veterinary
reoccupied a foraging area. As the period of occupation Care and Research Center in Santa Cruz. This facility can
increases, preferred prey decline in availability and the provide care for up to 120 sea otters as well as oiled
diet diversies. In cases of occupation by sea otters for birds and other marine mammals if necessary. It is part
more than a few years, the most common prey in Califor- of the larger Oiled Wildlife Care Network (OWCN) run by
nia are crabs and small snails. Other frequent prey include the Wildlife Health Center at the University of California,
octopus, mussels and clams, and at least some otters Davis, under funding from DFG-OSPR. Smaller numbers of
eat large quantities of market squid when available. Sea oiled sea otters may also be cared for at the Monterey
otters are well known for their abilities in using stones as Bay Aquarium, the Marine Mammal Center and Sea World,
tools while foraging. Stones may be used as hammers to which are afliated with the OWCN and OSPR.
dislodge prey from the substrate during dives and may be
used as anvils for breaking shells of prey during surface
Status of the Population
intervals. Fish are common prey for sea otters at certain
locations in Alaska and Russia. Consumption of sh by sea
T he sea otter population in California currently ranges
otters is rare in California.
along nearly 350 miles of coastline from approximately
Sea otters have important effects on the character of Half Moon Bay, San Mateo County to approximately Gavi-
nearshore biological communities. In a number of circum- ota, Santa Barbara County. Determination of trends in the
stances, it has been reported that otters substantially number of sea otters has been complicated by the variety
reduce prey abundance and individual size. The best- of survey techniques used, differing in accuracy and preci-
known cases involve species such as abalones and sea sion. However, few would argue that since the late 1960s
urchins that are sought in commercial or recreational sh- the population and range have more than doubled. In
eries. Such interactions have provided grist for intensive 1982, a standard survey method was adopted for assess-
political discord for many years regarding approaches to ments of the California population. The most recent count
management of sea otter populations. Such conicts rst in California, in the spring of 2000, totaled 2,317 animals,
arose in regard to the central California abalone 2,053 independent sea otters and 264 dependent pups.
shery in the 1960s. More recent conicts involve sea
Intensive investigation into the causes of sea otter mortal-
urchins, Dungeness crabs and several species of clams.
ity in California occurred throughout the 1990s and into
Human over-harvesting of shellsh populations sometimes
2000. Virtually every fresh dead sea otter received a
contributes to management difculties and political
detailed necropsy by a veterinary pathologist either from
controversies associated with conicts of sea otters
the National Wildlife Health Center or the DFG in partner-
and shellsheries.
ship with the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the
The control of herbivorous invertebrates by sea otters University of California, Davis. Several new disease agents
allows secondary development of dense algal populations, and disease processes were described. Some of the more
including kelps, which may substantially alter the struc- important diseases and parasites of sea otters in California
ture and dynamics of nearshore ecosystems. Proliferation include: 1) thorny headed worms of the genus Prolicollis,
of algae as a consequence of growing sea otter popula- which when present in high numbers penetrate the gut
tions has been reported at a number of locations through- wall causing peritonitis; 2) protozoal encephalitis; 3) bac-
out the range of the species. terial septicemia; 4) biotoxin poisoning from certain “red
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
538
tide” organisms; and 5) San Joaquin Valley fever. The The status and future of the sea otter colony at SNI
Sea Otter
prevalence of some of these pathogens may be inuenced remain uncertain.
by human activities within and adjacent to the marine The federal law (Public Law 99-625) that authorized the
environment of sea otters. If these diseases are translocation of sea otters to SNI also created a manage-
new to the sea otter population then serious conse- ment zone (aka the no-otter zone) as a concession to
quences may be in store. However, these may be old dis- the shellsh industry for sheries expected to be lost due
eases recently discovered. The inuence of contaminants, to sea otter foraging. This management zone includes all
immune system function, and malnutrition on patterns California waters south of Point Conception except for
of disease and overall mortality are being investigated. those surrounding SNI. All sea otters found in the manage-
Diseases and parasites of sea otters in California appear to ment zone were to be captured by FWS in cooperation
be largely different from those of Alaskan sea otters. with DFG and returned either to SNI or the mainland
The cessation of population growth centered around range. Over 20 sea otters were captured in the man-
1982-1983 and 1997-1998, both strong El Niño years, agement zone between 1990 and 1993 and returned to
suggests to some, that long term cyclic environmental the mainland range. However, shortly after, two separate
changes resulting in ups and downs in prey availability otters captured from the management zone and translo-
may be responsible. Others argue that increases in disease cated back to the Monterey area, were found dead. The
and/or parasite infection rates are primarily responsible FWS judged that the deaths might have been due to the
for population dips. Still others suspect that bycatch of stress of capture, transport and relocation. This brought
otters in net and trap sheries may be the major factor. an end to the “containment program,” as it was called,
It is likely that all of these play a role in regulating popula- because removals were to be by non-lethal means. Small
tion size. If long-term, more or less permanent, human numbers of otters remained in the management zone
caused and/or natural environmental change is occurring, through 1997 with relatively little outcry from opponents
then predicting the future for sea otter populations, or of this outcome. Then in 1998, over 100 sea otters moved
any living resource, is troublesome. into the area south of Point Conception. Since that time
the numbers counted in the management zone have sea-
sonally vacillated from less than ve to over 150. The
Current Management count south of Point Conception in May 2000 was 79 sea
otters. No action by FWS to remove sea otters from the
P assage of the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act
management zone has occurred since 1993.
(MMPA) of 1972 provided new authority for protection
At this writing (June 2000) the FWS is being sued by
of sea otters in all U.S. waters. With the passage of the
the shellsh industry for failure to enforce the manage-
MMPA, management authority for sea otters in California
ment zone as legally mandated by Public Law 99-625.
transferred from the state to the federal government. The
Meanwhile, the Friends of the Sea Otter, a sea otter
managing agency is the United States Fish and Wildlife Ser-
advocacy group, has vowed to sue the FWS if they attempt
vice (FWS). Sea otters were conferred “threatened” status
to enforce the management zone on the grounds that such
under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) in
action would violate the ESA.
1977. The ESA directed the formation of a recovery team
and the production of a recovery plan for California sea The draft revised recovery plan for sea otters in California
otters. A primary element of the plan, issued in 1982, was made available for public review in the spring of
was the establishment of a new colony of sea otters 2000. The primary goal of the new Plan, like the old,
by translocation within California. The colony was to be is attainment of a sea otter population with sufcient
well separated from the existing mainland range, thereby numbers and range to eliminate the possibility of disasters
reducing the possibility that a single large oil spill or such as the EVOS exposing all California sea otters to
similar disaster could contaminate all the sea otters contamination and possible injury or death. Interestingly,
in California. the draft revised plan no longer views the process of
translocation as a valuable tool to speed recovery, view-
Between 1987 and 1990, 139 sea otters were translocated
ing natural expansion of the population to be the appro-
from the mainland range to San Nicolas Island (SNI), off
priate approach. According to the recovery team, it will
southern California. The number of sea otters counted at
require the average of three consecutive standardized
SNI through most of the 1990s hovered around 15. The
spring counts to be 2,650 or greater for sea otters to be
most recent survey of the island, in April 2000, found
delisted under ESA (Friends of the Sea Otter is threatening
23 sea otters (21 adult and two dependent pups). While
to sue to increase this number).
over 50 sea otter pups are known to have been born
at the SNI, the population strangely has remained small. If the sea otter population in California does increase
to the level suggested for delisting, and should delisting
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 539
occur, it will still, in all likelihood, be accorded
Sea Otter
“depleted” status under the MMPA. Removal from
depleted status requires the “optimum sustainable popu-
lation” be attained which is generally regarded as 60 per-
cent of the “carrying capacity.” If the historical statewide
population size of 14,000 is used, then the count of sea
otters in California necessary for removal from depleted
status under the MMPA is 8,400. Only after this sea otter
population size and associated range size are achieved will
real zonal management (separation of sea otter and shell-
shing areas), which would require lethal take, become a
possibility. Unlimited expansion is the likely management
option that will be pursued for the foreseeable future.
Glenn R. VanBlaricom
U.S. Geological Survey
Jack A. Ames, Michael D. Harris and Robert A Hardy
California Department of Fish and Game
References
Estes, J. A. and G. R. VanBlaricom. 1985. Sea otters and
shellsheries. Pages 187-235 in R. Beverton, J. Bedding-
ton, and D. Lavigne (eds). Conicts between marine mam-
mals and sheries. Allen and Unwin, London, England.
Garrott, R.A., L.E. Eberhardt, and D.M. Burn. 1993. Mortal-
ity of sea otters in Prince William Sound following the
Exxon Valdez oil spill. Marine Mammal Science 9:343-359.
Kenyon, K. W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacic
ocean. North American Fauna 68. 352 pp.
Ogden, A. 1941. The California sea otter trade, 1784-1848.
University of California Press, Berkeley. 251 p.
Riedman, M. 1990. Sea otters. Monterey Bay Aquarium,
Monterey. 80 pp.
Riedman, M. L. and J. A. Estes. 1990. The sea otter
(Enhydra lutris): Behavior, ecology, and natural history.
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 90(14). 126 pp.
Watson, J. (ed). 1996 Conservation and management of
the southern sea otter. Endangered Species Update 13
(12), Special Issue. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Wendell, F.E., R.A. Hardy and J.A. Ames. 1986. An assess-
ment of the accidental take of sea otters, Enhydra lutris,
in gill and trammel nets. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mar
Resour. Tech. Rep. 54. 31 pp.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
540
Marine Bird
Resources Islands (off San Francisco) and Castle Rock (near Crescent
Marine Birds
City). The Farallones are the most important single sea-
bird-breeding site in California; these islands are moni-
S eabirds are a diverse assortment of bird species that tored and studied each year by the Point Reyes Bird
inhabit salt or brackish water environments for most of Observatory and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Large
their annual cycle, but this is no clear denition. Some seabird populations there are associated with a high avail-
seabird species (such as the double-crested cormorant) ability of suitable and protected nesting habitat, coupled
have populations that are both saltwater or freshwater with strong and productive upwelling systems that provide
year-round (even with populations spending part of their for large prey resources in the same general area.
annual cycles in both environments). Other types of
Many other species are concentrated on the Channel
waterbirds found on salt water also include the classic
Islands, located south of Point Conception in the Southern
waterfowl (ducks, geese, coots, and shorebirds) as well as
California Bight. Most of these islands are within the
those that live on sandy beaches and in coastal marshy
Channel Islands National Park. The Channel Islands harbor
areas or that nest in arctic tundra or inland lakes and
important nesting colonies for some seabirds of northern
marshes (such as loons, grebes, wading birds, and even
afnity (such as Cassin’s auklets), but also the state’s
the well-known seaducks). Loons and grebes are, in fact,
entire nesting population of both brown pelicans (pres-
unique in many ways. They may be encountered during
ently a recovering endangered species under the Endan-
their non-breeding seasons foraging and living miles at
gered Species Act, ESA) and Xantus’s murrelet (about to
sea; yet, they nest inland in fresh water habitats. This dis-
be proposed for endangered species listing; a petition has
cussion is, however, limited to those species of birds that
been recently submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
have breeding populations on offshore islands, coastal
vice for listing under the ESA). Both species have southern
rocks, headlands, and certain coastal old-growth forests
breeding distributions and also nest on islands off Baja
and are part of the neritic (shallow marine waters less
California, but the brown pelican is of tropical afnity
than 200m deep) and pelagic food webs. Our California
(origin), whereas the Xantus’s murrelet is of subarctic
seabird avifauna can also be further divided into resident
afnity. Seabirds are monitored and studied each year
(breeding) and non-resident (non-breeding) species. Birds
in the Channel Islands by biologists from a number
in various ecological categories are very different
of government agencies, universities, and research
in how they affect or are affected by the natural
groups (e.g., University of California, Humboldt State Uni-
environment and human-related events offshore from
versity, U. S. Geological Survey, Channel Islands National
our coast.
Park, U.S. Minerals Management Service, California
There are 29 species of seabirds (according to our def- Department of Fish and Game, and California Institute of
inition) that breed in the state of California. Point Environmental Studies).
Conception is generally considered a major area of transi-
Most of the remainder of important seabird breeding sites
tion between characteristically temperate (such as those
are protected by the National Park Service at Point Reyes
found in the Gulf of Alaska and Washington) and subtropi-
National Seashore and by the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage-
cal seabirds (such as those found in the Gulf of California).
ment and State of California, which manage all offshore
North of Point Conception, marine waters are dominated
rocks as the new California Coastal National Monument.
by cold, nutrient-rich water upwelled along the coast.
The marbled murrelet nests on public and private land,
Waters south of Punta Eugenia, Baja California, are gener-
located within privately-owned forests.
ally subtropical. Between is an area of transition that
The marbled murrelet, in fact, is one of the most unique
varies in marine climate depending on the temporal
and interesting breeding seabirds off central and northern
extent and timing of upwelling. For example, well-known
California. It is a small seabird that nests inland on the
El Niño conditions often extend warmer waters northward,
branches of coastal, old-growth coniferous trees, often
while the opposite conditions known as La Niña often
over a hundred feet above the ground. This little bird spe-
move relatively colder waters more southward. Ecologi-
cies, listed as threatened under the Endangered Species
cally, (and including both breeders and non-breeders) this
Act, is very likely to be still declining (our table lists it as
makes California’s marine birds among the most interest-
unknown) because of the loss of its nesting habitat due
ing and taxonomically diverse (for the amount of coastline
to logging and mortality caused by oil spills and, previ-
and area of open ocean) in the Northern Hemisphere.
ously, gillnet shing. Fortunately, because of conservation
In California, many of our breeding seabirds, such as
measures, there has been no known mortality in gillnets
common murres, Brandt’s cormorants, and Cassin’s auk-
for the past 15 or so years, so there is cause for optimism.
lets (all primarily northern species) are concentrated at
Usually by the end of summer (after the upwelling period),
national wildlife refuges, for example, at the Farallon
the California Current system experiences an immigration,
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 541
Table 1. Seabirds which breed off the California coast, their distributional status relative to areas north (Alaska) and
Marine Birds
south (Baja California) of California, the approximate sizes of their breeding populations in 1989-1991, and their probable
status in the early 2000s (X indicates presence, 0 indicates absence).
1989-91 Distribution in: Estimated CA
Common Name Breeding Pop. Current Status
(Scientific Name) Alaska California1 Baja Calif. in the early 2000s 2 in CA
Forked-tailed storm-petrel X X 0 300 Unknown
(Oceanodroma furcata)
Leach’s storm-petrel X X X 18,300 Declining
(Oceanodroma leucorhoa)
Ashy storm-petrel 3 0 X 0 <10,000 Declining
(Oceanodroma homochroa)
Black storm-petrel 0 X 0 150 Unknown
(Oceanodroma melania)
Brown pelican 3 0 X X 9,000 Stable
(Pelecanus occidentalis)
Double-crested cormorant X X X 1,900 Stable/Increasing
(Phalacrocorax auritus)
Brandt’s cormorant 0 X X 64,200 Stable/Increasing
(Phalacrocorax penicillatus)
Pelagic cormorant X X 0 15,900 Stable/Increasing
(Phalacrocorax pelagicus)
Western gull 0 X 0 51,000 Increasing
(Larus occidentalis)
Common murre X X 0 363,200 Stable/Increasing
(Uria aalge)
Pigeon guillemot X X 0 14,700 Stable
(Cepphus columba)
Marbled murrelet 3 X X 0 <10,000 Declining
(Brachyramphus marmoratus)
Xantus’s murrelet 3 0 X X <10,000 Stable/Declining
(Synthliboramphus hypoleucus)
Cassin’s auklet X X X 131,200 Declining
(Ptychoramphus aleuticus)
Rhinoceros auklet X X 0 400 Increasing
(Cerorhinca monocerata)
Tufted puffin X X 0 250 Stable/Declining
(Fratercula cirrhata)
Number species in common 10 - 7
Total breeding species 28 (30) 16 (29) 14 (22)
Note: The estimated total Alaskan breeding seabird population is about 40,200,000
Some species that breed in Alaska or Baja California are not listed above because
1
compared to about 700,000 for California. These numbers represent approximate
they do not usually breed along the California coast; these species usually occur
mean levels throughout the 1980s. Ten to 40 percent should be added to include
only as visitors, but in many cases can occur in very large numbers. Species in
non-breeders and immatures, a proportion that varies from year to year and species
this category include white pelicans, black skimmers, at least four other species
to species. Four species (common murre, Brandt’s cormorant, Cassin’s auklet, and
of gulls (Heerman’s, laughing, ring-billed, and California), and seven species of
western gull) comprise almost 90 percent of the total number of breeders. Population
terns (elegant, royal, Caspian, Forster’s, gull-billed, least, black); numbers in
numbers given in this column are from the most recent statewide breeding surveys
parentheses indicate such additions for each area.
(see Carter et al. 1992).
Indicates numbers of individuals.
2
Updated since 1991.
3
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
542
emigration, and reshufing of certain species of seabirds Pink-footed shearwater . . . . Pufnus creatopus
Marine Birds
from the north, south, and within California. The abun- Red-billed tropicbird. . . . . . Phaethon aethereus
dance and diversity of seabirds increases immensely at
Ringed-bill gull . . . . . . . . . Larus delawarensis
this time. One of the most abundant seabird species in
Royal tern. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna maxima
the world, the sooty shearwater, comes through California
waters by the hundreds of thousands, mostly from New Sooty shearwater . . . . . . . . Pufnus griseus
Zealand breeding colonies. Similarly, thousands of pink-
footed and Bullar’s shearwaters visit from Chile and New
History and Utilization
Zealand, respectively. During the summer and late fall,
large numbers of black-footed and smaller numbers of
S eabirds are the most conspicuous and familiar elements
Laysan albatrosses visit from their Hawaii nesting colo-
of marine communities and are a source of pleasure
nies. Occasionally, southern seabirds, such as boobies,
and enjoyment for people at sea or along the coast.
red-billed tropicbirds, and magnicent frigatebirds, will
They are unique and important biotic elements of marine
provide the highlight of an offshore birding trip. Usually,
ecosystems and in the practical sense are a good indicator
beginning in July, several species arrive from the Gulf of
of the general health of coastal offshore environments,
California, Mexico, dispersing northward along the Califor-
yet people working or recreating at sea often know little
nia coast; these include black-vented shearwaters, least
about them. Although often omitted from marine resource
storm-petrels, Heermann’s gulls, elegant terns, and many
reference works, seabirds require management and pro-
more brown pelicans than nest in California. Especially
tection, just as other elements of marine ecosystems do.
during late fall and winter, we witness the arrival of
northern seabirds, such as northern fulmars, horned puf- Seabirds are prominent elements in the biodiversity of
ns (plus other species of the “alcid” family), black-legged marine ecosystems. They perform what ecologist Paul
kittiwakes, and other species. Such diversity and abun- Ehrlich calls ecological services, such as nutrient cycling
dance certainly adds to the overall richness and ecological and scavenging of biological waste materials and debris
value of California’s total marine avian resources. from waters and beaches. They often guide shermen to
sh. They are a pleasure to watch, and consequently,
contribute signicantly to eco-tourism. A small industry
Table 2. Scientic names of birds mentioned in text but
of offshore nature cruises has, in fact, developed in many
not included in Table 1.
ports along the California coast. Healthy seabird popula-
tions give us the justied feeling that all is well at sea,
and a missing, sick, or oiled bird tells us that it might
Albatrosses . . . . . . . . . . . . Family Diomedeidae
not be.
Black-legged kittiwake . . . . Rissa tridactyla
Like most marine wildlife, marine birds have historically
Black skimmer . . . . . . . . . . Rynchops niger
suffered severe and relentless exploitations by man. In
Black tern . . . . . . . . . . . . . Childonias niger California this was especially true at the Farallon and
Black-vented shearwater . . . Pufnus opisthomelas other islands during and after the gold rush (from 1850
to about 1900), where common murres were heavily
Boobies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sula sp.
exploited for their eggs. There was no regulation of take
Bullar’s shearwater. . . . . . . Pufnus bullari
and the murre populations declined severely. Numbers
California gull . . . . . . . . . . Larus californicus had declined by an order of magnitude by the 1900s, and
only a few thousand individuals were left by the 1930s.
California least tern . . . . . . Sterna antillarum
The Farallon Islands murre population did not recover for
Caspian tern . . . . . . . . . . . Sterna caspia
several decades and even now is far below numbers of
Elegant tern . . . . . . . . . . . Thalasseus elegans the 1800s. Exploitation of seabirds or seabird products is
neither a local or recent phenomenon. Recall the ancient,
Forster’s tern . . . . . . . . . . Sterna forsteri
managed harvest of guano by the Incas of Peru, or the
Gull-billed tern . . . . . . . . . Sterna nilotica
harvest of guano for manufacturing gunpowder by the
Heermann’s gull . . . . . . . . . Larus heermanni imperialistic navies of Europe in the 16th-18th centuries.
Horned pufn . . . . . . . . . . Fratercula corniculata Empires were won or lost over control of seabird islands.
Early sailors and explorers often utilized seabirds or their
Least storm-petrel . . . . . . . Oceanodroma microsoma
eggs for food, driving some species to extinction. In gen-
Magnicent frigatebird . . . . Fregata magnicens
eral, however, there has been little success worldwide
Northern fulmar. . . . . . . . . Fulmarus glacialis in utilizing seabirds for sustainable food or other product
sources. The few exceptions include guano harvests in
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 543
Peru, harvest of eider down from seaducks in Iceland, (such as slops and oily bilge waste-water) have become
Marine Birds
and muttonbird (shearwater) harvests for food in New increasingly more frequent, and large numbers of seabirds
Zealand. There has been no successful sustainable harvest have been killed. An outstanding example of seabird losses
of seabirds or seabird products in California or along the by oil spills is the “Point Reyes Tar Ball Incident” in
West Coast. Since the early days of exploitation, man- which it is estimated that 10,000 to 20,000 seabirds died.
agement has usually involved putting the nesting islands Although acute oiling of seabirds from large oil spills
into a protection system. This is the case for all islands receives a great deal more attention, chronic oil fouling of
off California. the offshore environment might cause the most damage to
seabirds and other marine wildlife. Rehabilitation (washing
After World War II, California’s abundant seabird popula-
and captive care) of oiled birds has so far not been very
tions began to suffer from new problems. For example,
successful. Most birds die before rehabilitation can be
populations were depleted as a result of offshore chemical
attempted and many birds that receive care die anyway
pollutant discharges from industries in southern California.
either before or after their release. It is not likely that
Most recently, populations have declined as a result of
most birds surviving rehabilitation will go on to breed.
excessive mortality from entanglement in commercial gill-
Thus, prevention of both oil spills and chronic oiling is
nets. Bird populations in central and southern California
the best solution. And, in stepping-up prevention activi-
may have declined because of excessive sardine shing.
ties, California has changed several factors to reduce the
Most species of seabirds feed on or near the surface,
incidence and spread of spills: oil spill response schemes
schooling species that are also sought in commercial sh-
in all harbors, ship trafc control systems in all large
eries. The well-known decline of sardines off Monterey
ports, heavy nes of perpetrators of spills, and double-
is thought to have had deleterious effects on some spe-
hulls required of all new tankers. In 1994, a multi-million
cies of seabirds. It is not well known, however, how long
dollar, statewide oil-spill rehabilitation network was initi-
it takes to bring about a population decline of seabirds
ated by the Ofce of Spill Prevention and Response, Cali-
from prey depletion. Some species are able to switch
fornia Department of Fish and Game and Oiled Wildlife
effectively to other prey species, but often there are no
Care Network, University of California, Davis, to provide
other appropriate prey species to switch to. Since the
the immediate capability to clean oiled marine wildlife
1950s, large oil spills and chronic waste oil discharges
and to conduct research to improve rehabilitation tech-
niques and survival success. Rehabilitation of individuals
affected by diseases such as botulism or individuals that
have been hooked or otherwise injured by shing gear
have proven to be much more successful. Unfortunately,
funds to implement strategies to prevent birds from con-
tacting oil during the spill response, such as wildlife
hazing programs, have received limited support.
Population restoration and maintenance of populations
into the future are ultimate goals of wildlife managers.
Historically, most seabird conservation and management
measures have been through protection of critical nest-
ing, feeding, and roosting areas from human exploitation
and disturbance, eradication of small populations of intro-
duced predators, protection and recovery of prey species,
and reduction of contaminants (e.g., DDT and PCB com-
pounds). Now, however, more proactive efforts are being
utilized. For example, planned eradication of a large pop-
ulation of rats on Anacapa Island (by the Island Con-
servation and Ecology Group working with the Channel
Islands National Park, USFWS, NOAA, and CDFG) will
hopefully allow re-establishment of large populations
of formerly-abundant crevice-nesting seabird populations.
In another example, old-growth redwood forests have
been preserved because of their importance as nesting
habitat for marbled murrelets. Seabird recolonization is
being achieved through social attraction techniques (using
Adult Western Gull, Larus occidentalis
decoys, mirror boxes, and taped calls) to restore breeding
Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
544
populations of common murres along the central California nia Marine Life Protection Act, to help study, conserve,
Marine Birds
coast. Using these methods, breeding-age individuals were and manage marine wildlife. Trust funds established from
attracted to Devil’s Slide Rock in San Mateo County, the natural resource damage assessments resulting from oil
site of a previously extirpated breeding colony. Since the spills such as the Apex Houston, the American Trader and
,
project was initiated in 1996 (by the USFWS, Humboldt the Commend oil spills has already resulted in major
State University, and National Audubon Society), a small new initiatives for seabird conservation; restoration funds
breeding colony soon established itself and increased each of about $12.5 million have been committed to these
year to over 100 pairs in 2001. Proactive restoration efforts. And for the rst time, signicant marine bird pro-
and conservation efforts will undoubtedly expand in tection zones (mainly for nesting areas) are being consid-
the future. ered along with marine reserves, which address primarily
shery resources.
Since seabirds are visibly affected when people misuse
marine resources, the well-being of our seabird popula-
tions can tell us a great deal about the health of our
Seabird Ecology
oceans. Potential effects on seabirds from future develop-
A
ment are often examined to help evaluate overall pro- lmost all important adaptations in body form and
jected effects on the marine environment. Such activities behavior of seabirds reect specialization for either
include increased levels of offshore oil extraction and breeding or feeding. Methods of marine bird feeding
transport, mining of other ocean resources, development depend on types of foods and where these foods are found
of other forms of energy, use of new shing techniques, in the water column. Seabirds, therefore, are inuenced
sh farming and sh ranching at sea, and new marine by the environmental factors that inuence the marine
product development and exploitation. Additionally, “eco- environment. During the breeding season, seabirds are
tourism,” a rapidly growing industry, can itself lead to conned to feeding within range of their nesting islands.
unregulated intrusion onto islands that are important as In addition to providing suitable habitat, nesting islands
nesting sites for seabird populations. There is already must be free of predators and disturbances. Outside the
a long history of disappearance of seabird colonies on breeding season, when not constrained to tending off-
islands visited too frequently by unsupervised tourists. spring, many seabird species are highly mobile and can
Global warming may also have detrimental effects on move long distances to nd food while some species may
sh resources and, ultimately, seabirds. This may be seen remain in areas of abundant and predictable food sup-
in the form of population declines, changes in behavior, plies, just like shermen. At sea, distribution of seabirds
and/or shifts in distribution. Often predictive models, is heavily inuenced by physical oceanographic processes.
based on current research, will be necessary to more For example, plankton feeders will be found where ocean
adequately predict what changes might be expected from currents favor growth and accumulation of planktonic spe-
long-term and radical changes in environmental conditions cies. Such areas, in turn, provide food for shoals of spe-
due to global warming. cies such as northern anchovy, Pacic sardine, herring,
The heavy nes and natural resource damage assessments mackerel, or juvenile demersal shes such as rockshes.
that can be imposed on polluters, as well as recognition These midwater and epipelagic sh in turn are preyed
of the importance of seabirds as environmental indicators upon by sh-feeding seabirds.
and of the effects that human activities can have on
them, has led to a surge of activity and interest in seabird
conservation and management. In addition to many gov-
ernmental agencies that are concerned or charged with
seabird conservation, there are at least ve “seabird
groups” that are composed of interested professionals
worldwide who have become organized to study, help
conserve these important elements of marine wildlife, as
well as to educate the general public as to the value
of seabirds in the California area. The Pacic Seabird
Group focuses on the Pacic Coast from Baja California to
Washington, plus Alaska, Hawaii, British Columbia, other
parts of Mexico, and Japan. In California, state and federal
governmental agencies, sport and commercial shermen,
seabird biologists, and marine bird conservationists are
Juvenille Western Gull, Larus occidentalis
beginning to work together, guided in part by the Califor-
Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 545
Some seabirds feed at the surface and others y or paddle predators has left many seabirds with no defenses against
Marine Birds
underwater to extend their reach lower into the water predators, except to abandon their colonies. Undisturbed
column. Some California species can dive to a depth of roosting and loang sites are also critical to seabirds.
330 feet. Water clarity inuences which type of feeding Tourism and introductions of rats, cats, dogs, pigs, goats,
method will be most successful. For example, clear, tropi- and other feral animals has repeatedly led to exter-
cal waters typically best support species that catch sh by mination of seabirds from islands that were formerly
plunge-diving (boobies and pelicans). In contrast, north- predator-free.
ern waters are usually too turbid for aerial plungers to see
prey, but are better suited to underwater swimmers or
Management and Conservation
yers (like the murres, auklets, and cormorants).
T
While nesting, seabirds are largely bound to nest contents raditionally (up until about 1990), responsible govern-
that requires protection from predators. The breeding ment agencies had expressed almost no interest in
season is the period of time it takes from courtship, nest- funding basic seabird conservation research. Ofcial list-
building, and egg-laying to the point of edging, when ing under various categories and laws (the most outstand-
young leave the nest or become independent. During ing being both state and federal “endangered” species
breeding seabirds are strongly inuenced by local food acts) forced agencies to expend some limited funds on
supplies (i.e., prey available within the feeding range of such species as brown pelicans, least terns, and marbled
nesting birds), which are dependent upon oceanographic murrelets. Impending offshore oil development prompted
and meteorological conditions. Reproductive success is some federal agencies to begin basic surveys of marine
inuenced by the biomass, availability, and consistency of birds and mammals at sea and on the California coastline.
local food supplies. For instance, when El Niño weather Recent damage assessments guided by the Oil Pollution
patterns associated with reduced productivity occur, Act of 1990 have stimulated new directions in seabird
seabirds reproduce poorly or not at all because prey conservation and management. It is ironic that mainly
resources are less abundant and available. Decadal altera- because of impending threats to seabirds by various
tion of marine climate can also be important, for example, forms of oceanic pollution (Outer Continental Shelf devel-
the warm, nutrient-depleted period that existed during opments and marine contaminants), only then have sea-
the late 1800s and again in the last decades of the 1900s. birds begun to receive adequate research and conserva-
Since offshore islands with nearby, stable food supplies tion attention. Relative to other categories of marine
are in short supply for nesting seabirds in California, such resources, however, marine wildlife research and conser-
birds are almost always found concentrated into tightly- vation still has to be considered as minimal. Interestingly,
packed nesting colonies, with different species usually the non-game program of the California Department of
segregated onto different kinds of micro-habitat. As a Fish and Game (under the leadership of Howard Leach)
consequence, nesting colonies are vulnerable to destruc- pioneered on a national basis, investigations of seabird
tion by mammalian predators such as foxes, raccoons, resources in California. Also in the early-1970s, a non-
mink, and cats. Therefore, nesting islands must be free prot research organization, the Point Reyes Bird Observa-
from both terrestrial predators and human disturbance tory, initiated important research on the Farallon Islands.
to provide seabirds with successful nesting opportunities. Many federal and state agencies are now involved in the
Evolutionary development on islands lacking terrestrial management and conservation of marine birds, and many
statutory and regulatory provisions contribute to their
protection. In addition, California has one of the nest
systems of sanctuaries and refuges for seabirds in the
world, although coordination among the many agencies
and organizations involved has proven to be challenging.
However, our coastal wetlands now comprise only a small
percentage of their former extent, and these habitats are
critical to many species of seabirds. Offshore waters are
becoming increasingly occupied and utilized by people,
yet many offshore islands and rocks are as close to their
natural states as one might reasonably expect in our
modern world.
Nonetheless, some of California’s seabirds have been des-
ignated as threatened or endangered (e.g., California least
Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis
tern, California brown pelican, and marbled murrelet),
Credit: Paul Gorenzel, UC Davis
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
546
Seabird and Fisheries Interactions
and others may already warrant such designations (e.g.,
Marine Birds
Xantus’s murrelet and ashy storm-petrel). Brown pelicans
S eabird-sheries interactions have been categorized as
may eventually be downlisted and delisted as an endan-
follows: 1) direct competition, with negative popula-
gered species because its populations have shown strong
tion implications either for sh or seabird populations;
recovery and are now self-sustaining; among seabirds this
2) mutualism, where the interaction is benecial, or com-
is one of the few true success stories of marine bird
mensalism, where there is neither benet nor detriment
conservation in recent times.
to the interaction; and 3) physical injury, where birds are
Seabird populations have a number of characteristics in
killed or injured by shing activities, or bird activities
common, which make them susceptible to harm from
affect operations or damage gear. Categories 1 and 3
environmental changes:
describe conicts in resource use that should be mini-
1) Resident seabirds concentrate their nesting efforts
mized. Extensive mortality of common murres and other
over several months at small areas, and they tradi-
seabirds in the 1980s and 1990s in gillnets has led to
tionally use the same nesting areas year after year.
extensive shing closures throughout most of California.
2) Some seabirds (e.g., pelicans, cormorants, and gulls) Multi-species or ecosystem management instead of man-
concentrate in roosts or resting sites. Night roosts agement that is single-species oriented may be the key to
provide protection from predators and disturbances minimizing many conicts. The management plan of the
and may have benecial thermal characteristics. Day Pacic Fishery Management Council (PFMC) for northern
roosts are located closer to food supplies and may anchovies was one of the rst in the nation to consider the
also have good plumage-drying properties, such as multiple uses of the anchovy resource, including prey for
sunny, cold-wind protected surfaces. both seabirds and marine mammals and bait for sport sh-
ermen. With recovering Pacic sardine populations (begin-
3) Many seabirds depend on concentrated food supplies,
ning in the late 1980s), the PFMC is revising its anchovy
often commercially valuable sheries resources.
plan to include multi-species management of small
Marine sheries biologists are beginning to work with
pelagic shes. Fishery management plans are beginning
marine wildlife biologists to balance recreational and
to include concepts such as forage reserves, multiple-
commercial sheries with other wildlife needs.
needs, ecosystem balance, and thresholds of minimum
4) Many seabirds tend to be long-lived with low
resource abundance.
annual reproductive rates. Thus, seabirds cannot
In recent years, there has been conict between seabird
usually recover very rapidly from large impacts on
needs for disturbance free nesting habitat and the market
their populations.
squid shery in the Channel Islands. This shery depends
5) Seabirds are often components of assemblages with
on the use of intense lighting during the night to attract
interdependent elements, which means that they are
squid. Much of the squid harvest occurs relatively close to
closely allied to other species in their system. Disrup-
the shorelines of islands where seabirds nest. As a result,
tion of one or more interacting elements may affect
smaller crevice-nesting nocturnal birds (e.g., Xantus’s mur-
the entire assemblage in some way.
relet and ashy storm-petrels) become highly vulnerable to
predators (such as gulls and owls) while attending nest
sites. These species are also attracted to light and can
become disoriented and crash into the boats, potentially
causing death or injury, or separating adults from their
young on the water. Additionally, there is concern over
the impacts of continuous light on the breeding success
of diurnal species such as brown pelicans and cormorants.
For these species, continuous light may affect hormonal
levels, which in turn may alter behavioral patterns impor-
tant in courtship, incubation, and chick care. Noise and
disturbance generated from shing activities may also
affect breeding success of vulnerable species. Measures
to resolve these conicts are currently (in 2001) being
considered and discussed by state and federal agencies
together with seabird biologists and shery managers, but
at this time (summer of 2001) there are no assurances of
a resolution.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 547
Overall, the future of shery-seabird interactions free Morgan, K. H., K. Vermeer, R. W. McKelvey. 1991. Atlas of
Marine Birds
of major conicts is improving. For example, since gill- pelagic birds of western Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service
netting has been banned in many areas, some shermen Occasional Paper 72:1-72.
have switched to alternate shing methods that do not National Geographic Society. 1999. Field guide to the
harm seabirds. Situations are more difcult to control birds of North America, 3rd edition. National Geographic
when commercial shing occurs outside areas of state or Society, Washington, DC. 480 pp.
federal jurisdiction, such as foreign waters where many of
Palmer, R. S. (ed.). 1962. Handbook of North American
our migratory seabirds reside part of the year. Interactions
birds, volume I. Yale University Press, New Haven CT. 567
between the recreational sherman and marine wildlife
pp.
also occur. While each individual interaction may involve
Spendelow, J. A., and S. R. Patton. 1988. National atlas of
only one angler and one bird (involving hook injuries,
coastal waterbird colonies in the contiguous United States:
monolament entanglements, and other injuries from han-
1976-82. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands
dling and struggle), recreational shermen as a group
Research Center, Washington, DC. 326 pp.
can have a signicant impact on some seabird popula-
tions. In most instances the best management approach is
Surveys and Status Reports
still education.
Ainley, D. G., and T. J. Lewis. 1974. The history of
Farallon Island marine bird populations, 1854-1972. Condor
Daniel W. Anderson and Franklin Gress
76:432-436.
University of California, Davis and California Institute of
Ainley, D. G., and G. L. Hunt, Jr. 1991. Status and conser-
Environmental Studies
vation of seabirds in California. International Council for
Harry R. Carter
Bird Protection Technical Publication 11:103-114.
U. S. Geological Survey and Humboldt State University
Carter, H. R., G. J. McChesney, D. L. Jaques, C. S. Strong,
Paul R. Kelly
M. W. Parker, J. E. Takekawa, D. L. Jory, and D. L. Whit-
California Department of Fish and Game
worth. 1992. Breeding seabird populations of California,
Alec D. MacCall 1989-1991. Unpubl. draft report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife
National Marine Fisheries Service Service, Dixon, CA.
Carter, H. R., A. L. Sowls, M. S. Rodway, U. W. Wilson,
R. W. Lowe, F. Gress, and D. W. Anderson. 1995. Pop-
References ulation size, trends, and conservation problems of the
double-crested cormorant on the west coast of North
Because this report focuses on the status of marine sher-
America. in: D. N. Nettleship, and D. C. Duffy (eds.).
ies, as required my the MLMA, the editors have had to
The double-crested cormorant: biology, conservation and
limit the space devoted to birds. Since marine birds are an
management. Colonial Waterbirds (Special Publication 1)
integral part of all the ecosystem divisions of this book we
18:189-207.
have included a comprehensive list of references.
Carter, H. R., U. W. Wilson, R. W. Lowe, M. S. Rodway, D.
General Seabird References A. Manual, J E. Takekawa, and J. L. Yee. In press. Popula-
Cogswell, H. G. 1977. Water birds of California, University tion trends of the common murre (Uria aalge californica).
of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 399 pp. In: D. A. Manual, H. R. Carter, and T. S. Zimmerman
(eds.). Biology and conservation of the common murre in
Fisher, J., and R. M. Lockley. 1954. Seabirds. Houghton-
California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Vol.
Mifin, Boston, MA. 320 pp.
1: Natural history and population trends. U. S. Geological
Grant, P. 1986. Gulls: a guide to identication, second
Survey, Information and Technology Report.
edition. Buteo Books, Vermillion, SD. 320 pp.
Everett, W. T., and D. W. Anderson. 1991. Status and
Haley, D. (ed.). 1984. Seabirds of eastern north Pacic and
conservation of the breeding seabirds on offshore Pacic
Arctic waters. Pacic Search Press, Seattle, WA. 214 pp.
islands of Baja California and the Gulf of California. Inter-
Harrison, P. 1983. Seabirds: an identication guide. Hough- national Council for the Protection of Birds Technical Pub-
ton-Mifin, Boston, MA. 448pp. lication 11:115-139.
Lockley, R. M. 1974. Ocean wanderers. Stackpole Books, Harrison, C. S. 1991. Seabirds of Hawaii: natural history
Harrisburg, PA. 188 pp. and conservation. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. 288
pp.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
548
Hunt, G. L., Jr., R. L. Pitman, and H. L. Jones. 1980. Ashmole, N. P. 1971. Sea bird ecology and the marine
Marine Birds
Distribution and abundance of seabirds breeding on the environment. Pp. 223-286, in: Farner, D. S., and J. R.
California Channel Islands. Pp. 443-459, in: Power, D. M. King (eds.), Avian Biology, volume 1. Academic Press, New
(ed.), The California Islands: proceedings of a multidisci- York, NY. 586 pp.
plinary symposium. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural His- Briggs, K. T., and E. W. Chu. 1986. Sooty shearwaters
tory, Santa Barbara, CA. 787 pp. off California: distribution, abundance and habitat use.
Ralph, C. J., G. L. Hunt, Jr., M. G. Raphael, and J. F. Piatt Condor 88:355-364.
(eds.). 1995. Ecology and conservation of the marbled Briggs, K. T., W. B. Tyler, D. B. Lewis, and D. R. Carlson.
murrelet. U. S. Forest Service, General Technical Report 1987. Bird communities at sea off California: 1975 to 1983.
PSW-GTR-152. Albany, CA. Studies in Avian Biology 11:1-74.
Sowls, A. L., A. R. DeGange, J. W. Nelson, and G. S. Burger, J. 1988. Seabirds and other marine vertebrates:
Lester. 1980. Catalog of California seabird colonies. U. competition, predation, and other interactions. Columbia
S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program University Press, New York, NY. 339 pp.
FWS/OBS-80/37, Washington, DC. 371 pp.
Burger, J., B. L. Olla, and H. E. Winn. 1980. Behavior of
Sowls, A. L., S. A. Hatch, and C. J. Lensink. 1978. Catalog marine animals, volume 4: marine birds. Plenum Press,
of Alaskan seabird colonies. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, New York, NY. 515 pp.
Biological Services Program FWS OBS.78/78, Washington,
Croxall, J. P. (ed.). 1987. Seabirds: feeding ecology and
DC. 166 pp.
role in marine ecosystems. Cambridge University Press,
Speich, S. M., and T. R. Wahl. 1989. Catalog of Washington New York, NY. 408 pp.
seabird colonies. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological
Furness, R. W., and P. Monaghan. 1987. Seabird ecology.
Report 88:1-510.
Chapman and Hall, New York, NY. 164 pp.
Seabird Ecology Nelson, B. 1979. Seabirds: their biology and ecology. A &
W Publishers, New York, NY. 224 pp.
Ainley, D. G. 1977. Feeding methods in seabirds: a com-
parison of polar and tropical nesting communities in the Sealy, S. G. (ed.). 1990. Auks at sea. Studies in Avian
eastern Pacic Ocean. Proceedings S.C.A.R. Symposium on Biology 14:1-180.
Antarctic Biology 3:669-685. Sydeman, W. J., M. M. Hester, J. A. Thayer, F. Gress,
Ainley, D. G. 1980. Birds as marine organisms: a P. Martin, and J. Buffa. 2001. In press. Climate change,
review. California Cooperative Ocean Fisheries Investiga- reproductive performance and diet composition of marine
tions Reports 21:48-52. birds in the southern California Current, 1969-1997. Prog-
ress in Oceanography.
Ainley, D. G., and R. J. Boekelheide (eds.). 1990. Seabirds
of the Farallon Islands: ecology, dynamics, and structure Warham, J. 1990. The petrels: their ecology and breeding
of an upwelling system community. Stanford University systems. Academic Press, New York, NY. 440 pp.
Press, Stanford, CA. 450 pp.
Conservation and Management
Ainley, D. G., H. R. Carter, D. W. Anderson, K. T. Briggs,
Anderson, D. W., and F. Gress. 1981. The politics of peli-
M. C. Coulter, F. Cruz, J. B. Cruz, C. A. Valle, S. I. Fefer,
cans. Pp. 117-143. In: Jackson, T. C., and D. Reische (eds.),
S. A. Hatch, E. A. Schreiber, R. W. Schreiber, and N. G.
Coast alert: scientists speak out. Coast Alliance Press, San
Smith. 1988. Effects of the 1982-83 El Niño-Southern Oscil-
Francisco, CA. 181 pp.
lation on Pacic ocean bird populations. Proceedings of
the International Ornithological Congress 19:1747-1758. Anderson, D. W., J. E. Mendoza, and J. O. Keith. 1976.
Seabirds in the Gulf of California: a vulnerable, interna-
Ainley, D. G. and G. J. Divoky. 2001. Seabirds: response to
tional resource. Natural Resources Journal 16:483-505.
climate change. in: Steele, J. et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of
ocean sciences. Academic Press, London. Balance, L. T., D. G. Ainley, and G. L. Hunt, Jr. 2001.
Seabirds: foraging ecology. In: Steele, J. et al. (eds.).
Anderson, D. W. 1983. The seabirds. Pp. 246-264, 474-481,
Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, London.
in: Case, T. J., and M. L. Cody (eds.), Island biogeography
in the Sea of Cortez. University of California Press, Berke- Bartonek, J. C., and D. N. Nettleship (eds.). 1979. Con-
ley, CA. 508 pp. servation of marine birds of northern North America.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wildlife Research Report
Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, and K. F. Mais. 1982. Brown
11:1-315.
pelicans: inuence of food supply on reproduction. Oikos
39:23-31.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December, 2001 A Status Report 549
Croxall, J. P. (ed.). 1991. Seabird status and conservation: the Southern California Bight. Ph.D. dissertation. Univer-
Marine Birds
a supplement. International Council for Bird Protection sity of California, Davis.
Technical Publication 11:1-308. Gress, F., R. W. Risebrough, D. W. Anderson, L. F. Kiff,
Croxall, J. P., P. G. H. Evans, and R. W. Schreiber (eds.). and J. R. Jehl, Jr. 1973. Reproductive failures of double-
1984. Status and conservation of the world’s seabirds. crested cormorants in southern California and Baja Califor-
International Council for Bird Protection Technical Publica- nia. Wilson Bulletin 85:197-208.
tion 2:1-778. Manuwal, D. A. 1978. Effect of man on marine birds: a
Diamond, A. W., and F. L. Filion. 1987. The value of birds. review. Pp. 140-160 in: C. M. Kirkpatrick (ed.), Wildlife
International Council for Bird Protection 6:1-275. and people. Purdue Research Association, West LaFayette,
IN.
Furness, R. W. and Greenwood. 1993. Birds as monitors of
environmental change. Chapman & Hall, New York. Page, G. W., H. R. Carter, and R. G. Ford. 1990. Numbers
of seabirds killed or debilitated in the 1986 Apex Houston
Gress, F., and D.W. Anderson. 1983. California brown peli-
oil spill in central California. Studies in Avian Biology
can recovery plan. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Port-
14:164-174.
land, OR. 179 pp.
Risebrough, R. W. 1972. Effects of environmental pollut-
Nettleship, D. N. 1991. Seabird management and future
ants upon animals other than man. Pp. 443-463 in: L.
research. Colonial Waterbirds 14:77-84.
LeCam, J. Neyman, and E. L. Scott (eds.). Proceedings
Parker, M. J., J. Boyce, R. Young, N. Rojek, C. Hamilton,
Sixth Berkeley Symposium Mathematical Statistics and
V. Slowik, H. Gellerman, S. Kress, H. Carter, G. Moore, and
Probability. University of California Press, Berkeley.
L. Cohen. 2000. Restoration of common murre colonies
Takekawa, J. E., H. R. Carter, and T. E. Harvey. 1990.
in central California: Annual report 1999. Unpublished
Decline of the common murre in California, 1980-1986.
report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, San Francisco Bay
Studies in Avian Biology 14:149-163.
National Wildlife Refuge Complex, Newark, CA.
Sherman, K. 1991. The large marine ecosystem concept: Seabirds and Fisheries
research and management strategy for living marine
Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, K. F. Mais, and P. R. Kelly.
resources. Ecological Applications 1:349-360.
1980. Brown pelicans as anchovy stock indicators and their
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. California least tern relationships to commercial shing. California Cooperative
recovery plan. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports 21:54-61.
OR.
Anderson, D. W., and F. Gress. 1984. Brown pelicans and
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 11997. Recovery plan for the anchovy shery off southern California. Pp. 128-135
the threatened marbled murrelet in Washington, Oregon, in: D. N. Nettleship, G. A. Sanger, and P. F. Springer
and California. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, (eds.) Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
OR. sheries relationships. Canadian Wildlife Service Special
Publication CW66-65, Ottawa, ON.
Pollution and Other Perturbations
Furness, R. W., and R. T. Barrett. 1991. Seabirds and sh
Anderson, D. W. 1988. Dose-response relationship between
declines. National Geographic Research and Exploration
human disturbance and brown pelican breeding success.
7:82-95.
Wildlife Society Bulletin 16:339-345.
Nettleship, D. N., G. A. Sanger, and P. F. Springer (eds.).
Anderson, D. W., and J. O. Keith. 1980. The human inu-
1984. Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
ence on seabird nesting success: conservation implica-
sheries relationships. Canadian Wildlife Service Special
tions. Biological Conservation 18:65-80.
Publication CW66-65, Ottawa, ON. 220 pp.
Anderson, D. W., F. Gress, and D. M. Fry. 1996. Survival
Radovich, J. 1981. The collapse of the California sardine
and dispersal of oiled brown pelicans after rehabilitation
shery: what have we learned? Pp. 107-136 in: Glanz, M.
and release. Marine Pollution 32:711-718.
H., and J. D. Thompson (eds.), Resource management and
Anderson, D. W., J. R. Jehl, Jr., R. W. Risebrough, L. A. environmental uncertainty: lessons from coastal upwelling
Woods, Jr., L. R. DeWeese, and W. G. Edgecomb. 1975. sheries. Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. 491 pp.
Brown pelicans: improved reproduction off the southern
Wahl, T. R., and D. Heinemann. 1979. Seabirds and
California coast. Science 190:806-808.
shing vessels: co-occurrences and attraction. Condor
Gress, F. 1995. Organochlorines, eggshell thinning, and 81:390-396.
productivity relationships in brown pelicans breeding in
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December, 2001
550
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 551
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
552
Appendix A:
Management tection of the resource, in order to apply these costs
Appendix A: Management Considerations
to the shery.
Considerations 6. A constituent involvement process that assists in eval-
uating the best uses of the resource. Such a process
would also enable information-exchange between the
DFG and interested parties.
This appendix of Management Considerations is pro- 7. An evaluation of the consequences of reoccupation of
vided for informational purposes only. These views, the sea otter into southern California waters.
submitted by the authors, do not necessarily represent
the views of either the California Department of Fish
Albacore
and Game or the California Fish and Game Commission,
and no endorsement of any of these views by these
Currently, North Pacic albacore sheries are not subject
agencies is implied.
to formal management measures, such as limited entry or
total catch restrictions for the commercial sheries, or
size or bag limits for the recreational sheries. However,
Abalone more structured management of the albacore population
is being considered by an international convention (Multi-
DFG’s goals for abalone include the recovery of the aba-
lateral High-Level Conference (MHLC) on the Conservation
lone resource throughout its historic range to sustainable
and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the
levels, pursuant to the mandates of legislation (Abalone
western and central Pacic Ocean) that includes nations
Recovery and Management Plan and the Marine Life Man-
that historically have supported sheries for the highly
agement Act).
migratory stocks of the Pacic Ocean. It is likely that
For reasons discussed above, many historic abalone shery
initial management approaches will include some form
management practices were ineffective in protecting the
of limited entry intended to minimize the detrimental
resource south of San Francisco. The state recognizes the
effects to the stock that commonly arise due to intensive
value and importance of abalone resources, and has made
shing over extended periods of time. One of the most
abalone recovery and management a high priority. Future
difcult tasks that the MHLC must address will be to
abalone management might likely include the following:
develop a strategic plan (research and management goals)
1. Marine protected areas that provide refuge and pro- for the North Pacic albacore stock that is applicable to
tection for breeding populations of abalones, and the population’s entire range. Such a plan must be sup-
other long lived, broadcast-spawning invertebrates. ported by each nation’s albacore management institution
Such areas need to have active and adequate enforce- and industry if it is to be successful.
ment. These areas are necessary early in the recov-
ery phase to enhance reproductive viability.
Angel Shark
2. Individual species management. The life history, hab-
itat needs, and population levels of each species
Though the angel shark shery is currently very minor
should be recognized and considered within the
in California (it is growing in Mexico), it can serve as a
framework of ecosystem management. Knowledge of
valuable case study of an emerging shery that grew to
the age class structure, frequency and rate of recruit-
be one of the most valuable elasmobranch sheries on the
ment, natural mortality rate, and growth is needed to
Pacic coast in the past 25 years. A number of shermen,
model the shery for each species and area.
both gill-netters and trawlers, who continue to harvest
3. Rapid response to environmental and human induced angel sharks, have expressed interest in working with DFG
stresses is needed to adjust or stop harvests when biologists to reassess the 1987 minimum size limit. They
unforeseen problems such as disease or unusual cli- cite the fact that the main angel shark habitat and popula-
matic events arise. tion centers have been protected by the Proposition 132
area closures for over six years and that the Marine Life
4. Fishery-independent data to determine the health
Management Act (MLMA) encourages “adaptive manage-
and sustainable harvest rate of the resource.
ment” to review and amend regulations if stocks improve.
5. An evaluation to identify the potential size of the
Participation of experienced shermen proved valuable
shery using biological data and an economic analysis
in the cooperative life history and population studies con-
to evaluate resource rent, i.e., the amount necessary
ducted on the research vessel Squatina in the 1980s and
to cover the cost of research, management, and pro-
the MLMA identies collaborative research as a priority
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 553
in obtaining cost-effective data for sheries management. opportunities. The length of time needed to rebuild the
Appendix A: Management Considerations
A future cooperative research study of the angel shark population depends on the frequency of rare large year
population could also shed light on the effectiveness of classes, but may require 40 years under conditions similar
a large “no-take” marine reserve, at least on this single to those seen in recent years.
resident species.
Further studies on the genetic variability of geographically
Bull Kelp
separated island and mainland stocks would provide
resource managers with valuable information in devel- In order to ensure a productive future for California’s
oping a sheries management plan. A review of the bull kelp resource and the species dependent on it, the
socio-economic impacts of the area closures on small following considerations are offered:
scale sheries, coastal communities, and local economies
1. Continue the present management system for the
could also provide managers with tools to assess the
300-series beds, including the harvest prohibition for
pros and cons of incorporating marine reserves in future
beds 303-307.
management strategies.
2. Modify the present 15 percent harvest-limit on the
The shing industry, university researchers, and resource
leasable 300-series beds to require distribution of
managers might seek to initiate a cooperative program
the harvest throughout the bed to minimize local
with Mexico to assure a sustainable angel shark
impacts.
shery that can continue to supply both Mexican and
3. Prohibit harvest of bull kelp in beds where the bull
U.S. markets.
kelp resource has been shown to be chronically dimin-
ished during the past several decades.
Barred Sand Bass 4. Encourage the use of alternative feeds, some of
which have already been developed for cultured spe-
This species seems to be a good candidate for the estab-
cies such as red abalone.
lishment of harvest refugia in some areas during peak
5. Fund more regular assessments and more research to
spawning times.
examine the impacts of various harvest strategies.
Bay Shrimp
Cabezon
The current lack of catch limits, closed seasons or
In recent years, federal groundsh management policy has
restricted areas is based upon the assumption that limited
resulted in drastic reductions in allowable take of many
demand for bay shrimp maintains effort at levels far below
groundsh species due to the overshed status of some
the level that would threaten long-term sustainability of
species such as lingcod, bocaccio, and canary rocksh.
the shery. Data is not available to test this assumption.
These reductions in turn have shifted effort to more lucra-
Because of this, the following measures are suggested:
tive markets, such as the live-sh shery. For bocaccio
1. Continue the compilation of bay shrimp logbook data
and canary rocksh, the efforts required to rebuild stocks
to get past and current catch per unit effort, as well
will restrict harvest levels for all associated species for
as maintaining logbook requirements for commercial
several years, so shing pressure on cabezon and other
shery participants.
nearshore groundsh species is not likely to decrease,
2. Monitor species composition in bay shrimp landings. and may increase further, without some intervention.
Currently, four species are known to be caught in the DFG developed interim management measures to further
shery with indications that a newly introduced fth address increasing demands on these nearshore sh popu-
species may also be of importance. Long-term shifts lations. Measures for cabezon include:
in species landed by the shery may be indicative of
1. An increase in the minimum size limit.
broader problems in the populations of each species.
2. A closed commercial and recreational shery during
spawning and nest guarding seasons.
Bocaccio In addition, the department is mandated to develop a
Nearshore Fishery Management Plan, which will include
Bocaccio have been managed under the Groundsh Man-
cabezon and may be adopted by the Fish and Game Com-
agement Plan of the Pacic Fishery Management Council
mission in January 2002.
since 1982. The bocaccio population is now under a formal
rebuilding program, requiring severe restrictions on shing
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
554
Calico Rockfish California Sheephead
Appendix A: Management Considerations
Calico rocksh are a minor component of commercial Implementation of the minimal size (12 inches) for the
rocksh landings in California, but they may comprise a sheephead may allow smaller females to reproduce prior
signicant portion of the undocumented bycatch of the to their entry to the shery. However, larger, more fertile
nearshore commercial sheries that target other nsh females are still at risk. Careful monitoring of catch and
or invertebrate species. The extent to which these near- effort data, if possible, is needed to allow early detection
shore shing operations increase calico rocksh mortality of a problem. A better understanding of reproduction
is not known and requires further study, including onboard would help set a more realistic minimum size limit.
observation and sampling of the bycatch of nearshore
commercial hook and line, trap, and trawl shing vessels
Coonstripe Shrimp
in southern and central California.
There is currently some onboard sampling of CPFVs in Information on biological parameters of coonstripe shrimp
California as part of the ongoing coastwide Marine Recre- off California is limited. A precautionary approach to man-
ational Fisheries Statistical Survey, but additional onboard agement should be employed until more is known about
sampling of CPFVs will be required to adequately assess the impacts of commercial harvest on this resource. Given
the mortality that is caused by sport anglers to calico this lack of knowledge, the following management mea-
rocksh stocks. Angler education and enforcement efforts sures should be considered:
to reduce the sport angler practice of high-grading would
1. Restrictions on access.
also help conserve the stocks of calico rocksh.
2. Limit the number of traps used by each sherman.
3. A season closure from November through April, during
California Barracuda the predominant egg-bearing period.
4. A mandatory logbook.
1. Establish equilateral regulations with Mexico based on
collaborative research. 5. Development of a shery dependent and independent
monitoring program to gather data on life history and
2. Maintain current commercial and recreational
population characteristics.
regulations.
6. Since sport harvest of this resource may increase in
the future, the issue of equitable allocation should be
California Corbina seriously considered.
1. Maintain the current sport sh regulations and the
ban on commercial take of corbina.
Coastal Cutthroat Trout
2. Ascertain size and age structure of populations.
Sportshing regulations in many waters have been
changed to catch-and-release, enabling sport shing to
California Halibut continue, at reduced harvest levels.
1. Catch and release regulations should be continued.
1. Maintain the current commercial and recreational
2. Data on abundance and distribution of coastal cut-
regulations.
throat trout should be collected in the context of
2. Protect nursery grounds in southern California’s
habitat conditions so that the relationship between
embayments and estuaries.
the sh and ecological processes can be understood.
3. Prohibit dredging operations in embayments and
3. Programs should implement conservation measures
estuaries during periods of peak abundance
and restoration of habitat to permit dispersal among
(March-May) of larval and newly settled halibut in
populations and different strains of coastal cutthroat.
southern California.
Dolphin
Continue to monitor the commercial and sport sheries
for catch and effort data. Work with the Pacic Fishery
Management Council to implement the Highly Migratory
Species Fishery Management Plan, which includes dolphin.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 555
Eel Grass Gaper Clam
Appendix A: Management Considerations
1. Carry out and maintain a comprehensive eelgrass Present sport bag limits for locations with large sport clam
inventory for the state. sheries seem adequate to protect the gaper clam popula-
tions in those areas and also in areas where declines in
2. Revise the Southern California Eelgrass Mitigation
populations have occurred. Population declines in other
Policy or develop and implement a new statewide
areas are most likely not caused by over-harvest since
eelgrass disturbance, avoidance, and mitigation policy
there remains a subtidal portion of the population that
that recognizes eelgrass as a vital living marine
acts as a spawning reserve. There are a number of reasons
resource whose presence is critical in nearshore
for reduced clammer success in formerly productive bay
food web.
and estuarine areas, including decreased tidal ushing
3. Evaluate the potential impacts of anticipated sea
and increased sedimentation reducing gaper clam habitat;
level rise and coastal erosion on remnant and re-
increased foraging on gaper clams within the range of
established eelgrass bed communities. Because the
southern sea otters; and environmental effects, both long-
natural, often gently sloping shorelines around many
term and those associated with shorter-term El Niño
of California’s bays have been replaced by revet-
events. Poor clammer success and take of small-sized
ments, a study of the potential loss of eelgrass habi-
clams tend to limit effort in areas where this occurs and
tat due to the lack of intertidal refuge from increased
should preclude the necessity of having a large number of
water depth and reduced light penetration should be
differing bag limits for gaper clams throughout the state.
undertaken. The results of such a study would then
be added to the analyses of potential impacts and
Geoduck Clam
preparations for the anticipated rise in sea level.
4. Include maintaining plant stock genetic diversity as
The present sport bag limit is adequate to protect the
an important parameter within mitigation-based eel-
resource from overharvest. In areas where foraging by sea
grass re-establishment requirements.
otters has reduced populations, the extremely low sport
take presents no threat to the populations, since reduced
Flatfish clam density usually leads to reduced clammer effort.
The author of the 1992 arrowtooth ounder assessment
Giant Kelp
recommended a conservative management approach,
especially until new data and models could estimate abso-
For the purpose of management, the kelp beds off Cali-
lute biomass and exploitation rates. Management of this
fornia represent more than just a single species of inter-
species falls under the jurisdiction of the Pacic Fishery
est. They represent an important nearshore ecosystem.
Management Council (PFMC). The Pacic halibut shery
Giant kelp forests provide essential habitat for a diverse
is regulated by the International Pacic Halibut Commis-
assemblage of marine shes and invertebrates and their
sion, made up of members from the United States and
loss would reduce the populations of many marine spe-
Canada. For the other minor atshes, the most recent
cies. Kelp forests are also important to sport and com-
recommendations of the Groundsh Management Team of
mercial shermen, kelp harvesters, recreational divers,
the PFMC suggest no change in the coastwide acceptable
photographers, and sightseers, and for their general aes-
biological catch.
thetic value. During the latter half of the 20th century,
Because of tighter restrictions on the primary federally-
throughout California and in southern California in par-
managed groundsh species (notably members of the
ticular, kelp forests have been subjected to increasing
Sebastes complex and lingcod), it is reasonable to assume
environmental stresses. Some are natural, such as the
that more shing effort may be placed on other species of
warm water El Niños. Other stresses are clearly the result
sh in the immediate future as shermen seek alternate
of human activity. These include sources of pollution and
sheries, including the minor atshes. If so, it is impera-
sedimentation resulting from coastal development and the
tive that this group of sh be included in shery manage-
increasing inuences of human population growth. While
ment plan development.
the causes of decline are complex and are masked by
seasonal uctuations, there is general agreement that
there is much less kelp along the southern California coast
than there was when we rst began conducting surveys,
shortly after the turn of the century.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
556
At least three areas of management offer some hope for bays and estuaries, a proactive management recommen-
Appendix A: Management Considerations
reversing this trend of decline: dation would continue to prohibit harvest of wild stocks of
Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis species at this time.
1. Reduce harvest rates of urchin predators. These
include California sheephead and spiny lobster. The
Southern sea otter may eventually return to southern
Grunion
California areas which would result in less dense pop-
ulations of urchins. Proactive investigations to enhance knowledge of this spe-
2. Coastwide kelp photographic ights should be cies for future management should include estimates of
increased. The causes for the apparent declines in relative abundance of spawning sh and human take along
kelp beds, particularly in southern California cannot the sandy beaches of the Southern California Bight. This
be thoroughly analyzed or understood without a would reveal trends in abundance, distribution, beach
better time series of data. Once gathered, the data preference, and shing mortality. On-site observations at
should be incorporated into a statewide Geographic several locations, over several nights of each run, could
Information System (GIS). A similar database should add quantitative data on abundance and human take.
be gathered on coastal development. Once estab- This information would be valuable for resource damage
lished the GIS should be frequently reviewed for evi- assessment in the event of widespread petroleum spills
dence of kelp bed damage tied to onshore activities. during the spawning season.
3. Provide additional substrate (constructed reefs) over The only current aspect of grunion management that
widespread areas for establishment of new kelp beds. should be a candidate for revision is the lack of a bag
These may also serve as spore sources for re-estab- limit. The case for establishing a bag limit is not based
lishment of former natural kelp communities. on current harvest rates but on the potential impact of
a constantly growing human population in California. A
nominal bag limit of, perhaps, 50 sh would not restrict
Giant Sea Bass current legitimate recreational harvesting but could serve
to prevent over harvest if grunion gathering became more
Although there has been recent interest in re-opening the
popular. A bag limit also is valuable to insure that sh
recreational giant sea bass shery, this does not seem
caught under the authority of a sport shing license are
prudent at this time given the lack of data and new
not being harvested in large quantities for illegal sale.
evidence that suggest high body burdens of DDE and PCB
in California giant sea bass. Research projects underway
Jack Mackerel
at this time are collecting detailed information on the
movement, habitat use and behavior of this species. In a
few years, we may have enough data to make informed The jack mackerel population can probably continue to
management decisions regarding giant sea bass. Current support the current level of shing exploitation, but it is
management measures should remain in place. difcult to predict the effects of increased exploitation,
due to the limited knowledge of the composition and
behavior of the older segment of the population and to
Gracilaria the limited knowledge of reproduction and recruitment in
jack mackerel. Under the CPS FMP, jack mackerel are a
Baseline data on the extent and density for Gracilaria and
monitored species unless landings exceed the ABC for two
Gracilariopsis in areas favorable for its growth are lacking.
years. Should jack mackerel become actively managed, it
Little is known about its ability to capture and recycle
will be important to know the contribution of older sh to
nutrients, its invertebrate associates, and its value as a
the population and shery.
food source for macrofauna, especially the various avian
species that over-winter in California’s bays and estuaries.
Kelp Bass
The California Fish and Game Code gives the commission
authority to make regulations to insure the proper har-
vesting of kelp or other aquatic plants. If the worldwide It may be time to explore new conservation measures such
market for Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis increases, the as increasing the size limit, imposing minimum and maxi-
pressure on the commission to open up more of Califor- mum size limits (slot shing), and/or promoting catch-and-
nia’s nearshore waters to wild stock harvesting of these release shing.
and other agar-bearing marine plants will likely increase.
However, until essential information is obtained on the
role these seaweeds play in the ecology of California’s
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 557
Louvar opah, it is difcult to determine the impacts of various
Appendix A: Management Considerations
sheries worldwide.
Biological requirements and worldwide distribution limit
the ability of local sheries to severely impact the louvar
Other Nearshore Rockfish
population. If a breeding or subpopulation is determined
to exist off the California coast, a level of awareness
Concerns are increasing due to increasing demand on
through proactive management could be utilized to pre-
a limited resource; commercial size limits, commercial
vent over shing and maintain optimum yield.
permits, and gear limitations have been implemented
to address these concerns. Recent changes in federal
Monkeyface Prickleback management of nearshore species have resulted in very
low allowable take, increasing the demand and thus the
Due to the relative low utilization of monkeyface prick- prices. DFG is currently mandated to develop a Nearshore
leback, specic management recommendations are not Fishery Management Plan (NFMP), which uses the best
considered at this time. However, in view of the unique available data, provides for signicant public involvement
and limited habitat which this species occupies, a reduc- in the process, and is peer-reviewed. The NFMP may
tion in number (from the existing 10-sh recreational bag be adopted by the Commission in January 2002. DFG
limit) and a minimum legal size (such as 14 inches) might has developed interim management measures to further
be appropriate in the future. Most individuals are taken protect this emerging shery. Interim measures included
in the intertidal zone or in very shallow water, and the control date for limited entry, reduced bag limits, season
survival rate for those returned to the water would be closures, gear limitations (rod and reel only), and adjust-
expected to be high. However, based on their mode of ment of size limits. Increased sampling of landings, educa-
feeding, hooking mortality might be a limiting factor and tion of buyers to use proper market categories, and more
would preclude a size limitation. shery-independent sampling to assess stocks adequately
are needed to effectively protect these resources.
Mussels
Pacific Bonito
Improving and maintaining the water quality of California’s
coastal and estuarine waters is the most critical manage- An assessed decline in bonito abundance coupled with a
ment issue affecting the continued survival of the mussel drastic reduction in the size of the sh harvested com-
industry. Both sport and commercial utilization of all of mercially, brought about a reduced bag limit and minimum
the state’s shellsh sheries is impacted by increasing size regulation in 1982. The status of the population
quantities of ocean-bound efuents produced by point and has not been re-assessed since then. Also, this species
non-point sources in many areas of the state. Community- is not covered under any current or proposed federal
based education programs beginning in elementary school shery management plan. Declines in both recreational
and emphasizing the linkages between our coastal water- and commercial landings in the 1990s indicate that this
sheds, urban and ocean environments, and human health species should be re-assessed and appropriate manage-
are a positive step in developing an informed public. DFG, ment actions be taken. Such actions might include the
the California Sea Grant Extension Program, California initiation of discussions between the U.S. and Mexican
Water Quality Control Board, National Marine Sanctuary governments on coordinating management of this trans-
Programs and several other public and private groups boundary stock.
have made progress in this effort, but persistence and
determination are needed to slow and reverse the loss of
Pacific Hake
our clean coastal waters.
Since implementation of the Fisheries Conservation and
Opah Management Act in the U.S. and the declaration of a
200-mile shery conservation zone in Canada in the late
Although commercial landings of opah are recorded by 1970s, annual quotas have been the primary management
the department, opah is not presently a target species tool used to limit the catch of Pacic hake in both zones
and their take is not managed. The impact of California by foreign and domestic sheries. The scientists from
landings on the species as a whole may be minimal, as both countries have collaborated through the Technical
the population is worldwide in temperate and tropical Subcomittee of the U.S.-Canada Groundsh Committee,
seas. However, since very little is known about the and there has been informal agreement on the adoption
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
558
of an annual shing policy. However, overall management the legislature, the commission was given manage-
Appendix A: Management Considerations
performance has been hampered by a long-standing dis- ment authority for the herring shery during the roe
agreement between the U.S. and Canada on the division shery’s second year. This allows the regulations to
of the acceptable biological catch (ABC) between U.S. and be changed on an annual basis and new issues to be
Canadian sheries. In 1991-1992, U.S. and Canadian man- addressed as they arise.
agers set quotas that summed to 128 percent of the ABC, 5. Director’s Herring Advisory Committee. This commit-
while in 1993-1998, the combined quotas were 112 percent tee was established to seek valuable industry input
of the ABC on average. Under the current management on shery-related matters.
impasse there is a potential for overshing of Pacic hake.
The department is striving to incorporate an ecosystem
The current management of hake and the composition of approach to management of its marine resources. The
the shery may be affected by growth of tribal sheries. harvest level used for Pacic herring to some extent takes
At present, only the Makah Tribe of western Washington into consideration this species’ role in the marine food
has initiated a shery. However, two other Washington web and its connection to environmental factors, but
tribes have stated an interest in entering the hake shery these relationships are not well understood. Most aspects
and NMFS has established preliminary quotas for these of herring biology and ecology are in need of further
tribes. Other coastal tribes may also qualify for entry into scientic research to improve existing herring manage-
the hake shery. Non-Indian shers are challenging alloca- ment and further incorporate an ecosystem approach.
tion of hake to treaty tribes, but denitive court rulings The Humboldt Bay and Crescent City spawning populations
on this matter have not yet been reached. need re-assessment and more frequent assessments in the
Hake remains the largest shery on the West Coast. With future to improve harvest levels. Herring spawning habitat
the recent declines in salmon and the low abundance requirements need to be better understood so that they
of rocksh, shermen engaged in these sheries are con- can be adequately protected.
cerned about the bycatch of these species in the hake One of the weakest aspects of current management is the
shery. The hake shery is one of the lowest bycatch inability to predict the number of two-year-old herring
sheries in the U.S., but even the relatively low bycatch that will recruit to the spawning population each year
of salmon and rocksh is a large portion of the current because this age group has the largest impact on spawning
low quotas for depleted salmon and rocksh. The hake population size. Research is needed to understand how
shery is currently faced with the challenge of developing environmental factors affect herring survival, particularly
shing practices to minimize bycatch to the lowest level during early life history stages, so that we may better
possible. predict year-class strength.
Stock assessments and quota management will also
Pacific Herring improve with better understanding of the distribution and
abundance of herring in the open ocean, and whether
In general, the current management strategy used for or not spawning populations are genetically distinct from
California’s herring sheries has proven to be effective each other.
because it allows the department and commission to inte-
grate new and comprehensive information. This strategy
Pacific Razor Clam
has several key components that have contributed to its
effectiveness over the years:
Current estimates for total catch and effort are needed
1. Conservative harvest levels. Since the inception of for the Crescent City beaches and especially Clam and
the roe shery, harvest quotas have been conserva- Moonstone beaches in the Eureka area. Little is known
tive and adjusted annually based on spawning popula- about the extent and importance of subtidal populations
tion assessments for Tomales and San Francisco bays. acting as brood stock for intertidal populations; depen-
2. Annual population assessments. Each year, DFG dance on these alone to repopulate the Eureka area
assesses the status of the state’s two largest spawn- beaches may be unwarranted. Closure of Clam and Moon-
ing populations (San Francisco Bay and Tomales Bay) stone beaches to intertidal take or reduction of the pres-
by collecting information on spawning biomass, age ent bag limit may increase the rate of recovery for these
structure, and other biological data. sheries. In other parts of the state, the present sport bag
limit appears to be adequate to protect the resource since
3. Limited entry. The expansion of the shery was care-
minimal digger effort is seen for razor clams.
fully controlled and has not increased since 1983.
4. Commission management authority. Unlike other
commercial sheries, which have been regulated by
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 559
Pismo Clam Red Rock Shrimp
Appendix A: Management Considerations
Since 1948, DFG has managed the recreational Pismo clam Information on the size and condition of the red rock
shery by the use of bag limits, size limits, closed seasons shrimp population in California is mostly anecdotal. For
and closed areas. In 1976, an invertebrate reserve (closed this reason, the resource should be managed cautiously
to the commercial and recreational take of any inverte- until its status is better understood. Fortunately, shing
brates) was established in the Pismo Beach area to study pressure has historically been light, with only a few sher-
the separate effects of recreational clamming and sea men involved, mostly along rock jetties and breakwaters.
otter foraging on the Pismo clam population. In 1979, In addition, these shrimp may have a low susceptibility to
sea otters were rst observed foraging on Pismo clams. trapping. Large numbers of shrimp have been observed
By 1982, beach surveys found few clams either inside or outside of traps while few, if any, were inside. In 1975,
outside of the invertebrate reserve. a small number of experimental traps were set in deeper
water (20 to 70 feet) at locations including reefs and rocky
1. There is no further need for the closed seasons or
shorelines. Red rock shrimp were known to be present
the ve-inch size limit in San Mateo, Santa Cruz
at these locations, based on diver observation, but for
or Monterey counties since there is no recreational
unknown reasons, no shrimp entered the traps. Traps have
clamming.
also been observed with many shrimp climbing on the
2. It is suggested that a 4.5-inch statewide size limit be
outside, but none entering the trap. These characteristics
adopted to simplify regulations.
make it unlikely that the shrimp could be widely, or
3. There is no further need for the invertebrate reserve excessively, harvested with current gear. Regardless, it
established in California Code of Regulations or the would be advisable to take the following precautions in
various Pismo clam closed areas (known as clam pre- managing this shery:
serves) because long term management of a rec-
1. Apply a closure during the egg-rearing period, most
reational shery in these areas is not likely to be
likely from May through July.
needed.
2. Regulate the size of openings in traps to allow small
shrimp (< one inch) to escape.
Purple Sea Urchin 3. Collect data from shermen including bycatch and
occurrence of females carrying eggs.
There are several gaps in basic knowledge concerning
purple sea urchins. Although there are scattered studies of
Red Sea Urchin
growth and survival in the literature, data have not been
gathered together and synthesized in a manner suitable
for setting harvest size limits. Studies of early growth The red sea urchin shery is fully exploited in California,
and survival up to an age of one year are few and and evidence from a variety of sources points to an over-
are needed to link settlement information with recruit- shed condition in northern and portions of southern
ment to the reproductive population. Linking sources of California. Management measures developed and imple-
larvae with sites of settlement has not been done and mented collaboratively with the industry (minimum size
is crucial to developing management plans that involve limits, restricted access, temporal closures) have not been
marine reserves. Because of ocean current patterns, not effective in reversing long-term declines in harvestable
every region of coastline can be considered to be a suit- stocks. The following management-related actions may be
able source of larvae for all marine species. Both shery- needed to reverse this condition:
dependent and -independent monitoring should continue 1. Expand existing shery-dependent and -independent
in order to assess changes in stock condition. Fishery monitoring programs. Logbook data needs to be col-
dependent monitoring of commercial landing levels and lected at a higher spatial resolution using GPS tech-
patterns should detect any trend toward large-scale har- nology. Fishery-independent needs to be expanded
vests that might require more specic management mea- to allow managers to assess density and size distri-
sures. At present, the most comprehensive shery inde- butions. Fishery-dependent monitoring will detect
pendent data consists of the long-term monitoring of set- trends in harvest, but is confounded by harvest
tlement patterns in northern and southern California. Con- levels, which are strongly affected by quality of
tinuing this monitoring should provide a measure of settle- urchin gonads and market conditions. Fishery-inde-
ment supply, and an early warning of possible adverse pendent monitoring will allow managers to assess
effects of harvesting on recruitment. abundance of size classes and poor quality urchins not
sampled within the shery. Continuation and expan-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
560
sion of long-term monitoring of settlement patterns is seek opportunities to diversify their shing activities.
Appendix A: Management Considerations
crucial to providing a relative measure of settlement The multi-species nature of the rock crab shery also
supply and should be continued and expanded. Re- presents a number of challenges to implementing biologi-
establishment of an industry-based revenue system cally meaningful management measures. Future manage-
would assist in funding these programs. ment activities, which should be considered to help insure
the future health of this resource and shery include:
2. Develop a science-based red sea urchin shery man-
agement plan for the Fish and Game Commission. 1. Establish a system for obtaining periodic shery-inde-
pendent data on rock crab abundance, species and
3. Conduct a capacity goal analysis. Consider reducing
size composition, recruitment patterns, and bycatch
the permit goal to below the present level of 300
characteristics.
divers and explore methods for accelerating the attri-
tion rate. 2. Begin to monitor the commercial shery for species
and size composition, geographic and temporal pat-
4. Continue to examine and consider the use of
terns in catch and effort, and bycatch characteristics.
spatial management techniques (i.e., marine pro-
tected areas, rotating harvest zones) in urchin man- 3. Investigate the need to establish a restricted access
agement. program for this shery.
5. Expand collaborative monitoring and research with 4. Explore gear modications to reduce bycatch.
industry participation.
The following management measures could be imple-
Rock Scallop
mented on an interim basis before a shery management
plan is in place: The rock scallop is a valuable marine resource to the sport
1. Establish and monitor a maximum size limit to accel- diver as well as a highly promising candidate for extensive
erate recovery of shed areas. A maximum size limit cultivation in the sea by new methods of aquaculture.
would be expected to protect animals with the great- There will be an increasing demand for hatcheries to
est spawning potential and enhance the survival of provide seed stock for population enhancement and for
juvenile urchins under the spine canopy. the developing aquaculture industry.
2. Establish regional management zones for northern
and southern California.
Salmon
3. Establish annual harvest quotas based on the ve-
year average annual catch. This measure could The major threat to California’s salmon resource is further
ensure that a sudden increase in demand, as occurred degradation and elimination of its freshwater and estua-
in the mid-1980s, does not drive stock levels below rine habitats. Restoration of inland spawning and rearing
their ability to recover. habitats and renegotiation of inland water management
policies, particularly in the Central Valley, must be pur-
sued if salmon production levels from naturally spawning
Ridgeback Prawn areas are ever to return to their former levels. Prudent
regulation of the sheries will be required to equitably
Recommendations for the management of ridgeback
distribute the available sh between the various ocean
prawns closely follow that of spot prawns. Current regula-
and in-river users and to meet spawning escapement
tions need to be evaluated for effectiveness. As men-
needs. To these ends, the California Department of Fish
tioned above, no population estimates are available for
and Game should:
ridgeback prawns in California; periodic assessments are
1. Continue its efforts to improve, restore, and enhance
necessary to determine whether the resource is robust
freshwater and estuarine habitats for salmon,
and able to support a continuing shery.
focusing on:
a. Screening of water diversions
Rock Crabs b. Abatement of pollution sources, chemical and
thermal
The rock crab shery is currently one of the few remaining
signicant nearshore sheries not subject to some form c. Reductions in siltation and gravel compaction
of restricted access limitation. Present open access and levels
relatively low capital requirements for entry could result d. Elimination of gravel removal operations in
in large increases in effort for rock crabs as shermen important spawning and rearing areas
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 561
Sea Cucumber
e. Reduction of vegetation encroachment into
Appendix A: Management Considerations
major spawning areas
The dive and trawl sheries target different species. In
f. Maintenance of suitable stream ows and tem-
order to manage these sheries, it is important to know
peratures
the quantities of each species taken. Presently, both the
g. Control of diseases, particularly bacterial kidney
dive and trawl landings of sea cucumber are lumped on
disease in hatcheries.
commercial landing receipts under a single code for “sea
2. Support studies to differentiate races of salmon, par- cucumbers, unspecied.” It is recommended that:
ticularly in the Central Valley, where winter chinook
1. Individual species codes be assigned to both the Cali-
and spring chinook are severely depressed.
fornia and warty sea cucumber. The logbook data
3. Develop and implement plans addressing habitat also should be coded to species. This is especially
and shery management to reverse the status of important for dive logbooks, because it is possible for
depleted salmon stocks, winter-run and spring-run divers to target either species depending on where in
in particular. the state they are shing.
4. Investigate the feasibility of constructing a salmon 2. Limited entry regulations for the two sheries be
(and steelhead) hatchery within the San Joaquin maintained.
basin to produce study sh needed to evaluate delta
3. Effort is needed to collect the eld data necessary
water management strategies.
to perform stock assessments and generate biomass
5. Continue to work with the Klamath Fishery Manage- estimates for both the warty and California sea
ment Council in negotiating harvest sharing agree- cucumber. The biological, catch, effort and catch per
ments between ocean and river user groups, devel- unit effort parameters derived from logbook data
oping methods of adjusting sheries on an a real would be used to model the impact of different levels
time basis, and rening stock projection and shery of shing intensity.
models.
4. Fishery-independent, as well as the shery-depen-
6. Support studies to compare hooking mortality rates dent, information is needed to properly manage this
following release for sublegal and out-of-season shery. Video surveys of shed areas, to compare
salmon caught by trolling and mooching. with unshed areas, should be conducted.
7. Operate hatcheries and rearing facilities and conduct 5. Closed areas may need to be established to serve as
sh stocking practices responsibly to minimize effects controls in order to evaluate the impact of harvests
on natural production. on abundance in open areas.
6. Finally, if the limited entry restrictions do not ade-
quately limit the take of sea cucumbers to sustain-
Sand Crab able levels, additional management options, such as
individual or area quotas, may need to be considered.
Not all beaches are suitable for sand crab survival through
the winter and must be colonized annually. For this
reason, regulation of the shery should focus on smaller
Sheep Crab
management areas such as the Santa Monica Bay in south-
ern California, where most of the historic catch has been
The sheep crab shery is presently unregulated. Addi-
taken.
tional biological information, including a better under-
standing of physiological and behavioral reproduction, is
needed for the development of sound management poli-
Scorpionfish cies. Nevertheless, limited recommendations can be made
based on certain biological characteristics of the sheep
Because there has been no assessment of California scor-
crab.
pionsh numbers, it may be prudent to set conservative
quotas on both the recreational and commercial catches, 1. The sheep crab undergoes a terminal molt upon
in order to forestall the collapses seen in many other reaching adulthood. Thus, the adult claws will not
California sheries. regenerate once removed indicating the claw shery
utilizes a non-renewable resource.
2. The terminal molt, as well as other characteristics,
also has implications for management of the live,
whole body shery. For example, size limits would
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
562
Skates and Rays
likely need to include both an upper and lower limit,
Appendix A: Management Considerations
leaving the largest and smallest crabs to mate so as to
The continued removal of large numbers of skates and
maintain recruitment and intermediate sizes, as well
rays without additional management would be ill advised.
as to protect large juvenile males which overlap in
More data are needed to produce an effective man-
size with the adults.
agement plan for the species involved. The information
3. Protection of seasonal spawning aggregations may
needed includes:
need to be incorporated into a management plan for
1. Landing data on size, sex, and species composition of
this species.
the sport and commercial catch.
4. Use of abrasion stages may also provide a good
2. Survival rates for released catch.
tool for management. However, duration of the
various abrasion stages and their association with 3. Life history parameters for many of the species
gonadal development and reproductive success needs involved.
to be determined before considering this manage-
4. Population dynamics including species movements.
ment strategy.
All of this information will help determine if
increased landings of previously discarded catch are
Shortfin Mako altering the impact to the species involved.
5. With skate landings increasing in California, Oregon,
The shortn mako’s uncertain status calls for increased and Washington, it would be advisable to coordinate
investment in shery-dependent and -independent management among the three states.
research. Population assessments are needed, which
require more research on shing mortality, demographics,
Skipjack Tuna
stock structure, and abundance. The state might consider
reinstatement of its volunteer pelagic shark-tagging pro-
Since skipjack tuna in the Pacic are considered under
gram. This program has provided information on the
shed, management is not being considered. However,
migration paths, biology, and ecology of mako sharks.
because skipjack tuna in the eastern Pacic are caught
Satellite pop-up tags may also prove useful in determining
with yellown tuna, many of the recommended manage-
the distribution and biology of adult mako sharks.
ment measures applied to yellown tuna may impact skip-
jack tuna. Some of these include reduction of effort
Silversides levels and reducing shing on schools associated with
drifting objects to minimize bycatch and the catches of
The only current aspect of topsmelt and jacksmelt man- small tunas.
agement that might be a candidate for revision is the lack
of a bag limit. The case for establishing a bag limit is
Spiny Lobster
not based on current harvest rates, but on the potential
impact of a constantly growing human population in Cali-
The limited entry program has had some benecial
fornia. A nominal bag limit of, perhaps, 30 topsmelt (which
results. An active shermen’s organization, the California
are commonly used for game sh bait), including jacksmelt
Lobster and Trap Fishermen’s Association, worked with
in a general provision such as “20 sh, no more than 10
the department to develop the current management
of any one species,” would not restrict current legitimate
program. In addition to formalizing a trap retrieval pro-
recreational harvesting but would serve to prevent over-
gram for traps washed into the surf or onto the beach,
harvest if shing for these species became more popular.
the trappers regularly participate in the commission
A bag limit also is valuable to insure that sh caught
process to resolve industry problems or improve the
under the authority of a sport shing license are not being
current regulations.
harvested in large quantities for illegal sale.
The current logbook system needs to maintained, and
a program needs to be initiated to determine the recre-
ational take of spiny lobster. A formal review of the
current limited access program should be scheduled to
address issues such as permit transferability until a shery
management plan is produced.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 563
Spot Prawn tion of access to historical habitats that are still suitable
Appendix A: Management Considerations
but blocked by dams.
The spot prawn shery has undergone signicant growth In 1999, the department implemented the north coast
in the last 10 years in terms of the total pounds landed, steelhead research and monitoring project to obtain infor-
numbers of participants and vessels. This pressure is not mation on status and life history of north coast steelhead
likely to ease given the worldwide demand for shrimp and stocks. A similar effort is needed for the Central Valley
prawn as well as the displacement of shermen from other and south coast. More steelhead focused research and
sheries such as the groundsh shery along the Pacic monitoring is needed to provide the necessary information
Coast and from the spot prawn shery in Washington. to facilitate the recovery these stocks.
Given these issues, the following management measures
should be considered:
Striped Marlin
1. Limited entry for both the trap and trawl eet.
2. Development of a coastwide spot prawn geographic All Pacic billsh resources will soon be covered under
information system (GIS) database, which would iden- new international conventions and a federal management
tify historic and current shing areas as well as pre- plan for highly migratory species is currently being drafted
ferred habitats. for the Pacic Fishery Management Council. These man-
3. Coastwide sheries-independent population survey of agement groups provide a great opportunity for effective
the spot prawn resource. long-term management and conservation of striped marlin
and other highly migratory species. However, stock assess-
4. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the current man-
ments for striped marlin are badly out of date and in
agement scheme.
need of re-examination. New assessments should include
5. Evaluation and establishment of a minimum and/or
current shery statistics, a clear denition of geographical
maximum roller gear size-limit.
limits, better understanding of age, growth and repro-
ductive status, better indices of abundance and evalua-
tion of the effectiveness of catch and release in the
Spotfin Croaker recreational sheries.
1. Maintain the current sport sh regulations and the
ban on commercial take of spotn croaker.
Swordfish
2. Protect and enhance available bay and nearshore
habitats. Current assessments are based on old, incomplete
and sometimes inaccurate data. New assessments using
3. Collect more complete data on age, growth and
updated and standardized shery statistics are necessary
maturity.
to determine stock condition and to validate existing
4. Ascertain size and age structure of populations.
levels for MSY. International and domestic conventions
are currently being developed to improve reporting of
shery statistics from all shing nations. These interna-
Spotted Sand Bass tional management authorities need to establish com-
prehensive assessments to ensure precautionary exploi-
Since they are not specically targeted as a food sh and
tation, allocation, and conservation of the Pacic
are mostly caught by recreational anglers adopting a catch
swordsh resource.
and release policy might prove benecial to this species.
Steelhead
Steelhead are rarely caught in the ocean and state laws
and regulations require they be released. The manage-
ment challenges for this species are almost exclusively
in inland waters. In 1996, the Steelhead Restoration
and Management Plan for California was published which
identied the goals and objectives for management and
research needs. The primary management focus for the
department recovery of imperiled populations is through
the restoration of freshwater habitat, particularly restora-
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
564
Smelts Wakasagi
Appendix A: Management Considerations
Additional research is recommended in order to monitor
the potential expansion of wakasagi distribution. The
Delta Smelt
impacts of wakasagi expanding its range into southern
Since the delta smelt was listed as a threatened species,
California are unknown.
modications to provide better habitat conditions as well
as restrictions on the timing and amounts of diversions
Whitebait Smelt
from the estuary have been instituted. Large-scale habitat
Since very little is known about the life history of this
restoration projects to improve spawning and rearing habi-
species, any research or information would add greatly
tat have also been planned. Monitoring of the population
to our understanding. Smelt catches should be constantly
as well as research designed to determine mechanisms
examined for the presence of this species.
affecting abundance are needed to evaluate the success
or failure of these modications.
Washington Clam
Eulachon
The eulachon populations in California need investigation The greatest take of Washington clams occurs in Humboldt
in order to evaluate the status of these populations. It Bay and with the present level of effort unlikely to
is unknown whether a shery for this fascinating sh can increase greatly. The current combination of Washington
be restored. and gaper clam bag limits appears to be adequate. The
present sport bag limits for the rest of the state also
Longn Smelt appear to be adequate at this time to protect Washington
and butter clams from over-harvest.
Abundance trends of longn smelt should be closely moni-
tored since freshwater outows out of San Francisco Bay
estuary are highly regulated and other coastal estuaries
Wavy Turban Snails
are highly modied.
Further development of the shery should follow proce-
Night Smelt
dures for emerging sheries under the Marine Life Man-
The shery for night smelt appears to be stable or increas- agement Act. Thus, the department should identify and
ing; however the shery is in fact poorly regulated and monitor new emerging sheries and notify the commission
monitored. Fisheries independent sampling, as suggested of such sheries. The commission can then adopt regula-
earlier, can verify whether apparent increases in shing tions that limit taking in the shery until a shery man-
effort are over-exploiting the resource. An evaluation agement plan is adopted and/or direct the department
of the recreational impacts on spawning beaches should to prepare a shery management plan for the shery and
be done. regulations necessary to implement the plan.
Recommended interim regulations, based on current best
Surf Smelt
scientic knowledge and slow growth rates, include:
The apparent shift from surf smelt to night smelt as the
1. A minimum legal size of four inches in shell diameter.
most common smelt in the commercial shery may reect
2. A fall and winter shing season.
changes in effort or methods; however, the shery should
be monitored much more closely. Fisheries-independent 3. A temporary cap on the number of shery partici-
sampling would also verify changes in abundance irrespec- pants.
tive of changes in shing effort. Any additional informa-
4. Closed areas for study where snails can not be shed.
tion, especially on life stages where little or no informa-
These interim regulations could be implemented while
tion is known, would greatly add to our understanding of
the department is developing and evaluating a shery
surf smelt biology.
management plan and conducting population monitoring.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 565
White Croaker Yellowfin croaker
Appendix A: Management Considerations
There are currently no limitations on catches of white 1. Retain current status as a recreational resource only
croaker off California, with the exception of a small no- and existing bag limit of 10 sh.
take zone off Palos Verdes. Future management consider- 2. Collect basic life history information such as age and
ations should include continual monitoring of the popula- growth, size at rst maturity, and fecundity.
tion size and the status of contaminant levels in areas of
concern.
Yellowtail
Yellowfin Tuna Given the current status of the yellowtail population,
and recent enactment of a minimum size limit for sport
The current IATTC management objective for yellown caught sh, no further management measures are needed
tuna in the eastern Pacic is to maintain the stock at to protect the stock.
levels capable of producing the average MSY. To attain this
objective, the IATTC continues to recommend an annual
catch quota. Future management issues for yellown tuna
in the eastern Pacic will also include capacity reductions
to maintain or reduce effort levels and reduced shing on
drifting objects to minimize the catches of small tunas
and bycatch.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
566
Appendix B:
Glossary Beam trawl - A conical-shaped net held open by an hori-
Appendix B: Glossary
zontal beam. At each end of the beam are iron frame-
works that hold the net open in a vertical direction.
Benthic - Of, relating to, or occurring at the bottom of a
ABC - See Acceptable Biological Catch.
body of water (including the ocean).
Abyss - The deepest part of the ocean.
Berried - Bearing eggs.
Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC)- A term used by a
Bight - A name for the water body found abutting a large
management agency which refers to the range of allow-
indentation in the coast. A bight is less enclosed than
able catch for a species or species group. It is set each
a bay.
year by a scientific group created by the management
agency. The agency then takes the ABC estimate and Billfishes - The family of fish that includes marlins, sailfish
sets the annual total allowable catch (TAC). and spearfish.
Advection - Horizontal or vertical movement of water. Bioaccumulation - The build-up over time of substances
(like metals) that cannot be excreted by an organism.
Allele - One of several variants of a gene that can occupy
a locus on a chromosome. Biomass - The total weight or volume of a species in a
given area.
Allozyme - A variant of an enzyme coded by a different
allele. Biosystematics - The study of relationships with refer-
ence to the laws of classification of organisms; tax-
Amphipod - Laterally compressed, planktonic or benthic
onomy.
crustaceans.
Biota - Refers to any and all living organisms and the
Anadromous - Fish that migrate from saltwater to fresh
ecosystems in which they exist.
water to spawn.
Biotoxin - Substances produced by organisms that can
Anaerobic - Living in the absence of oxygen.
seriously impair living processes and in some cases
Angler - A person catching fish or shellfish with no intent
cause death.
to sell. This includes people releasing the catch.
Bioturbation - Disturbance of soft sediments by the move-
Annuli - Annual variations in the pattern of growth rings
ments and feeding activities of infauna (animals that live
on fish scales.
just beneath the surface of the sea bed).
Aquaculture - The raising of fish or shellfish under some
Bivalve - A mollusk with the shell divided into two halves;
controls. Feed and ponds, pens, tanks, or other con-
e.g. clams, mussels.
tainers may be used. A hatchery is also aquaculture,
Brachiopod - A bivalve mollusk distinguished by having,
but the fish are released before harvest size is reached.
on each side of the mouth, a long spiral arm, used to
Artisanal fishery - Commercial fishing using traditional or
obtain food.
small scale manually-operated gear and boats.
Brackish water - Water of reduced salinity resulting from a
Ascidiacea - See Tunicate.
mixture of freshwater and seawater.
Bag limit - The number and/or size of a species that a
Brail net - A small dip net used to scoop out portions
person can legally take in a day or trip. This may or may
of the catch from the main net and haul these portions
not be the same as a possession limit.
aboard. Brail nets are used to transfer tuna, salmon,
Baitboat - Refers to a vessel that fishes with live bait. and sometimes menhaden from the purse seine to the
Examples of target catch for baitboats include albacore boat’s hold.
and other tunas.
Broken and burnt otolith method - Otoliths are broken
Baleen - A specialized plate of horny material used by and burned, revealing more accurate information about
some species of whales (Mysticetes) to filter-feed. the age of a fish.
Barbel - A slender flesh “chin whisker” found in many Bryozoa - A group of sessile colonial animals that are
kinds of fishes. Barbels function primarily as sensory colonial invertebrates and live on hard surfaces.
organs for locating food.
Bycatch - The harvest of fish or shellfish other than the
Bathymetry - The science of measuring depths in the species for which the fishing gear was set. Bycatch is
ocean. also often called incidental catch. Some bycatch is kept
Batoid - A skate or ray. for sale.
CEQA - California Environmental Quality Act.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 567
CPFV - Commercial passenger fishing vessel. Cilia - Hair-like structures used for locomotion, and in
Appendix B: Glossary
some species, for feeding.
CPS - Coastal pelagic species.
Cladogenesis - The branching of an ancestral lineage to
CPUE - See Catch Per Unit of Effort.
form equal sister taxa (species, genera, families, etc.).
Calanoid copepod - A crustacean zooplankton that has a
Cladocera - Planktonic crustacea with a bivalved outer
barrel-shaped body, is found in all oceans of the world,
skeleton.
and is an important food source for many fishes.
Clupeid - A member of the Clupeidae family of fishes.
Calcareous - Made of calcium carbonate.
Clupeids include herrings, shads, sardines, and menha-
Capelin - A small silvery fish, most common in the North
den. They can be readily recognized by their keeled
Atlantic.
(sawtooth) bellies and silvery, deciduous scales.
Caridean - An infraorder of the decapod crustaceans.
Codend - The end of a trawl net. Fish are eventually
Examples include many shrimps and prawns.
pushed into the codend as the net is dragged along.
Catadromous - Refers to fish that migrate from fresh
Cohort - A group of fish spawned during a given period,
water to saltwater to spawn.
usually within a year.
Catch - The total number or poundage of fish captured
Coliform - A bacteria commonly associated with food poi-
from an area over some period of time. This includes
soning.
fish that are caught but released or discarded instead
Community - An ecological unit composed of the various
of being landed. The catch may take place in an area
populations of micro-organisms, plants, and animals that
different from where the fish are landed. Note that
inhabit a particular area.
catch, harvest, and landings are different terms with
different definitions. Congener - A member of the same genus.
Catch Per Unit of Effort (CPUE) - The number of fish Convergence - The contact at the sea surface between
caught by an amount of effort. Typically, effort is a two water masses converging, one plunging below
combination of gear type, gear size, and the length of the other.
time gear is used. Catch per unit of effort is often Copepod - A group of small planktonic, benthic or parasitic
used as a measurement of relative abundance for a crustaceans. Copepods that spend their entire life in
particular fish. the water column are usually the numerically dominant
Caudal fin - Tail fin. group of zooplankton captured by nets in most marine
areas.
Caudal peduncle - The tapered, posterior fleshy part of a
fish just in front of the tail fin. Coriolis effect - The deflection of air or water bodies,
relative to the solid earth beneath, as a result of the
Cephalopod - Organisms belonging to the phylum Mol-
earth’s eastward rotation.
lusca that are nearly always carnivorous and are charac-
terized by complex behavior, a well-organized nervous Creel - A container used by anglers to hold fish.
system, a circle of grasping arms, and a powerful beak. Crustacean - A group of freshwater and saltwater animals
Examples include squid and octopus. having no backbone, with jointed legs and a hard shell
Cetacean - A member of the order of marine mammals made of chitin. Includes shrimp, crabs, lobsters, and
that includes whales, porpoises, and dolphins. crayfish.
Chimaera - A member of a group of bottom-dwelling, Ctenophore - Gelatinous zooplankton having eight longi-
invertebrate-feeding fishes. Distinctive characteristics tudinal rows of fused cilia (‘ctenes’) used in swimming.
include an operculum that covers four gill openings, an Cultch - Material (as oyster shells) laid down on oyster
upper jaw fused to the skull, teeth consisting only of a grounds that furnish points of attachment for the
few large, flat plates, and no scales. young oyster.
Chitin - A horny substance forming the hard part of the Cycloid - A round, flat, and thin fish scale found on fish
outer skeleton of crustacea. such as trout, minnow, and herring.
Chiton - Mollusks found commonly on hard substrates that Davit - A fixed or movable crane that projects over the side
are ovalshaped and flattened, have eight dorsal plates of a boat or over a hatchway. It is used for hauling nets,
which cover the dorsal mantle, and are herbivores. anchors, boats or cargo.
Chum - To attract fish to a hook by throwing whole or Demersal - Describes fish and animals that live near
chopped fish or shellfish into the water. water bottoms. Examples of demersal fish are flounder
and croaker.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
568
Density - dependent factors - Factors, such as resource Epipelagic zone - The upper region of the sea from the
Appendix B: Glossary
availablilty, that vary with population density. surface to about 200-300 meters depth.
Depuration - Cleansing of bivalve shellfish by moving Epiphyte - A plant that grows on another plant.
them from polluted waters to clean waters. Epipodium - A ridge or fold in the lateral edges of each
Detritivore - An organism that feeds on detritus. side of the foot of certain gastropod mollusks.
Detritus - Any loose material produced directly from rock Escapement - The percentage of fish in a particular fish-
disintegration. ery that escape from an inshore habitat and move off-
shore, where they eventually spawn.
Diatom - One-celled phytoplankton with an external skel-
eton of silica. Estuary - A partially enclosed body of water having a free
connection with the open sea; within it salt water and
Dinoflagellate - Unicellular plankton having two flagella
fresh water mix.
and, in some species, a cellulose test.
Etiology - All the causes of a disease or abnormality.
Doliolaria - The second stage of the echinoderm (which
include starfish and sea urchins) larvae. Euphausiid - Shrimplike crustaceans that spend their
entire lives in the sea; “krill”.
Dorsal fin - An unpaired fin on the dorsal or upper side of
the body, between the head and the tail. Extirpation - Situation when something is no longer
present.
Dory - A flat-bottomed boat with high flaring sides, a sharp
bow, and a deep V-shaped transom. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) - The region from 3-200
nautical miles searward of the 48 contiguous states,
Downwelling - The sinking of water.
Alaska, Hawaii, and U.S.-affiliated islands. The U.S.
Drum seine - Similar to a purse seine but the seine is
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regulates
stored on a large drum mounted at the stern. The drum
fisheries within this area.
is particularly successful in handling shallow nets.
Ex-vessel - Refers to activities that occur when a commer-
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency.
cial fishing boat lands or unloads a catch. For example,
ESA - Endangered Species Act. the price received by a captain for the catch is an ex-
vessel price.
Ecosystem - A group of organisms that interact among
themselves and with their nonliving environment FL - See Fork Length.
Effort - The amount of time and fishing power used to Falcate - Shaped like a sickle.
harvest fish. Fishing power includes gear size, boat
Fathom - A unit of measurement. One fathom equals six
size, and horsepower.
feet or 1.83 meters.
Ekman circulation - Movement of surface water at an
Filter feed - See Suspension Feed.
angle from the wind, as a result of the Coriolis effect.
Finfish - A common term to define fish as separate from
El Niño - Condition in which warm surface water
shellfish.
moves into the eastern Pacific, collapsing upwelling and
Fingerling - A term commonly used for any juvenile fish,
increasing surface-water temperatures and precipitation
most commonly used for a life stage in trout and salmon.
along the west coast of North and South America.
A fingerling is the stage after fry and before smolt.
Elasmobranch - Describes a group of fish without a hard
Finlet - Small fins located posterior to the anal and dorsal
bony skeleton, including sharks, skates, and rays.
fins. Examples are found in the mackerels (family
Electrophoresis - A method of determining the genetic
Scombridae).
differences or similarities between individual fish or
Fishery - All the activities involved in catching a species of
groups of fish by using tissue samples.
fish or group of species.
Embayment - Formation of a bay. Also, the portion of
Fishery-dependent - Describes data about fish resources
water or coast that forms a bay.
collected by sampling commercial and recreational
Endangered species - A classification under the Endan-
catches.
gered Species Act. A species is considered endangered
Fishery-independent - Describes data about fish
if it is in danger of extinction throughout a significant
resources collected by methods other than sampling
portion of its range.
commercial and recreational catches. An example of
Entrainment - Mixing of salt water into fresh water, as in
such a method is sampling in marine reserves.
an estuary.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 569
Food chain - A linear sequence of organisms in which Green mud - Greenish sand deposits in which glauconite
Appendix B: Glossary
each is food for the next member in the sequence. is abundant.
Food web - A network describing the feeding interactions Groundfish - A species or group of fish that lives most of
of the species in an area. its life on or near the sea bottom.
Fork length - The length of a fish as measured from the tip Gurdy - Spool used in trolling upon which the fishing line is
of its snout to the fork in the tail. wound. The gurdies are usually powered, but on some
of the smaller boats, like salmon dories, they are often
Front - A major discontinuity separating ocean currents
hand-operated.
and water masses in any combination.
Haplosporidian - A member of the phylum Haplosporidia,
Fully utilized - Situation when the amount of fishing effort
which contains spore-forming parasitic protists. One
used is about equal to the amount needed to achieve
member of this group, Haplosporidium nelsoni, also
the LTPY.
called MSX disease, has recently caused widespread
Gaff - A pole with a large hook at its end.
disease in Crassostrea virginica, the eastern oyster, on
Galactans - Plant polysaccharides. Examples are agar- the U.S. east coast.
agar and carrageenan.
Haplotype - A set of genes that determines different anti-
Gamete - An egg or a sperm. gens but are closely enough linked to be inherited as
a unit.
Gammarid - A member of the suborder Gammaridea and
the order Amphipoda. Distinctive gammarid characteris- Haptera - Basal outgrowths that form part of a holdfast.
tics include that the first segment of the thorax is fused
Harvest - The total number or poundage of fish caught
to the head and that they live in salt water, fresh water,
and kept from an area over a period of time. Note that
and tropical forests. An example is the beach hopper.
landings, catch and harvest are different.
Gastropod - A member of the class Gastropoda. Gastro-
Heterosis - Segmentation in which the parts are different.
pods have a flattened foot, usually a cap-shaped or
Also, the tendency of cross-breeding to produce an
coiled shell, a mouth apparatus known as a radula,
animal or plant with a greater hardiness and capacity for
and are characterized by a twisting of the body,
growth than either of the parents; hybrid vigor.
known as torsion. Examples include limpets, whelks,
Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female
and periwinkles.
organs.
Gastrula - A stage in the development of a fertilized egg.
Histology - A branch of anatomy that deals with the
Gel chromatography - A method for comparing DNA or
minute structure of animal and plant tissues as discern-
genes of different organisms.
ible with a microscope.
Genetic introgression - The transfer of a small amount
Holdfast - The rootlike structure at the base of an alga that
of genetic material from one (usually plant) species to
attaches to rocky substrate.
another as a result of hybridization between them and
Hydroacoustics - Sound waves travelling through water.
repeated back-crossing.
Hydrography - The arrangement and movement of bodies
Ghost fishing - Situation when abandoned fishing gear
of water, such as currents and water masses.
continues to catch organisms.
Hydroid - Benthic colonial cnidarians (a phylum that
Gillnet - A curtainlike net suspended in the water with
includes jellyfish, sea anemones and corals), some of
mesh openings large enough to permit only the heads of
which produce free-swimming jellyfish.
the fish to pass through, ensnaring them around the gills
when they attempt to escape. INPFC - International North Pacific Fisheries Commission.
Gill rakers - Bony, tooth-like structures on the anterior IWC - International Whaling Commission.
edges of gill arches. Used for protection or for straining Immunodiffusion - Any of several techniques for obtain-
out food. ing a precipitate between an antibody and its specific
Gonad - Animal organs which produce gametes (eggs antigen. One technique is to suspend one in a gel and
or spermatazoa). Female gonads are ovaries; male letting the other migrate through it from a well; another is
gonads are testes. to let both antibody and antigen migrate through the gel
from separate wells to form an area of precipitation.
Gonosomatic index - The ratio of the weight of a fish’s
eggs or sperm to its body weight. The index is used to Intertidal - Between the high and low tide marks and
dermine the spawning time of a species of fish. periodically exposed to air.
Gravid - Heavy with eggs or young.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
570
Isopods - An order of crustaceans characterized by a Long-term potential yield - The maximum long-term
Appendix B: Glossary
small flattened bodies, sessile eyes, and both benthic average yield that can be achieved through conscien-
and planktonic species. tious stewardship, by controlling the proportion of the
population removed by harvesting by regulating fishing
Isotherm - An imaginary line passing through points on
effort or total catch levels.
the earth’s surface having the same mean temperature.
Lunate - Refers to the caudal fin shape that is indented
Jetty - A rocky structure constructed from land into the sea
and looks like a crescent.
to protect shore-based property.
MLMA - Marine Life Management Act.
Jig - An artificial lure made to simulate live bait. It is
usually made with a lead head cast on a single hook and MLPA - Marine Life Protection Act.
is heavier than most other lures. MMPA - Marine Mammal Protection Act.
Juvenile - A young fish or animal that has not reached MRFSS - Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey.
sexual maturity.
MSY - See Maximum Sustainable Yield.
Keystone species - A species that maintains community
Macrophyte - A plant that is large enough to be seen with
structure through its feeding activities, and without which
the naked eye.
large changes would occur in the community.
Mariculture - The raising of marine finfish or shellfish
Knot - A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour
under some controls. Feed and ponds, pens, tanks
(approximately 51 centimeters per second).
or other containers may be used. A hatchery is also
LTPY - Long-term potential yield. mariculture but the fish are released before harvest size
La Niña - An episode of strong trade winds and unusually is reached.
low sea surface temperature in the central and eastern Maturity - The age at which reproduction is possible.
tropical Pacific. The antithesis of El Nino.
Maximum sustainable yield - The largest average catch
Lampara net - An encircling net (similar to purse seine yet that can be taken continuously (sustained) from a stock
that does not close completely) used in shallow water. under average environmental conditions. This is often
Landing - The number or poundage of fish unloaded at used as a management goal.
a dock by commercial fishermen or brought to shore by Mean - The sum of the data divided by the number of
recreational fishermen for personal use. Landings are pieces of data; the average.
reported at the points at which fish are brought to shore.
Median - Within a data set, the median is the the number
Note that landings, catch, and harvest define different
that divides the bottom 50% of the data from the top
things.
50%.
Lateen - A sailing rig used by early salmon fishing vessels
Megalopa - A larval stage of crabs that follow the zoea
off California.
stages.
Leader - A length of monofilament or wire that connects
Meristem - The point or region from which active growth
the main fishing line to the hook used for capturing fish.
takes place.
Limited entry - A program that changes a common prop-
Mesohaline - A zone of water from 1.8% salinity to .5%
erty resource like fish into private property for individual
salinity.
fishermen. License limitation and the individual transfer-
Mesopelagic - A somewhat arbitrary depth zone in off-
able quota (ITQ) are two forms of limited entry.
shore or oceanic waters, usually below 600 feet and
Limiting factor - A factor primarily responsible for deter-
above 3,000 (200-1000 meters).
mining the growth and/or reproduction of an organism
Metric ton - 2200 pounds.
or a population. The limiting factor may be a physical
factor (such as temperature or light), a chemical factor Midden - A refuse heap left by prehistoric Native Ameri-
(such as a particular nutrient), or a biological factor cans, usually marking campsites.
(such as a competing species). The limiting factor may
Milt - A term for the sperm of fish such as salmon, trout,
differ at different times and places.
and herring.
Limnology - The study of freshwater ecosystems, espe-
Mollusk - A group of freashwater and saltwater animals
cially lakes.
with no skeleton and usually one or two hard shells
Littoral zone - The intertidal zone. made of calcium carbonate. Includes the oyster, clam,
mussel, snail, conch, scallop, squid, and octopus.
Longline - See Setline.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 571
Mooching - A method of salmon fishing from a drifting Optimum yield - The harvest level for a species that
Appendix B: Glossary
or propelled boat. The bait is sunk deep with a heavy acheives the greatest overall benefits, including eco-
sinker then brought upward at an angle as the boat is nomic, social, and biological considerations. Optimum
maneuvered forward a few yards or the line retrieved. yield is different from maximum sustainable yield in that
The bait is then allowed to sink once again to the bottom MSY considers only the biology of the species. The
and the procedure repeated. term includes both commercial and sport yields.
Morphology - The physical characteristics of an individual. Organic - Deriving from living organisms.
Myctophid - A member of the Myctophidae family of Otolith - Calcareous concretions in the inner ear of a fish,
fishes. Commonly called lanternfishes, they are abun- functioning as organs of hearing and balance. There are
dant in all oceans of the world, usually at 200-1000 three pairs of otoliths in the skull of each fish, and these
meters depth. are termed sagittae, lapilli, and asterisci. Otoliths are
used by fishery biologists for numerous studies.
Mysid - A member of an order of shrimplike crustaceans,
mostly epibenthic. Otter trawl - A cone-shaped net that is dragged along the
sea bottom. Its mouth is kept open by floats, weights
NEPA - National Environmental Policy Act.
and by two otter boards which shear outward as the net
NFMP - Nearshore Fishery Management Plan.
is towed.
NISA - National Invasive Species Act.
Overfishing - Harvesting at a rate greater than that which
NMFS - National Marine Fisheries Service. will meet the management goal.
NPDES - National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Overutilized - When more fishing effort is employed than
is necessary to achieve LTPY.
Nacre - A smooth, shining, iridescent substance forming
the inner layer in many shells; mother-of-pearl. Oviparous - Producing eggs that hatch outside the
female’s body.
Nekton - Organisms with swimming abilities that permit
them to move actively throught the water column and to Oviphagous - Refers to an organism that consumes eggs.
move against currents. Examples include adult squid,
Oviposit - To lay or deposit eggs, especially by means
fish and marine mammals.
of a specialized organ, as found on certain insects and
Neuston - Organisms that inhabit the uppermost few mil- fishes.
limeters of the surface water.
Ovoviviparous - Pertaining to an animal that incubates
Non-point source - Sources of pollution such as general eggs inside the mother until they hatch.
runoff of sediments, fertilizer, pesticides, and other
PFMC - Pacific Fishery Management Council.
materials from farms and urban areas as compared to
PSMFC - Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission.
specific points of discharge such as factories.
PacFIN - Pacific Fishery Information Network. A database
Nudibranch - Sea slug. A member of the mollusk class
containing West Coast fishing landings that is main-
Gastropoda that has no protective covering as an adult.
tained by the Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commis-
Respiration is carried on by gills or other projections on
sion.
the dorsal surface.
Palp - Any of various sensory and usually fleshy append-
Nursery - Habitat suitable for protection and growth during
ages near the oral aperture of certain invertebrates.
an organism’s early life stages.
Papilla - A nipplelike protuberance of the skin.
Nutricline - The depth zone where nutrient concentrations
increase rapidly with depth. Paranzella net - A bag-shaped net towed by two vessels
that run at various distances apart to keep the mouth
Oocyte - An egg before the completion of maturation.
open and at various speeds according to the depth
Oophagy - The first young to “hatch” in each of the two
desired. The paranzella net initiated the West Coast
oviducts proceed to eat the other embryos in the oviduct
trawl fishery in 1876 but by World War II it had been
with them.
replaced by the less expensive otter trawl.
Open access - A fishery in which no restrictions on entry
Parturition - Birth.
or gear occur. Licenses may be required in an open
Patchy distribution - A condition in which organisms
access fishery, but if no quotas on fishermen exist the
occur in aggregations.
fishery is still considered to be open access.
Pectoral fins - Paired fins on the front lower sides of the
Operculum - The covering of the gills of a fish. Found in
chest.
higher order fishes.
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
572
Pedicle - In jointed brachiopods, a short stalk, composed Potential yield - The yield estimated to be available for
Appendix B: Glossary
mostly of tough connective tissue, that emerges through exploitation.
a hole or notch in the posterior part of the larger valve. Procaryote - A member of a group of unicellular organ-
Muscles that are inserted into the pedicle make it pos- isms comprising the bacteria and the cyanophyceae,
sible for an jointed brachiopod to change its orientation. whose cell structures differs from all other organisms.
Pelagic - Refers to fish and animals that live in the open Productivity - The rate at which a given quantity of
sea, away from the sea bottom. organic material is produced by organisms.
Pelecypod - A bivalve. Protandry - An organism functions first as a male, then
Penaid - Member of a family of shrimp, used in shrimp as a female.
culture. Protogynous - Female in the first phase of one’s life.
Periostracum - A protective layer of chitin covering the Pteropod - A holoplanktonic (permanent resident of the
outer portion of the shell in many mollusks, especially plankton community) snail having two swimming wings.
freshwater forms.
Purse seine - A net that is cast in a circle around a school
Pharyngeal - Of, pertaining to, or connected with the of fish. When the fish are surrounded, the bottom of the
pharynx. net is closed up, preventing escape.
Pharyngeal teeth - Teeth developed on the pharyngeal RecFIN - Recreational Fisheries Information Network.
bone in many fishes. A database of the National Marine Fisheries Service
Phycocolloid - A colloidal substance obtained from (NMFS).
seaweeds. Recruit - An individual fish that has moved into a certain
Phytoplankton - Microscopic planktonic plants. Exam- class, such as the spawning class or fishing-size class.
ples include diatoms and dinoflagellates. Recruitment - A measure of the number of fish that enter
Pinniped - A member of the order of marine mammals that a class during some time period, such as the spawning
includes the seals, sea lions, and walruses, all having class or fishing-size class.
four swimming flippers. Red tide - A red coloration of seawater caused by high
Piscivorous - An organism that feeds on fish. concentrations of certain species of micro-organisms,
usually dinoflagellates, some of which release toxins.
Planktivorous - An organism that feeds on planktonic
organisms. Reduction fishery - Harvested fish are processed into fish
meal, oils, or fertilizer.
Plankton - Plants or animals that live in the water column
and are incapable of swimming against a current. Regime shift - A long-term change in marine ecosystems
and/or in biological production resulting from a change
Pleopod - One of the swimming limbs attached to the
in the physical environment.
abdomen in crustaceans.
Riffle - A shallow extending across the bed of a stream
Plug - A nonspecific term for any artificial lure having a
over which the water flows swiftly so that the surface of
distinct “body” made of wood or plastic and having one
the water is broken in waves.
or more sets of single, double, or triple hooks hattached.
Most plugs are designed to wobble or create a commo- Riprap - Piles of rock used to support river banks.
tion in the water when retrieved. River-run - Describes upstream migration of anadromous
Pneumatocyst - A gas-filled bladder at the base of each fish.
kelp blade that helps buoy the frond in the water column. Roller trawl - A trawl net equipped with rollers that enable
Point source - Specific points of origin of pollutants, the net to go over rocky areas without snagging.
such as factory drains or outlets from sewage-treatment Round haul net - A net, such as a purse seine, that
plants. encircles schools of fish.
Polychaete - Marine segmented worms belonging to the Running-ripe - A high state of reproductive readiness.
phylum Annelida; some are planktonic, but most are
Sac-roe - Fish eggs that are encased in a clear mem-
benthic.
brane. Sac-roe are found in herring, among other spe-
Population - Fish of the same species inhabiting a speci- cies.
fied geographic area.
Salinity - The total amount of dissolved material (salts) in
Potamodromous - Refers to fish that migrate entirely seawater.
within fresh water.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 573
Salmonid - A member of the Salmonidae family of large lakes), the smolts gradually become mature and
Appendix B: Glossary
fishes. Salmonids are the dominant fishes in the cold- return to their home streams for spawning.
water streams and lakes of North America, Europe, Somatic cell - All cells other than those in sexual gametes
and Asia, where they support large recreational and (egg and sperm).
commercial fisheries.
Spat - A flat young oyster.
Satellite pop-up tag - A specialized tag usually used to
Spatfall - Attachment of shellfish larvae to substrate where
mark pelagic fish to study their migrations. Data from
they develop into their adult forms.
the tag is transmitted to researchers via a satellite.
Spawn - The term for reproduction in fishes.
Scaphopod - A member of the phylum Mollusca and class
Spermatophore - An aggregation of sperm held together
Scaphopoda which have an elongate conical shell and
by gelatinous material, or a gelatinous packet of sperm
live buried within the sediment, feeding on foraminifer-
which is inserted into or attached to the female as part
ans and other small animals.
of reproductive behavior.
Scute - A type of sharp scale found on fish such as
Spinning gear - A type of recreational fishing reel with an
sturgeon and jackmackerel.
open spool on the front end.
Sea wall - Any solid structure onshore used to protect the
Spoon - An artificial lure with a curved or dished out body
land from wave damage and erosion.
that wobbles but does not revolve. A spoon attracts fish
Seed - Juvenile shellfish, such as clams, oysters,
by its movements as well as color.
and mussels.
Sporophyte - A plant that produces spores.
Serological - An adjective referring to the branch of sci-
Stipe - The stem-like part that connects the holdfast and
ence dealing with the properties and reactions of blood
blade of a frondose alga.
sera.
Stock - A grouping of fish usually based on genetic rela-
Sessile - Referring to animals that are permanently
tionship, geographic distribution, and movement pat-
attached to a substrate.
terns. Also a managed unit of fish.
Set gillnet - A gillnet that is anchored on both ends.
Stratified random sampling - A sampling method in
Setline - Fishing gear made up of a long main line
which one (1) divides the population into subpopulations
attached to which are a large number of short branch
(called strata), (2) obtains from each stratum a simple
lines. At the end of each branch line is a baited hook.
random sample of size proportional to the size of the
When catching groundfish, setlines are laid on the sea-
stratum, and (3) uses all of the members obtained in
floor. When catching swordfish, shark or tuna they are
step 2 as the sample.
buoyed near the surface. Setlines can be twenty or
Substrate - A solid surface on which an organism lives
more miles long. They are also called longlines.
or to which it is attached (also called substratum); or, a
Sexual dimorphism - A phenomenon in which males and
chemical that forms the basis of a biochemical reaction
females differ markedly in shape, size, color, or other
or acts as a nutrient for microorganisms.
ways.
Subtidal zone - The benthic zone extending from the low
Short ton - 2000 pounds.
tide mark to the outer edge of the continental shelf.
Single rig gear - Refers to a boat using a single trawl net
Suspension feeder - An organism that feeds by capturing
(instead of two trawl nets) when fishing for shrimp.
particles suspended in the water column.
Simple random sampling - A sampling procedure for
Sympatry - The common occurrence of two taxa (closely
which each possible sample is equally likely to be the
related forms) in the same geographic area.
one selected. A sample obtained by simple random
TAC - See Total Allowable Catch.
sampling is called a simple random sample.
TL - Total length.
Skiff - Any of various small boats, especially a flat-bot-
tomed rowboat. Telemetry - The process of tracking movements of organ-
isms using transmitting tags.
Slough - A place of deep mud or mire. Also, a small
backwater. Territorial sea - A zone extending seaward from the shore
or internal waters of a nation for a distance of twelve
Smolt - A term for a specific life stage in salmonids.
miles (19.3 km) as defined by the United Nations Confer-
In anadromous populations parr (small active fish with
ence on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The coastal
series of bars on their sides) transform into silvery
smolts and migrate to the sea. Once in the ocean (or
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
574
state has full authority over this zone but must allow Ventral fins - Paired fins on the lower part of the body;
Appendix B: Glossary
rights of innocent passage. they may be near the anus, below the pectoral fins, or
near the throat. They are also called pelvic fins.
Test - The shell of a sea urchin.
Virtual population analysis (VPA) - A type of analysis
Thermocline - The water layer in which temperature
that uses the number of fish caught at various ages or
changes most rapidly with increasing depth.
lengths and an estimate of natural mortality to estimate
Threatened species - A classification under the Endan-
fishing mortality in a cohort. It also provides an estimate
gered Species Act. A species is considered threatened
of the number of fish in a cohort at various ages.
if it is likely to become an endangered species in
Viviparous - Bringing forth living young, rather than being
the foreseeable future through a significant portion of
an egg-layer.
its range.
Water column - The water from the surface to the bottom
Tidal prism - The volume of water between the high tide
at a given point.
level and low tide level.
Weir - A low dam or barrier made across a water channel
Total allowable catch (TAC) - The annual recommended
to raise the level of water for different purposes. Also,
catch for a species or species group. The regional fish-
a barricade.
ery management council sets the TAC from the range of
the allowable biological catch. Wrack zone - A bank of accumulated litter at the strand-
line.
Trammel net - An entangling net that hangs down in
several curtains. YOY - Young-of-the-year.
Trawl - A sturdy bag or net that can be dragged along the Year-class - The fish spawned and hatched in a given
ocean bottom, or at various depths above the bottom, year, a “generation” of fish.
to catch fish. Zoea - A planktonic larval stage of crabs with characteristic
Trematode - Any of a class (Trematoda) of parasitic flat- spines on the exoskeleton.
worms including the flukes. Zooplankton - Animal members of the plankton.
Trocophore - A free-swimming larval stage of polychaete Zoospore - A motile spore with one or more flagella or cilia
worms and some mollusks, characterized by having by the vibration of which it swims.
bands of cilia (hair-like structures) around the body.
Troll - To trail artificial or natural baits behind a moving
Kristen Sortais
boat. The bait can be made to skip along the surface or
University of California, Davis
trailed below at any depth to just above the bottom. A
bait or lure trailed behind an angler walking along a pier,
bridge, or breakwater is also called trolling.
References
Trophic level - The nutritional position occupied by an
Dawson, E.Y. 1966. Seashore plants of northern Califor-
organism in a food chain or food web; e.g. primary pro-
nia. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 103pp.
ducers (plants); primary consumers (herbivores); sec-
ondary consumers (carnivores), etc. Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1968. Deep-water shes
of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA,
Tunicate - Sessile benthic animals belonging to the
155pp.
phylum Chordata.
Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg. 1975. Tidepool and
Turbidity - Reduced visibility in water due to the presence
nearshore shes of California. University of California
of suspended particles.
Press, Berkeley, CA, 156pp.
Underutilized - When more fishing effort is required to
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
achieve the LTPY.
Fisheries Division. 1960. Trilingual dictionary of sheries
Upwelling - A rising of nutrient-rich water toward the sea
technological terms – curing. FAO, Rome, Italy, 85pp.
surface.
Kramer, D.E., W.H. Barss, B.C. Paust, and B.E. Bracken.
VPA - See Virtual Population Analysis.
1995. Guide to northeast Pacic atshes : families
Vector - A physical quantity that has magnitude and direc- Bothidae, Cynoglossidae, and Pleuronectidae. Alaska Sea
tion. Examples are force, acceleration, and velocity. Grant College Program, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Veliger - A free-swimming larval stage of mollusks. AK, 104pp.
Velum - A ciliated, sail-like appendage of a veliger larva.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 575
Lalli, C.M. and T.R. Parsons. 1993. Biological oceanogra- & facilities. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic
Appendix B: Glossary
phy: an introduction. 1st ed. Pergamon Press, New York, and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries
NY, 301pp. Service, Seattle, WA, 139pp.
Levinton, J.S. 1995. Marine biology: function, biodiver- U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmo-
sity, ecology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, spheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service.
420pp., 1999. Our living oceans: Report on the status of
U.S. living marine resources, 1999. U.S. Dept. of
Meltzer, M. 1980. The world of the small commercial
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
shermen: their lives and their boats. Dover Publica-
tion, National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C.,
tions, Inc., New York, NY, 86pp.
301pp.
Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary. 10th ed. 1998.
Wallace, R.K. and K.M. Fletcher. 2000. Understanding
Merriam-Webster, Springeld, MA, 1559pp.
sheries management: a manual for understanding the
Moyle, P.B. and J.J. Cech, Jr. 2000. Fishes: an introduc-
federal sheries management process, including analysis
tion to ichthyology. 4th ed. Prentice- Hall, Uppersaddle
of the 1996 Sustainable Fisheries Act. Mississippi-Alabama
River, NJ, 612pp.
Sea Grant Consortium, Mobile, AL and University, MS,
Nebel, B.J. 1987. Environmental science: the way the 53pp.
world works. 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
Weiss, N.A.; biographies by C. Weiss. 1995. Introductory
NJ, 671pp.
statistics. 4th ed. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 939pp.
Newell, G.E. and R.C. Newell. 1963. Marine plankton, a
practical guide. Hutchinson Educational, London, 206pp.
Parker, S.P. (editor). 1984. McGraw-Hill dictionary of
biology. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 384pp.
Simpson, J.A. and E.S.C. Weiner (editors). 1998. The
Oxford English dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford University
Press, New York, NY.
Squire, J.L. and S.M. Smith. 1977. Anglers’ guide to the
United States Pacic coast: marine sh, shing grounds
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
576
Appendix C:
California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 577
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
578
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 579
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
580
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 581
Appendix C: California’s Commercial Fishing Gear
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
582
Appendix D:
Reviewers
Appendix D: Reviewers
California State University, Long Beach
The editors wish to thank the reviewers for their Chris Lowe
invaluable assistance in compiling this book. California State University, San Diego
Tom Ebert
Alaska Sea Grant Extension Program California State Unversity, San Francisco
Brian Paust Ralph Larson
California Aquaculture Association Commercial Fisherman
Justin Malan Peter Halmay
California Dept of Fish and Game Richard Young
Pietro Parravano
Alan Baracco (retired)
Kristine Barsky Ducks Unlimited
Dennis Bedford Ryan Broddrick
L.B. Boydston Fishermen’s Marketing Association
Pat Collier
Pete Leipzig
Steve Crooke
Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute
Paul Gregory
Mark Drawbridge
Doyle Hanan (retired)
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
Bob Hardy
Bob Olson
Emma Hateld (Squid Fishery Scientic Committee)
Frank Henry (retired) Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Bob Hulbrock Judith Connor
DeWayne Johnston Moss Landing Marine Laboratory (CSU)
Rick Klingbeil Greg Cailliet
Mary Larson Mike Foster
Bob Lea John Oliver
Mike Malone (Nearshore Advisory Committee)
National Marine Fisheries Service
Ken Oda
John Butler
Dave Ono
Gonzalo Castillo
Dave Parker
Jim Hastie
Christine Pattison
Bob Hoffman
Connie Ryan
Dave Holts
Jerry Spratt (now deceased)
Larry Jacobson
Dale Sweetnam
Sus Kato (retired)
Ian Taniguchi
Mike Laurs
Bob Tasto
Bill Lenarz (retired)
Carl Wilcox
Nancy Lo
Deb Wilson-Vandenberg
Geoff Moser
California Fish and Game Commission
Lisa Natanson
John Duffy Richard Parrish
Mike Weber (Advisor) Gary Sakagawa
California Marine Life Management Project Mike Sigler
Burr Heneman Sue Smith
Cindy Thomson
California Sea Grant Extension Program
Chris Toole
Susan McBride
Jack Turnock
Paul Olin
Russ Vetter
Jim Waldvogel
Occidental College
California State University, Humboldt
John Stephens (retired)
Ron Fritzche
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
Dave Hankin
Tim Mulligan Dave Fox
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 583
The Ocean Conservancy University of California, Davis
Appendix D: Reviewers
Tim Eichenberg Joe Cech
Gary Cherr
Oregon State University
Fred Conte
Dave Sampson
Frank Gress
Gil Sylvia
Pete Klimley
Pacic Coast Federation of Fishermens
Peter Moyle
Associations, Inc.
University of California, San Diego
Zeke Grader
Mike Mullin (now deceased)
Pepperdine University
Richard Rosenblatt
Karen Martin
University of California, Santa Barbara
Point Reyes Bird Observatory
Carrie Culver
David Ainley
Milton Love
Point Reyes-Farallon Island National Marine Sanctuary
John Richards
Dan Howard Steve Schroeter
Jan Roletto
University of South Carolina
Processor
Joe Hightower
Dave Rudie
University of Southern California
San Francisco Estuary Institute
Kathy Ann Miller
Andy Cohen
Washington Department of Fisheries
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History
Dick Burge
Eric Hochberg
Wayne Palsson
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
James Allen
Stillwater Associates
Sharon Kramer
University of California, Berkeley
Dick Moe
Julie Reynolds
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
584
Index
Abalone, 19, 25, 48, 51, 56-57, 59-61, 70, 73-74, 79, 87-97, Birds, 26, 32-35, 37, 45, 138, 158, 163, 176-177, 179, 182,
Index
101-103, 113, 131, 142, 144-145, 147-148, 155, 158, 202, 211, 247, 293, 297, 301, 305, 310, 366, 370,
256, 273, 280, 282, 347, 471, 493-495, 499, 515, 522, 380-381, 435, 455, 458, 472, 476, 484, 486-487, 505,
538, 553-554, 511, 514-516, 521-522, 538, 541-550
Abalone culture, 493, 495, 515 Black abalone, 90, 92-94, 96, 188
Acipenser medirostris, 465 Black perch, 236
Acipenser transmontanus, 467, 469 Black rocksh, 68, 79, 162-164, 167-168
Agarophytes, 286-287 Black-and-yellow rocksh, 173, 185-187
Ahnfeltia, 286 Blackgill rocksh, 368-369, 378
Albacore, 48, 57, 67, 215-216, 291, 315, 317-321, 325-326, Blue rocksh, 26, 68, 162-168, 187, 194, 372
332, 348, 352, 354-355, 357, 567 Blue shark, 342-344
Alopias vulpinus, 339 Blue whale, 530-532
Amphistichus argenteus, 229, 236 Bluen tuna, 215-217, 235, 299, 308, 315, 325-327
Amphistichus koelzi, 236-237 Bocaccio, 22, 26, 166, 359, 361-363, 366-367, 372, 380,
Amphistichus rhodoterus, 236, 238 398-400, 402, 404, 554
Angel shark, 149-150, 248-251, 553-554 Bonito, 27, 54, 79, 149, 215-218, 263-264, 269, 301, 363,
558
Anoplopoma mbria, 390, 392
Bottlenose dolphin, 533
Appendices, 20, 417, 123, 551
Brachyistius frenatus, 236
Aquaculture: overview, 493
Brown rock crab, 112, 114
Arctocephalus townsendi, 523, 525
Brown rocksh, 68, 170-174, 188, 441, 455
Arrowtooth ounder, 119, 203-204, 264, 266, 268, 556
Bull kelp, 25, 79, 91, 102, 273, 282-284, 554
Atheresthes stomias, 203
Butter clam, 447-448
Atherinops afnis, 243
Butter sole, 203
Atherinopsis californiensis, 243, 245
Buttery ray, 260
Atractoscion nobilis, 206, 208, 510, 512
Cabezon, 19, 68, 79, 91, 95, 99, 109, 113, 116, 150-151,
Balaenoptera acutorostrata, 531
157-159, 177, 179, 181-182, 263-264, 269, 449, 554
Balaenoptera musculus, 530-531
Calico rocksh, 68, 149, 179-180, 555
Balaenoptera physalus, 531
Calico surfperch, 236-237
Bank rocksh, 378-379
California Barracuda, 19, 79, 149-150, 219-221, 555
Barracuda, 19, 27, 53-54, 63, 79, 127, 149-150, 219-221,
California corbina, 136, 149, 228-229, 231, 555
263-264, 269, 301, 323, 326, 363, 555
California halibut, 19, 21, 69, 149-151, 165, 195-200, 203,
Barred sand bass, 113, 149, 151, 198, 222-227, 269-272,
236, 248, 363, 435, 455, 510-511, 555
554
California market squid, 295-298
Barred surfperch, 138, 229, 236-237, 239
California scorpionsh, 53-54, 68, 149-150, 160-161, 562
Basking shark, 345-347
California sea lion, 310, 523-524, 526-527
Bat ray, 257-258, 260
California sheephead, 56, 68, 149-150, 155-156, 555-556
Bay and Estuarine Plants: Overview, 481-482
California skate, 258, 261
Bay and Estuary Ecosystems, 431, 435-436, 481, 491
California tonguesh, 203
Bay and Estuary Finsh Resources, 455
California s Variable Ocean Environment, 21-28
Bay and Estuary Invertebrate Resources, 437-438
Callorhinus ursinus, 523, 525
Bay shrimp, 439-442, 453, 467, 476, 514, 554
Canary rocksh, 175-176, 359, 372, 554
Big skate, 257-258, 441
Cancer antennarius, 114
Bigmouth sole, 203
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 585
Cancer anthonyi, 112, 114 Delphinus capensis, 533
Index
Cancer magister 107
, Delphinus delphis, 533
Cancer productus, 112 Delta smelt, 463, 472-473, 475-479, 564
Carcharodon carcharias, 345, 347 Diamond stingray, 260
Carrageenophytes, 286-287 Diamond turbot, 203
Cebidichthys violaceus, 181-182 Dolphin, 331-332, 352-353, 356-357, 533-534, 555
Cetorhinus maximus, 345, 347 Dolphinsh, 315, 471
Chilipepper, 170, 359, 362-363, 366-367, 398-399, Dolphins, 179, 291, 331-332, 470-471, 521, 529-535, 568
China rocksh, 68, 185-187 Dorado, 323, 352-353
Chinook salmon, 32, 109, 176, 193, 370, 407, 409-414, Dover sole, 27, 359-360, 374, 382-384, 389-390,
417-418, 424, 460, 463, 466, 508-509, Dungeness crab, 71, 73-74, 87-88, 107-112, 129, 435, 437,
Chione, 451-452 455, 514
Chione californiensis, 451 Dwarf perch, 236
Chione uctifraga, 451 Eelgrass, 33-34, 37, 177, 193, 207, 226, 243-244, 384, 435,
459, 481, 484, 487-490, 502, 505, 516, 555-556
Chione undatella, 451
Embiotoca jacksoni, 236
Chondrus crispus, 286-287
Embiotoca lateralis, 236, 239
Chum salmon, 405, 407
Emergent Marshes, 483-486
Citharichthys fragilis, 201-202
Emerita analoga, 138-139
Citharichthys sordidus, 201-202
English sole, 200 384-385, 441
Citharichthys stigmaeus, 201-202
Engraulis mordax, 293, 303, 305
Citharichthys xanthostigma, 201
Enhydra lutris, 101, 536, 540
Clupea pallasi, 456, 459
Eopsetta exilis, 203
C-O turbot, 202
Eopsetta jordani, 386-387, 389
Coastal Pelagic Species: overview, 293-294
Errex zachirus, 388
Coastal Wetlands, 29, 32, 35, 483-486, 546,
Eschrichtius robustus, 531, 535
Coho salmon, 29, 69, 405, 410, 412-413, 415-417, 507-508
Eucheuma, 286
Commercial Fishing Gear, 206, 215, 577-582
Eulachon, 472, 477-478, 564
Common dolphin, 533
Eumetopias jubatus, 523-524
Coonstripe shrimp, 129-130, 555
Exotic Species, 30, 437, 473, 477, 493, 518
Copper rocksh, 68, 173-174, 177
Fantail sole, 203
Coryphaena hippurus, 352-353
Fat gaper, 445
Cow shark, 470
Fin whale, 531
Cowcod, 359, 363-365, 401-402
Finsh culture, 510
Crangon franciscorum, 439-440, 442
Fishing Gear, 20, 37, 53, 64, 67-68, 73, 140, 150, 206, 215,
Crangon nigricauda, 440, 442
220, 232, 243, 328, 332, 336, 345, 467, 521, 523, 544,
Crangon nigromaculata, 440
567, 570, 574, 577-582
Crassostrea gigas, 500
Galeorhinus galeus, 255
Crassostrea sikamea, 501
Gaper clams, 445-447, 449, 556
Crassostrea virginica, 500, 506, 570
Genyonemus lineatus, 234-235
Curln turbot, 203
Geoduck, 437, 449-450, 556
Dall’s porpoise, 534-535
Giant kelp, 25, 28, 79, 91, 101-102, 140, 164, 194, 207,
Dasyatis brevis, 260 273, 277-284, 288, 457, 495, 556
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
586
Giant sea bass, 99, 149-150, 209-211, 220, 235, 258, 308, Hyperprosopon argenteum, 236
Index
363, 510-511, 557 Hyperprosopon ellipticum, 236
Girella nigricans, 241-242 Hypomesus pretiosus, 474
Globicephala macrorhynchus, 532-533 Hypomesus nipponensis, 474, 479
Glossary, 20, 567-576 Hypomesus transpacicus, 472, 479
Gopher rocksh, 68, 173, 185-188 Hypsopsetta guttulata, 203
Grampus griseus, 533-534 Hypsurus caryi, 236
Grass rocksh, 68, 172, 182, 185-188, 271 Invasive Species, 34, 435, 486, 488, 498, 513-520, 572
Gray whale, 522, 529, 531-532, 535 Iridaea, 286
Green abalone, 92-93, 96 Isurus oxyrinchus, 336, 338
Green sturgeon, 465-466 Jack mackerel, 27, 212, 216, 220, 293-294, 299, 304, 306,
Groundsh: Overview, 359-360 308-311, 341, 361, 557
Grunion, 34, 149, 151, 220, 232, 243, 246-247, 341, 472, Jacksmelt, 243-246, 253, 472, 563
557 Japanese littleneck, 451
Guadalupe fur seal, 522-523, 525-526 Katsuwonus pelamis, 328, 330
Gulf sanddab, 201 Kelp, 21, 25, 28, 30-31, 33-34, 36, 47, 68-69, 79, 90-92,
Gull, 542-5454 95, 99, 101-103, 105-106, 116, 128, 132, 140-141, 143,
149-151, 155-158, 163-166, 168, 170, 174, 181, 183-187,
Gymnogongrus, 286
190-191, 193-194, 206-207, 209-210, 212, 220, 222-227,
Gymnura marmorata, 260
232, 236, 239, 241, 243-244, 252, 259-260, 269-273,
Halfmoon, 79, 112, 149, 241-242, 279 277-285, 288, 307, 361, 363, 366, 435, 457, 470, 495,
516, 532, 537, 554, 556-557, 573
Halibut, 19, 21, 69, 125, 149-151, 165, 195-200, 203-204,
209, 232, 235-236, 248, 259, 263-264, 270,348, 363, Kelp bass, 21, 25, 79, 99, 149, 151, 222-227, 259, 269-272,
396, 435, 455, 478, 510-511, 536, 555-556 557
Haliotis corrugata, 89 Kelp greenling, 149, 183-184, 191, 193
Haliotis cracherodii, 89 Kelp perch, 236
Haliotis fulgens, 89 Kelp rocksh, 25, 68, 165, 185-187
Haliotis rufescens, 91, 96-97, 494-495, Killer whale, 470, 532
Haliotis sorensensi, 89 Kumamoto oyster, 501-502, 504-506
Harbor porpoise, 527, 534 Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, 534
Herring, 19, 27, 48, 51, 53, 55-57, 59-60, 63, 69, 73-74, Lamna ditropis, 345, 347
129, 183, 193, 207, 244, 253, 259, 300, 341, 386,
Lampris guttatus, 348
409, 427, 435, 455-459, 468, 480, 487, 489, 491, 521,
Law Enforcement, 20, 67-72
523-524, 531, 545, 559, 568, 571, 573
Leopard shark, 252-254, 435, 441, 455,
Hexagrammos decagrammus, 183-184
Leuresthes tenuis, 246-247
Hexanchus griseus, 470-471
Lingcod, 22, 27, 54-55, 66, 68, 109, 124, 129, 149-151, 158,
Highly Migratory Species: overview, 315-316
163-166, 177, 179, 183, 188, 190-194, 263-264, 270,
Hinnites multirugosus, 142
359, 366, 381, 388, 396, 554, 565
Hippoglossina stomata, 203
Lissodelphis borealis, 534
Hippoglossus stenolepsis, 203
Littleneck clam, 451
Hornyhead turbot, 203
Loligo opalescens, 293, 295, 297-298
Human Ecosystem, 47-66
Longn sanddab, 201
Humpback whale, 530
Longn smelt, 472-473, 476-479, 564
Hyperprosopon anale, 236
Longnose skate, 258
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 587
Longspine thornyhead, 374-375 Northern fur seal, 523, 525-526
Index
Louvar, 341, 350-351, 356, 557 Northern right-whale dolphin, 534
Loxorhynchus grandis, 115, 117 Notorynchus cepedianus, 470-471
Luvarus imperialis, 350-351 Ocean shrimp, 87-88, 118-120, 129
Lysmata californica, 127 Offshore ecosystem, 26, 289, 291-292
Mackerel sharks, 345-347 Olive rocksh, 68, 79, 168-169
Macrocystis pyrifera, 164, 194, 273, 277, 283 Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, 405
Mahi mahi, 352 Oncorhynchus keta, 405
Mako shark, 336-339, 354-355 Oncorhynchus kisutch, 405, 417, 507
Management Considerations, 553-566 Oncorhynchus mykiss, 405, 411, 418, 507
Manila clam, 451-452 Oncorhynchus nerka, 405
Marine Birds, 33-35, 163, 177, 310, 366, 455, 458, 521-522, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 405, 407, 417
541-550 Opah, 348-349, 356, 558
Marine Birds and Mammals: overview, 521-522 Opaleye, 127, 138, 149, 241-242, 265-266, 279
Medialuna californiensis, 241-242 Ophiodon elongatus, 191, 194
Megaptera novaeangliae, 530 Orcinus orca, 532
Megastrea undosa, 140 Ostreola conchaphila, 500
Merluccius productus, 393, 397, 120 Ostreola lurida, 500
Micrometrus aurora, 236 Other atshes, 386, 150, 198, 201, 203-205
Micrometrus minimus, 236 Other nearshore rockshes, 185-188
Microstomus pacicus, 382-383, 389 Oyster culture, 496, 500-502, 504, 506
Minke whale, 531 Pacic angel shark, 149, 248-251
Mirounga angurstirostris, 525 Pacic bonito, 79, 149, 215-218, 558
Mobula, 260 Pacic gaper, 445-446
Mobula japonica, 260 Pacic hake, 21, 27, 119-120, 341, 366, 393-397, 399, 402,
Monkeyface prickleback, 149, 181-182, 557 404, 558
Morone saxatilis, 460, 463-464 Pacic halibut, 348, 396, 203-204, 556
Mussel culture, 496 Pacic harbor seal, 523-524, 526-527
Myliobatis californica, 257, 260 Pacic herring, 48, 69, 207, 435, 455-459, 487, 489, 491,
559
Mytilus californianus, 496
Pacic mackerel, 22, 27, 207, 212, 216, 220, 223, 293-294,
Mytilus galloprovincialis, 496, 499
304, 306-310, 314,
Mytilus trossulus, 496
Pacic northern bluen tuna, 325-327
Nearshore Marine Plant Resources, 17, 273
Pacic oyster, 500-501, 504
Nearshore rockshes, 164-165, 169, 174, 178-179, 185-188,
Pacic razor clam, 443-444, 559
190
Pacic salmon, 341, 407-419, 426-427
Nereocystis luetkeana, 282, 284
Pacic sanddab, 341, 201-202
Night smelt, 472, 474, 476, 478, 480, 564
Pacic sardine, 21-22, 24, 27-28, 196, 220, 293, 299-302,
Nonindigenous Species, 34, 37-38, 435
304, 306, 308-310, 341, 545, 547
Northern anchovy, 21, 24, 28, 216, 220, 293, 302-307,
Pacic white-sided dolphin, 534
309-310, 545
Palaemon macrodactylus, 440
Northern bluen tuna, 325-327
Pandalus danae, 129
Northern elephant seal, 523, 525-527
Pandalus jordani, 118, 120
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
588
Pandalus platyceros, 121, 123, 126 Quillback rocksh, 68, 170, 177-178
Index
Panope generosa, 449-450 Rainbow perch, 236
Panulirus interruptus, 98, 100 Raja binoculata, 257
Paralabrax clathratus, 222-223 Raja inornata, 258
Paralabrax maculatofasciatus, 226-227 Raja rhina, 258
Paralabrax nebulifer 198, 224
, Rays, 53, 91, 93, 95, 116, 125, 136, 149, 151, 210, 236-237,
253, 256-262, 346, 348, 388, 396, 452, 455, 467,
Paralichthys californicus, 195, 198, 510
470-471, 501, 503, 526, 563, 569
Parastichopus californicus, 131, 134
Razor clam, 443-444, 559
Parastichopus parvimensis, 134
Red abalone, 89-93, 95-97, 102, 145, 147-148, 494-495,
Pelagic stingray, 260
554
Pelican, 33, 3001, 305, 541-542, 546, 550
Red rock crab, 112, 114
Petrale sole, 384, 386-387, 389, 21, 119, 199
Red rock shrimp, 187, 127-128, 560
Phanerodon atripes, 236
Red sea urchin, 26, 87, 91, 101-106, 560
Phanerodon furcatus, 236
Redtail surfperch, 150, 236-238
Phocoena phocoena, 534
Reef perch, 236
Phocoenoides dalli, 534-535
Restricted Access, 19-20, 70, 73-76, 98, 105, 165, 216,
Physeter catodon, 532 560-561
Pile perch, 127, 236-238, 240 Reviewers, 20, 583-584
Pilot whale, 532-533 Rex sole, 388-389, 400
Pink abalone, 89, 92, 95 Rhacochilus toxotes, 236, 239
Pink salmon, 405, 407 Rhacochilus vacca, 236, 238
Pink seaperch, 236 Rhinobatos productus, 257, 259
Pinnipeds, 177, 521-525, 527-529 Ridgeback prawn, 88, 121, 123-126, 561
Pismo clam, 87, 135-137, 437, 559 Risso s dolphin, 533-534
Platichthys stellatus, 199-200 Rock crabs, 87, 112-113, 115, 136, 501, 561
Platyrhinoidis triseriata, 257, 259 Rock scallop, 142-143, 561
Pleuronectes bilineatus, 203 Rock sole, 203
Pleuronectes isolepis, 203 Roncador stearnsii, 230
Pleuronectes vetulus, 384 Round stingray, 259-260
Pleuronichthys coenosus, 203 Rubberlip seaperch, 236, 239-240
Pleuronichthys decurrens, 203 Sablesh, 27, 76, 119, 291, 359-361, 366, 374, 382,
390-392, 401-402,
Pleuronichthys ritteri, 203
Salmo gairdneri, 418
Pleuronichthys verticalis, 203
Salmon, 19, 21, 27, 29, 32, 36, 48, 50-57, 59-61, 63, 66,
Porpoises, 220, 301, 308, 395, 521-522, 529-535, 568
69, 73-74, 107, 109-110, 122, 162, 176-177, 179, 193,
Postelsia palmaeformis, 285
195, 259, 291, 295, 309, 341, 345-348, 361, 366, 370,
Prionace glauca, 342, 344 380-381, 394, 405-420, 424-429, 457, 460, 463, 466,
472, 478, 484, 507-509, 521, 523-524, 558-559, 561,
Protothaca laciniata, 451
567, 569-572, 584
Protothaca staminea, 451
Salmon culture, 507-508
Protothaca tenerrima, 451
Salmon shark, 345-347
Psettichthys melanostictus, 203
Salmonids: overview, 405
Pteroplatytrygon violacea, 260
Sand basses, 224-227
Purple sea urchin, 101, 105-106, 560
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 589
Sand crab, 138-139, 562 Sebastolobus altivelis, 374, 377
Index
Sand sole, 203 Semicossyphus pulcher 155-156
,
Sanddabs, 149, 201-203 Seriola lalandi, 212
Sarda chiliensis, 215, 218 Sevengill shark, 253, 255, 470-471
Sardine, 21-22, 24, 27-28, 70, 129, 151, 196, 220, 234, 291, Sharpnose seaperch, 236
293-294, 299-304, 306, 308-310, 312-313, 319, 335, 337, Sheep crab, 88, 115-117, 145, 147-148, 562
341, 348, 544-545, 547, 550,
Shiner perch, 460, 498, 193, 236
Sardinops sagax, 293, 299-300, 302
Shortbelly rocksh, 176, 341, 380-381
Saxidomus giganteus, 447
Shortn mako shark, 336-339
Saxidomus nuttalli, 447
Shortnned pilot whale, 532-533
Scomber japonicus, 293, 306, 308
Shortspine thornyhead, 374, 376
Scorpaena guttata, 160
Shovelnose guitarsh, 257, 259-260
Scorpaenichthys marmoratus, 157-158
Sicyonia ingentis, 123-126
Scorpionsh, 53-54, 63, 68, 149-150, 160-161, 265-266,
Siliqua patula, 443-444
272, 562
Silver surfperch, 236, 239
Sea cumbers, 131
Silversides, 53, 63, 206, 243-246, 265-266, 477, 563
Sea otter, 87, 89, 91-92, 96, 101-102, 113, 136-137, 279,
Sixgill shark, 470-471
282, 437, 450, 498, 522, 536-540, 553, 556, 559
Skates and rays, 149, 151, 257-262, 563, 569
Sea palm, 273, 285
Skipjack tuna, 216, 315, 328-330, 333, 563
Seabirds, 37, 47, 150, 193, 199, 291, 308, 521, 541-550
Slender sole, 203
Sebastes auriculatus, 170
Sockeye salmon, 27, 405, 407
Sebastes carnatus, 185
Soupn shark, 150, 255-256
Sebastes caurinus, 173
Spartina, 483
Sebastes chrysomelas, 185
Speckled sanddab, 201-202
Sebastes dalli, 179
Sperm whale, 522, 532
Sebastes entomelas, 370-371
Sphyraena argentea, 219, 221
Sebastes avidus, 372
Spiny lobster, 21, 79, 87-88, 98-100, 280, 556, 563
Sebastes goodei, 366
Spirinchus starksi, 476
Sebastes jordani, 380-381
Spirinchus thaleichthys, 476, 479
Sebastes levis, 363
Spot prawn, 75, 121-126, 563
Sebastes maliger 177-178
,
Spotn croaker, 138, 229-231, 563
Sebastes melanops, 162
Spotn surfperch, 236, 239
Sebastes melanostomus, 368-369
Spotted sand bass, 149, 222, 226-227, 564
Sebastes miniatus, 189
Squatina californica, 248, 251
Sebastes mystinus, 165
Squid, 19, 21, 27, 48, 52, 55-57, 59-61, 70, 74-75, 87,
Sebastes nebulosus, 185
151, 158, 174, 190, 196, 202, 206-207, 210, 212, 215,
Sebastes paucispinis, 361
217, 220, 224, 235, 243, 250, 291, 293-298, 306-307,
Sebastes pinniger 175
, 309-310, 319, 323, 326, 333, 335, 337, 341-343, 361,
Sebastes rastrelliger 172, 185, 188
, 366, 521, 523-524, 526, 531-533, 538, 547, 568,
571-572, 583
Sebastes rufus, 378-379
Starry ounder, 149, 199-200, 203, 385, 435, 441, 449
Sebastes serranoides, 168-169
Steelhead, 32, 67, 405-406, 411, 415, 417-427, 507-509,
Sebastes serriceps, 185, 188
523, 561, 564
Sebastolobus alascanus, 377
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
590
Steelhead rainbow trout, 418-425 Whales, 291, 301, 335, 346, 395, 471, 521-522, 529-535,
Index
537, 567-568
Steller sea lion, 524
White abalone, 19, 89, 93-95, 97, 494
Stereolepis gigas, 510
White croaker, 56, 150, 196, 234-235, 264, 266, 268-272,
Striped bass, 53-54, 63, 69, 437, 439, 441, 455, 460-464,
341, 441, 565
467, 469, 477, 480
White seabass, 56, 79, 119-120, 127, 149-151, 206-209, 212,
Striped marlin, 308, 334-335, 564
308, 493, 510-512
Striped seaperch, 193, 236, 239-240
White shark, 151, 253, 255, 345-347, 470, 532
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, 101, 104-106
White sturgeon, 441, 455, 465-469
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, 105-106
Widow rocksh, 19, 171, 359, 363, 370-372,
Submerged Aquatic Plants, 487-492
Xiphias gladius, 322, 324
Surf smelt, 79, 151, 472-474, 476, 478, 564
Yellow rock crab, 112
Surfperches, 27, 149, 151, 236-240, 253, 435, 455
Yellown croaker, 138, 232-233, 565
Swordsh, 27, 48, 57, 59-61, 67, 315, 322-324, 328,
Yellown tuna, 27, 215-216, 315, 328, 331-333, 563, 565
331-332, 334, 336, 339, 341-343, 350, 352, 356, 363,
396, 471, 564, 574 Yellowtail, 127, 67, 79, 149-150, 163, 166, 168, 212-214,
264, 266-268, 272, 301, 308, 326, 359, 363, 372-373,
Symphurus atricauda, 203
398-399, 565
Tapes philippinarum, 451
Yellowtail rocksh, 163, 168, 359, 372-373
Thaleichthys pacicus, 477
Zalembius rosaceus, 236
Thornback, 257, 259-260
Zalophus californianus, 523-524
Thornyheads, 359-360, 374-377, 382, 390
Zostera marina, 481, 487, 490
Thresher shark, 248, 315, 336-337, 339-341
Thunnus alalunga, 317, 321
Thunnus albacares, 331, 333
Thunnus orientalis, 325
Tivela stultorum, 135, 137
Topsmelt, 472, 220, 243-244, 246, 253, 563
Trachurus symmetricus, 293, 309, 311
Treesh, 68, 149, 185-188, 272
Tresus capax, 445-446
Tresus nuttalli, 445
Triakis semifasciata, 252, 254
True smelts, 27, 243, 246, 455, 472-480
Turban snail, 140-141, 145, 147-148
Umbrina roncador 232
,
Urolophus halleri, 259
Vermilion rocksh, 26, 189-190, 363
Wakasagi, 472-476, 479, 565
Walleye surfperch, 236, 239-240
Washington clam, 447-448, 565
Water Quality, 20, 29-45, 87, 227, 416, 419, 437, 452, 481,
483, 486, 493, 497, 500-502, 505, 507, 510, 517-518,
558
Wavy turban snail, 140-141, 145, 147-148
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 591
Index
California’s Living Marine Resources: CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
A Status Report December 2001
592
The University of California, in accordance with applicable Federal and State law and University policy, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color,
national origin, religion, sex, disability, age, medical condition (cancer-related), ancestry, marital status, citizenship, sexual orientation, or status as a
Vietnam-era veteran or special disabled veteran. The University also prohibits sexual harassment. This nondiscrimination policy covers admission, access,
and treatment in University programs and activities.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME California’s Living Marine Resources:
December 2001 A Status Report 593
594